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I 


PRINCIPAL  YALE  BUSINESS  COLLEGE. 


NEW  EDITION,  REVISED  AHD  EHLARGED! 

GAY’S 

ILLUSTRATED 


CIRCLE  OF  KNOWLEDGE, 


FORMING 


A STANDARD  ENCYCLOPAEDIA, 

EMBRACING  ** 

3UTLINE8  OP  UNIVERSAL  HISTORY,  PORTRAITS  AND  BIOGRAPHIES  OF  EMINENT  PERSONS,  ILLUSTRATED 
EXPERIMENTS  IN  NATURAL  PHILO 30PHY  AND  CHEMISTRY,  ELECTRICITY  APPLIED  TO  THE  TRADES, 
ASTRONOMY,  MEDICINE,  ARCHITECTURE,  INTERNATIONAL'  COMMERCE,  COMMERCIAL  LAW,  PAR- 
LIAMENTARY LAW,  PENMANSHIP  AND  BOOK-KEEPING,* COMPOSITION  AND  CORRESPONDENOE, 
DICTIONARY  OF  SYNONYMS,  LANGUAGE,  ELOCUTION  AND  ORATORY,  BIOGRAPHICAL 
LIST  OF  AUTHORS,  PHONETIC  SHORTHAND,  TELEGRAPHY,  PHOTOGRAPHY,  CON- 
STITUTION OF  THE  UNITED  STATE&,  POETRY,  LANGUAGE  OF  FLOWERS, 

HOME  LIFE  AND  HAPPINESS,  ETIQUETTE  AND  CONDUCT  OF  LIFE, 

COURTSHIP  AND  MARRIAGE,  HOME  AMUSEMENTS  AND 
ADORNMENT,  .HOUSEHOLD  RECEIPTS  AND  COOKERY  ; 

AND  MANY"  OTHER  IMPORTANT  FEATURES; 

FORMING  A COMPLETE  SOCIAL  AND  BUSINESS 
MANUAL,  AND  COMPENDIUM  OF  USEFUL 
AND  SCIENTIFIC  KNOWLEDGE. 


SEVERAL  HUNDRED  INSTRUCTIVE  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


PREPARED  BY 

Col.  DEXTER  R.  WRIGHT, 

Speaker  Conn.  House  Representatives . 

Prof.  R.  C.  LOVERIDGE, 

Yale  Business  College. 

Rev.  Dr.  DENNEN. 

C.  PURDY  LINDSLEY,  M.D. 


GEO.  A.  BUTLER, 

Cashier  Nat.  Tradestnen’s 

R.  G.  RUSSELL, 

A rchitect. 

Prof.  HOFFMAN. 

Rev.  J.  H.  BEALE,  A.M. 


LlEUT. -COL.  WILLIAM  WHITE,  Chief  Secretary  of  Postal  Department.  Canada. 


RICHMOND,  VA. 

B.  F.  JOHNSON  & CO. 

Copyrighted,  1891,  by  J.  H.  Beale. 


BEBI0AT'I0N 


fHIS  VOLUME  IS  DEDICATED  TO  AMERICA,  THE 
home  of  people  from  every  land : to  the  millions  of  busy 

toilers  who  are  desirous  of  securing  that  self-culture  which  will 
prepare  them  to  meet  the  responsible  duties  of  life : to  the  thousands  of 
active  men  and  women  who  daily  feel  the  need  of  education  denied  them 
in  youth  : to  the  millions  of  young  men  and  women  who  desire  to 
educate  and  cultivate  themselves : to  all  parents  who  would  aid  their 
children  in  obtaining  success  in  life,  and  to  every  one  who  desires 
practical  information  upon  nearly  every  subject  of  daily  importance  in 
business,  social  and  domestic  life.  This  volume  is  thus  dedicated  in  the 
sincere  hope  that  it  will  prove  a valuable  acquisition  to  all,  and  a blessing 
to  every  home  wherein  it  finds  a place. 


OUR  OBJECT. 


FIRST. — To  produce  one  valuable  book  containing  the  essence  of  an  entire  library,  in  clear 
and  concise  language,  within  the  comprehension  of  all  readers. 

SECOND. — To  cover  a much  larger  range  of  subjects  more  freely  treated  than  in  any  other 
work  of  three  times  the  cost. 

THIRD.  — To  accomplish  this  no  superfluous  language  is  permitted  in  any  article  introduced. 
Each  topic  is  begun  and  finished  in  terse  and  distinct  style,  until  completed,  in  the  least  number 
of  words  possible,  to  an  intelligent  understanding  of  it. 

FOURTH. — To  employ  none  but  the  highest  talent,  thus  securing  the  best  work  of  a master 
hand  in  each  department. 

FIFTH. — To  afford  the  valuable  information  needed  by  the  large  class  of  men  and  women 
who  are  engaged  in  the  responsible  duties  of  active  life. 

SIXTH. — To  advise,  encourage  and  educate  the  thousands  of  ambitious  young  people  who 
can  ill  afford  the  time  and  expense  of  a thorough  academic  or  collegiate  education. 

SEVENTH. — To  furnish  reliable  forms  of  legal  and  commercial  documents,  by  which  any 
business  man  may  safely  draw  such  instruments  without  being  subjected  to  expense  of  time  and 
money  by  employing  an  attorney. 

EIGHTH. — To  render  the  greatest  assistance  to  the  largest  number  who  wish  to  educate 
and  cultivate  their  powers  of  mind,  by  all  the  aids  that  the  most  competent  authors  can  afford. 

The  publishers  have  aimed  to  accomplish  this  object  in  the  following  way  : 

FIRST.— In  this  Department,  How  to  Attain  Success  in  Life,  they  have  furnished  valuable- 
advice  to  the  young  of  both  sexes,  supplemented  with  numerous  examples  from  the  lives  of  men 
and  women  who  have  achieved  prominence  by  their  own  exertions.  The  Biographical  Dictionary 
of  more  than  three  hundred  noted  men  and  women  of  America,  contains  numerous  portraits  of  those 
whom  their  countrymen  ha  ye  honored,  including  all  the  Presidents  and  the  Present  Cabinet. 

SECOND.— This  Department,  The  Business  Manual,  is  a store-house  of  valuable  instruction 
and  reliable  information,  opening  with  the  Art  of  Penmanship  and  followed  by  the  Science  of 
Book-keeping.  This  has  been  prepared  for  this  work  exclusively  by  a popular  and  competent 
educator  of  New  Haven.  This  Department  contains  Commercial  and  Legal  Forms  ; Abstract  of 
State  Laws  on  the  Rights  of  Married  Women,  on  Wills,  on  Marriage  and  Divorce,  on  Mechanic’s" 
Liens  and  Exemptions,  on  Interest  and  the  Statutes  of  Limitation.  By  the  aid  of  this  Depart 
ment  alone  the  conscientious  student  can  lay  the  broad  foundation  of  a successful  business  and 
commercial  education,  which  will  prepare  him  for  any  responsible  position  incite  ; and  the  man 
already  in  business  can  supply,  with  a small  amount  of  effort,  any  deficiency  of  early  training 
which  causes  embarassment  in  his  daily  pursuits.  The  legal  features  of  this  part  of  the  work 
have  been  prepared  with  careful  examination  of  the  latest  legislative  enactments  and  judicial 
decisions  in  all  the  States. 

THIRD.— In  the  Department,  entitled  The  True  Home,  and  The  Material  House,  they 
have  furnished  from  the  popular  pen  of  Rev.  Dr.  Dennen  a most  valuable  article  to  all,  with  an 
extensive  amount  of  advice  and  information,  on  the  various  relations  and  amenities  of  social  and 
active  life,  which  cannot  fail  to  be  appreciated  by  every  reader.  This  is  followed  by  Every  Man 
his  Own  Landlord,  which  informs  the  young  man  or  any  salaried  person  how  a home  may  be 


viii. 


OUR  OBJECT. 


procured  at  the  cost  usually  paid  for  rent,  There  is  also  an  elaborate  article  on  Architecture  and 
the  Adornment  of  the  Home.  This  is  beautifully  illustrated  in  fall  page,  colored  prints,  and 
numerous  wood  cuts,  with  Designs,  Plans,  and  cost  for  Building  Homes  in  city  and  country,  and 
much  other  technical  information. 

FOURTH. — The  publishers  have  presented  A Manual  of  Etiquette  or  thj  Requirements  of 
Good  Society,  covering  the  full  ground  of  social  life  and  Etiquette  at  Home  and  Abroad,  in  the 
Ball  Room,  when  on  journeys  and  in  Hotels.  The  classic  utterances  of  Lord  Chesterfield  following 
the  pages  devoted  to  Etiquette,  will  be  found  of  practical  value  and  may  be  safely  regarded  as 
standard  authority  upon  the  matters  presented. 

FIFTH. — In  this  Department  the  publishers  have  presented  Recreation  for  All,  in  a' manner 
which  will  satisfy  all  intelligent  tastes,  and  at  the  same  time  be  entirely  innocent  and  free  from 
objection.  A Chapter  on  the  Care  and  Management  of  that  noble  animal,  The  Horse,  will 
interest  all.  Nautical  Terms  Explained  will  aid  the  reader  of  fiction  and  travels  to  understand 
-such  terms  whenever  found,  and  also  be  of  value  to  the  Amatuer  Yachtsman.  The  Latest  Rules 
for  Athletic  Sports,  are  from  the  most  recent  authorities,  and  the  Game  Birds  of  North  America 
will  be  of  value  to  the  Amatuer  Ornithologist  and  Sportsman.  They  have  devoted  a fair  pro- 
portion of  the  work  to  the  subject  of  Parlor  Entertainments,  introducing  those  amusements 
which  tend  to  cement  the  family  circle,  and  induce  all  its  members  to  find  at  home  that  enjoy- 
ment which  otherwise  they  may  seek  amid  unfavorable  surroundings. 

SIXTH. — The  Chapters  on  Natural  Science  cover  Astronomy,  Natural  Philosophy,  Chem- 
istry and  Electricity  as  applied  to  the  trades.  These  subjects  are  treated  from  the  standpoint 
of  the  latest  scientific  investigation,  theoretical  and  practical.  A Chapter  upon  the  highly 
interesting  branch  of  Botany, — Sex  in  Vegetable  Life,  has  been  introduced,  which  cannot  fail  to 
aid  the  Florist  and  Pomologist,  as  well  as  the  farmer.  This  Department  covers  a wide  range  of 
very  valuable  scientific  information  in  most  entertaining  form. 

SEVENTH.— A glance  at  the  Summary  of  Contents  will  show  that  this  Department  covers 
the  topics  of  deepest  interest  to  all  who  wish  to  acquire  the  highest  proficiency  in  Speaking  and 
Writing  the  English  Language.  The  Scholar,  the  Letter- writer,  the  Author,  and  the  Public 
Speaker  will  each  obtain  practical  instruction  upon  all  the  subjects  presented.  The  Chapter 
on  Medical  and  Physical  Education  have  been  prepared  expressly  for  this  work  by  a successful 
Pbysican.  with  the  design  of  furnishing  a reliable  guide  to  the  family  in  physical  culture,  the 
preservation  of  health,  the  steps  to  be  taken  in  cases  of  accident  and  exigency,  liable  to  arise  in 
any  family,  and  the  relation  of  the  sexes,  or  Familiar  Chats  with  the  Physician,  in  the  Home  of 
his  Patients. 

EIGHTH. — In  the  Rhetorical  and  Dramatic  Education,  they  have  placed  before  you  the 
greatest  speeches  of  the  most  renowned  Orators  and  American  Patriots ; also  choice  selections 
from  great  Dramatists  and  Poets. 

NINTH. — They  have  made  “ The  Political,  Historical  and  Statistical  Department  ” most 
invaluable  to  the  intelligent  citizen,  and  to  the  young  man  who  would  rightly  understand 
the  important  duties  of  American  citizenship.  The  great  State  Papers,  The  Constitution, 
Emancipation  Proclamation,  Inaugural  and  Farewell  Addresses  of  George  Washington,  and  The 
Inaugural  Addresses  of  Abraham  Lincoln,  are  preceded  by  a digest  of  the  Duties  of  Officers  of 
Government,  a treatise  on  Parliamentary  Law,  including  the  Decision  of  the  Speaker  of  the 
House  of  Representatives  of  the  United  States ; also  a chapter  upon  How  to  Organize  Debating 
and  Literary  Societies.  This  Department  also  contains  an  article  from  Senator  Edmunds,  and 
one  from  a well-known  banker  upon  the  Balance  of  Trade.  The  Historical  Section  contains  a 
History  of  the  Principal  Nations,  Biographical  Index  and  Ancient  and  Modern  History  in 
contemperaneous  and  chronological  order.  A History  of  Tariff  Legislation  in  the  United  States, 
and  Valuable  Statistical  Tables  from  the  XI th  Census. 

The  publishers  have  prepared  the  best  and  most  complete  work  of  the  kind  ever  presented 
to  the  American  public,  and  have  combined  in  its  preparation  completeness  of  detail  and  accuracy 
of  statement,  with  the  latest  available  authority  on  all  subjects  presented. 


SUMMARY  OF  CONTENTS. 


I. — HOW  TO  ATTAIN  SUCCESS. 

Success  the  Result  of  Gradual  Development,  21.  Consecration  to  One  Purpose,  26.  Care  in 
Chosing  a Profession,  27.  A Worthy  Aim  in  Life,  29.  A Proper  Use  of  Time,  30.  Force  of 
Character  and  Self  Reliance,  31.  Mental  and  Physical  Culture,  32.  Persistency  and  Indi- 
viduality, 34.  Originality,  34.  Luck  versus  Pluck,  35.  Business  Maxims  and  Rules,  37. 
Important  Suggestions,  38.  Biographical  Dictionary  of  over  Three  Hundred  Eminent  Men 
and  Women  connected  with  American  History,  45-123.  Renowned  Artists,  125. 

II. — THE  BUSINESS  MANUAL. 

Penmanship,  138-152.  Science  of  Book-keeping,  153-175.  New  Standard  Time,  176.  Comparative 
Time  Indicator,  177.  Difference  in  Time,  178.  The  Ready  Reckoner,  178.  Interest  Tables, 
179-181.  Value  of  Foreign  Coins  in  United  States  Money,  182.  Commercial  and  Legal, 
183-264.  Negotiable  Paper,  183.  Indorsements,  184.  Forms  of  Checks,  Drafts,  etc.,  186- 
192.  United  States  Postal  Laws  and  Regulations,  193.  Statute  and  Common  Law,  194. 
Agreements  and  Contracts,  194.  Arbitration,  198.  Breach  of  Covenants,  199.  Agreement 
to  Sell  Shares  of  Stock,  199.  A Contract  to  Build  a House,  200.  Bills  of  Sale,  203.  Agents 
and  their  Authority,  204.  Form  of  Power  of  Attorney,  205.  Bonds,  205.  Assignments, 
209.  Chattel  Mortgage,  210.  Liabilities  of  Express  Companies,  etc.,  211.  Deeds,  212. 
Insurance,  215.  The  Rights  of  Married  Women,  217-224.  Property  Sales  and  the  Law  of 
Titles,  224.  Laws  and  Usages  regarding  Landlords  and  Tenants,  225.  Form  of  a Lease, 
226.  Landlord’s  Notice  to  Quit,  228.  Mortgages,  229.  Partnership  and  the  Duties  and 
Rights  of  Partners,  230.  Form  of  Partnership  Agreement,  232.  Dissolution  of  Partnership 
and  Notice  of  Same,  233.  Patents,  233.  The  Law  of  Copyright,  237.  The  Law  regarding 
Suffrage  and  Naturalization,  237,  Last  Wills  and  Testaments,  239.  Form  of  Will,  240# 
Form  of  Noncupartive  Will,  241.  Form  of  Administrator’s  Bond,  242.  Form  of  Executor’s 
Bond,  242.  Abstract  of  State  Laws  regarding  Wills,  243-248.  Mechanic’s  Liens  in  all  the 
States,  249-252.  Exemption  Laws  in  all  the  States  253-258.  Marriage  in  its  Relation  to 
Law,  259-262.  How  to  Learn  Telegraphy  265-267.  Great  Libraries  in  the  United  States,  268. 
Phonetic  Shorthand,  269-274.  The  Metric  System,  275-277.  Our  Commerce  with  the  World , 
279.  Interest  Laws  and  Statutes  of  Limitation,  280. 

III.— THE  TRUE  HOME  AND  THE  MATERIAL  HOUSE. 

The  True  Home,  281.  A Good  Home  is  Built  on  Compromises,  285.  Amusements  Ought  to  Find 
a Place  in  the  Home,  286.  Every  Man  His  Own  Landlord,  289-292.  The  Architecture  of 
the  Home,  293-305.  The  Adornment  and  Furnishing  of  the  House,  305-317.  The  Art  of 
Cookery,  318-338.  The  Art  of  Folding  Napkins,  337.  Canning  Fruits,  338.  The  Art  of 
Carving  Made  Easy,  338-346.  One  Hundred  Infallible  Receipts,  347-356.  Art  in  the 
Household,  356-357. 


X 


SUMMARY  OF  CONTENTS. 


IV.— A MANUAL  OF  ETIQUETTE  OR  THE  REQUIREMENTS'  OF  GOOD 

SOCIETY. 

The  Requirements  of  Good  Society,  361.  Courteous  Greetings  and  Introductions,  362.  Etiquette 
in  the  Home,  364.  Visitors  at  the  Home,  365.  Ceremonious  Visits,  366.  Treatment  of 
Callers ; Calls  for  Congratulation ; Calls  for  Consolation ; Social  Calls,  367.  Politeness 
while  Travelling ; The  Etiquette  Observance  at  the  Table,  368.  The  Honors  of  the  Table ; 
General  Observances,  369.  Dinner  Parties,  etc. , 370.  Table  Ornaments  and  Arrangement, 
371.  Entertaining  Company  ; A Few  Hints  to  Young  Housekeepers,  372.  Evening  Enter- 
tainments, 373.  The  Supper  Table  ; Taking  Leave ; An  Early  Call  Afterwards,  374.  Manners, 
Personal  Appearance,  Dress,  375.  The  Care  of  the  Person  and  the  Toilet ; Adjuncts  to  the 
Toilet,  376.  Courtship  and  Marriage ; An  Offer  of  Marriage,  377.  Love  Letters ; Additional 
Hints  to  Engaged  Parties;  Marriage  Ceremony,  379.  Wedding  Cake;  Wedding  Calls; 
Wedding  Gifts,  381.  Husbands  and  Wives,  382.  The  Etiquette  of  the  Ball  Room,  383. 
Toilet  for  the  Ball  Room ; Gentleman’s  Dress  ; Etiquette  in  the  Ball  Room,  384.  Quadrille, 
385.  The  Floral  Realm,  386-389.  Dictionary  of  Flowers,  389-393.  Lord  Chesterfield’s 
Advice  to  his  Son  on  Etiquette,  Business  and  Social  Relations,  394-404. 

* 4 

V.— RECREATION  FOR  ALL. 

The  American  Horse,  405^09.  Laws  for  Athletic  Sports,  411-428.  Laws  for  La  Crosse,  411.  Foot 
Ball,  414.  Lawn  Tennis,  420.  Laws  of  Lawn  Tennis,  423.  Laws  of  Quoits,  426.  Base 
Ball,  426.  Fencing,  426.  Game  Birds  of  North  America,  429-437.  Nautical  Terms 
Explained,  etc.,  438-445.  The  Amatuer  Taxidermist’s  Guide,  446-450.  How  to  Practice 
Photography,  450-454.  The  Effect  of  Dress  in  Photography,  455.  Parlor  Entertainments, 
457-464.  Laughable  and  Innocent  Amusements  for  Children,  465-467. 

VI.— CHAPTERS  ON  NATURAL  SCIENCE. 

The  Science  of  Astronomy,  469-502.  Illustrated  Experiments  in  Natural  Philosophy,  503-532. 
The  Science  of  Chemistry,  533-542.  Sex  in  the  Vegetable  World,  543-545.  The  Science  of 
Electricity,  547-574.  The  Electric  Light,  554-568.  The  Telephone  and  Its  Uses,  568-570. 
Electroplating,  571.  Electrotyping,  572.  The  Phonograph  or  Audophone,  574.  Medical 
and  Physical,  575-592.  The  Five  Senses,  581.  The  Teeth  and  Their  Care,  584.  The  Skin 
and  Its  Care,  586.  Treatment  of  the  Drowned,  588.  Poisons  and  Their  Andidotes,  589. 
How  to  Proceed  in  Special  Accidents,  592. 

VII.— HOW  TO  ATTAIN  SKILL  IN  WRITING  AND  SPEAKING. 

The  English  Language  and  its  Proper  Use,  595.  The  Correct  Use  of  Language  in  Writing  and 
Speaking,  596.  Rules  for  Spelling,  597.  How  to  Use  Capitals,  598.  The  Art  of 
Composition,  599.  Two  Hundred  Mistakes  of  Daily  Occurence  in  Speaking,  Writing  and 
Pronunciation,  602-614.  The  Art  of  Correspondence,  615-666.  Types  and  Their  Names, 


SUMMARY  OF  CONTENTS. 


xi 


667.  How  to  Correct  Printer’s  Proof,  668.  The  Public  Speaker  and  Reader,  869-684. 
Exercises  for  Practice,  685.  The  Elocution  of  the  Pulpit,  687.  Extracts  from  Lord  Chester- 
field upon  Elocution  and  Oratory,  688.  A Dictionary  of  12,000  Synonymous  Words,  690-721. 

VIII.— LITERARY  DEPARTMENT. 

Selections  from  Celebrated  Orators  and  American  Patriots,  725-747.  Selections  from  Classic 
Authors,  747-757.  Select  Pieces  from  the  Pens  of  Famous  Authors,  757.  Witty  and 
Humorous  Poems,  760.  The  Young  People’s  Reciter,  763.  Dialogues  for  Acting  and 
Dramatic  Exercise,  768.  The  Broken  Heart,  775.  Principal  Universities  and  Colleges  in 
the  United  States,  777.  Chautauqua  Literary  and  Scientific  Circle,  780. 

IX.— POLITICAL  AND  HISTORICAL. 

I.— POLITICAL  INFORMATION. 

The  Australian  Ballot  System,  781-785.  Duties  of  Officers  of  the  Various  Departments  of 
Government,  786-790.  Digest  of  Parliamentary  Law,  792;  Parliamentary  Law,  793-802. 
Organization  of  Literary  and  Debating  Societies,  803-808.  Constitution  of  the  United 
States,  809-819.  Declaration  of  Independence,  820-822.  George  Washington’s  Inaugural 
Address,  823.  George  Washington’s  Farewell  Address,  825-833.  Abraham  Lincoln  at 
Independence  Hall,  834.  Abraham  Lincoln’s  First  Inaugural  Address,  834-839.  Emancipation 
Proclamation,  839-840.  Political  Maxims  from  Cardinal  De  Retz,  841-843.  Maxims  of  the 
Earl  of  Chesterfield,  843-844.  Political  Duties,  845-846.  United  States  Weather  Bureau, 
etc.,  847-849.  Dominion  of  Canada,  851-860. 

II.— HISTORICAL  AND  STATISTICAL. 

The  Principal  Nations  of  the  World,  863-906.  English  Authors  and  Literature,  907-910. 
American  Authors  and  Literature,  911-913.  History,  Ancient  and  Modern,  etc.,  914-931. 
International  Commerce,  etc.,  933-936.  History  of  Tariff  Legislation  in  the  United  States. 
937-941,  Population  of  the  States  and  Territories,  942.  Americian  Cities  having  over 
50,000  Population,  942.  Changes  in  the  Tariff,  943. 


I N DEX. 


A 

American  Authors  and  Literature  . 

, 

911 

American  Horse,  The  . 

405 

Abbot,  Ezra,  Biography  of 

45 

Ames,  Adelbert,  Biography  of 

47 

Abbott,  John  S.  C.,  Biography  of 

45 

Ames,  Fisher,  Biography  of  . 

47 

Abbott,  Lyman,  Biography  of 

45 

Amiability  .... 

401 

Accidents,  Special,  How  to  proceed  in 

592 

Amusements  for  Young  People 

465 

Accounts,  Analysis  of  . 

162 

Amusements  ought  to  find  a place  in 

the 

Account  of  Stock,  Taking  . 

164 

Home  .... 

286 

Adams,  Charles  F. , Biography  of 

45 

Analysis  of  Copies 

145 

Adams,  John,  Biography  of 

45 

Analysis  of  Subjects  for  Composition 

600 

Adams,  John  Q.,  Biography  of 

46 

Anderson,  Robert,  Biography  of 

47 

Adams,  Samuel,  Biography  of 

46 

Anderson,  Rufus,  Biography  of  . 

48 

Addition,  Separation  and  Division  of 

Angles  and  their  Measurements 

495 

Questions  .... 

798 

Andrew,  John  A.,  Biography  of  . 

48 

Address  : Lincoln  at  Independence  Hall  v 

834 

Anthony,  Henry  M. , Biography  of  . 

48 

Address  : Lincoln,  Inaugural  of  1861 . 

834 

Anthony,  Susan  B. , Biography  of 

48 

Address,  Washington,  Farewell  of 

825 

Appeal,  Concerning  an  . 

800 

Address  : Washington,  Farewell  to  Army 

728 

Arbitration 

198 

Address  : Washington,  Inaugural  of  . 

823 

Archery,  Rules  of 

428 

Address : Washington,  Resignation  of 

Architecture  of  the  Home  . 

298 

Commission  .... 

730 

Arc  Lamps  .... 

560 

Adjourn,  Motion  to 

796 

Argentine  Republic,  History  of  . 

863 

A dministrator’s  Bond,  Form  for  . 

242 

Arthur,  Chester  A. , Biography  of  . 

48 

Adornment  and  Furnishing  of  the  House 

305 

Art  and  Artists 

125 

Affectation  ..... 

399 

Articles  for  Use,  Chemistry 

537 

Affection  and  Love,  Letters  on 

636 

Art  in  the  Household 

356 

Affinity,  Chemical  .... 

534 

Assignment  of  Life  Insurance  Policy  . 

216 

Agassiz,  Louis  J.  R. , Biography  of  . 

46 

Assignments  .... 

209 

Agents  and  their  Authority 

204 

Astor,  John  Jacob,  Biography  of 

48 

Agreement,  General  form  of  . 

196 

Astronomical  Calculations  . 

495 

Agreement,  General,  with  Indemnity  Bond 

197 

Astronomy,  Definition  of  Terms 

476 

Agreements  and  Contracts 

194 

Astronomy,  History  of 

460 

Agriculture,  Department  of 

790 

Athletic  Sports,  Latest  Laws  of 

411 

Aim  High  .... 

403 

Attention,  Necessity  of 

400 

Aim  in  Life  ..... 

29 

Attentions  .... 

400 

Air-Gun,  The  .... 

538 

Attraction,  Cohesive  and  Adhesive 

517 

Alcott,  Amos  B. , Biography  of 

46 

Auctioneer,  The  (poem) 

685 

Alcott,  Louisa  M. , Biography  of 

47 

Augur,  Christopher  C.,  Biography  of 

49 

All  that  Move  and  Breathe  (poem) . 

766 

Austria,  History  of 

863 

Ambition  and  Avarice  . 

399 

Australian  Ballot  System  . 

781 

Amendments,  On  .... 

797 

Averell,  William  W.,  Biography  of  . 

49 

Amendments  to  Constitution  of  United 

Awkwardness  of  Expression 

397 

States  .... 

817 

Award  made  under  Arbitration 

198 

INDEX. 


xiii. 


B. 

Brutus  and  Cassius,  (Shakespeare) 

768 

Brutus  to  the  Romans,  (Shapespeare) 

728 

Baby,  The  (poem) 

766 

Buchanan,  James,  Biography  of  . 

54 

Bainbridge,  William,  Biography  of  . 

49 

Buckingham,  William  A.,  Biography  of 

54 

Balance  of  Trade  .... 

933 

Buckner,  Simon  B. , Biography  of  . 

54 

Balance  Sheet  .... 

170 

Building  Association,  Co-operative 

290 

Ball  Room,  The  Etiquette  of 

383 

Buell,  Don  Carlos,  Biography  of 

54 

Ball  Room,  Toilet  for  the 

384 

Burnside,  Ambrose  E.,  Biography  of  . 

54 

Bancroft,  George,  Biography  of  . 

50 

Burr,  Aaron,  Biography  of  . 

54 

Bank  Demand  Note,  Form  of  . 

187 

Bushy  Eye-Brows,  How  to  Produce 

461 

Bank  Draft,  Form  of 

190 

Butler,  Benjamin  F.,  Biography  of  . 

55 

Banks,  Nathaniel  P.,  Biography  of  . 

50 

Business  Law,  Maxims  on  . 

186 

Base  Ball  ..... 

426 

Business,  Letters  on 

623 

Bayard,  Thomas  F,,  Biography  of  . 

50 

Business  Maxims  and  Rules 

37 

Beauregard,  Pierre  G.  F.,  Biography  of 

51 

Business,  Order  of  . . , 

795 

Beck,  James  B.,  Biography  of 

51 

Business  Statement .... 

171 

Beecher,  Henry  W. , Biography  of 

51 

Burying  Ground,  The,  (poem) 

765 

Beecher,  Lyman,  Biography  of 

51 

By-Laws,  Building  Association  . 

292 

Bed-Rooms,  Adornment  of 

315 

By-Laws,  Literary  and  Debating  Society 

805 

Behavior  ..... 

403 

Belgium,  History  of 

864 

Ca 

Bell,  John,  Biography  of 

51 

Caius  Gracchus  .... 

685 

Benjamin,  Judah  P.,  Biography  of 

51 

Cake,  How  to  Make 

330 

Benton,  Thomas  H. , Biography  of  . 

52 

Calculations,  Astronomical 

495 

Bills  of  Exchange,  Foreign,  Form  of 

192 

Calhoun,  John  C.,  Biography  of 

55 

Bills  of  Lading  .... 

192 

California  Quail  .... 

432 

Bills  of  Sale  .... 

203 

Caloric  or  Heat  .... 

538 

Biographical  Dictionary  . 

45 

Callers,  Treatment  of 

367 

Biographical  Index 

907 

Cameron,  Simon,  Biography  of 

56 

Bird  Mounting  .... 

449 

Canada,  Dominion  of 

851 

Bittern,  The  .... 

436 

Canada,  Dominion  of,  History  of 

866 

Blackburn,  J.  C.  S.,  Biography  of 

52 

Canby,  Edward  R.  S.,  Biography  of 

56 

Black,  JeremiahS.,  Biography  of  . 

52 

Canova,  Antonio.  Sketch  of  . 

126 

Blaine,  J ames  G. , Biography  of  . 

52 

Capitals,  Howto  CJse 

598 

Blair,  Montgomery,  Biography  of  . 

53 

Capilary  Attraction 

519 

Boiling  and  Stewing  Meats 

321 

Carbon  ..... 

536 

Boiling  Fish  .... 

324 

Carlitlr,  John  G. , Biography  of  . 

5« 

Boiling  Vegetables  .... 

322 

Carriage,  Genteel 

397-399 

Bolivia,  History  of 

865 

Carroll,  John,  Biography  of  . 

56 

Book-Keeping,  New  and  Improved  . 

153 

Carving,  The  Art  of 

338 

Book-Keeping  by  Double  Entry 

154 

Cash  Book,  The  .... 

160 

Book-Keeping  by  Single  Entry  . 

175 

Cash  Book,  The  Petty  . . . 

172. 

Bond,  Forms  of  197,  206 

Cass,  Lewis,  Biography  of 

56 

Bonds  ...... 

205 

Cataline’s  Defiance  . . 

686 

Boone,  Daniel,  Biography  of  . 

53 

Caveat,  Form  of . . . . 

236 

Bowling,  Laws  of  . 

418 

Ceilings,  Decoration  of  . , 

313 

Boy  who  could  not  tell  a Lie,  The,  (poem) 

767 

Census  of  1890  .... 

942 

Bragg,  Braxton,  Biography  of 

53 

Centre  of  Gravity  .... 

513 

Brazil,  History  of  . 

865 

Centre  of  Percussion 

516 

Bread,  How  to  Make  . 

329 

Centrifugal  Force  .... 

509 

Breckenridge,  John  C.,  Biography  of  . 

53 

Ceremony  and  Invitation,  Notes  of  . 

649 

British  Columbia,  Laws  of 

860 

Channing,  Willian  E. , Biography  of  , 

56 

Broken  Heart,  The,  (W.  Irving)  . 

775 

Charades  ..... 

463 

Brougham,  Lord,  Speech  on  Reform  Bill 

740 

Chase,  Salmon  P.,  Biography  of  . 

57 

Brown,  Joseph  E.,  Biography  of  . 

53 

Chatauqua  Literary  and  Scientific  Circle 

i 780 

Brownlow,  William  G.,  Biography  of 

53 

Chattel  Mortgages  .... 

210 

xiv. 

Check,  Form  of  . 

Chemistry,  The  Science  of  . 

Chesterfield,  Maxims  by  the  Earl  of  . 
Chesterfield,  Letters  to  his  Son  . 

Chesterfield,  Extracts  from 
Cheves,  Langdon,  Biography  of  . 

Chili,  History  of 
China,  History  of  . 

Choosing  Supplies 
Church,  Frederick  E. , Biography  of 
Circumference  of  the  Earth,  To  find  the 
Cities  of  the  United  States  having  50,000 
or  more  Inhabitants . 

Civilized  Life,  Application  of  Electricity  to 
Claflin,  Horace  B. , Biography  of 
Classic  Authors,  Selections  from 
Clay,  Cassius  M.,  Biography  of  . 

Clay,  Henry,  Biography  of 
Cleveland,  Mrs.  Frances,  Biography  of  . 
Cleveland,  Grover,  Biography  of 
Cleveland,  Miss  Rose  E. , Biography  of  . 
Clinton,  Be  Witt,  Biography  of 
Clinton,  George,  Biography  of 
Cobb,  Howell,  Biography  of 
Cohesion  and  Adhesive  Attraction  . 

Colfax,  Schuyler,  Biography  of  . 

Colors,  Contrasts  Required 
Colors,  Harmonizing  and  Contrasting  of 
Colombia,  History  of  . 

Columbus,  Christopher,  Biography  of  . 
Comets  ..... 

Comet,  The  Wonderful,  of  1882  . 

Commerce,  International 
Commerce,  Our,  with  the  World  . 

Commercial  Law  and  Business  Forms 
Communication  of  Motion  by  Wheel- 
work  ..... 
Company,  Entertaining,  (R.  W.  Emerson) 
Composition,  the  Art  of  . 

Conkling,  Roscoe,  Biography  of 
Committee  of  the  Whole  . 

Committees,  On 
Committees,  Report  of 
Condolence,  Letters  of 
Congo  Free  State,  History  of 
Congratulation,,  Calls  of 
Congratulation,  Letters  of 
Conservator’s  Bond,  Form  of  . 

Consequences  of  Secession  (Clay) 

Consolation,  Calls  for  . 

Constitution  of  a Co-operative  Building 
Association  .... 
Constitution  of  Canada 
Constitution  of  Literary  and  Debating 

Society  ....  803 

Constitution  of  the  United  States  . 809 


Contract  to  Build  a House.  _ . 200 

Cookery  and  its  Art  . . , 318 

Coot,  the  American  . . . 436 

Co-operative  Building  Association  . 290 

Cooper,  James  Fenimore,  Biography  of  61 

Cooper,  Peter,  Biography  of  .61 

Copyright,  The  Law  of  . . 237 

Corea,  The  History  of  . 872 

Corcoran,  Michael,  Biography  of  . 61 

Corcoran,  William  W. , Biography  of  62 

Cormorant,  The  ....  436 

Corporations,  etc.,  Liability  of  . 211 

Correct  Position  in  Writing  . . 138 

Correspondence,  The  Art  of  . . 615 

Costa  Rica,  History  of  . . . 872 

Costume  and  Make  Up  . . 459 

Courtship  and  Marriage  . . 377 

Country  Cousins,  The  (poem)  . . 761 

Covenant,  Breach  of,  Damages  . J99 

Cox,  Samuel  S. , Biography  of  .62 

Craft,  Different  kinds  described  . 438 

Crane,  The  ....  436 

Crittenden,  John  J.,  Biography  of  . 62 

Crystallization,  Experiments  in  . . 521 

Cummings,  Joseph,  Biography  of  . 62 

Curtains  .....  315 

Curtin,  Andrew  G.,  Biography  of  . 62 

Curtis,  George  Wm.,  Biography  of  . 63 

Curtis,  Samuel  R.,  Biography  of  . 63 

Cushing,  Caleb,  Biography  of  . 63 

Cushing,  Wm.  B.,  Biography  of  . 63 

D. 

Dallas,  George  M. , Biography  of  . 64 

Day  Book  Explained  . . . 154 

Day  Book,  Form  of  Double  Entry  . 155 

Day  Book,  “ “ Single  “ . 174 

Day  Book,  Posting  from,  to  Ledger  . 175 

Davis,  David,  Biography  of  . . 64 

Davis,  Jefferson,  Biography  of  . . 64 

Davis,  John  W.,  Biography  of  . 64 

Death  of  a Member,  Resolution  on  . 807 

Death,  To  Produce  the  Hue  of  . 461 

Debate,  Decorum  in  800 

Debate,  Rights  and  Duties  of  . , 799 

Decency,  True,  ....  395 

Declaration  of  Independence,  . 820 

Deeds,  , . 212 

Deems,  Charles  F. , Biography  of  . 64 

Delicacy,  False  ....  398 

Demosthenes,  ....  686 

Denmark,  History  of  873 

Depew,  Chauncey  M. , Biography  of  65 

Deposit  Slip,  Form  of  . 186 

Deserted  Village,  The,  (poem)  Goldsmith,  757 
Design  of  the  Home,  The  . . 306 


INDEX. 

187 
533 
843 
394 
688 
57 

867 

868 
320 

57 
500 

942 
554 

58 
747 

58 

58 

59 
59 
59 

59 

60 
60 

517 
60 
313 
310 

870 
60 

492 

493 
933 
279 
183 

526 
372 
599 
60 
802 
805 
801 

642 

871 
367 

643 
207 
734 
367 

290 
851 


INDEX. 


xv. 


Designs  and  Plans. 

American  Cottage,  . , , 

Block  of  Four  Houses 
Cheap  Cottages, 

City  Blocks  of  Six  Houses 
Country  Clergyman’s  Cottage 
Country  Cottage 
Garden  Cottage 
Gothic  Cottage 

Home  for  Professional  or  Business  Men 
Private  Dwelling  for  a Family  of  Means 
Residences  .... 
Rural  Gothic  Cottage 
Suburban  Cottage 
Superior  Class  of  Cottages 
De  Stael,  Madam,  to  Madam  La  Fayette 
Dialogues  for  Acting,  etc., 

Dickinson,  John,  Biography  of  , 
Difference  in  Time 
Digest  of  Canadian  Law  . 

Digest  of  Laws  in  all  the  States 
Territories. 

Divorce  .... 
Exemption  .... 
Interest  Laws  . . , 

Marriage  .... 
Mechanics’  Liens 
Rights  of  Married  Women, 

Statutes  of  Limitation  . 

Wills 

Dignity  of  Labor,  Rev.  Newman  Hall 
Dining-rooms,  Decoration  of 
Dinner  Parties, — their  Requirements 
Disraeli  on  the  Death  of  Lord  Wellington 
Distance  from  the  Earth  to  the  Moon,  To 
find  the  .... 
Distance  of  the  Planets  from  the  Sun,  To 
find  the  .... 
Distance  of  the  Sun  from  the  Earth,  To 
find  the  .... 

Dix,  John  A.,  Biography  of 
Distraction  and  Inattention  . 

Doubleday,  Abner,  Biography  of 
Douglass,  Frederick,  Biography  of  . 
Douglas,  Stephen  A. , Biography  of 
Draft  Accompanying  Bill  of  Lading 
Draft,  Bank,  Form  of 
Dress,  How  to 

Dress,  The  Effect  of,  in  Photography  . 
Drive  the  Nail  (poem)  . 

Drowned,  The  Treatment  of  the  . 

Duck,  The  Wild. 

Dupont,  Samuel  F.,  Biography  of 
Dwight,  Theodore  W.,  Biography  of 
Dynamo— Electric  Machine,  The  Weston 


E. 

Early  Call,  etc. , . . . . 874 

Earth,  Daily  Revolutions  of  the  , 484 

Earth,  The  .....  488 

Ease  and  Grace,  A Noble  . . 400 

Eclipse  of  the  Sun  and  Moon  . . 486 

Ecuador,  History  of  . „ 874 

Edison,  Thomas  A. , Biography  of  . 67 

Edmunds,  George  F. , Biography  of  . 67 

Eggs,  How  to  Select  . . .321 

Egypt,  History  of  874 

Elections  in  Literary  Society  . . 804 

Electricity  as  Applied  to  the  Trades  . 547 

Electricity,  The  Problem  Remaining  to  be 

Solved  .....  567 

Electric  Light  ....  554 

Electroplating  ....  571 

Electrotyping  ....  572 

Ellsworth,  Oliver,  Biography  of  . 67 

Elocution  Considered  as  an  Art  . . 670 

Elocution,  Introduction  to  . . 669 

Elocution  of  the  Pulpit  . . . 687 

Elocution,  Useful  Hints  on  . . 683 

Emancipation  Proclamation  . . 839 

Emerson,  Ralph  W. , Biography  of  . 67 

Emmet,  Robert,  Speech  of  . . 751 

Engaged  Parties,  Additional  Hints  to  379 

English  Authors  and  Literature  . . 907 

Ericsson,  John,  Biography  of  . 68 

Equinoxes,  Precession  of  . . . 494 

Etiquette,  Manual  of  . . . 361 

Etiquette  of  the  Ball  Room  . . 383 

Evarts,  William  M.,  Biography  of  . 68 

Evening  Entertainments  . . . 373 

Everett,  Edward,  Biography  of  . 68 

Every  Man  His  own  Landlord  . . 289 

Exchange,  Foreign  Bill  of  . . 192 

Executive  Government  of  Canada,  The  851 

Executor’s  Bond,  Form  for  . . 242 

Exemption  Laws  in  all  the  States  . 253 

Exercises  in  Penmanship  . . . 145 

Exercises  for  Practice  in  Elocution  . 685 

Exercises,  Order  of  . . . . 807 

Express  Companies,  Liabilities  of  211 

Experiments,  Chemical  . . .535 

F. 

Face,  The  .....  402 

Family  Physician  in  the  Home  of  his 

Patients  ....  575 

Family  and  Love  Letters  . . . 654 

Farewell  Address,  Washington  . 825 

Farewell  to  the  Army,  Washington  . 728 

Farragut,  David  G. , Biography  of  . 69 

Fees,  Dues  and  Assessments  in  a Literary 

Society .....  806 


309 

317 

313 

304 

308 

317 

306 

305 

293 

303 

307 

315 

310 

316 

646 

768 

65 

178 

858 

AND 

263 

253 

280 

262 

249 

218 

280 

243 

737 

315 

370 

738 

498 

498 

499 

65 

401 

65 

66 

66 

188 

190 

396 

455 

767 

588 

431 

66 

66 

555 


XVI. 


INDEX. 


Female  Characters,  The  Make  up  of 

Fencing,  Laws  of 

Fencing,  Hints  on 

Field,  Cryus  W. , Biography  of  . 

Fillmore,  Millard,  Biography  of 

Fire  Balloons  .... 

Fire  Insurance  .... 

Fish,  How  to  Select 

Fixed  Stars,  The 

Flowers,  Dictionary  of 

Flowers,  The  Language  and  Sentiment  of 

Floyd,  JohnB.,  Biography  of  . 

Foot  Ball,  Laws  of  ... 

Foote,  Andrew  H.,  Biography  of 
Force  of  Character  and  Self  Reliance  . 
Foreign  Coin,  Value  of,  in  U.  S.  Money 
France,  History  of  . 

Franklin,  Benjamin,  Biography  of  . 
Franklin,  Letter  of,  to  Mr.  Straham 
Fremont,  John  C.,  Biography  of 
Fruits,  How  to  Can 
Fuller,  Melville  M. , Biography  of 
Fulton,  Robert,  Biography  of 
Furniture  and  Decorations 
Furniture  and  Hangings  . 

G. 

Galileo,  The  Florentine 
Game  Birds  of  North  America 
Garfield,  James  A.,  Biography  of 
Garfield,  Letters  on  the  Sickness  and 
Death  of  President 

Garfield,  Mrs.  Lucretia,  Biography  of  . 
Gentlemen’s  Complete  Letter  Writer 
Gentlemen’s  Dress  in  Ball  Room  . 
Germany,  History  of 
Gerry,  Elbridge,  Biography  of  . 

Gesture,  On  .... 

Gifts,  Notes  to  Accompany  and  Replies 

Glass  of  Cold  Water,  A,  (Gough)  . 

Godwit,  The  .... 

Good  Breeding  .... 

Good  Penmanship 

Good  Society,  Entrance  into 

Good  Society,  Forms  and  Usages  of  . 

Goodyear,  Charles,  Biography  of 

Goose,  The  Wild 

Gough,  John  B.,  Biography  of  . 

Government,  Departments  of 

Graces,  The  ..... 

Graceful  Behavior 

Grady,  Henry  W. , Biography  of  . 

Grant,  Mrs.  Julia  D.,  Biography  of  . 
Grant,  Ulysses  S. , Biography  of  . 
Gravitation  .... 
Gravitation,  Application  of  the  Principle 


462 

426 

427 
69 

69 
541 
216 
320 
501 
389 
386 

70 
414 

70 

31 

182 

878 

70 
777 

71 
338 

71 

71 

308 

314 


474 

429 

72 

621 

72 

623 

384 

882 

72 

677 

645 

747 

434 

396 

141 

398 

361 

72 
431 

73 
786 
398 
396 

73 

73 

73 

508 

473 


Great  Britain,  History  of  . . 886 

Greece,  History  of  . . . . 887 

Greeley,  Horace,  Biography  of  . 74 

Green,  Nathaniel,  Biography  of  . 74 

Greetings,  Courteous,  and  Introductions  362 
Gresham,  Walter  G.,  Biography  of  . 75 

Grouse,  The  ....  429 

Guardian’s  Bond,  Form  of  . . 207 

Guatemala,  History  of . . . 891 

H. 

Halleck,  Henry  W. , Biography  of  . 75 

Halls,  The  Decoration  of  . . 316 

Hamilton,  Alexander,  Biography  of  . 75 

Hamlin,  Hannibal,  Biography  of  . 75 

Hamlet  to  his  Mother,  Shakespeare  . 686 

Hamlet  to  the  Players  . . . 685 

Hampton,  Wade,  Biography  ot  . . 76 

Hancock,  John,  Biography  of  . 76 

Hancock,  Winfield  S.,  Biography  of  . 76 

Harmony  of  Colors,  etc. , . . 305 

Harrison.  Benjamin,  Biography  of  . 77 

Harrison,  Mrs.  Caroline,  Biography  of  77 

Harrison,  William  H.,  Biography  of  „ 77 

Hawaii,  History  of  . . 892 

Hawley,  Joseph  R.,  Biography  of  . 77 

Hawthorne,  Nathaniel,  Biography  of  78 

Hayes,  Rutherford  B.,  Biography  of  . 78 

Hayne,  Robert  Y. , Biography  of  . 78 

Hayti,  History  of  . . . 893 

Hazen,  William  B.,  Biography  of  . 78 

Hearing,  The  Sense  of  . . 583 

Hendricks,  Thomas  A.,  Biography  of  78 

Henry,  Patrick,  Biography  of  .79 

Henry,  Patrick,  Speech  to  the  Assembly 

of  Virginia  . . . 742 

Here  She  Goes  and  There  She  Goes,  (poem)  760 
Heron,  The  ....  435 

History  of  the  Science  of  Astronomy  . 470 

Holmes,  Oliver  W. , Biography  of  . 79 

Holt,  Joseph,  Biography  of  .79 

Home,  A Good,  is  Built  on  Compromises  285 
Home,  Amusements  Ought  to  Find  a 

Place  in  the  . . . 286 

Home,  Etiquette  in  the  . . . 364 

Home,  The  True  ...  281 

Honduras,  History  of  894 

Hood,  John  B.,  Biography  of  . 80 

Hooker,  Joseph,  Biography  of  . .80 

Hopkinson,  Francis,  Biography  of  . 80 

Horse,  The  American  . . . 4:05 

Hotspur’s  Account  of  the  Fop,  Shakes- 
peare ....  774 

Houston,  Gen.  Sam.,  Biography  of  . 80 

Howe,  Elias,  Biography  of  81 

How  Often  I Offend,  (poem)  . . 765 


INDEX. 


xvii. 


How  They  brought  the  Good  News  from 
Ghent,  R.  Browning 
Husbands  and  Wives 
Hydraulics  .... 

Hydrostatics  ..... 

i. 

Ibis,  The  ..... 
Ice  Cream  of  Different  Flavors 
Immobility  ..... 
Impenetrability  of  Matter 
Important  Suggestions 
Inattention  .... 

Incandescent  Lamps,  The  Maxim 
Incline  Plane  .... 

Indemnity  Bond,  A General  Form  of  . 
Indorsements  .... 

Inertia  or  Passiveness 
Inflection  ..... 
Ingalls,  John  J.,  Biography  of  . 

Ingalls,  Rufus,  Biography  of  . 

Ingersoll,  Robert  G. , Biography  of 
International  Commerce 
Instruction  on  Penmanship  Exercises  . 
Instructions  and  Advice  to  his  Son,  Lord 
Chesterfield 

Instruments  used  by  the  Astronomer  . 
Insults  and  Injuries 
Insurance  . . . . 

Interest  Laws  .... 
Interest  Tables  .... 

Interior,  Department  of  the  . 
Interpretation  of  Display  Signals 
Introduction  to  Philosophy  . 

Invoice  Book  .... 

Irving,  Washington,  Biography  of  . 
Irving,  Washington,  The  Broken  Heart 
Italy,  History  of 

j. 

Jackson,  Andrew,  Biography  of  . 
Jackson,  Thomas  J.,  (Stonewall) 

Japan,  History  of  . 

Jay,  John,  Biography  of 
Jefferson,  Thomas,  Biography  of 
Jefferson,  Thomas,  Letter  of,  to  John 
Adams  on  the  Death  of  his  Wife 
Johnson,  Andrew,  Biography  of  . 
Johnson,  Richard  M.,  Biography  of 
Johnston,  Joseph  E.,  Biography  of 
Jones,  Paul,  Biography  of 
Journal-Day  Book,  The  Six-column 
Journal  Explained 

Journal,  Forms  of  .... 
Judge  Others  by  Yourself 
Jupiter  ..... 
Justice,  Department  of 


759 

382 

531 

531 

436 

336 

402 

504 

38 

398 

565 

526 

206 

184 

507 

674 

81 

81 

81 

933 

140 

394 

496 

396 

215 

280 

179 

788 

848 

503 

165 

81 

775 

894 


82 

82 

896 

82 

83 

642 

83 

83 

84 
84 

172 

157 

158 
402 
489 
790 


K. 

Kalsomining . . . . . 314 


Kearney,  Philip,  Biography  of  . 85 

Kent,  James,  Biography  of  . . 85 

Kilpatrick,  Hugh  J. , Biography  of  . 85 

King,  Rufus,  Biography  of  .85 

King,  William  R. , Biography  of  . 86 

Kitchen,  The  ....  318 

Knox,  Henry,  Biography  of  . . 86 

Kossuth’s  Farewell  to  his  Country  . 736 


L. 


Lacrosse,  Laws  of  . 

Ladies’  Complete  Guide  to  Letter  Writing 
Ladies,  Fashionable 
La  Fayette,  Everett  on  the  Character  of 
La  Fayette  to  Jefferson  announcing  the 
Death  of  Madam  La  Fayette 
Landlord,  Every  Man  his  Own 
Landlords  and  Tenants 
Landlord’s  Notice  to  Quit 
Language,  Correct  Use  of  . 

Language,  The  English  , 

Language  and  Sentiment  of  Flowers 
Latitude  of  a Place,  to  find  the 
Lawn  Tennis ..... 
Lawn  Tennis,  Laws  of  . 

Learning,  How  to  Wear  . 

Learning  and  Politeness 
Lease,  Form  of  ... 

Ledger,  Closing  of 

Ledger  Explained  .... 
Ledger,  Form  of  Double  Entry 
Ledger,  Form  of  Single  Entry  . 

Ledger,  Private  .... 

Lee,  Henry,  Biography  of  . 

Lee,  Robert  E. , Biography  of . 
Left-Handedness  .... 
Legislative  Powers,  Canada  . 

Legislative  Powers  in  the  Several  Prov- 
inces ..... 
Letters,  Forms  for  Directing  and  Con- 
cluding .... 
Letters,  General  Directions  for  Writing 
Letters,  General  Observation  Concerning 
Lever,  The  . . , . . 

Liberia,  History  of 

Libraries  in  the  United  States,  Great  . 
Library,  Decoration  of  the 
Life  Insurance  .... 
Light  and  its  Rapidity  . 

Light,  Effects  of 
Light,  Reflection  of 
Limitation,  Statutes  of 
Lincoln,  Abraham,  Biography  of 


411 

646 

398 

726 

643 

289 

225 
228 
596 
595 
386 
500 
420 
423 
396 
402 

226 
163 
162 
166 
175 
165 

86 

87 

400 

852 

853 

620 

616 

619 

524 

898 

268 

315 

216 

539 

539 

540 
280 

87 


INDEX. 


xviii. 

Lincoln’s  Address  at  Independence  Hall 
Lincoln,  Benjamin,  Biography  of 
Lincoln,  Inaugural  of  1861  . • 

Literary  and  Debating  Society 
Little  Nothings  .... 
Livingston,  Edward,  Biography  of 
Livingston,  Robert,  Biography  of  . 
Logan,  John  A.,  Biography  of  . 
Longfellow,  Henry  W. , Biography  of 
Longitude  of  a Place,  To  Find  the 
Longstreet,  James,  Biography  of 
Loomis,  Elias,  Biography  of 
Love  Letters,  Etiquette  of 
Love,  Letters  on 

Lowell,  James  R.,  Biography  of 
Luck  versus  Pluck  .... 
Lunar  Eclipse  .... 
Lyon,  Nathaniel,  Biography  of  . 

M. 

Macbeth’s  Soliloquy,  (Shakespeare) 
McClellan,  George  B. , Biography  of 
Macdonough,  Thomas,  Biography  of  . 
McCulloch,  Benjamin,  Biography  of 
McDowell,  Irwin,  Biography  of  . 
McPherson,  James  B.,  Biography  of 
Madison,  James,  Biography  of  . 

Magic  Mirror,  The  Wonderful 
Manner,  etc.,  . . . . 

Manners,  Advantage  of 
Manners,  Charm  of  . . . . 

Manners,  Dignity  of 
Manners,  Ease  of 
Manners,  Formation  of 
Manners,  Grace  of 

Manners,  Personal  Appearance,  Dress  . 
Mann,  Horace,  Biography  of  . 

Man,  The  Well-Bred 
Marine  Insurance 
Marion,  Francis,  Biography  of  . 
Marriage,  An  Offer  of  . 

Marriage  Ceremony 
Marriage  in  its  Relation  to  Law  . 
Married  Women,  The  Rights  of 
Mars,  The  Planet  .... 
Marshall,  John,  Biography  of 
Mather,  Cotton,  Biography  of 
Mathews,  Stanley,  Biography  of 
Maxims  by  Cardinal  De  Retz  . 

Maxims  by  the  Earl  of  Chesterfield 
Maxims  of  Business  Law 
Meade,  George  G.,  Biography  of 
Meagher,  Thomas  F.,  Biography  of  . 
Mechanical  Powers  .... 
Mechanics’  Liens  in  all  the  States 
Medical  and  Physical 


Meetings,  Literary  Society  . . 805 

Membership,  Literary  Society  . 803,  805 

Members,  Initiation  of . . . 806 

Mental  and  Physical  Culture  . . 32 

Mercury,  The  Planet  . . . 482 

Merganser,  Hooded  ....  437 

Metric  System,  The  . . . 275 

Meteoric  Rings  ....  492 

Meteors,  Shooting  Stars  and  Aerolites  492 
Method  and  Manner  . . . 398 

Mexico,  History  of  898 

Minor  Planets,  The  ....  492 

Mistakes  Corrected,  Two  Hundred  . 602 

Mitchel,  Ormsby  M. , Biography  of  . 93 

Modification  of  Motion  . . 530 

Monroe,  James,  Biography  of  .93 

Moon,  The  ....  485 

Morgan,  Edwin  D. , Biography  of  . 93 

Morris,  Robert,  Biography  of . . 94 

Morse,  Samuel  F.  B. , Biography  of  . 94 

Mortgage  Deeds,  Form  of  . . 229 

Mortgages  .....  229 

Morton,  Levi  P. , Biography  of  . 95 

N. 

Naglee,  Henry  W.,  Biography  of  . 95 

Name  of  Literary  Society  . . 803 

Napkins,  The  Art  of  Folding  . . 337 

Nations,  The  Principal,  of  the  World  863 
Naturalization,  The  Law  regarding  . 237 

Nautical  Terms  Explained  . . 438 

Navy,  Department  of  the . . . 788 

Negotiable  Paper  . . . 183 

Nelson,  William,  Biography  of  . . 95 

Neptune  .....  491 

Netherlands,  History  of  the  . . 899 

New  Brunswick,  Law  of  . . 858 

Newman,  John  P.,  Biography  of  . 95 

Newton  and  the  Laws  of  Gravitation  472 

Newton,  Isaac,  Biography  of  .95 

New  York,  The  new  Landlord  and  Tenant 

Law  of  . . . 226 

Nicaragua,  History  of  . . 900 

Nitrogen  or  Azote  . . . 536 

Noble,  John,  Biography  of  .96 

Non-cupartive  Will,  Form  of  . . 241 

Norval  and  Glenalvon,  (Rev.  J.  Howe) . 772 

Note,  Promissory,  Form  of  . . 188 

Note  with  Collateral  Security  . . 189 

Nothing  by  Halves  . . . 400 

Nova  Scotia,  Laws  of  860 

Novice,  The,  in  Society  . . 404 

o. 

Object  of  Literary  Society  . . 803 

Observances,  General,  in  Etiquette  . 369 


834 

87 

834 

803 

403 

88 

88 

88 

88 

499 

89 

89 

379 

618 

89 

35 

488 

89 

686 

90 

90 

90 

91 

91 

91 

540 

397 

399 

402 

400 

403 

397 

400 

375 

91 

396 

215 

91 

377 

379 

261 

217 

488 

92 

92 

92 

841 

843 

186 

93 

93 

523 

249 

575 


INDEX. 


xix. 


O’Connor,  Charles,  Biography  of 

. 

96 

Phalarope,  The 

. 

437 

Offences,  On  .... 

806 

Phillips,  Wendell,  Biography  of 

98 

Officers,  Duties  and  Obligations  of 

794,  804 

Philosophy,  Natural,  Illustrated  Experi- 

Officers,  Inauguration  of 

806 

ments  in 

. 

503 

Officers  of  a Literary  Society 

. 

808 

Phonograph  or  Audophone  . 

574 

Office,  Removal  from  . 

805 

Phonetic  Short  Hand,  Pitman’s  System 

269 

Officers,  Resolution  of  Thanks  to 

. 

807 

Photography,  Instructions  in,  etc.,  . 

450 

Old  Oaken  Bucket,  The,  (Extract)  . 

685 

Pickett,  George  E. , Biography  of 

. 

99 

Ontario,  Laws  of 

. 

859 

Pierce,  Franklin,  Biography  of 

99 

Orange  Free  State,  History  of 

900 

Pies,  How  to  Make  . . . 

. 

333 

Ord,  Edward  0.  C. , Biography  of 

. 

96 

Pigeon,  The  Wild 

433 

Order  of  the  Day 

797 

Pillow,  Gideon  J. , Biography  of  . 

• 

99 

Order,  Points  of 

. 

797 

Pinckney,  Charles  C. , Biography  of . 

99 

O’Reilly,  John  Boyle,  Biography  of  . 

96 

Pinkney,  William,  Biography  of 

. 

100 

Organize,  How  to,  in  Parliamentary 

Pitch,  On  ..... 

676 

Manner 

. 

793 

Pitt,  William,  Sketch  of  . 

. 

722 

Organization  of  Literary  or  Debating 

Planets,  The  .... 

481 

Societies  .... 

803 

Please,  How  to 

401,  402 

Originality  .... 

. 

34 

Pleasing,  The  Art  of 

398 

Othello’s  Address  to  the  Senate,  (Shakes- 

Plovers  .... 

. 

435 

peare)  .... 

773 

Pneumatics,  Chemistry 

537 

Outlines  of  History,  Ancient  and  Modern 

914 

Pocahontas,  Biography  of 

. 

100 

Poe,  Edgar  Allen,  Biography  of 

100 

P. 

Poet  and  the  Rose,  The,  (poem)  John  Gay 

759 

Papers,  Reading  of,  in  Parliamentary 

Poetry,  Selections  in 

757 

Bodies  .... 

. 

798 

Poisons  and  their  Antidotes 

. 

589 

Paraguay,  History  of  . 

901 

Polish  ..... 

398 

Parental  and  Family  Letters 

. 

627 

Politeness  a Necessity 

. 

395 

Parker,  Theodore,  Biography  of 

96 

Political  Duties,  or  How  to  Succeed 

in 

Passions,  How  to  simulate  the 

. 

681 

Public  Life 

845 

Parliamentary  Law 

793 

Polk,  James  K.,  Biography  of 

. 

101 

Parliamentary  Rules,  Concise  Summary  of 

792 

Porter,  David  D. , Biography  of 

101 

Parlor  Entertainments . 

457 

Portugal,  History  of 

. 

901 

Partnership  Agreement 

. 

232 

Postal  Laws  and  Regulations  of 

the 

Partnership  and  the  Duties  and  Rights  of 

United  States 

193 

Partners  . 

230 

Postal  Service  of  Canada  . 

. 

855 

Partnership,  Dissolution  of 

. 

233 

Postal  Rates  of  Canada 

856 

Patents,  Bureau  of 

789 

Post  Office  Department,  The 

. 

789 

Patents,  Laws  Concerning 

. 

233 

Postpone,  Motion  to 

797 

Patterson,  Robert,  Biography  of 

97 

Poultry,  How  to  Select 

. 

331 

Paulding,  Hiram,  Biography  of  . 

. 

97 

Powderly,  Terrence  V.,  Biography  of 

101 

Pause,  On  .... 

672 

Power  of  Attorney,  Form  of 

. 

205 

Pemberton,  John  C.,  Biography  of 

. 

97 

Prentiss,  Benjamin  M.,  Biography  of 

101 

Pendleton,  George  J. , Biography  of 

. 

97 

Prescott,  William  H.,  Biography  of 

. 

101 

Penmanship,  Self-Instruction  in 

137 

Price,  Sterling,  Biography  of . 

102 

Penn,  William,  Biography  of 

, 

97 

Prince  Arthur  and  Hubert,  (Shakespeare) 

769 

Pensions,  Bureau,  of  . 

789 

Priuli  and  Jaffier,  (Thos.  Otway) 

. 

771 

Perry,  Oliver  H.,  Biography  of  . 

. 

98 

Problems,  Astronomical 

498 

Persistency  and  Individuality 

34 

Profession,  Care  in  Choosing 

. 

27 

Person,  Care  of,  and  the  Toilet  . 

* 

376 

Proficiency  in  Penmanship 

142 

Persons  of  different  Ages  and  Characters, 

Progress  of  Life  (Shakespeare)  . 

. 

774 

How  to  make  up  . 

459 

Promissory  Note,  Form  of 

188 

Peru,  History  of 

. 

901 

Promissory  Note,  Transfer  of 

. 

209 

Petition  for  Patents 

236 

Prompter,  The  .... 

462 

Petition  to  Governor  . , 

, 

808 

Proof  or  Trial  Sheet  * 

. 

165 

Petition  to  State  Legislature  . , 

808 

Proof  Sheet  Corrected  . . 

668 

XX. 


INDEX. 


/ 


Properties  of  Matter 

504 

Rittenhouse,  David,  Biography  of 

104 

Property  Sales  and  the  Law  of  Titles 

224 

Roasting,  Frying  and  Broiling 

324 

Propriety,  Local  .... 

397 

Roebling,  John  A.,  Biography  of 

104 

Protest  Against  American  War,  (Wm.  Pitt)  742 

Room  for  Use,  A 

314 

Protest  upon  Non-Payment  of  Note, 

Roumania  or  Romania,  History  of 

902 

Form  of  ... 

191 

Rubens,  Peter  Paul,  Sketch  of 

127 

Ptarmigan,  The  Rock  and  American 

437 

Rudeness  and  Civility 

396 

Public  Meetings,  How  to  Call  and  Con- 

Rules, Suspension  of  . 

798 

duct  ..... 

808 

Rush,  Benjamin,  Biography  of  . 

104 

Puddings,  How  to  Make 

334 

Rusk,  Jeremiah  M.,  Biography  of  . 

105 

Pulley  ...... 

524 

Russia,  History  of  . 

903 

Punctuation  .... 

617 

Rutledge,  John,  Biography  of 

105 

Q- 

s. 

Quadrille  ..... 

385 

Sainte  Beuve  on  Lord  Chesterfield 

394 

Quaker,  The,  and  the  Robber,  (poem) 

762 

Safety  Devices  in  Electric  Light 

567 

Quebec,  Laws  of 

860 

Sale  of  Minor’s  Land,  Form  of  Bond  for 

208 

Question,  Decision  of  . 

794 

Sales  Book,  Petty  .... 

172 

Question  of  Privilege 

796 

Salvador,  History  of 

904 

Question,  The  Previous 

797 

Samoa,  History  of  . 

904 

Quincy,  Josiah,  Biography  of 

102 

Sandpiper,  The  Spotted 

433 

Quincy,  Josiah  Phillips,  Biography  of 

102 

Saturn  ..... 

490 

Quitclaim  Deed,  Form  of  . 

214 

Sauces  for  Puddings 

335 

Quoits,  Laws  of  . 

426 

Saving  Banks,  Canadian  Postal  . 

858 

Quorum,  Literary  Society . 

805 

Scenery  for  Parlor  Entertainments  . 

459 

Quorum,  Parliamentary  Law . 

794 

Schofield,  John  M.,  Biography  of 

105 

Quorum,  On  Counting  a,  Speaker  Reed’s 

QAO 

Schuyler,  Philip,  Biography  of 

106 

Decision  .... 

oO  A 

Scott,  Winfield,  Biography  of 

106 

Screw,  The  .... 

528 

Ki 

Secondary  Motions 

796 

Rail  ...... 

435 

Secondary  Motions,  Modification  of 

798 

Rains,  Gabriel  J. , Biography  of 

102 

Sedgwick,  John,  Biography  of 

107 

Ramsay,  David,  Biography  of 

102 

Self-love  ..... 

397 

Ramsay,  Alexander,  Biography  of 

103 

Senses,  The  Five 

581 

Randall,  Alexander'W. , Biography  of 

103 

Seward,  William  H.,  Biography  of 

107 

Randall,  Samuel  J.,  Biography  of 

103 

Sex  in  the  Vegetable  World  . 

543 

Randolph,  John,  Biography  of 

103 

Shares  of  Stock,  Agreement  to  sell 

199 

Reader  and  Speaker,  The  Public  . 

669 

Shepherd,  My,  (poem)  . 

766 

Reading  Verse  . 

680 

Sheridan,  Philip  H.,  Biography  of 

107 

Read,  Thomas  Buchanan,  Biography  of 

103 

Sherman,  William  T.,  Biography  of 

108 

Ready  Reckoner,  The  . 

178 

Sickles,  Daniel  E.,  Biography  of 

108 

Reciter,  The  Young  People’s 

763 

Sight,  The  Sense  of 

582 

Receipts,  One  Hundred  Miscellaneous 

347 

Signals,  Weather  .... 

847 

Reception,  Memorial  and  Presentation 

Simpson,  Mathew,  Biography  of 

108 

Cards  ..... 

653 

Size  of  the  Planets,  To  find  the  Relative 

500 

Reconsideration  .... 

801 

Skin,  The,  and  its  Care 

586 

Reed,  Thomas  B. , Biography  of  . 

104 

Slocum,  Henry  W. , Biography  of 

109 

Reference  to  a Committee 

797 

Smell,  The  Sense  of , 

583 

Religious  Pieces  for  Little  Ones  . 

765 

Smith,  E.  Kirby,  Biography  of 

109 

Rembrandt,  Van  Ryn 

128 

Snow  Flake,  The  new  Revelation  of  a . 

522 

Resignation  .... 

806 

Social  Calls  .... 

367 

Resolutions  and  Petitions,  Drafting  of  . 

807 

Social  Respect  .... 

403 

Resolves,  Form  for 

807 

Solar  System,  The 

479 

Reynolds,  Joseph  J.,  Biography  of 

104 

Soups,  How  to  Make 

327 

Reynolds,  Sir  Joshua,  Sketch  of 

129 

Spartacus  to  the  Gladiators  . 

746 

INDEX. 


xxi. 


Special  Accidents,  How  to  Proceed  in  . 
Specific  Gravity  .... 
Speeches  and  Rhetorical  Selections 
Spelling,  Rules"for 

Spoonbill,  Roseate  .... 
Stage  Construction  for  Parlor  Entertain- 
ments .... 
Stage  Construction  for  Larger  Theater  . 
Stanley,  Henry  M.,  Biography  of 
Stanton,  Edwin  M. , Biography  of 
Stanton,  Mrs.  Elizabeth  C.,  Biography  of 
State,  Department  of 
States  and  Territories,  Census  of  1890 
Statute  and  Common  Law 
Steam  Engine,  The 

Stewart,  Alexander  T. , Biography  of  . 
Stilt,  The  Black-Necked 
Storm,  Cautionary  and  Wind  Signals  . 
Stowe,  Mrs.  Harriet  B. , Biography  of 
Strength  of  Materials 
Striking  Out  and  Inserting 
Stuyvesant,  Peter,  Biography  of 
Subjects  for  Compositions 
Submission  to  Arbitration,  Form  of 
Success,  How  to  Attain 
Success  the  Result  of  Gradual  Growth 
Suffrage  and  Naturalization,  Laws  of  . 
Sun’s  Diameter,  To  Find  the  . 

Sun,  The  ..... 
Sumner,  Charles,  Biography  of 
Sumner  on  the  True  Grandeur  of  Nations 
Supper  Table,  The  .... 
Swayne,  John  W.,  Biography  of 
Swayne,  Noah  H.,  Biography  of  . 

Sweden  and  Norway,  History  of 
Switzerland,  History  of 
Synonymous  Words,  Dictionary  of 

T. 

Table,  Etiquette  Observable  at  the 
Table,  Honors  of  the 
Table  Ornaments  and  Arrangements 
Table  showing  the  number  of  days  in  one 


month  to  the  corresponding  day  in 


any  other  month . 

Taking  Leave 

. . 

Talent  and  Breeding  . 

. 

Talk,  Foolish 

, . 

Talking  . 

. , 

Talking  about  Yourself  . 

. 

Taney,  Roger  B. , Biography  of 
Tariff,  Changes  in  the 
Tariff  Legislation,  History  of 
Taste,  The  Sense  of  . 
Taxidermist’s  Guide,  The 
Taylor,  Zachery,  Biography  of  . 


Teal 435 

Teeth  and  their  Care,  The  . . 584 

Telegraph,  How  to  Learn  . . 265 

Telephone  and  its  Uses,  The  . . 568 

Telephone,  Edison  Loud  Sounding,  The  570 
Telephone,  Type-setting  by  . . 569 

Temper  .....  401 

Thomas,  George  H.,  Biography  of  . 113 

Thompson,  Jacob,  Biography  of  114 

Thurman,  Allen  G.,  Biography  of  . 114 

v Tickling  Follies  ....  402 

Tilden,  Samuel  J.,  Biography  of  . 114 

Time,  A Proper  Use  of . . . 30 

Time  Indicator,  Comparative  . . 177 

Time,  Its  Value  ....  403 

Time,  New  Standard . . . . 176 

Titles,  Laws  of  . . . . 224 

Toilet,  Adjuncts  to  the  . . . 376 

Tompkins,  David  D.,  Biography  of  . 114 

Total  Eclipse  Described,  A . . 488 

Touch,  The  Sense  of  . . 581 

Trade  Marks  .....  237 

Traveling,  Politeness  while  . . 368 

Treasury  Department,  The  . . 787 

Trial  Balance  ....  164 

Trial  Balance,  Form  of  . . 170 

Trifles ......  401 

True  Grandeur  of  Nations,  (Sumner)  725 

Trumbull,  Jonathan,  Biography  of  . 114 

Trustees’  Bond,  Form  of  . . 208 

Turkey,  The  Wild  . . . . 429 

Turkey,  History  of  . . 906 

Tyler,  John,  Biography  of  . . 115 

Type-Setting  by  Telephone  . . 569 

Types,  their  Names,  Sizes,  etc.  . . 667 

u. 

Underwood,  Joseph  R.,  Biography  of  . 115 

United  States,  Constitution  of  . 809 

United  States,  History  of,  (note) . . 906 

United  States,  Outlines  of  History  . 923,  927 

United  States  Patent  Fees  . . 234 

United  States,  Signal  Service  and  its 

Code  ....  847 

Universities  and  Colleges  of  the  U.  S.  . 778 

U pham,  Charles  W.,  Biography  of  . 115 

Upton,  Emory,  Biography  of  . . 115 

Uranus,  The  Planet  . . . 491 

Uruguay,  History  of  906 

Useful  Hints  qp.  Elocution  . . 683 

Utensils  for  Cooking  . . . 319 

v. 

Vallandigham,  Clement  L.,  Biography  of  115 

Van  Buren,  Martin,  Biography  of  . 116 

Vanderbilt,  Cornelius,  Biography  of  . 116 


592 

510 

725 

597 

436 

457 

457 

109 

110 

111 

786 

942 

194 

538 

111 

437 

848 

111 

527 

798 

112 

599 

198 

21 

21 

237 

500 

479 

112 

725 

374 

113 

113 

905 

905 

690 

368 

369 

371 

181 

374 

398 

398 

404 

399 

113 

943 

937 

584 

446 

113 


xxii. 


INDEX. 


Vanderbilt,  William  H.,  Biography  of 
Van  Renselaer,  Stephen,  Biography  of 
Venus,  The  Planet 
View  of  the  Heavens,  Our. 

Virtue,  The  Reward  of  . 

Visitors  at  the  Home 
Visits,  Ceremonious 
Voorhees,  Daniel  W.,  Biography  of 
Voting,  On  .... 
Vulcan,  The  Planet 


116 

116 

482 

476 

403 

365 

366 
116 
800 
481 


w. 

Wages,  Assignment  of,  with  Power  of 

Attorney  ....  209 

Waite,  Morrison  R.,  Biography  of  . 117 

Wallace,  Lewis,  Biography  of  . . 117 

Wall  Paper  and  Carpets  . . 309 

Wanamaker,  John,  Biography  of  . 117 

War,  Department  of  . . 788 

Warranty  Deed,  Form  for  . . 213 

Washburne,  Israel,  Jr.,  Biography  of  117 

Washington,  George,  Biography  of  . 117 

Washington,  George,  Farewell  of  . 825 

Washington,  George,  Farewell  to  Army  728 

Washington,  George,  Inauguration  of  823 

Washington,  George,  Resignation  of 

Commission  ....  730 

Washington,  Mrs.  Martha,  Biography  of  118 

Wayne,  Anthony,  Biography  of  . 118 

Waves  and  their  Motions  . . . 542 

Weather  Bureau  and  its  Value  . 847 

Webster,  Daniel,  Biography  of  . . 118 

Webster,  Daniel,  at  the  Centenary  Cele- 
bration at  Washington  . . 743 

Webster,  Daniel,  on  Crime  its  Own 

Detector  ....  745 

Webster,  Eulogy  on,  Choate  . . 733 

Webster’s  Reply  to  Hayne  . . 731 

Webster,  Noah,  Biography  of  . 119 

Wedding  Anniversaries  . , . 652 

Wedding  Cake,  Cards  and  Gifts  , 381 

Wedding  Cards  and  Invitation  . , 650 

Wedge,  The  . . . 530 


Wedge,  The  Law  of  the  . 

Weed,  Thurlow,  Biography  of 
Weeping,  To  Produce  the  Effect  of 
West,  Benjamin,  Biography  of  » 

What  is  Taste 
Wheel  and  Axle,  The  . 

Wheel  and  Pinion  . 

Wheeler,  William  A.,  Biography  of  . 
Where  Living  Waters  Flow,  (poem) 
Whipple,  Abraham,  Biography  of  . 
Whitney,  William  C.,  Biography  of 
Whittier,  John  G. , Biography  of 
Wilkes,  Charles,  Biography  of  . 
Williams,  Roger,  Biography  of 
Wills  and  Testaments,  Last 
Will  Suitable  for  General  Use,  Form  oj 
Wilson,  Henry,  Biography  of 
Wills,  Laws  of  all  the  States  on 
Winding,  How  it  is  done  in  Dynamos 
Windom,  William,  Biography  of 
Windows  .... 
Winslow,  John  A.,  Biography  of 
Winthrop,  John,  Biography  of  . 
Winthrop,  Robert  C.,  Biography  of 
Wise,  Henry  A.,  Biography  of  . 
Witty  and  Humorous  Selections 
Woman,  A Model  . 

Woodcock,  Snipe,  etc., 

Wool,  John  E. , Biography  of 
Woolsey,  Theodore  D.,  Biography  of 
Worcester,  Joseph  E.,  Biography  of 

Y. 

Yancey,  William  L.,  Biography  of 
Yates,  Richard,  Biography  of 
Young  House  Keepers,  A Few  Hints  to 
Young  People,  Amusements  for  . 
Young  People’s  Reciter 

z. 


Zodiacal  Light,  The 
Zodiac,  Signs  of  the 
Zollicoffer,  Felix  K. , 


Biography  of 


532 

119 
461 

120,  130 
307 

525 

526 

120 
766 
120 
120 
120 
121 
121 

239 

240 
121 
243 
555 
121 
314 
122 
122 
122 
122 
760 
362 
434 
123 
123 
123 


123 

123 

372 

465 

763 


494 

477 

123 


List  of' Illustrations 


Portrait  of  Prof.  It.  C.  Loveridge 

Frontispiece 

Farragut,  David  G., 

• 

69 

The  White  House,  Washington,  D.  C. 

40 

Field,  Cyrus  W., 

. 

. 

69 

Presidents  of  the  United  States 

41,  44 

Floyd,  John  B. , . 

• 

79 

Foote,  Andrew  H.,  . 

70 

Adams,  Chas.  Francis. 

45 

Fremont,  John  C.,  . 

• 

71 

Agassiz,  Louis  J.  R., 

40 

Fulton,  Robert  . 

71 

Ames,  Fisher, 

47 

Garfield,  Mrs.  Lucretia  . 

72 

Anderson,  Robert  . 

47 

Goodyear,  Charles 

72'. 

Andrew,  John  A., 

48 

Grant,  Mrs.  Julia  D., 

73; 

Anthony,  Henry  B., 

48 

Greeley,  Horace 

741- 

Augur,  Christopher  C., 

49 

Greene,  Nathaniel  . 

74 

Averell,  William  W., 

49 

Halleck,  Henry  W.,  . 

75 

Bainbridge,  William,  . 

49 

Hamilton,  Alexander 

75 

Bancroft,  George,  . 

50 

Hampton,  Wade 

76 

Bayard,  Thomas  F,, 

50 

Hancock,  John  . 

76 

Beauregard,  Pierre  G.  F.,  . 

51 

Harrison,  Mrs.  Caroline  B., 

77 

Benjamin,  Judah  P.,  . 

51 

Hazen,  William  B., 

78; 

Blackburn,  J.  C.  S. , 

52 

Henry,  Patrick 

79 

Blaine,  James  G., 

52 

Holt,  Joseph 

79 

Boone,  Daniel, 

53 

Hood,  John  B.,  . . 

80 

Breckenridge,  John  C., 

53 

Hooker,  Joseph  . 

80 

Buckner,  Simon  B., 

54 

Hopkinson,  Francis  . 

80 

Burnside,  Ambrose  E., 

54 

Howe,  Elias 

81 

Butler,  Benjamin  F. , 

55 

Irving,  Washington  . 

81 

Calhoun,  John  C., 

55 

Jackson,  Thomas  J.,  . 

82: 

Canby,  Edward  R.  S. 

56 

Jay,  John 

83; 

Channing,  William  E., 

56 

Johnston,  Joseph  E., 

84. 

Chase,  Salmon  P.,  . 

57 

Jones,  Paul 

84 

Church,  Frederick  E.,  . 

57 

Kearney,  Philip  . 

85 

Claflin,  Horace  B. , . 

58 

Kilpatrick,  Hugh  J., 

85 

Clay,  Henry 

58 

King,  Rufus 

86 

Cleveland,  Mrs.  Frances  F., 

59 

Lee,  Robert  E., 

87 

Cleveland,  Miss  Rose  E., 

59 

Livingston,  Robert  R. , . 

88 

Clinton,  De  Witt 

60 

Logan,  John  A., 

88 

Conkling,  Roscoe 

60 

Longstreet,  Janies 

89 

Cooper,  Peter 

61 

Lyon,  Nathaniel 

89 

Corcoran,  William  W. , 

62 

McClellan,  George  B. , . 

90 

Curtin,  Andrew  G., 

62 

Macdonough,  Thomas 

90 

Curtis,  Samuel  R., 

63 

McPherson,  James  B.,  . 

91 

Cushing,  Caleb 

63 

Marion,  Francis 

91 

Davis,  David 

64 

Marshall,  John  . 

92 

Davis,  Jefferson 

64 

Mather,  Cotton 

92 

Depew,  Chauncey  M.,  . 

65 

Meade,  George  G., 

• 

93 

Doubleday,  Abner,  . 

65 

Morgan,  Edwin  D. , . 

93 

Douglas,  Stephen  A.,  . 

66 

Morris,  Robert 

• 

94 

Dupont,  Samuel  F., 

66 

Morse,  Samuel  F.  B., 

• 

94 

Edison,  Thomas  A., 

67 

Morton,  Levi  P.,  . 

• 

95 

Emerson,  Ralph  W. , 

. 

67 

Nelson,  William 

• 

95 

Ericsson,  John,  . 

. 

68 

Noble,  John  . 

96 

Everett,  Edward, 

. 

68 

Ord,  Edward  O.  C.,  . 

• 

, 

96 

XXIV. 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Patterson,  Robert  • . 

Penn,  William  • , 

Perry,  Oliver  H., 

Phillips,  Wendell  . . • 

Pickett,  George  E. , 

Pillow,  Gideon  J.,  . . . 

Pinkney,  William 
Pocahontas  . 

Porter,  David  D. , . • 

Powderly,  Terrence  V., 

Price,  Sterling  .... 
Ramsay,  David 
Randall,  Samuel  J., 

Randolph,  J ohn 
Reynolds,  Joseph  J.,  . 

Roebling,  John  A.,  . 

Rusk,  Jeremiah  M., 

Schofield,  John  M.,  . 

Schuyler,  Philip,  . • • 

Scott,  Winfield 
Sedgwick,  John 
Sheridan,  Philip  H., 

Sherman,  William  T.,  . 

Sickles,  Daniel  E.,  . . • 

Slocum,  Henry  W.,  . • 

Smith,  E.  Kirby  . . . 

Stanley,  Henry  M., 

Stanton,  Edwin  M., 

Stanton,  Mrs.  Elizabeth  C.,  . 

Stowe,  Mrs.  Harriet  B.,  • 

Stuyvesant,  Peter 
Sumner,  Charles 
Thomas,  George  Henry 
Thompson,  Jacob  . 

Tilden,  Samuel  J. 

Trumbull,  Jonathan  . . 

Vallandigham,  Clement  L.,  . 

Vanderbilt,  Cornelius 
Waite,  Morrison  R., 

Washburne,  Israel,  Jr., 

Washington,  Mrs.  Martha 
Webster,  Daniel 
Whipple,  Abraham 
Williams,  Roger. 

Wilson,  Henry 
Winslow,  John  A., 

Winthrop,  John 
Wool,  John  E.,  . 

Martha  Washington  in  her  Early  Days 
Artist  and  Easel .... 
Antonio  Canova 
Rembrandt  at  His  Work 
Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  . . 

Benjamin  West  .... 
Artistic  Vases  . . . 

Pen  Flourishing .... 


Correct  Position  of  the  Hand 

m 

Penmanship  Copies 

a 

145-152 

Comparative  Time  Indicators 

. 177 

Commercial  Department 

• 

185 

Warehouse  and  Shipping  . 

. 194 

Patent  Office  at  Washington  . 

• 

235 

Instruments  for  Telegraphy 

. 266 

Batholdi’s  Statue  of  Liberty 

• 

278 

A Desirable  Residence,  etc., 

. 293 

Plan  of  the  First  Floor 

• 

294 

A Private  Residence,  etc.,  . 

. 295 

Suburban  Residence 

• 

295 

Architecture  of  Every  Age 

296,  297 

Country  Clergyman’s  Cottage 

• 

298 

An  American  Cottage 

298 

Rural  Gothic  Farm  House 

a 

299 

Suburban  Cottage  . 

299 

Architecture  of  Every  Age 

300,  301 

Design  for  a City  Block  of  Six  Houses 

302 

Plan  of  the  Second  Story 

303 

Plan  of  City  Block  of  Six  Houses 

304 

Garden  Cottage  . 

306 

Plan  for  Ground  Floor 

306 

Plans  for  Garden  Cottage 

307 

Plan  for  Country  Clergyman’s  Cottage 

308 

Rear  of  Country  Clergyman’s  Cottage 

309 

Plans  of  an  American  Cottage 

309 

Plans  of  Suburban  Cottage 

310 

Front  Elevation  of  House 

311 

Plan  of  Ground  Floor  of  Same  . 

. 311 

Cheap  Cottage  . 

313 

Plan  of  Ground  Floor,  No.  25 

314 

Plan  of  First  Floor,  No,  27 

315 

Plan  of  Second  Floor  No.  28 

316 

Plans  of  First  and  Second  Floor,  No.  29,  316 

Front  Elevation,  No.  31 

317 

Plan  of  Ground  Floor  No.  32  . 

317 

A Plan  of  a Block  of  Four  Houses 

317 

Illustrations  of  Folded  Napkins 

337 

Illustrations  of  Fish 

339 

Illustrations  of  Poultry 

340,  341 

Illustrations  of  Game 

341,  342 

Illustrations  of  Joints  . 343,  344,  345,  346 

Washington’s  Interview  with  his  Mother  358 

Breeds  of  Horses  (colored) 

to  face  405 

Skeleton  and  Points  of  the  Horse 

. 

410 

Quail  and  Wild  Turkey 

to  face  429 

The  Partridge  and  its  Young  . 

430 

Wild  Goose  and  Wood  Ducks 

to  face  432 

Wild  Swan  and  Snipe  . 

to  face  434 

Yacht  Club  Signals  . 

to  face  438 

Instruments  used  in  Taxidermy 

. 

446 

Method  of  Procedure 

447 

Bird  Mounting  . 

• 

449 

Case  for  Birds 

. 450 

Amateur  Photographer 

. 

450 

97 

97 

98 

98 

99 

99 

100 

100 

101 

101 

102 

102 

103 

103 

104 

104 

105 

105 

106 

106 

107 

107 

108 

108 

109 

109 

110 

110 

111 

111 

112 

112 

113 

114 

114 

115 

115 

116 

117 

117 

118 

119 

120 

121 

121 

122 

122 

123 

124 

125 

126 

128 

129 

130 

132 

135 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


XXV. 


Magic  Lantern 
Stage  Construction 
jalileo  Explaining  His  Theories  . 
Scenery  in  the  Moon  . 
Illustration  of  Gravitation 
Application  of  Principle  (two  cuts 
Galileo  .... 
Egyptian  Idea  of  the  Zodiac  . 
Parallels  and  Meridians  . 

Signs  of  the  Zodiac 
Illustrations  of  the  Earth  . 

Daily  Revolution  of  the  Earth 
The  Seasons .... 
Phases  of  the  Moon 
Principle  of  Eclipses 
Earth  and  Moon  . 

A Solar  Eclipse  . . . 

A Lunar  Eclipse 
Jupiter  and  His  Moons  . 

Saturn  and  His  Rings  . 
Observatory  in  Bengal 
Angles  and  Measurement  of  Angle 
Lenses  .... 
Diagrams  of  Measurements  . 

Star  Clusters  (two  cuts)  . 
Weighing  the  Crown  . 
Impenetrability  of  Solids 
Impenetrability  of  Air 
Illustration  of  Inertia 


45?  A Retort  .....  585 

458  Filling  a Retort  with  Oxygen  . . 535 

468  Instruments  for  Use  in  Chemistry  536,  537 

469  Air  Gun  .....  538 

472  Illustration  of  Steam  . . . 538 

473  Paradoxical  Experiment  . . . 538 

474  Magic  Mirror  ....  541 

475  Fire  Balloon  ....  542 

476  Waves  and  their  Motion  Illustrated  . 542 

478  Weston  Dynamo— Electric  Machine  at  the 

483  Central  Station  . . . 546 

484  The  Electric  Machine  . . . 547 

484  The  Electric  Toy  ....  548 

485  The  Electric  Chime  . . . 548 

486  Henley’s  Quadrant  Electroscope  . . 548 

486  The  Leyden  Jar . . . . 549 

487  The  Toy  Lightning  Rod  (two  cuts)  . 549 

488  Crystals  .....  550 

489  Horse  Shoe  Magnets  . . . 551 

490  Power  of  the  Magnet  . . . 552 

495  Weston  Dynamo — Electric  Machine  . 556 

496  Section  Armature  and  Single  Disk  . 557 

496  Armature  and  Commutator  . . 557 

498  Diagram  of  Winding  . . . 558 

501  Weston  Armature  Superposed  Winding  558 

503  Side  by  Side  Winding  . . e 559 

505  Alternate  Superposed  Winding  . . 559 

506  Weston  Armature  Showing  Adjacent 

507  Coils  Connected  to  Alternate  Strips 


Machine  to  Show  Inertia 

508 

of  the  Commutator 

# 

559 

Illustration  of  Attraction 

510 

Regulator  .... 

# 

560 

Illustration  of  Specific  Gravity 

511 

Cut  Off  for  Arc  Lamps 

• 

560 

Machine  ..... 

513 

Duplex  Lamp 

• 

561 

Illustrations  of  Centre  of  Gravity  . 

515 

Weston  Arc  Lamp,  Two  Views 

562 

Illustration  of  Centre  of  Percussion 

516 

Duplex  Lamp 

# 

563 

Tubes  of  Various  Sizes 

519 

Weston  Enclosed  Frame- Arc  Lamp 

563 

Crystallization  (two  cuts) 

521 

Duplex  Lamp,  Side  Elevation  (two  cuts) 

564 

Corpuscles  in  a Drop  of  Snow  Water 

523 

Maxim  Incandescent  Lamp 

. 

565 

The  Lever  .... 

524 

Indicator  and  Interior  of  Indicator 

566 

Diagram  of  Platform  Scales 

524 

Automatic  Cut-off  for  Treating  Carbons 

567 

The  Pulley  .... 

525 

Telephone  .... 

. 

569 

The  Wheel  and  Axle 

525 

Phonograph  and  Graphophone 

. 

574 

Combination  Wheel  and  Axle 

526 

Diagram  of  the  Hand 

. 

581 

Motion  by  Wheel  Work  . 

526 

Diagrams  of  the  Eye  (three  cuts) 

582. 

583 

The  Incline  Plane 

527 

The  First  or  Milk  Teeth  . 

584 

The  Kite  ..... 

527 

The  Permanent  Teeth  . 

# 

585 

Strength  of  Materials 

527 

Treatment  of  the  Drowned  (two  cuts) 

588 

Testing  the  Strength  of  Materials 

528 

How  to  Fold  a Letter  (two  cuts)  . 

# 

617 

The  Screw  .... 

528 

William  Pitt,  Earl  of  Chatham 

# 

722 

Various  Applications  of  the  Screw 

529 

Robert  Emmet 

752 

Combination  Lever,  Screw  and  Pulley 

530 

United  States  Flags 

to  face  786 

The  Wedge  (two  cuts)  . 

530 

National  Capital,  Washington,  D. 

c., 

791 

Modification  of  Motion  . . 

530 

United  States  Weather  Signals 

to  face  84? 

Hydrostatics  Illustrated  . • 

531 

Victoria  Square,  Montreal 

850 

Hydraulics  Illustrated  . . 

532 

Map  of  the  World 

. 861,  862 

Experiment  in  Chemistry  , . 

533 

Tomb  of  Columbus  . . 

• 

932 

HOW  TO  ATTAIN  SUCCESS. 

THOSE  WHO  HAVE  ACHIEVED  IT  AND  HOW, 

WITH 


EXAMPLES  FROM  THE  LIVES  OF  EMINENT  MEN. 


HOW  TO  ATTAIN  SUCCESS. 


THOSE  WHO  HAVE  ACHIEVED  IT  AND  HOW, 

WITH 


EXAMPLES  FROM  THE  LIVES  OF  EMINENT  MEN. 

SUCCESS  THE  RESULT  OF  GRADUAL  DEVELOPMENT. 

HEN  we  come  to  analyze  the  character  of  those  with  whom  we  are  sur- 
rounded, we  are  forced  to  the  conclusion,  that  for  the  most  part  men  are 
neither  mentally  nor  morally  what  they  ought  to  be.  When  we  contrast 
the  real  condition  of  men,  content  with  a dwarfed  intellectual  and  spir- 
itual growth  with  the  glorious  possibilities  of  a noble  and  earnest  man- 
might  be  his,  how  vast  the  difference.  If  we  question  the  experience  of 
those  about  us, shall  we  not  be  convinced  that  men  are  prone  to  sink  to  what  is  below 
rather  than  rise  to  what  is  above  them?  The  process  of  leveling  down  to  our  surround- 
ings is  so  much  easier  than  leveling  up  to  our  possibilities. 

Is  it  not  well,  then,  for  the  young  man  at  the  very  outset  of  his  career,  to  set 
before  him  the  example  of  men  who  have  attained  eminence  among  their  fellows,  and 
discover  if  possible  the  methods  by  which  they  succeeded  ? 

It  is  surely  the  part  of  wisdom  to  look  upon  those  who  have  done  the  best,  and 
resolve  to  imitate  their  example  instead  of  gazing  in  discouragement  upon  the  thousands 
who  have  utterly  failed,  or  who  are  now  pursuing  the  course  which  leads  to  certain  fail- 
ure. Because,  however  humble  our  station  in  life,  we  are  under  the  weightiest  moral 
obligation  to  do  the  best  possible  and  therewith  be  content.  If  our  life  work  be  worth  any 
effort  it  demands  the  noblest  and  the  best,  and  the  man  who  for  the  sake  of  personal  ease 
-or  comfort  would  economize  his  effort  is  both  a bungler  and  a trifler.  How  many  are 
satisfied  to  saunter  along  upon  the  dead  level  of  mediocrity  with  the  plodding  multitude, 
and  how  few  with  a noble  purpose,  born  of  a strong  confidence  and  indomitable  will.  fusJi 


hood  which 


22 


HOW  TO  ATTAIN  SUCCESS. 


far  in  advance  of  their  fellows  till  from  their  loftier  eminence  they  can  point  to  grandei 
triumphs  beyond.  But  the  silent  influence  of  the  example  of  these  few  may  be  traced 
in  the  lives  of  other  men  and  in  the  destinies  of  nations.  To  stimulate  man  to  the 
noblest  self-exertion,  there  has  been  set  before  him  a perfect  example,  and  although  he 
may  never  attain  to  its  full  height,  yet  he  who  follows  it  will  surely  reach  a higher  rank 
than  he  who  counts  on  certain  failure,  or  who  aims  at  a lower  standard.  True,  some  may 
rise  high  above  us.  The  Poet  and  the  Prophet  may  be  wafted  in  their  fire-chariot  above 
the  clouds  and  we  be  unable  to  follow  them  in  their  heavenward  flight,  but  even  while 
we  gaze  after  them  their  mantle  may  perchance  fall  upon  us  and  we  may  go  forth  to  pro- 
phesy in  the  same  spirit,  or  we  may  catch  some  spark  of  the  fire  which  glowed  in  their 
bosoms  and  reflect  upon  the  world  its  light  and  heat. 

Are  there  difficulties  in  the  way,  and  must  we  yield  to  unfavoring  circumstances  ? 
No!  he  who  rises  in  conscious  strength  above  circumstances'  is  himself  master  of  the 
situation,  and  conquers  success.  So  shall  it  ever  be  with  the  true  hearted  soul  who  moves 
steadily  onward.  Discouragements  may  gather  around  him  ; they  were  made  only  to  be 
overcome,  and  by  overcoming  to  develop  strength.  There  may  be  huge  stumbling-stones 
in  the  way,  but  they  may  be  made  the  stepping-stones  along  which  the  resolute  soul  has- 
tens on  his  upward  course.  The  hills  of  difficulty  may  rise  rugged  and  steep  before  him, 
but  they  shall  be  changed  by  the  touch  of  his  feet  to  the  mountains  of  delight  where  the 
breezes  fresh  from  the  fields  of  the  blessed  shall  fan  his  brow,  and  from  whose  summit  he 
may  overlook  all  intervening  difficulties  into  the  celestial  city  of  glorious  success.  He 
who  by  strength  of  purpose  would  accomplish  this  must  remember  that  success  is  a prize 
to  be  achieved  only  by  persistent,  untiring  exertion.  It  is  never  a premium  for  a single 
spasmodic  effort,  nor  a bauble  thrown  to  the  votary  of  the  fickle  goddess  Fortune. 

Permanent  and  continual  success  is  the  only  standard  of  value,  and  to  attain  this 
there  must  be  a normal  and  steady  growth  of  the  powers. — An  achievement  which  would 
be  counted  a success  for  a youth  would  be  a most  signal  failure  for  a mature  man.  It  is 
the  promise  for  the  future  which  enhances  the  brilliancy  of  the  effort  of  the  lad,  and  not 
the  intrinsic  merit  of  his  performance  itself. 

The  valedictorian  who  secures  the  honor  of  the  college  at  graduation,  may  have 
reached  the  limit  of  his  growth,  or  he  may  be  content  with  his  success,  and  ever  after- 
wards fail  to  make  his  mark,  while  the  laggard  in  his  class  may  far  outstrip  him  in  the 
race  of  life. 

Those  who  have  achieved  commercial,  forensic  or  literary  prominence  in  early  life, 
have  surely  displayed  unusual  power,  and  if  there  be  a symmetrical  combination  of  the 
physical  and  the  mental  under  control  of  judgment  and  reason,  we  may  safely  predict 
a wonderful  brilliancy  for  the  future. 

John  Quincy  Adams  astonished  his  friends  when  a lad  of  seven  years,  by  deliver- 
ing in  the  presence  of  the  family,  a speech  worthy  the  capacity  of  a youth  of  fourteen. 
If  this  should  be  called  precocity  it  was  at  least  attended  by  a steady  development  which 
never  ceased.  The  gray-haired  ex-President  dies  on  the  floor  of  Congress,  after  winning 
the  nobly  earned  title  of  “ Old  Man  Eloquent.” 

That  remarkable  Poet  of  Nature,  William  Cullen  Bryant,  at  the  age  of  sixteen  wrote 
the  immortal  poem  to  Immortality,  “ Thanatopsis,”  and  won  the  admiration  of  the  literary 


HOW  TO  ATTAIN  SUCCESS. 


25 


world.  After  scattering  the  deathless  gems  of  thought  along  his  pathway  for  nearly 
three  score  and  ten  years,  the  octogenerian  recently  pours  forth  his  “Flood  of  Years/' 
which  for  exalted  imagery  and  purity  of  diction,  has  never  been  surpassed  by  another, 
and  rarely  equaled  by  himself,  and  then  he  dies : 

!t  Like  one  who  wraps  the  drapery  of  his  couch 

Around  him  and  lies  down  to  pleasant  dreams.  ” 

Benjamin  West,  the  first  American  painter,  kneeling  by  the  cradle-side,  catches  the 
beauty  of  the  smiling  babe  and  with  the  poor  appliances  at  hand  transfers  it  to  paper,  and 
thus  displays  the  dawning  of  a genius  which  in  later  life  was  recognized  and  honored  in 
two  hemispheres.  Yet  in  spite  of  these  conspicuous  examples  of  youthful  genius  suc- 
ceeded by  matured  power  in  age,  we  are  forced  to  acknowledge  that  the  great  majority 
of  brilliant  achievements  in  early  life  are  followed  by  speedy  failure  and  intense  obscurity. 
There  must  be  a reason  for  this  in  the  philosophy  of  things.  Is  there  not  something  in 
the  very  character  of  success  that  tends  to  paralyze  their  power  and  defeat  their  ambi- 
tion ? Does  not  the  the  novice  wearing  his  laurel  crown,  find  in  the  praise  of  the  throng  a 
syren  who  lulls  to  sleep  his  energies,  and  dissipates  his  mind  with  the  fearful  delusion 
that  his  natal  sfcar  was  a lucky  one,  and  therefore  the  gods  will  protect  him  ? Even  while 
we  may  boast  of  our  individuality  and  claim  to  discard  utterly  the  doctrine  of  fatalism — ) 
and  as  Americans  we  are  wont  to  do  this — yet  in  the  bosom’s  secret  depths  there  lurks  a 
misty  but  ever  powerful  impression  that  “it  is  better  to  be  born  lucky  than  rich.  ” 
Never  was  there  a more  foolish  sophistry  than  this.  “ Luck  ” is  for  him  who  has  the 
perseverance  and  the  ambition  to  conquer  despite  his  surroundings. 

Persistency,  in  the  long  run,  will  always  outstrip  mere  brilliancy.  The  list  of 
mighty  names  on  the  annals  of  history  proves  this. 

Many  who  were  remarkable  for  nothing  in  their  youth  save  stupidity,  have,  in 
after  years,  achieved  fame.  Julius  Caesar,  the  conqueror  of  a world,  when  a youth 
was  very  ordinary  in  mind  and  aspirations.  It  required  long  seasons  of  the  severest 
experience  to  rouse  his  latent  energies,  and  develop  his  astonishing  ability  to  com- 
mand unconquerable  legions,  and  give  the  ages  the  type  of  unbounded  ambition. 
Sheridan,  the  brilliant  and  witty  orator,  in  his  boyhood  was  regarded  as  a stupid 
dunce.  The  immortal  bard  of  Avon,  before  he  came  to  his  teens,  we  are  told,  was 
dull  to  a lamentable  degree.  The  great  reformer,  Martin  Luther,  was  a prodigious 
drone  at  his  studies,  and,  while  he  denounced  the  tyranny  of  his  teachers,  it  does  not 
appear  that  they  were  successful  in  rousing  his  dormant  energies,  even  by  means  of 
the  fifteen  floggings  which  they  bestowed  in  one  forenoon. 

We  find  him  a lad  at  Mansfeld  dependent  upon  the  charity  which  he  begged  from 
door  to  door,  with  no  resources  except  a fine  musical  voice  and  the  meager  scraps  of  food 
Cast  into  his  bag.  A dread  of  what  might  happen  amounting  to  a superstition,  at  length 
compelled  him  to  enter  a monastery,  and  in  later  life  he  tells  us:  “That  it  was  one  of 
God’s  ways  of  making  men  out  of  beggars,  as  he  made  the  world  out  of  nothing.”  Study 
was  so  distasteful  to  Daniel  Webster  that  he  never  took  high  rank  in  his  classes,  and,  in 
a fit  of  personal  disgust,  tore  up  his  diploma  and  threw  away  the  fragments  behind  the 
little  church  at  Dartmouth.  Until  he  was  fifteen  he  tells  us  the  Friday’s  exercise  in 
declamation  was  his  mortal  dread.  The  silver-tongued  Patrick  Henry,  who  sounded  the 


24 


HOW  TO  ATTAIN  SUCCESS. 


rallying  cry  of  the  Revolution,  shirked  his  work  and  neglected  his  studies  until  he  was 
past  thirty. 

The  most  marked  characteristics  of  Beecher,  whose  recognised  abilities  and  genius 
are  of  world-wide  reputation,  in  early  years  were  his  dislike  of  study  and  his  inordinate 
love  of  fun. 

In  some  cases  the  process  of  mental  development  is  more  gradual  than  in  others, 
just  the  same  as  it  is  in  physical  growth.  While  early  success  is  not  always  the  pre- 
cursor of  early  decay,  at  the  same  time  a tardiness  of  development  and  a delay  of  success 
are  not  always  unfortunate.  The  life  will  be  no  less  valuable  when  it  comes  to  mature. 
What,  if  the  youthful  power  lies  dormant  at  first,  when  at  last  it  unfolds  and  grapples 
with  the  intricate  problems  of  state,  as  in  the  case  of  Webster  and  Disraeli,  or  bends  its 
mighty  genius  to  the  accomplishment  of  some  God-given  idea,  as  did  the  devout  Bernard 
Palissy  to  discover  the  application  of  artistic  effect,  or  Newton  to  demonstrate  the  hidden 
law  of  nature,  then,  though  it  takes  scores  of  years,  when  it  comes  it  confers  a character 
affecting  the  life  of  the  discoverer  in  every  direction.  One  gigantic  effort  does  not  make 
a hero.  Was  Victor  Hugo  less  a writer  of  genius  before  a line  of  his  “ Les  Miserables” 
had  been  published  than  after  he  had  received  the  plaudits  of  the  entire  literary  world  ? 
Was  the  Iron  Duke  less  a commander  before  the  bugle  sounded  the  charge  at  Waterloo 
than  after  the  proud  eagles  of  the  French  empire  had  trailed  in  dust  ? These  successes 
only  revealed  greatness  ; they  did  not  create  it.  The  mighty  brain  of  the  novelist  had 
been  trained  to  think,  and  he  was  a rhetorician  long  before  he  took  pen  to  write  his  great- 
est work.  Wellington  had  the  genius  and  the  discipline  for  a warrior  before  he  crossed 
swords  with  the  Little  Corporal.  The  slowly  developing  process  of  daily  toil  and  daily 
discipline  constitute  greatness  as  much,  ah,  more,  than  the  mighty  achievements  which 
they  render  possible,  and  for  which  the  world  honors  them.  There  is  no  opportunity  for 
the  study  of  tactics  and  preparation  of  equipment  after  the  bugle  has  sounded  the  ad- 
vance. That  is  the  battle  cry  for  action  on  a hotly  contended  field. 

The  day  to  rely  upon  the  presige  of  birth  or  position  has  passed.  The  field  is  be- 
fore you,  and  if  you  would  conquer  you  must  depend  upon  your  own  powers  of  hand, 
head  and  heart.  Unprovided  with  these  you  will  be  overcome  as  by  a giant’s  arm. 

What  if  some  whom  you  once  knew  have  risen  without  a seeming  struggle?  that  is 
no  criterion  for  you.  Their  personal  resources  of  strength  are  hidden  from  you,  and 
should  you  attempt  to  accomplish  the  same  you  would  meet  only  with  failure  and  dis- 
grace. In  their  successes  you  have  seen  only  the  perfected  work  of  the  artist  and  the 
adept,  not  the  labors  and  process  of  the  studio  and  the  workshop. 

Disraeli,  who  has  won  the  proud  title  of  “ The  Great  Premier,”  found  that  the  path 
that  led  to  his  eminence  was  no  royal  road  of  flowers.  His  career  furnishes  an  illustra* 
tion  of  how  great  toil  and  humiliating  failure  one  must  endure  to  achieve  permanent 
success.  In  oratory,  in  literature,  in  statescraft,  his  maiden  efforts  were,  in  each  case, 
most  signal  failures.  Every  sentence  of  his  first  speech  in  the  House  of  Commons  was 
greeted  with  prolonged  peals  of  derisive  laughter.  It  was  conceived  in  stilted  thought 
and  delivered  in  lofty  diction  that  rendered  it  a fitting  subject  for  jeers.  It  was  pro- 
nounced “ more  screaming  than  an  Adelphi  farce.”  “ Hamlet  played  as  a comedy  was 
nothing  compared  to  it.”  But  the  man,  although  smarting  under  the  jeers  heaped  upon 


HOW  TO  ATTAIN  SUCCESS. 


him,  and  stung  to  the  quick  by  the  opprobrium  he  had  received,  closed  the  speech  with  a 
sentence  which  at  once  displayed  the  metal  which  was  in  him,  and  his  indomitable  pur- 
pose to  succeed*  Shaking  his  long,  bony  fingers  in  the  faces  of  the  laughing  throng,  he 
earnestly  cried  out,  “ I have  begun  a number  of  things  many  times  and  have  succeeded 
in  them  at  last  I will  sit  down  now.  The  time  will  come  when  you  will  hear  me  ’’ 
And  the  prophecy  proved  true,  as  the  pages  of  modern  history  so  well  demonstrate  . 
He  betook  himself  to  careful  study  to  correct  his  faults,  to  understand  his  audience  and 
master  the  situation.  Persistent,  untiring  exertion  was  the  price  which  he  paid  for  his 
final  wonderful  success.  And  he  won  it  The  ornate  and  finished  orator  then  takes  the 
house  by  storm,  the  crowded  galleries  and  eager  members  hanging  with  breathless  atten- 
tion upon  his  words  ; and  his  manuscripts  then  command  untold  prices  among  the  eager 
publishers. 

The  history  of  journalism  in  this  country  furnish  examples  of  what  may  be  accom- 
plished by  these  characteristics.  Greeley,  Brooks,  Bryant,  were  laboring  men  in  a most 
wonderful  degree,  and  retired  at  night  as  thoroughly  wearied  as  any  man  who  worked 
their  old-fashioned  hand  presses.  From  positions  of  obscurity  they  arose  step  by  step 
to  the  foremost  rank  in  their  profession,  where  their  commanding  influence  affected  the 
opinions  of  hundreds  of  thousands. 

James  Gordon  Bennett  began  the  publication  of  the  paper  which  has  made  his  name 
a household  word  wherever  the  English  tongue  is  spoken,  in  a cellar  with  a board  across 
the  head  of  a barrel  for  his  desk.  With  unconquerable  persistence  he  performed  all  the 
work  of  the  office,  from  the  most  menial  drudgery  to  that  of  editor-in-chief.  He  was 
without  personal  comforts  or  even  conveniences,  his  only  hope  being  his  confidence  that 
M sometime  the  world  would  recognize  the  man  who  did  his  work  well.”  Beginning  as  a 
penny  sheet  the  Herald  has  entered  the  lists  in  such  contests  as  few  other  papers  have 
ever  ventured  to  meet.  Nor  did  he  relax  his  exertions  till  he  had  raised  his  paper  to  a 
position  which  demands  the  respect  and  influences  the  thoughts  of  thousands. 

The  same  truth  holds  in  the  examples  of  successful  financiers.  There  have  been 
cases  of  sudden  wealth  by  immense  speculation,  but  often,  when  the  bubble  burst,  the 
collapse  leaves  the  man,  unfortunately,  devoid  of  other  resources.  The  fortunes  of  the 
noted  financiers  of  the  world  have  been  acquired  after  fifty,  the  previous  years  having 
been  spent  in  building  up  physical  strength  and  gaining  knowledge.  George  Peabody 
acquired  his  immense  fortune  by  long  years  of  patient  and  indefatigable  toil,  and  a para- 
graph from  his  speech  when  on  a visit  to  Danvers,  Mass.,  now  called  Peabody  in  his 
honor,  is  to  the  point,  and  shows  the  spirit  of  the  man  : 

“ Though  Providence  has  granted  me  an  unvaried  and  unusual  success  in  the  pursuit 
ef  fortune  in  other  lands,  I am  still  in  heart  the  humble  boy  who  left  yonder  unpretend- 
ing dwelling.  There  is  not  a youth  within  the  sound  of  my  voice  whose  early  opportuni- 
ties and  advantages  are  not  very  much  greater  than  my  own,  and  I have  since  achieved 
nothing  that  is  impossible  to  the  humblest  boy  among  you.”  Anything  that  is  worth 
having  or  doing  is  the  result  of  protracted  and  earnest  effort,  and  though  success  may 
seem  to  be  long  delayed,  yet  he  who  would  win  it  must  needs  be  careful  not  to  relax  an 
effort  or  to  waste  an  opportunity. 


26 


HOW  TO  ATTAIN  SUCCESS. 


A.  T.  Stewart,  the  gigantic  merchant,  who  built  up  a business  which  has  been  the 
wonder  of  the  age,  amassed  the  greater  part  of  his  fortune  after  he  had  passed  the  age  of 
fifty.  The  immense  establishment  which  he  had  conducted  with  success  by  his  own  in- 
dividuality and  executive  ability,  it  is  now  announced  within  six  years  after  the  death  of 
the  originator,  will  be  closed.  And  this  is  because  of  the  lack  of  the  very  elements 
which  constituted  his  greatness,  although  the  men  in  charge  have  remarkable  talents  in 
other  directions. 

We  are  warranted  then,  in  repeating  the  truism,  “ Success  is  a creature  of  continual 
and  gradual  development.,,  The  oak  tree  that  sends  its  roots  deep  into  the  earth,  and 
lifts  its  branches  defiant  to  the  storms  of  winter,  has  not  come  to  its  strength  by  any 
sudden  growth,  but  through  the  heat  and  cold,  the  rain  and  sunshine  of  a hundred  years. 
The  gourd  that  springs  up  in  the  night  may  wither  beneath  the  scorching  rays  of  the 
summer  sun,  but  the  giant  oak  will  defy  the  blast  of  wildest  storms.  Despise  not  then 
the  slow  process  of  development  nor  the  humble  means  that  afford  aid  around  you.  If 
you  have  not  the  best  appliances  use  those  which  you  have  at  hand,  and  make  them  serve 
your  noble  purpose.  Just  as  Michael  Angelo  made  his  first  models  from  lumps  of  clay 
with  which  he  was  working;  as  James  Ferguson  measured  the  heavens  and  mapped  out 
the  universe  with  a string  of  beads  stretched  between  his  eye  and  the  firmament ; as 
“rare  old  Ben.  Johnson”  worked  on  Lincoln  Inn  with  a trowel  in  his  hand  and  afbook  in 
his  pocket,  and  when  not  using  the  one  reading  the  other;  as  West  drew  his  pictures 
upon  a piece  of  board  with  bits  of  chalk  and  charcoal,  so  the  men  who  would  reach  the 
noblest  success  must  seize  even  the  meanest  instruments  and  compel  them  to  work  grand 
results.  Such  a one  will  never  want  for  help,  but  will  rely  upon  his  own  resources. 
With  a dauntless  perseverance  he  will  hew  for  himself,  if  need  be,  a path  straight  through 
the  forest  of  difficulties  regardless  of  the  way-marks  blazed  upon  the  trees  by  those  who 
have  preceded  him. 

The  age  demands  of  its  workers  the  best,  and  it  will  sift  to  the  last  the  pretensions 
of  those  who  solicit  its  favors.  Never  before  more  than  now,  was  excellence  made  the 
crucial  test  of  success.  Brilliant  talents  may  and  will  be  improved  by  industry.  Mode- 
rate ability  may  more  than  supply  its  deficiency  by  diligence  and  persistent  application. 
4‘  Nothing  is  denied  to  well-directed  labor  ; nothing  can  be  obtained  without  it.” 

The  first  class  positions  are  not  few,  but  the  men  to  fill  them  worthily  are  scarce. 
The  thoroughfares  are  crowded  with  a bustling  throng  who  hustle  each  other  hither  and 
thither  but  the  few  who  reach  the  top  find  an  ample  space  for  the  use  of  all  their  reserved 
powers. 

Consecration  to  one  Purpose. — Never  was  a man  known  to  attain  anything 
worth  attaining  without  self-denial,  and  he  who  would  succeed  in  life  must  practice  it. 
Self  indulgence  ruins  men ; she  is  the  Delilah  upon  whose  lap  many  a noble  head  has 
been  shorn  of  its  strength  and  manhood  forever.  Self  denial  makes  strong  men.  She 
is  the  angel  who  leads  them  ever  onward  over  a rough  and  thorny  path  it  may  be,  but 
she  finally  puts  the  crown  of  lasting  success  upon  their  brows.  There  is  self  indulgence 
in  the  terror-stricken,  ruined  Belshazzar,  trembling  in  the  midst  of  his  drunken  lords  and 
debased  concubines.  There  is  self  denial  in  the  Prophet  who  stands  erect  before  him 
to  pronounce  his  well  deserved  doom.  And  he  who  would  scale  the  heights  of  the  grand 


HOW  TO  ATTAIN  SUCCESS. 


27 


est  possibilities  must  learn  this  lesson  at  the  very  beginning.  That  what  will  impair  .he 
strength  of  mind  or  of  body,  militates  against  the  symmetrical  development  of  both,  and 
renders  the  unfortunate  incapable  of  the  best  and  noblest  endeavor.  The  man  of  bril- 
liant genius  who  puts  the  spur  to  his  powers  by  unnatural  stimulation,  is  drawing  upon 
his  reserve  capital  and  must  suffer  in  the  future  for  the  excess  of  the  present. 

Recreation  and  amusement  are  natural  demands  of  the  human  mind  and  body,  as 
rest  and  change  at  repeated  intervals  will  conduce  to  the  healthful  growth  of  both.  But 
dissipation  of  any  kind,  and  the  kinds  are  legion,  is  a violation  of  nature’s  law,  which 
must  sometime  receive  its  full  penalty. 

Another  element  conducive  to  a steady  growth  of  power  is  self  consecration.  By 
that  is  signified  the  devotion  of  one’s  energies,  time  and  talent  to  a given  object.  All 
things  are  made  to  bend  to  this  one.  There  is  to  be  no  divided  aim.  He  may  gather  in 
from  all  the  rich  stores  about  him  whatever  he  can  to  bless  his  bodily  existence,  enrich 
his  mind  or  elevate  his  soul  all  that  can  prosper  him  in  his  temporal  circumstances,  or 
win  for  him  the  honor  of  the  worldly  wise,  but  all  this  must  be  done  with  a single  and 
worthy  aim  in  view.  Then  he  may  reap  the  golden  harvest  of  commerce,  secure  the 
gems  of  enterprise  and  art,  or  cull  the  fairest  flowers  of  literature.  He  may  lay  heaven 
and  earth,  mind  and  matter,  society  and  solitude,  nature  and  art,  under  contribution  to 
aid  him.  He  may  live , as  lives  the  tree  by  drawing  its  nourishment  from  every  clod  of 
earth  at  its  roots,  from  every  particle  in  the  atmosphere  around  its  trunk,  from  every 
drop  of  dew  that  glistens  upon  its  leaves,  or  every  sunbeam  that  plays  amid  its  foliage, 
and  gains  strength  from  every  passing  blast,  or  gentle  breeze  that  sweeps  over  it.  But  if 
he  be  wanting  in  these  three  essentials,  self  exertion,  self  denial  and  self  consecration,  he 
has  utterly  and  miserably  failed,  for  without  them  there  can  be  no  uniform  and  healthy 
growth,  and  consequently  no  continued  success. 


CARE  IN  CHOOSING  A PROFESSION. 

CTIVITY  is  the  normal  condition  of  life,  and  only  by  its  exercise  the 
highest  degree  of  happiness  may  be  reached.  It  is  not  labor  but  fretting 
that  hurts  the  man  and  his  power.  The  galling  yoke  hurts  more  than  the 
load.  It  is  a philosophical  fact  the  individual  type  of  mind  can  more 
readily  work  in  its  particular  groove.  It  therefore  follows  that  a man  may 
id  to  a certain  line  of  pursuit  than  another.  It  is  most  important  then  that 
the  choice  of  profession  or  calling  should  be  made  with  reference  to  the  mental  bent  and 
inclination,  thus  the  desire  to  find  what  is  regarded  as  elegant  and  honorable.  A master 
workman  honors  his  profession.  The  profession  never  honors  the  negligent  or  superfi- 
cial one. 

If  the  parents  arrogate  the  right  to  choose  a calling  for  their  son  they  have  no  moral 
right  to  consult  their  own  feelings  and  personal  prejudices.  It  is  a matter  of  the  deepest 
concern  to  the  lad  for  a lifetime  that  no  mistake  be  made  at  the  beginning. 

The  lad  may  be  most  dull  and  ordinary  in  a given  direction,  but  there  will  be  some 
thing  that  may  arouse  his  latent  force  and  call  out  the  energies  which  would  forevei 


28 


HOW  TO  ATTAIN  SUCCESS. 


remain  dormant  if  he  were  forced  to  follow  what  was  distasteful  to  him.  He  must  eartf 
for  himself  a position  in  the  world  or  he  fails  to  become  a man. 

The  old  law  holds  good,  “ if  any  should  not  work  neither  should  he  eat,”  but  this 
must  not  be  the  greatest  nor  the  only  motive  for  activity.  It  is  not  alone  to  be  consid- 
ered how  a man  may  easiest  gain  a subsistence,  but  how  can  he  attain  the  most  useful- 
ness and  become  an  honor  to  the  world.  He  who  looks  for  an  easy  position  with  the 
least  exertion,  may  well  heed  the  advice  of  Beecher  to  a young-  man  of  this  class  who 
wrote  to  him  for  aid  to  find  such  a place.  “Young  man,”  he  wrote,  “I  have  thought 
over  your  case  pretty  thoroughly  and  know  of  no  place  for  you  but  in  Greenwood.  There 
you  will  be  troubled  by  nothing  but  worms.”  Charles  Lamb,  the  genial  and  worthy 
essayist,  was  annoyed  by  the  constant  drudgery  which  chained  him  to  his  desk  in  the 
India  office,  but  after  he  had  been  released  from  it,  within  a few  years  he  sighed  for  an 
opportunity  to  return. 

In  a civilized  state  of  society  a division  of  labor  is  required,  and  it  is  according  to 
the  highest  law  of  nature  that  some  should  excel  in  a given  pursuit.  The  main  thing  is 
to  study  carefully  the  adaptability  of  the  mind  and  body  to  the  calling,  and  choose  in  ref- 
erence to  these.  There  are  very  few  men  who  have  a versatility  of  talents  which  fit  them 
for  a number  of  different  pursuits,  and  make  them  adepts  in  each.  Robert  Collyer 
may  be  able  to  forge  a first-class  horse  shoe,  deliver  a magnificent  oration,  or  write  a suc- 
cessful essay,  but  how  many  are  capable  of  only  one  thing.  Suit  the  profession  then  to 
the  capacity,  and  having  found  what  that  is  bend  every  energy  to  the  effort  to  excel 
therein.  Hugh  Miller,  the  noted  geologist,  very  pertinently  says  : “ There  is  no  greater 
mistake  for  a laboring  man  to  make  than  to  think  that  his  calling  is  humiliating.  I have 
known  several  poor  wrecked  mechanics  who  believed  themselves  to  be  poets  who  re- 
garded the  occupation  by  which  they  earned  a livelihood  as  beneath  them,  and,  in  conse- 
quence, have  become  scarcely  less  than  mere  mendicants.  I would  give  a wide  offing  to 
such  a fatal  error.” 

Herschel  was  a musical  performer,  and  followed  his  profession  for  a subsistence  until 
he  was  called  to  receive  the  honors  of  the  scientific  world  for  his  wonderful  discoveries, 
He  would  leave  the  dancers  for  whom  he  was  playing  in  Bath  to  catch  an  opportunity 
to  study  the  heavens,  and  while  not  despising  his  occupation,  which  gained  his  daily 
bread,  laid  the  foundation  for  a lasting  fame.  Elihu  Burritt,  the  learned  blacksmith, 
while  blowing  the  bellows  at  his  humble  forge,  devoted  his  spare  moments  to  study,  and 
by  that  means  became  the  most  noted  linguist  of  his  times. 

“It  is  perfectly  indifferent  in  what  circle  an  honest  man  acts,  provided  he  do  but 
know  how  to  understand  and  fill  out  that  circle.”  It  may  be  true  that  circumstances,  to 
a certain  degree,  develop  the  tastes  and  direct  the  inclinations  of  a man.  There  are 
times  in  life  when  he  is  more  susceptible  to  these  extraneous  influences  than  others.  The 
early  years  of  life  passed  on  the  coast  may  give  the  youth  a bias  for  the  sea.  A home  by 
an  extensive  and  well  established  railroad  may  turn  the  thoughts  to  railroading.  The 
acquaintance  with  an  artist,  an  orator,  or  an  actor,  may  awaken  a penchant  for  one  of 
these  professions.  But  admiration  for  greatness  and  desire  to  imitate  it  must  not  be  mis- 
taken  for  ability  in  that  direction.  When  the  deeds  of  these  men  find  a hearty  response 
in  the  soul,  and  a longing  for  the  opportunity  to  accomplish  the  same  that  cannot  be 


HOW  TO  ATTAIN  SUCCESS. 


29 


satiated,  then  it  is  well  to  attempt  the  same  line.  Correggio  read  the  biography  of 
Michael  Angelo,  and  his  soul  burned  within  him  as  he  exclaimed,  “ I,  too,  am  a painter.” 
Benjamin  Franklin  took  Cotton  Mather’s  book,  “ Essays  to  do  Good,”  for  his  model, 
and  unconsciously  repeated  its  maxims  until,  in  after  life,  he  claimed  that  these  writings 
were  the  inspiration  of  all  his  usefulness.  Alfuri  came  to  devote  his  life  to  literature 
from  the  enthusiasm  which  “ Plutarch’s  Lives  ” inspired  within  him.  But  a man  may 
read  a hundred  biographies  and  the  master  chord  not  be  struck  in  his  bosom  ; he  may  be 
an  intimate  acquaintance  with  genius  and  not  feel  the  fire  kindling  in  his  heart.  It  is 
because  he  has  not  a kindred  spirit,  and  it  will  require  a master  hand  to  touch  the  key- 
note of  his  life.  Then  let  him  take  time  to  determine  for  himself  the  bent  of  his  abilities, 
or  let  those  who  are  responsible  for  his  early  training  do  this.  The  years  to  be  devoted 
to  mental  culture  and  physical  growth,  which  will  lay  a broad  foundation  for  an  active 
life  in  any  direction,  are  not  too  many,  and  the  world  can  wait  for  a competent  hand  to 
take  the  wheel  and  direct  its  energies. 

When  once  the  person  has  chosen  let  him  bend  every  energy  of  mind  and  body  in 
the  direction  selected ; let  him  resolve  to  surpass  in  some  one  department  of  his  calling. 
If  he  be  a blacksmith  let  him  be  determined  to  make  the  best  horse  shoe  or  anything 
else  rather  than  be  a fair  workman  in  all  directions. 

No  discouragements,  no  difficulties  should  stand  in  the  way  of  his  advancement. 

At  the  age  of  eighteen  Joseph  Wright  decided  to  follow  the  profession  of  law.  He 
was  penniless  and  almost  without  friends.  He  was  compelled  to  gain  his  daily  bread  by 
the  sweat  of  his  brow.  Toiling  in  the  brick  yard  during  the  Summer  he  would  take  time 
to  study  early  and  late.  In  Winter  he  performed  odd  jobs  while  attending  school.  At 
the  Spring  exercise  once  the  Professor  refused  him  opportunity  to  speak  because  he 
deemed  his  oration  unworthy  of  the  occasion.  He  resolved  to  speak  in  spite  of  the  pro- 
hibition, and  after  the  announced  speakers  had  finished,  young  Wright,  clad  in  his  unpre- 
tending working  dress,  came  upon  the  platform  and  delivered  the  ablest  effort  of  the 
evening.  He  felt  that  to  fail  at  such  a time  would  wreck  all  his  prospects  for  life.  He 
afterwards  became  a most  successful  lawyer,  the  Governor  of  Indiana  and  Minister  to 
Berlin. 

Whatever  your  calling  may  be,  either  from  a mistaken  choice  or  the  force  of  circum- 
stances, do  your  best  to  ennoble  it.  If  you  are  a rail-splitter  like  Lincoln,  or  a canal-boy 
like  Garfield,  be  the  best  of  them  all ; and  in  whatever  station  you  are  placed  be  a man. 


A WORTHY  AIM  IN  LIFE. 

OSELY  connected  with  the  subject  above  mentioned  is  this  one.  Even 
although  a man  may  possess  the  most  brilliant  talents,  they  are  useless  if 
they  are  not  directed  in  some  one  channel.  There  must  be  a full  concen- 
tration upon  the  object  in  view.  The  true  marksman  should  never  scatter 
his  fire,  but  aim  at  the  object  to  be  brought  down. 

The  God  of  Nature  has  not  misapplied  his  gifts  to  man,  but  adapted  them  to  the 
needs  of  the  time  and  circumstances.  He  has  given  each  man  something  to  do,  which 


30 


HOW  TO  ATTAIN  SUCCESS. 


each  can  accomplish  better  than  any  one  else.  It  is  your  duty  to  seek  out  that  one  thing 
and  do  it  with  all  your  might.  True  greatness  is  connected  with  every  association  that 
an  honest  man  should  follow.  In  its  formation  the  soul  is  moved  by  the  grand  prompt- 
ings to  duty  within  it,  and  has  no  place  for  the  flimsy  expectations  of  the  future.  It  does 
what  it  has  to  do  in  the  present  with  no  thought  of  the  glory  to  follow,  but  from  very 
necessity.  Demosthenes,  bawling  to  the  roaring  sea  with  his  mouth  filled  with  pebbles, 
not  dreaming  of  the  position  which  awaited  him.  His  only  motive  was  to  overcome  his 
unfortunate  stammering,  and  be  able  to  attack  Philip  of  Macedonia.  Patrick  Henry 
did  not  consider  the  honor  of  posterity,  but,  fired  with  a noble  patriotism,  poured  forth 
the  tides  of  eloquence  which  aroused  his  countrymen.  Shakespeare  wrote  not  for  the 
ages,  but  to  supply  the  demand  of  his  times,  and  produce  plays  for  his  own  stage.  Han- 
nibal did  not  think  of  glory  when  he  was  hemmed  in  by  the  Roman  army,  and  tied 
burning  fire  brands  to  the  horns  of  the  bullocks  and  drove  them  bellowing  like  mad 
through  the  camp  of  the  enemy,  completely  routing  and  scattering  them.  He  only 
thought  of  getting  out  of  that  valley  of  death.  The  immediate  demands  of  the  present 
are  enough  to  inspire  the  noblest  action  and  achieve  greatness  without  the  prompting  of 
future  glory.  This  is  a most  essential  point. 


A PROPER  USE  OF  TIME. 


ETHOD  in  the  application  of  effort  is  required  in  every  pursuit.  A time 
to  do  everything  that  needs  to  be  done.  The  author  of  Night  Thoughts 
uttered  a truth  when  he  said : 


We  take  no  note  of  time,  but  from  its  loss.” 


How  often  the  most  precious  opportunities  are  allowed  to  slip  away,  and  the  hours 
flow  by  unemployed,  or  misemployed.  If  habits  of  listless  idleness  are  once  formed  they 
rivet  their  fetters  about  the  mind,  and  it  requires  the  most  gigantic  effort  to  throw  them 
off.  Wealth  once  gone  may  be  recovered  by  patient  industry.  Forgotten  knowledge 
will  return  by  application,  but  lost  time  has  fled  forever.  An  unpunctual  man  never 
achieves  any  marked  success  in  anything.  The  humorous  Lord  Chesterfield  re- 
marked of  the  Duke  of  Newcastle:  “His  Grace  loses  an  hour  in  the  morning,  and  is  looking 
for  it  all  day.”  That  is  the  fate  of  an  habitually  unmethodical  man. 

The  military  chieftains  who  have  stood  before  the  world  in  conscious  strength,  have 
been  examples  worthy  of  imitation  in  this  respect  at  least.  Grant  never  lost  his  patience 
with  an  officer  unless  he  was  tardy,  that  was  unpardonable. 

The  unusually  quiet  and  methodical  Washington  told  his  secretary  who  excused 
his  tardiness  because  of  the  slowness  of  his  watch,  “You  must  get  another  watch  or  I 
another  secretary.” 

Bonaparte,  upon  the  eve  of  an  important  movement  requiring  secrecy,  ordered  all 
lights  in  the  camp  to  be  extinguished  at  a given  signal.  He  himself  blowed  out  his  can- 
dle with  an  important  order  half  written.  Then  stepping  to  his  tent  door  he  peered  out 
into  the  darkness  to  see  how  well  his  ordesA  had  been  obeyed.  He  saw  the  ray  of  one 
light  coming  from  the  tent  of  an  officer,  and  proceeding  thither  the  startled  man  excused 


HOW  TO  ATTAIN  SUCCESS. 


SI 


himself  by  saying  : “He  was  writing  the  last  line  of  a letter  to  his  wife/1  “Add  a post 
script,”  said  the  General,  “I  die  at  sunrise  for  disobedience  of  orders.” 

Astor  laid  the  foundation  of  his  immense  wealth  by  saving  the  pennies.  Hersche! 
and  Farraday  did  not  let  a moment  slip  past  unimproved. 

A young  English  officer  received  an  appointment  to  a position  in  the  East  and  being 
asked  when  he  would  be  ready  to  start  replied.  “To-morrow  morning.”  He  became 
Governor-General  of  India. 

The  best  method  to  economize  time  is  to  work  by  rule.  Much  depends  upon  sys- 
tematic work  by  an  arrangement  that  makes  the  very  changes  a recreation  in  itself.  The 
mind  rests  only  by  change,  never  by  complete  inactivity.  Very  few  persons  can  well 
afford  to  be  spasmodic  and  regardless  of  method. 

Coleridge  was  a man  of  whom  a writer  very  justly  says : “He  passed  his  whole  life 
out  at  the  elbows  physically  and  morally.”  And  he  never  achieved  the  height  of  success 
which  he  might  have  won  with  his  splendid  talents,  had  he  been  systematic  in  his  methods 
It  is  wonderful  what  glorious  possibilities  may  be  achieved  by  an  hour  here  and 
there  taken  from  the  activities  of  a busy  life.  Sir  Walter  Scott  an  officer  of  the  gov- 
ernment with  his  time  not  his  own,  plodded  at  his  desk  day  after  day,  but  write  he  musti 
^and  from  the  hours  for  recreation  and  rest  he  gave  the  English  Tongue  the  classic  novels, 
that  bear  his  name.  Do  we  not  find  the  great  commentator,  Albert  Barnes,  doing  thes. 
same  under  like  circumstances  ? George  Stephenson  wrested  the  hours  from  sleep  to 
experiment  and  study  to  revolutionize  the  commerce  of  the  world.  An  English  Lord 
being  entertained  at  Marshfield  by  Mr.  Webster,  at  the  table  one  morning  remarked, 
“X  do  not  wish  our  proposed  jaunt  for  the  day  to  interfere  with  your  plans  for  study.” 
“Not  in  the  least,”  was  the  response,  “I  rise  at  five  and  do  all  my  studying  before  break- 
fast, then  I am  ready  for  business  or  pleasure.” 

We  must  take  care  not  to  make  such  unrelaxed  use  of  power  as  to  overstrain  body 
or  mind.  This  is  most  exhausting,  and  defeats  the  obect  in  view.  But  there  are  com- 
paratively few  to  whom  this  caution  is  necessary.  The  majority  will  rust  out  rather  than 
wear  out.  Hard  work  carried  on  with  a due  regard  to  the  laws  of  health  will  seldom,  it 
ever,  break  down  any  ordinary  man.  When  men  do  break  down  it  is  fiom  the  want  of 
orderly  methods  in  their  work,  or  running  under  a high  pressure  of  steam  at  improper 
times 

FORCE  OF  CHARACTER  AND  SELF  RELIANCE. 

N element  of  success,  which  ought  not  to  be  overlooked,  is  self-reliance. 
This  should  be  taught  the  lad  in  early  life.  He  is  not  to  depend  upon  his 
parents  for  success.  His  position  must  be  earned  by  his  own  unaided 
powers.  Teachers,  instructors  in  every  direction,  are  not  to  do  his  work, 
but  show  him  the  best  way  to  do  it  himself.  The  thing  which  a boy  does 
for  himself  unaided  is  the  indication  of  the  strength  there  is  in  him,  and  the  promise 
tor  the  future.  An  imitation,  however  good,  is  not  for  an  instant  to  be  compared  with 
an  original  work,  even  if  inferior. 

An  exalted  Relf-respect  must  always  oe  allied  to  self-reliance.  Disraeli  says,  “The 
youth  who  dc>£/,  not  look  up  will  look  down,  and  the  spirit  which  does  not  soar  is  des- 


32 


HOW  TO  ATTAIN  SUCCESS. 


lined,  perhaps,  to  grovel.”  Luther  dared  the  frown  of  the  Pontiff  at  Rome,  and  burned 
his  bull  of  excommunication,  conscious  of  his  power  to  withstand  the  enmity  of  the  reli- 
gious world.  A supreme  confidence  in  the  right  will  form  the  armor  of  defense  and  the 
weapons  of  offense  in  any  contest  in  life.  Jackson  had  the  same  when  he  vetoed  the 
National  Banking  Bill,  and  Napoleon,  when  he  said,  “ There  are  no  Alps,”  evinced  the 
spirit.  The  conviction  of  a soul  that  dares  to  think  and  do  for  himself  will  overcome  the 
most  appalling  difficulties. 

A high-flown  conceit  must  not  be  mistaken  for  self-trust,  nor  recklessness  take  the 
place  of  force  of  character. 

In  the  days  of  medieval  chivalry  conceit  was  too  often  mistaken  for  courage,  and  a 
most  miserable  counterfeit  it  was.  It  afforded  the  witty  Spaniard,  Cervantes,  a most 
fitting  object  for  his  shaft  of  satire  in  Don  Quixote , and  he  paraded  the  bauble  in  the 
ishape  of  men  who  seem  but  cannot  be  what  they  claim. 

Bravado  must  not  assume  to  be  self-reliance.  There  may  be  an  element  of  make 
Believe  in  all  that  one  does,  but  that  is  not  self-trust.  The  general  who  encamped  upon 
<a  hill  in  plain  view  of  a superior  enemy,  and  marched  his  little  army  the  livelong  night 
in  front  of  his  camp-fire,  whom  the  enemy  seeing  thought  to  be  the  continued  arrival  of 
reinforcements,  exhibited  a true  degree  of  self-trust,  but  when  Louis  of  France  declared, 
At  I am  the  state,”  he  unconsciously  betrayed  his  own  imbecility. 

Luther  said,  when  he  was  persuaded  not  to  attend  the  Diet  at  Worms,  “ I will  go  to 
Worms  though  every  tile  upon  the  house  tops  was  a devil  ” ; Latimer,  bound  at  the 
stake,  holding  his  hand  in  the  flames  until  it  burned  away  ; Bruno,  when  he  told  the 
judges  of  the  Inquisition,  “ You  are  more  afraid  to  pronounce  my  sentence  than  I am  to 
receive  it,”  and  Charles  Sumner,  saying  to  Dr.  Brown-Sequard,“  Do  not  apply  nar- 
cotics if  it  interferes  with  the  operation,  but  use  the  red  hot  iron,”  all  displayed  the  same 
spirit  of  self-reliance. 

Frederick  Douglas,  John  Stuart  Mill,  Salmon  P.  Chase,  Pitt  and  Fox,  and 
hundreds  of  others  in  America  and  England,  have  been  examples  of  this  same  point 

The  pages  of  history  are  filled  with  their  glorious  achievements,  and  furnish 
examples  worthy  of  imitation  in  this  respect. 

MENTAL  AND  PHYSICAL  CULTURE. 

% 

T has  come  to  be  an  acknowledged  fact  that  intelligent  labor  in  any  direc- 
tion is  the  most  competent  labor.  It  is  a glaring  mistake  to  suppose  that 
the  most  stupid  makes  the  best  common  laborer.  A good  deal  of  mental 
culture  is  requisite  for  the  performance  of  any  duty,  and  with  it  the  man 
may  accomplish  more  than  his  competitor.  In  times  when  armies  are  called 
to  the  greatest  hardships,  the  stupid  soldier  is  the  first  one  to  break  down. 

In  all  our  mills  and  factories  the  captains  of  industry  are  the  intelligent  men  or 
women.  Nothing  so  much  astonishes  the  English  traveler  of  discernment  in  this  coun- 
try as  the  intelligence  and  culture  displayed  by  the  native  employes  in  our  New  England 
manufacturing  towns.  A scientific  man  can  dig  a better  post  hole  than  an  ignorant  man 
of  i-he  same  strength.  Wisdom  is  not  the  monopoly  of  any  one  calling.  There  have 


HOW  TO  ATTAIN  SUCCESS. 


33 


been  men  who  have  toiled  at  manual  labor  their  entire  lives,  who  have  been  the  intellect- 
ual superiors  of  those  for  whom  they  have  toiled,  and  the  world  has  heard  from  them  in- 
the  achievements  they  have  wrought  outside  of  their  usual  avocations.  It  will  be  con- 
ceded that  brain  power  pays  a journeyman  as  well  as  the  boss.  It  gives  a dignity  of 
character  and  a happiness  to  the  possessor,  and  creates  a demand  for  his  services. 

There  is  time  for  the  acquirement  of  knowledge  which  can  be  taken  from  the  odd 

t moments  or  hours  of  toil.  Elihu  Burritt  attributes  his  success  in  life  not  to  any  in- 
herent genius,  but  to  the  fact  that  he  made  use  of  the  spare  moments  from  his  work. 

Rittf.nhouse,  the  astronomer,  computed  the  time  of  eclipses  when  resting  on  his 
plow  handle. 

A bit  of  pasteboard  was  the  tablet  on  which  Newton  unfolded  the  composition  of 

light. 

A distinguished  scholar,  while  yet  he  was  working  in  his  masters  garden,  when  asked 
how  he  could  read  in  Latin,  said,  “One  needs  only  to  know  the  letters  of  the  alphabet,  in 
order  to  learn  everything  else  he  wishes.”  Gifford  the  eminent  mathematician  worked 
out  his  first  problems  on  bits  of  leather  hammered  smooth  at  his  cobblers’  bench  when 
an  apprentice. 

The  high  school  of  difficulty  graduates  more  great  men  than  all  our  colleges.  The 
world  may  never  have  heard  of  Franklin,  Stephenson,  Watts,  preeley  or  Newton  and 
scores  of  others  had  it  not  been  for  the  discipline  of  adversity,  which  developed  their 
greatness  and  made  it  all  the  more  conspicuous. 

Culture  prunes  away  all  excesses  and  removes  all  the  tramels  from  the  powers. 
There  needs  be  a due  amount  of  attention  to  the  physical  as  well  as  mental  culture. 
4'A  sound  mind  in  a sound  body,”  is  the  old  Latin  maxim.  The  proper  theory  that, the 
body  should  be  trained  along  with  the  mind  held  with  the  ancients,  and  we  believe  is  true 
in  the  nature  of  things.  A healthy  organization  of  all  the  physical  functions  is  conducive 
to  strength  of  mind.  The  far  too  prevalent  opinion  that  physical  strength  is  antagonistic 
to  mental  is  erroneous. 

The  English  idea  is  the  correct  one  and  should  not  be  despised  by  Americans.  The 
Englishman  has  a regard  for  his  stomach  as  well  as  his  brain.  The  English  are  good 
eaters  and  take  vigorous  exercise  in  athletic  sports.  They  have  muscle  as  well  as  brain, 
and  this  will  tell  when  work  of  any  kind  is  to  be  performed ; hence  the  statesmen,  ora- 
tors, officers  and  writers  of  England  can  perform  more  mental  effort  than  those  of  any 
other  nation,  and  their  life  continues  beyond  the  average. 

The  soul  must  employ  the  functions  of  the  body  to  make  itself  known  to  the  world, 
and  a strong  man  must  have  a body  adequate  to  his  mental  power.  Charles  Bulwer, 
Sir  William  Wadsworth,  and  others  furnish  illustration  of  men  whose  souls  consumed 
their  bodies,  and  therefore  forced  them  to  abandon  the  prize  before  they  had  reached  the 
goal  of  their  ambition. 

Have  a proper  regard  then  for  the  physical  development  and  apply  the  very  best 
means  for  the  preserving  and  maturing  the  powers  of  body  by  healthful  exercise  and 
bodily  recreation. 


HOW  TO  ATTAIN  SUCCESS. 


34 


PERSISTENCY  AND  INDIVIDUALITY 


EARN  to  labor  and  to  wait ,”  is  a maxim  worthy  the  pen  of  the  lamented 
Longfellow.  Worthy  to  be  adopted*by  the  youth  who  is  anxious  for  suc- 
cess. The  crop  follows  not  the  day  after  the  sowing  of  seed,  but  must 
have  the  time  to  germinate  and  bring  forth  after  its  kind. 

Patient  perseverance  is  the  price  which  the  ambitious  youth  must  pay 
for  his  success.  He  is  obliged  to  plod  onward  with  his  aim  steadily  in  view.  De- 
Mamstre  has  said,  “To  know  how  to  work  is  the  great  secret  of  success.”  “At  it  and 
always  at  it,”  was  the  motto  that  John  Wesley  gave  his  itinerant  preachers. 

All  have  read  the  incident  in  the  life  of  Robert  Bruce,  who  when  hiding  from  his 
enemies  in  an  old  barn,  having  been  defeated  by  Edward  observed  a spider  endeavoring 
to  weave  his  web  in  a window.  Time  after  time  he  failed,  but  at  last  succeeded.  The 
Scottish  chief  catching  a lesson  in  perseverance  from  this,  buckled  on  his  armor  and 
went  out  with  renewed  courage  to  win  victory. 

It  is  not  “genius”  but  perseverance  that  wins  in  the  long  run,  yet  the  world  has  gone 
wild  in  its  pursuit  for  genius.  Grand  ideas  are  not  fruitful  instantly.  They  must  have 
time  to  root  themselves  in  the  soil  before  they  appear  on  the  surface. 

Adam  Smith  sowed  the  seeds  in  his  treatise  on  the“Wealth  of  Nations,”  but  seventy 
years  passed  before  they  bore  their  rich  fruitage  in  the  social  amelioration  they  produced. 

Luther  died  without  knowing  the  mighty  result  ol  his  labors,  and  Bacon  scattered 
oracular  and  prophetic  sayings  into  the  darkness  around  him. 

Sir  Walter  Scott  displayed  the  greatest  perseverance  all  through  his  life.  Comte 
He  Buffon  gave  an  illustration  to  his  pithy  truism,  “Genius  is  Patience,”  in  his  own 
untiring  industry.  In  his  youth  regarded  as  of  medium  talents  he  made  up  his  deficiency 
by  remitless  exertion.  John  Linden,  the  philosopher,  was  an  ordinary  Roxburyshire 
shepherd  boy,  and  diligently  persevered  until  he  gained  a world  wide  reputation. 

The  list  might  be  continued  indefinitely,  but  enough  has  been  given  to  more  than 
prove  the  point.  In  science,  in  literature,  in  discovery,  in  every  department  of  active 
life,  the  men  who  have  persevered  in  the  face  of  obstacles,  are  the  men  who  have  won 
the  prize. 

ORIGINALITY. 

HERE  is  a genius  which  is  never  at  a discount  in  this  busy  world  ; it  is 
the  genius  of  originality.  The  men  who  have  made  their  mark  in  the 
world  have  been  men  of  intense  individuality.  They  have  come  to  a door 
in  their  path  and  forced  an  entrance  through  it.  They  have  spoken  “ as 
one  having  authority,”  and  their  prophetic  utterances  have  been  the 
precursors  to  triumph.  They  are  the  men  who  think  for  themselves,  and  are  not  to  be 
confined  to  the  narrow  grooves  of  other  men.  They  are  ever  ready  to  assume  the 
responsibility  of  their  acts,  and  exhibit  no  hesitancy  in  speech. 

The  great  commoner,  Henry  Clay,  once  made  a motion  in  the  time  of  intense 
excitement  in  the  National  House  of  Representatives,  and  was  told  by  the  bland  Speaker 
that  it  was  contrary  to  one  of  the  rules  of  the  House.  He  then  moved  to  suspend  that 


HOW  TO  ATTAIN  SUCCESS. 


35 


rule.  The  Speaker  again  informed  him,  that  according  to  the  “ Rules  and  Orders,”  that 
could  be  done  only  by  unanimous  consent  of  the  members.  “ Then?  said  Clay,  u I move 
to  suspend  all  the  rules  of  the  House . Away  with  them.  Is  it  to  be  endured  that  we  shall 
be  trammeled  in  our  action  by  mere  rules  and  technicalities  at  a moment  like  this,  when 
peace  and  perhaps  the  existence  of  the  Union  is  at  stake.” 


LUCK  VERSUS  PLUCK. 


HE  English  proverb,  “ It  is  better  to  be  lucky  than  wise,”  and  the  German 
equivalent,  “ Pitch  a lucky  man  into  the  Nile  and  he  will  come  up  with  a 
fish  in  his  mouth,”  were  born  in  the  desire  to  shield  oneself  from  the  ill 
consequences  of  his  mistakes,  negligence,  or  ignorance.  The  vast  num- 
ber of  these  grand  results,  which  at  first  glance  we  may  be  inclined  to 
attribute  to  luck,  are  really  good  opportunities  well  improved.  These  opportunities  may 
come  to  a thousand  men,  but  the  ability  or  energy  may  be  wanting  till  the  one  man 
seizes  them  and  compels  them  to  serve  his  noble  purpose. 

Never  be  a mere  imitator  in  whatever  you  do.  Have  your  own  way  tc  do  a thing, 
and  do  it  your  way  if  you  can  accomplish  the  best  results  by  so  doing.  Never  be  con- 
tent to  wear  the  armor  of  Saul.  Fight  with  your  own  well  prepared  weapons  or  not  at 
all.  Get  out  of  the  old  ruts  and  make  a path  for  yourself,  with  your  eye  steadily  fixed 
on  the  object  to  be  attained. 

••  To  your  own  self  be  true.” 


Apples  had  been  falling  from  thousands  of  trees  every  autumn,  but  it  was  only  when 
the  mind  of  a Newton  was  trained  to  intelligent  thought  and  deduction  that  the  flash  of 
a sublime  truth  was  struck  by  such  a circumstance. 

How  much  a man  may  owe  to  some  fortuitous  circumstance,  the  impetus  which 
gains  him  prominence  is  a question.  Souls  of  inherent  greatness  can  not  be  kept  down 
by  any  combination,  and  only  when  they  bend  the  trivial  circumstance  to  their  assistance* 
and  force  from  it  a grand  result,  we  cry  out,  “how  lucky  that  is.” 

Did  Napoleon  owe  his  first  upward  start  to  fortune  ? Some  would  think  so,  but  the 
veteran  soldier  Moreau  had  the  same  chance. 

In  the  times  when  France  had  no  leader,  and  was  at  the  mercy  of  every  fresh  aspi- 
rant for  favor,  the  National  Convention  was  in  the  most  intense  trepidation.  The  reign 
of  terror  was  at  its  height,  and  forty  thousand  well  armed  soldiers  were  arrayed  in 
well  equipped  battle,  with  flaunting  banners,  and  trumpet  tones,  ready  to  march  any  mo- 
ment against  the  Tuilleries  to  sack  its  halls,  and  convert  Paris  into  one  immense  slaugh- 
ter pen.  Then  the  young  Corsican  saw  the  general  march  out  to  quell  the  insurgents 
and  as  quickly  flee  in  cowardice  before  the  rabble.  He  hastened  to  the  Tuilleries,  and 
with  calm  visage  and  undaunted  heart,  watched  the  deliberations,  if  such  they  might  be 
termed,  of  the  terror  stricken  Convention.  Moreau  had  been  dismissed  in  dishonor. 
Resistance  seemed  to  be  useless.  It  was  now  eleven  at  night,  and  all  was  consternation. 
Barras  rose  and  broke  the  awful  stillness  of  that  chamber.  “ I know  the  man  who  can 
defend  us,”  he  nervously  said,  “ It  is  the  young  Corsican  officer,  Napoleon  Bonaparte, 
whose  military  abilities  I witnessed  at  Toulon.  He  is  a man  who  will  not  stand  upon 
ceremony.”  Napoleon  was  called  down  and  asked,  “Are  you  willing  to  undertake  the 


36 


HOW  TO  ATTAIN  SUCCESS. 


defense  of  the  Convention  ?”  “ Yes,”  was  his  terse  reply.  They  were  surprised  to  see 

a small,  slender,  pale-faced  youth  of  eighteen  before  them.  Hesitating  a moment  the 
President  continued  : “Are  you  aware  of  the  magnitude  of  the  undertaking  ? ” With 

his  eagle  glance  fixed  full  upon  his  questioner,  the  young  soldier  said  “ Perfectly  ; and  I 
am  in  the  habit  of  accomplishing  what  I undertake  ! But  I must  be  entirely  untram- 
meled by  the  Convention.,,  When  the  sun  rose  next  morning  the  Tuilleries  appeared 
like  an  entrenched  camp.  Artillery  was  placed  to  command  every  approach  and  defend 
the  capital  from  the  attacks  of  the  infuriated  mobs.  The  armed  warriors,  black  and 
threatening,  poured  down  the  narrow  streets.  The  members  sat  in  silent  awe  in  their 
very  seats,  awaiting  the  attack  upon  whose  issue  so  much  depended.  Five  thousand 
against  forty  thousand.  Napoleon,  witl.  his  guns  loaded  to  the  muzzle,  was  ready  for  the 
first  fire,  but  he  would  not  assume  the  responsibility  of  opening  the  contest.  He  did  not 
wait  long  ; the  first  volley  opened  upon  the  handful  of  defenders.  It  was  the  signal  for 
the  instantaneous  discharge  of  all  the  artillery,  which  belched  forth  its  slaughter  and 
death  till  the  pavements  were  filled  with  the  dead  and  wounded.  The  day  was  won,  and 
Napoleon  had  taken  the  first  advance  to  fame.  As  unmoved  as  if  he  had  do.ne  nothing 
extraordinary,  he  returned  to  the  Tuilleries.  Was  it  luck?  No,  for  Moreau  had  the 
same  opportunity  and  failed.  It  was  the  fact  that  the  Corsican  had  pluck  as  well  as  luck. 

Beau  Brummel,  with  his  “lucky  sixpence,”  won  ^40,000  in  London  and  New- 
market, and  it  seems  as  if  the  fickle  goddess  had  taken  him  for  her  favorite.  He  would 
sometimes  shut  his  eyes  and  play,  but  always  to  win.  It  seems  as  if  some  men  had  the 
genius,  Midas-like,  to  turn,  by  their  touch,  everything  to  gold,  and  these  men  are  below 
the  average  in  ability  and  culture,  until  it  has  come  to  pass  that  men,  even  of  great 
minds,  have  come  to  rely  upon  fortune  and  believe  in  it. 

“ A man  is  immortal  until  his  work  is  done,”  may  be  true  in  a certain  sense,  but  not 
in  the  sense  of  Fatalism.  In  the  storm  which  overtook  Caesar  he  seemed  unterrified. 
“ Do  you  not  know  that  you  bear  Caesar  and  his  fortune,”  he  cried  to  the  trembling  boat- 
man. One-half  of  the  people  down  in  their  hearts  believe  in  luck.  Baron  Rothschild 
held  that  luck  was  more  valuable  than  ability  or  energy.  Bonaparte  had  confidence  in 
his  star.  Louis  XIV.  believed  that  he  was  born  on  a lucky  day,  and  Frederick  the 
Great  was  confident  that  if  he  engaged  in  battle  before  the  sun  rose  he  was  sure  to  win. 

Cromwell  had  a birthday  which  he  regarded  as  lucky,  yet  he  died  on  that  very  day. 
And  Old  Hickory,  Andrew  Jackson,  is  said  to  have  given  hints  that  even  he  believed  in 
good  and  bad  luck. 

Men  are  too  willing  to  charge  their  short  comings  upon  their  want  of  luck.  The 
difficulty  is  in  the  man,  and  not  in  the  want  of  fortune.  Imagine  Columbus,  or  Galileo, 
or  Palissy,  or  any  of  hundreds  of  others,  being  repressed  by  any  misfortune.  Galton 
has  said,  “ If  a man  is  gifted  with  intellectual  powers,  eagerness  to  work,  and  power  for 
working,  I cannot  understand  how  such  a man  could  be  repressed.  The  world  is  always 
tortured  with  difficulties  waiting  to  be  solved,  struggling  with  ideas  and  feelings  to  which 
it  cannot  give  adequate  expression.  If,  then,  there  exists  a man  capable  of  solving  these 
difficulties,  or  of  giving  a voice  to  these  pent  up  feelings,  he  is  sure  to  be  welcomed  with 
universal  acclamation.  We  may  almost  say  he  has  only  to  put  his  pen  to  paper  and  the 
thing  is  done.” 


HOW  TO  ATTAIN  SUCCESS. 


37 


Henry  Clay,  Andrew  Johnson,  Daniel  Webster  and  Vanderbilt  would  have  risen  in 
spite  of  any  circumstances.  Dr.  JOHNSON  pertinently  says  : “All  the  complaints  that 

have  been  made  of  the  world  are  unjust.  I never  knew  a man  of  merit  neglected  ; it  was 
generally  his  own  fault  if  he  failed  to  succeed.”  Washington  Irving  writes  : “ As  for 

the  talk  about  modest  merit  being  neglected,  it  is  too  often  cant  by  which  indolent  and 
irresolute  men  seek  to  lay  their  want  of  success  at  the  door  of  the  public.  Modest  merit 
is  too  apt  to  be  inactive,  or  negligent,  or  uninstructed  merit.  Well  matured  and  well 
disciplined  talent  is  sure  of  a market,  provided  it  exerts  itself,  but  it  must  not  cower  at 
home  and  expect  to  be  sought  for.  There  is  a good  deal  of  cant,  too,  about  the  success 
of  forward  and  impudent  men,  while  men  of  retiring  worth  are  passed  over  with  neglect. 
But  it  usually  happens  that  these  forward  men  nave  their  valuable  qualities  of  prompt- 
ness and  activity,  without  which  worth  is  a mere  inoperative  property.  A barking  dog 
is  more  useful  than  a sleeping  lion.” 

What  may  be  considered  ill  luck  may,  in  the  end,  be  the  very  best  luck.  Welling- 
ton came  near  being  a revenue  clerk.  No  great  work  was  ever  achieved  by  fortune 

alone.  Although  every  man  may  be  influenced  by  circumstances,  and  of  other  men  he 
is  to  decide  whether  he  will  rule  or  be  ruled  by  them.  Duty  and  persistency  in  its  dis- 
charge is  to  be  the  battle  cry  of  life,  and  then  it  matters  not  where  the  state  may  be  or 
what  the  opportunity,  he  will  make  his  mark  in  the  world. 

Neglect  of  duty  upon  some  line  is  the  most  prolific  source  of  ill  luck.  Bonaparte 

was  defeated  at  Waterloo  by  the  tardiness  of  one  of  his  generals.  Sheridan,  command- 

x ing  the  income  of  a prince,  was  continually  beset  by  “duns,”  owing  to  his  careless  expen- 
diture. Coleridge,  with  brain  force  for  a thousand,  frittered  away  his  life,  and  as  Charles 
Lamb  puts  it,  “ left  posterity  nothing  but  his  debts  and  rubbish,  on  forty  thousand  frag- 
ments.” 

Many  a man  has  lost  his  grip  on  the  world  simply  because  he  has  lost  his  pluck. 
He  is  to  be  pitied  who  is  too  much  of  a coward  to  go  forward  and  do  battle  for  the  right 
and  true.  “ Good  pluck  ts  good  luck'.'  It  is  that  which  amasses  wealth,  crowns  men  with 
success,  and  brings  honor  to  well  directed  effort. 

Persistency  and  pluck  are  the  two  weapons  which  win  in  the  battle  of  life. 

BUSINESS  MAXIMS  AND  RULES. 

RINCIPLES  of  justice  form  the  basis  of  every  transaction,  and  regulates 
the  conduct  of  the  upright  man  of  business.  He  is  strict  in  keeping  his 
engagements.  Does  nothing  carelessly  or  in  a hurry.  Employs  nobody 
to  do  what  he  can  easily  do  himself.  Leaves  nothing  undone  which 
circumstances  permit  him  to  do.  Keeps  his  designs  and  business  from  the 
views  of  others,  yet  he  is  candid  with  all.  Prefers  short  credits  to  long  ones,  and  small 
profits  in  credit  cases  with  little  risk,  to  the  chance  of  better  gains  with  more  hazards.  He 
is  clear  and  explicit  in  his  bargains.  Leaves  nothing  of  consequence  to  memory  which  he 
san  commit  to  writing.  Keeps-  copies  of  all  his  important  letters,  and  has  every  letter, 
etc.,  classed  and  put  away.  Is  always  at  the  head  of  his  business.  Holds  it  as  a maxim, 
that  he  whose  credit  is  suspected  is  not  to  be  trusted.  Is  constantly  examining  his  books* 
and  sees  through  all  his  affairs  as  far  as  possible.  Balances  regularly  at  stated  times. 


88 


HOW  TO  ATTAIN  SUCCESS. 


Important  Suggestions. 


AKE  the  most  and  the  best  of  yourself.  Your  destiny  is  in  your  own 
hands  and  your  fortune  will  be  your  own  making.  Are  you  making  the 
most  of  the  one  life  that  is  intrusted  to  you  ? Are  you  putting  to  the  best 
uses  the  natural  abilities  of  body  and  mind  with  which  you  have  been 
entrusted  ? Or  are  you  droning  through  life,  steadily  and  surely  drifting 
behind  those  of  less  ability  than  yourself,  men  who  with  fewer  talents  than  you  possess 
are  making  the  most  of  themselves.  Think  of  this.  Put  the  question  squarely  to  your- 
selves as  we  put  it  for  you,  and  answer  it  honestly.  Are  you  making  the  best  of  your- 
selves ? If  not,  now  and  only  now  is  your  chance  ; make  a radical  change  and  make  it 
at  once.  Begin  a new  life  and  rise  out  of  the  old  ruts.  Do  your  own  thinking  and  act- 
ing. Strive  to  be  a man  among  men,  with  a worthy  purpose  and  a pure  ambition;  then 
will  the  world  not  only  be  better  for  your  living  in  it,  but  you  will  be  better  for  having 
lived  in  the  world 


You  are  the  Architects  of  Your  Own  Fortunes. — God  never  meant  that 
you  should  be  maintained  at  the  expense  of  another,  a mere  drone  in  the  great  hive  of 
human  activity.  It  is  a noble  thing  to  say  at  all  times  with  Shakespeare’s  Shepherd, 
“ See,  I am  a true  laborer.  I earn  what  I eat  and  wear.”  If  you  begin  life  poor,  if  you 
commence  at  the  lowest  round  of  the  ladder,  you  have  done  what  a vast  majority  of  all 
great  and  successful  men  have  done. 

Mistake  Not  Your  Calling. — From  the  mistaken  pride  of  family,  personal  soli- 
citations of  friends,  or  the  strong  predilections  of  parents,  at  the  beginning  of  a young 
man’s  career,  is  more  often  traced  the  long  train  of  failures  in  active  life.  Others  may 
counsel,  advise  or  aid  you,  but  you  will  find  that  your  life-work  must  be  done  by  yourself 
alone.  Find  out  first  in  what  direction  your  talents,  taste  and  inclinations  lead  you,  and 
when  you  have  decided  this  throw  into  it  all  the  energy  and  strength  of  your  nature. 

Unaided  Natural  Abilities  are  useless  unless  systematised  by  judicious  training. 
The  talent  to  skillfully  use  one’s  own  mental  power  and  control  others  is  rare  and  can 
only  be  the  result  of  personal  discipline.  In  every  business  community  there  are  reserve 
powers  running  to  waste  because  the  possessors  of  them  have  never  learned  the  simple 
“know  how.”  If  this  knowledge  be  inculcated  while  the  pupil  is  young  it  always 
abides  with  him. 


Bring  Out  Your  Best  Qualities. — What  are  you  doing  for  yourself?  Are  you 
drifting  with  the  tide, waiting  for  “something  to  turn  up”  that  will  throw  into  your  hands 
a fortune  ? If  so,  you  are  decidedly  on  the  wrong  track  and  you  had  better  “ right 
about”  at  once.  Apply  yourself  systematically  to_some  employment  that  promises  to  be 
congenial,  adapted  to  your  abilities,  and  remunerative.  Do  your  best  in  thinking  and  in 
doing.  Leave  the  old  path  of  indifference  and  put  vigor  and  intelligent  actions  into  your 
work. 


HOW  TO  ATTAIN  SUCCESS. 


39 


The  Successful  Competitors  in  Business. — Business  capacity  is  one  of  the 
rarest  talents  of  the  age.  There  are  many  young  men  of  culture  and  refinement  who 
are  partially  unable  to  earn  a livelihood  in  business  circles  because  they  had  failed  to  gain 
an  education  that  fits  them  for  any  of  the  numerous  grooves  in  the  complicated 
machinery  of  modern  commercial  life.  The  talent  acquired  by  a thorough  practical  bus- 
iness education  commands  the  highest  values  on  exchange,  and  the  young  man  who  has 
been  trained  for  active  business  by  the  best  methods  has  his  own  fortune  at  his  com- 
mand. 

Successful  Men. — The  men  of  this  generation  who  have  achieved  the  most  perma- 
nent success  have  been  those  who  were  trained  in  youth  to  some  business  pursuit  and 
have  since  concentrated  every  energy  in  some  one  direction.  Nine-tenths  of  the  two 
hundred  millionaires  of  this  country  to-day  began  their  career  without  any  capital  save 
pluck  and  energy,  and  they  have  conquered  in  spite  of  disadvantageous  beginnings. 
They  have  left  behind  them  an  open  road  which  any  young  man  may  travel. 

Read  This,  and  Ponder.- — No  young  man  possessed  of  natural  faculties  in  this 
country,  and  in  these  times,  need  burden  his  friends  or  society  with  his  support ; and  no 
young  man,  whatever  may  be  his  worldly  circumstances,  has  a right  to  deprive  the  com- 
munity of  the  benefits  of  the  well-directed  efforts  of  his  head  and  hands.  Better  die 
at  once,  and  pay  a premium  on  forgetfulness,  than  to  dream  of  living  by  proxy  in  a world 
where  action  is  life. 

There  is,  in  fact,  no  such  thing  as  unavoidable  idleness,  for  idleness  is  crime,  and  no 
man  can  commit  involuntary  crime. 

Nothing  Lost  by  Courtesy. — A courteous  man  will  often  succeed  by  the  mere 
advantage  of  good  manners,  where  a man  of  greater  ability  without  these  would  fail. 
The  observation  of  every  man  will  suggest  many  instances  where  conciliatory  manners 
have  made  a fortune  for  a physician,  lawyer,  divine,  politician  or  merchant.  When  intro- 
duced to  a stranger,  his  affability  or  the  reverse  creates  a prepossession  in  his  favor,  or 
awakens  a prejudice  against  him.  In  fact,  civility  is  to  men  what  a pleasing  appearance 
is  to  women — a letter  of  recommendation  written  in  a language  which  every  person 
understands.  The  best  men  have  often  injured  themselves  by  irritability  and  conse- 
quent rudeness  ; and  of  two  men,  equal  in  all  other  respects,  the  courteous  one  has 
much  the  advantage,  and  by  far  the  better  chance  of  making  his  way  in  the  world. 


JOHN  ADAMS,  1797-1801. 


JAMES  MONROE,  1817-1825. 


JOHN  Q.  ADAMS,  1825-1829. 


ANDREW  JACKSON,  1829-1837. 


MARTIN  VAN  BUREN,  1837-1841. 


WM.  H.  HARRISON,  1841-died, 


ZACHARY  TAYLOR,  1849-1850. 


GEO.  WASHINGTON,  1789-1797. 


THOS.  JEFFERSON,  1801-1809. 


JAMES  MADISON,  1809-1817. 


JOHN  TYLER.  1841-1845. 


JAMES  K.  POLK,  1845-1849. 


ULYSSES  S.  GRANT,  1869-1877. 


ABRAHAM  LINCOLN,  1861-1865. 


ANDREW  JOHNSON,  1865-1869. 


GROVER  CLEVELAND,  1885-1889  BENJAMIN  HARRISON.  IS 89. 


BIOGRAPHICAL  DICTIONARY 

OF  OVER 

THREE  HUNDRED  EMINENT  MEN  and  WOMEN 

CONNECTED  WITH  AMERICAN  HISTORY. 


Abbot,  Ezra.— This  eminent  divine  and 
theological  writer  was  born  in  Jackson,  Maine, 
April  29,  1819,  and  graduated  from  Bowdoin 
College,  Brunswick,  Maine,  1840.  He  became 
Assistant  Librarian  of  Harvard  College  in 
1856,  and  in  1872  was  appointed  to  the  Chair  of 
New  Testament  Criticism  and  Interpretation 
in  the  Cambridge  Divinity  School.  Published 
many  theological  works  and  was  a member  of 
the  Bible  Revision  Committee.  Died  March  21, 
1884. 

Abbott,  John  S.  C.— This  American  writer 
was  born  in  Brunswick,  Maine,  Sept.  18,  1805. 
He  graduated  from  Bowdoin  College  in  1825, 
and  from  Andover  Theological  Seminary  in 
1829.  He  was  settled  as  minister  in  Worcester, 
Roxbury,  Nantucket  and  New  Haven.  He  was 
a voluminous  writer  of  histories.  Among  his 
works  are  the  “History  of  Napoleon  Bona- 
parte,” “ History  of  the  Civil  War,”  “History 
of  Napoleon  III.,”  and  American  Histories. 
He  died  at  Fair  Haven,  Conn.,  June  17,  1877. 

Abbott,  Lyman.-The  third  son  of  Rev. 
Jacob  Abbott  was  born  in  Roxbury,  Mass., 
Dec.  18,  1835,  and  graduated  at  New  York 
University  in  1853.  He  practiced  Law  for  a 
time  in  New  York  City,  then  studied  theology 
with  his  uncle,  J.  S.  C.  Abbott,  and  was  settled 
at  Terre  Haute,  Ind.,  from  1860  to  1865.  He 
was  connected  with  the  Freedman’s  Commission 
from  1865  to  1868.  Accepted  the  pastorate  of 
the  New  England  Congregational  Church  in 
New  York  City  in  1868,  and  resigned  in  1869. 
He  edited  the  “ Illustrated  Christian  Weekly” 
for  some  time.  Among  his  published  works  are 
“Jesus  of  Nazareth,  His  Life  and  Teachings,” 
“ Old  Testament  Shadows  of  New  Testament 
Truths,”  “Popular  Religious  Dictionary,” 
“Laicus,  an  Experience  of  a Layman  in  a 
Country  Parish,”  and  Commentaries  on  Mat- 
thew, Mark,  Luke,  John  and  Acts.  He  became 
editor  of  the  “ Christian  Union.” 

Adams,  Chas.  Francis — This  American 
diplomat,  the  third  son  of  John  Quincy  Adams, 


was  born  in  Boston,  Aug.  18, 1807.  He  graduated 
at  Harvard  University  in  1825  and  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1828.  He  was  nominated  in  1848 
as  Vice-President  of  the  U.  S.  by  the  Free- 
Soilers  who  supported  Martin  Van  Buren.  He 
published  “Life  and  Works  of  John  Adams.” 
He  served  in  Congress  1859  to  1861.  He  was 
Minister  to  England  during  the  Civil  War,  1861- 
1865,  and  found  his  duties  at  that  post  arduous 
and  at  times  very  delicate.  He  served  his 


country  while  there  with  much  ability,  prudence 
and  credit,  returning  home  in  1868.  He  was 
one  of  the  Arbiters  on  the  Alabama  Claims  in 
1871.  Died  Nov.  21,  1886. 

Adams,  John.- The  Second  President  of 
the  United  States  was  born  in  Braintree,  Mass., 
Oct.  30,  1735.  Graduated  at  Harvard  College 
in  1755  ; studied  Law  and  was  admitted  to  prac- 
tice in  1758.  He  removed  to  Boston  in  1768  and 
identified  himself  with  the  cause  of  the  people. 
Member  of  the  General  Court  in  1870 ; first 
Continental  Congress  in  1774.  He  was  one  of  a 
committee  of  five  to  frame  the  Declaration  of 
Independence,  which  he  supported  in  an  elo- 
quent speech  July  2,  1776;  Commissioner  to 
France  1778  ; Minister  to  England  1780.  With 
Benjamin  Franklin  and  John  Jay  he  negotiated 
the  treaty  of  peace  with  Great  Britain,  which 
was  signed  Nov.  30,  1782.  Minister  to  England 


46 


BIOGRAPHICAL  DICTIONARY. 


from  1785  to  1788.  He  wrote  his  ‘ 1 Defense  of 
the  American  Constitution  ” during  this  time. 
Vice-President  of  the  U.  S.  1789  to  1797.  Presi- 
dent 1797  to  1801.  He  retired  to  private  life  at 
Quincy,  Mass.,  where  he  died  July  4,  1826.  On 
the  same  day  expired  his  political  rival  and 
former  co-ad jutor,  Thomas  Jefferson,  who  had 
framed  the  Declaration  of  Independence. 

Adams,  Joint  Quincy.— The  sixth  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States  was  born  in  Braintree, 
Mass.,  July  11,  1767.  He  was  the  eldest  son  of 
John  Adams,  second  President.  In  1778  he  was 
placed  in  a school  in  Paris,  France,  and  then  in 
the  University  of  Leyden.  He  graduated  from 
Harvard  University  in  1788  and  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1791.  He  was  appointed  Minister 
to  the  Hague  in  1794,  and  was  sent  as  Minister 
to  Berlin  in  1797  : recalled  in  1801.  Elected 
U.  S.  Senater  1803  and  lost  his  seat  1808.  In 
1809  he  was  sent  as  Minister  to  Russia.  He  was 
one  of  the  Commissioners  to  negotiate  the  treaty 
with  Great  Britain  in  1814,  and  was  appointed 
Minister  to  England  in  1815.  He  was  Secretary 
of  State  under  President  Monroe  for  eight  years. 
President  of  the  United  States  from  1825  to  1829. 
Elected  to  Congress  in  1830  and  represented  the 
same  district  for  seventeen  years.  He  was 
seized  with  paralysis  Feb.  21,  1848,  and  died  two 
days  afterward.  He  left  a voluminous  Diary  of 
his  public  life  which  was  published. 

Adams,  Samuel.— This  celebrated  early 
American  patriot  and  orator  was  born  in  Boston, 
Mass. , Sept.  27,  1722,  and  graduated  at  Harvard 
College  in  1740.  He  was  chosen  to  represent  his 
native  city  in  the  General  Court,— Legislature — 
in  1765.  He  was  an  unflinching  friend  of  the 
popular  cause,  and  he,  together  with  John 
Hancock,  were  exempted  from  a general  pardon 
offered  to  * * the  rebels  ” in  1775.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  first  Continental  Congress  in 
1774,  and  signed  the  Declaration  of  Independence 
in  1776.  He  remained  in  the  Continental  Con- 
gress about  eight  years,  and  was  afterwards 
elected  to  the  Senate  of  Massachussetts,  and 
was  a member  of  the  State  Convention  which 
ratified  the  Constitution  of  the  U.  S.  Elected 
Governor  in  1794,  and  twice  re-elected.  Retired 
to  private  life  in  1797,  and  died  Oct.  21,  1803. 

Agassiz,  Louis  J.  R.— He  was  the  son  of 
a Protestant  minister  and  was  born  in  the 
parish  of  Motier,  near  Lake  Neuchatel,  Switz- 
erland, May  28,  1807.  He  pursued  the  study 
of  Medicine  and  graduated  from  Munich.  He 
brought  out  his  first  work,  a description  of  the 
fishes  brought  from  Brazil,  in  1829-31.  He  was 


appointed  Professor  of  Natural  History  at 
Neuchatel  in  1832.  While  here  he  added  much 
to  his  reputation  as  a Scientist  by  publishing  a 
work  in  French,  entitled,  ‘ ‘ Researches  on 
Fossil  Fishes.  ” He  studied  the  glaciers  of  the 
Alps,  and  published  new  and  interesting  ideas 
on  Geology.  He  came  to  the  United  States  on  a 
Scientific  expedition  in  1846  and  being  so  pleased 
with  the  country  concluded  to  remain.  He 
accepted  the  Chair  of  Zoology  and  Geology 
at  Harvard  College  in  1848.  His  researches  and 
investigations  into  the  Natural  History  of  the 
U.  S.  gave  a new  impulse  to  the  pursuit  of  that 
study.  He  explored  the  Amazon  in  1865,  and 
discovered  more  than  1,800  new  species  of  fishes. 
He  was  the  friend  of  Cuvier  and  Humbolt  in 
his  earlier  years,  and  in  his  popular  works  on 
Natural  History  did  more  than  any  one  writer, 


save  Hugh  Miller,  to  adapt  the  physical  sciences 
to  the  common  reader.  His  important  works 
besides  those  mentioned  are,  * ‘ Outlines  of 
Comparative  Physiology,  ” ‘ ‘ J ourney  to  Brazil,  ” 
and  an  extensive  work  entitled,  “ Contri- 
butions to  the  Natural  History  of  the  United 
States.  ” In  1868  he  was  appointed  non-resident 
Professor  of  Natural  History  at  Cornell  Uni- 
versity. In  1871  he  accompanied  the  Hassler 
expedition  to  the  South  Atlantic  and  Pacific 
Ocean  and  the  western  coast  of  America.  He 
died  at  Cambridge,  Mass.,  Dec.  14,  1873. 

Alcott,  Amos  B.— This  American  ideal 
philosopher  was  born  at  Wolcott,  Conn.,  Nov. 
29,  1799,  and  settled  in  Concord,  Mass.  He 
acquired  an  extensive  reputation  as  an  educa- 
tional reformer.  He  was  a successful  teacher, 
but  was  chiefly  distinguished  for  his  wonder- 


BIOGRAPHICAL  DICTIONARY. 


47 


ful  conversational  powers.  He  published  two 
volumes  of  Essays  : “Tablets ” in  1868  ; “ Con- 
cord Days”  in  1872.  Died  at  Boston,  Mass., 
March  4,  1888. 

Alcott,  Louisa  UI.— The  talented  daughter 
of  the  above  was  born  Nov.  29,  1832.  She  wrote 
and  published  a large  number  of  very  popular 
works  for  young  people  : “Little  Women ” in 

1867;  “Old  Fashioned  Girl  ” in  1869  ; “Little 
Men”  in  1871;  “Work”  in  1873  ; “Joe’s  Boys” 
in  1886,  etc.  She  died  in  Boston,  March  6th, 
1888,  two  days  after  her  father. 

Ames,  Adeltoert.— He  was  born  at  Rock- 
land, Maine,  Oct.  31,  1835,  and  graduated  from 
West  Point  in  1861.  Lieutenant  Col.  24th 
Infantry,  July,  1866.  Brigadier  General  U.  S. 
Vols.,  May,  1863.  Served  in  the  Artillery  at 
Bull’s  Run  in  1861,  for  which  he  was  brevetted 
Major;  brevetted  Lieutenant  Colonel  at  Malvern 
Hill.  Commissioned  as  Colonel  of  2d  Maine 
Vols.,  and  brevetted  Colonel  U.  S.  Army  at 
Gettysburg.  Brevetted  Brigadier-General  U. 
S.  A.  and  Major-General  U.  S.  A.,  1864-1865. 
Provisional  Governor  of  Mississippi,  1868.  Com- 
manded the  Department  of  Mississippi,  1869. 
U.  S.  Senator  from  Miss.  1870  to  1873.  Governor 
of  Miss.  1874  to  1876. 

Ames,  Fi  slier.— This  eminent  orator  and 
Statesman  was  born  in  Dedham,  Mass.,  April 
9,  1758.  He  was  a graduate  of  Harvard,  1774, 
a student  of  William  Tudor  in  Boston,  and 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1781.  He  wrote  several 
articles  for  the  newspapers  which  attracted 
general  attention.  He  advocated  the  adoption 


of  the  Federal  Constitution  in  the  Massa- 
chusetts Convention  in  1788,  and  was  sent  to 
Congress  the  next  year.  He  was  a Federalist 
and  a strong  supporter  of  President  Washing- 
ton. He  was  speedily  recognized  as  an  orator 


of  national  reputation.  His  most  famous  speech 
was  in  favor  of  adopting  the  Jay  treaty  with 
England,  April,  1796.  This  speech  has  been 
preseved.  He  served  four  terms  in  Congress 
and  then  retired  to  private  life  on  account  of 
declining  health.  He  delivered  a famous  oration 
on  Washington  before  the  Legislature  of  Massa- 
chusetts in  1799,  and  was  elected  President  of 
Harvard  College  in  1804,  but  was  obliged  to  de- 
cline this  position.  His  character  was  pure  and 
honorable.  He  was  noted  for  quick  and  spark- 
ling wit  and  fine  powers  of  conversation.  His 
orations  are  filled  with  happy  metaphors  and 
fine  illustrations  and  a brilliant  flow  of  imagin- 
ation. His  Son,  Seth  Ames,  was  the  publisher 
of  his  works,  consisting  of  orations,  essays  and 
letters,  in  two  volumes,  1854.  Fisher  Ames 
died  July  4,  1808. 

Anderson,  Robert.— Was  born  June  14, 
1805,  near  Louisville,  Ky.  Graduated  at  West 


Point,  1825.  Private  Secretary  to  the  U.  S. 
Minister  at  Columbia,  1825-1826.  Inspector 
General  of  the  Illinois  Vols.  in  the  Black  Hawk 
War  in  1832.  Military  Academy,  as  instructor 
of  Artillery,  1835-37.  Florida  War  1837-38, 
where  he  was  brevetted  Captain.  Aide-de- 
Camp  to  Genl.  Scott,  1838.  Served  in  Mexico, 
1847,  where  he  was  severely  wounded  and 
brevetted  Major.  He  was  a full  Major  in  1861, 
when  he  evacuated  Fort  Moultrie,  S.  C.,  and 
defended  Fort  Sumpter,  until  obliged  to  sur- 
render April  12-13.  He  was  commissioned 
Brigadier  General  May  15,  1861,  and  brevetted 
Major  General.  Placed  in  command  of  the 
department  of  Kentucky  and  the  Cumberland, 
but  his  shattered  health  obliged  him  to  retire 
from  active  duty.  He  went  to  Europe  in  search 
of  restoration  to  health,  and  died  at  Nice, 
France,  Oct.  26,  1871. 


48 


BIOGRAPHICAL  DICTIONARY. 


Anderson,  Rufiis.-He  was  born  in  North 
Yarmouth,  Maine,  Aug.  17,  1796,  and  graduated 
at  Bowdoin  College  in  1818  ; Andover  Theologi- 
cal Seminary  1819  to  1822.  He  was  appointed 
Secretary  of  the  American  Board  of  Foreign 
Missions  in  1824,  and  in  1832  Corresponding 
Secretary  of  the  same  body.  He  held  this 
position  for  thirty-four  years,  and  resigned  at 
the  age  of  seventy  in  1866.  He  visited  a part  of 
the  Mediterranean  Missions  in  1828-29,  another 
part  in  1843^4,  and  the  Sandwich  Islands  in 
1863.  Upon  his  retirement  he  was  presented, 
with  a testimonial  of  $20, 000,  mostly  from  the 
merchants  of  New  York,  but  Dr.  Anderson 
made  over  the  whole  to  the  Board.  He  wrote  a 
number  of  works,  mostly  on  the  subject  of 
Missions.  He  died  May  30,  1880. 

Andrew,  John  A.— This  War  Governor 
of  Massachusetts  was  born  in  Windam,  Maine, 
May  31,  1818.  Graduated  at  Bowdoin  College 
in  1837.  Studied  law  and  was  admitted  to 
practice  in  Boston,  Mass.,  in  1840.  Elected 
Governor  in  1860  and  at  the  outbreak  of  the 
Civil  War  dispatched  five  regiments  in  one  week 
from  the  first  call  for  troops.  He  was  thrice 
re-elected  to  the  same  office  and  rendered  great 
service  to  the  country  by  his  eloquent  and 
patriotic  addresses,  and  messages  to  the  Legis- 
lature. He  gained  great  popularity  by  his 


unstinted  attention  to  the  good  of  the  soldiers 
during  the  war.  He  died  greatly  lamented  by 
all  classes,  Oct,  30,  1867. 

Anthony,  Henry  He  was  born  at 
Coventry,  R.  I. , April  1, 1815,  and  graduated  at 
Brown  University  1833.  Editor  of  ‘ ‘ Providence 
Journal  ” from  1838  to  1859.  Governor  of  Rhode 
Island  1849  to  1851.  He  was  United  States 


Senator  from  1859  to  the  time  of  his  death.  He 
held  his  seat  in  the  Senate  for  a longer  period 
than  any  other  man  in  the  history  of  the 


country.  He  was  elected  President  Pro  Tcm . 
of  the  Senate  1863,  but  declined  on  account 
of  ill  health.  He  died  Sept.  2,  1884. 

Anthony,  Susan  15.— She  was  born  in 
South  Adams,  Mass. , Feb.  15,  1820,  and  was  the 
daughter  of  a Quaker.  She  was  a teacher  in 
New  York  for  fifteen  years.  In  1852  she  became 
actively  engaged  as  a leader  in  the  Woman’s 
Rights  movement  and  became  distinguished  for 
her  zeal  and  eloquence  in  the  Temperance  and 
Anti-Slavery  Causes.  After  the  Civil  War  her 
time  was  almost  entirely  devoted  to  the  cause 
of  Woman’s  Suffrage. 

Arthur,  Chester  A.— The  twenty-first  Pres- 
ident of  the  United  States,  was  born  in  Frank- 
lin Co.,  Vt.,  Oct.  5,  1830,  and  graduated  at 
Union  College  in  1849.  Taught  School  for  two 
years.  He  studied  law  and  was  admitted  to  the 
Bar  in  New  York  City.  In  1861  he  was  Inspector 
General  of  New  York  and  afterward  Quarter- 
master General.  Collector  of  the  Port  of  New 
York  from  1871  to  1878.  Elected  Vice  President 
Nov.  2,  1880,  and  at  the  death  of  President 
Garfield,  Sept.  26,  1881,  he  succeded  to  that 
office.  Died  in  New  York,  Nov.  18,  1886. 

Astor,  John  Jacob.- This  successful  mer- 
chant was  born  at  Waldorf,  near  Heidelberg,  in 
Germany,  July  17,  1763.  He  emigrated  to  the 


BIOGRAPHICAL  DICTIONARY. 


49 


United  States  in  1783.  Invested  his  capital  in 
furs,  which  he  sold  in  London  with  much  profit. 
He  then  settled  in  New  York,  engaging  in  the 
fur  trade.  He  amassed  an  immense  fortune 
by  sending  his  furs  in  his  own  vessels  and  having 
them  return  laden  with  foreign  commodities. 
He  founded  Astoria,  Or.,  as  a depot  for  the  fur 
trade.  He  invested  largely  in  real  estate  in  the 
City  of  New  York.  He  endowed  Astor  Library 
with  $400,000,  and  at  his  death  (Mar.  29,  1848) 
his  fortune  was  estimated  at  twenty  million 
dollars. 

Aug'itr,  Christopher  C.— Was  born  in  the 
city  of  New  York  in  the  year  1821,  and  graduated 
at  West  Point  1843.  He  served  in  the  Infantry 
until  March  4,  1869,  when  he  became  Brigadier 
General  in  the  regular  army.  Served  on  frontier 


brevetted  Major,  Lieutenant  Colonel,  Colonel, 
Brigadier  General,  and  Major  General  U.  S.  A. 


posts,  in  the  occupation  of  Texas,  the  Mexican 
War  and  the  Civil  War.  In  1861  in  command 
of  Cadets  at  West  Point.  Commissioned  Major- 
General  U.  S.  Vols.,  Aug.  9,  1862.  Brevetted 
Brigadier  General  in  regular  army  1863.  Com- 
manded Department  of  Washington  1863-66  ; of 
the  Platte,  1867-71 ; of  Texas  1871  to  retirement, 
July  10,  1885.  Brevetted  Major  General  for 
gallant  and  meritorious  conduct,  March  13, 
1865. 

Averell,  William  W.— Was  born  in  the 
State  of  N.  Y.  in  1830.  Graduated  at  West 
Point  1855  as  Lieutenant  Mounted  Rifles. 
Served  on  frontier  and  fighting  Indians  until 
severely  wounded  in  1859.  In  the  Civil  War, 
Colonel  of  the  Third  Penn  Cav.,  1861.  Brig- 
adier General  of  Vols.  1862.  Commissioned 
Captain  Third  Cav.,  U.  S.  A.,  July,  1862;  and 


Resigned  1865.  U.  S.  Consul-General  to  Canada 
1866.  President  of  Manufacturing  Company  in 
New  York  City  1875. 


llainbridge,  William. — This  Commodore 
in  the  U.  S.  Navy,  was  born  in  Princeton,  N. 
J.,  May  7,  1774.  He  entered  the  Navy  and  rose 
to  the  rank  of  Captain  in  1800.  He  commanded 
the  U.  S.  Frigate  Philadelphia  in  th^  war 
against  Tripoli.  His  vessel  ran  aground  and 
was  captured  by  the  enemy  in  Oct.  1803.  He 


remained  a prisoner  until  the  close  of  hostilities. 
June,  1805.  In  Sept.  1812,  he  commanded  a 
squadron  of  three  vessels  and  captured  the 
English  ship  Java,  of  49  guns,  Dec.  1812.  Died 
July  28,  1833. 


50 


BIOGRAPHICAL  DICTIONARY. 


■Bancroft,  George.- This  eminent  Ameri- 
can Historian  was  born  in  Worcester,  Mass., 
Oct  3,  1800.  He  graduated  from  Harvard  Col- 


lege in  1817,  and  entered  the  University  of  Got- 
tingen the  next  year.  He  received  the  degree  of 
Ph.  D.  from  this  University  in  1820,  and  re- 
mained abroad  for  two  years  longer.  He  pub- 
lished his  first  volume  of  the  ‘ ‘History  of  the 
United  States  in  1834.  He  was  appointed 
Secretary  of  the  Navy  in  1845  and  the  same  year 
established  the  U.  S.  Naval  Academy  at  Annap- 
olis, Md.  Resigned  that  office  in  1846  and  was 
sent  as  Minister  to  England  the  same  year.  He 
returned  home  in  1849  and  retired  from  public 
life.  His  great  work,  the  “History  of  the  Uni- 
ted States,”  the  tenth  volume,  which  comes 
down  to  the  close  of  the  Revolution,  was  pub- 
lished in  1874.  The  eleventh  and  twelfth  vol- 
umes, to  the  formation  of  the  American  Con- 
stitution, was  published  in  1882.  The  same 
year  he  began  his  final  revision  of  the  entire 
work.  He  was  appointed  Minister  to  the  Court 
of  Berlin  in  1867,  and  negotiated  a treaty  with 
Germany  by  the  terms  of  which  the  emigrants 
from  that  country  to  this  are  released  from 
allegiance  to  their  native  government.  He  was 
Minister  Plenipotentiary  to  Germany  in  1871- 
74,  and  rendered  good  service  in  the  settlement 
of  the  San  Juan  boundary  question.  The  re- 
vised edition  of  his  great  work,  with  last  vol- 
ume, was  published  in  1885.  Died  Jan.  17,  1891. 

Bank,  Ufatlianiel  I*.— This  statesman  and 
General  was  born  at  Waltham,  Mass.,  Jan.  30, 


1816.  He  learned  the  trade  of  a machinist, 
studied  law,  and  was  a member  of  the  Legis- 
lature in  1849.  Member  of  Congress  in  1852,  as 
a Democrat,  in  1854  as  a Republican  and 
“Know  Nothing.”  Speaker  of  the  U.  S.  House 
of  Representatives  in  1856.  Governor  of  Mass- 
achusetts in  1857,  1858,  1859.  Major  General  of 
U.  S.  Yols.  in  1861.  Commanded  on  the  Poto- 
mac 1862,  at  Winchester,  at  Port  Hudson,  May, 
1863,  which  he  took  with  6000  prisoners.  Con- 
ducted an  unsuccessful  expedition  up  the  Red 
River  in  1864.  Relieved  of  his  command  in  May 
and  re-elected  to  Congress  in  Nov.  1864,  in  1866, 
1868  and  1870.  Defeated  in  1872,  but  re-elected 
in  1874  and  1876.  United  States  Marshall  at 
Boston,  Mass.,  1885  to  1889.  Member  of  the 
fifty-first  Congress,  1889. 

Bayard,  Thomas  F.— He  was  born  at 
Wilmington,  Del.,  Oct.  29,  1828.  Admitted  to 
the  bar  in  1851.  Was  U.  S.  District  Attorney 
for  Delaware  in  1853.  Elected  to  the  U.  S. 


Senate  to  succeed  his  father,  1869,  and  was  twice 
re-elected  to  that  office.  Was  chosen  President 
pro  tern.  of  the  Senate  in  1881.  He  became  Sec- 
retary of  State  in  the  cabinet  of  President 
Cleveland  Mar.  5,  1885,  and  continued  in  that 
position  until  Mar.  4,  1889.  During  his  term 
of  office  the  right  to  the  seal  fisheries  in  Berh- 
ings  Straits  occasioned  discussion  with  the 
English  government,  but  little  progress  was 
made,  however,  toward  a final  settlement  of 
the  difficulty  between  the  two  nations. 


BIOGRAPHICAL  DICTIONARY. 


<51 


Beauregard,  Pierre  G.  F.— He  was  born 
near  New  Orleans,  La.,  May,  28,  1818,  and  grad- 
uated at  West  Point  in  1838.  Served  with 
distinction  in  Mexico  and  was  twice  brevetted 


for  gallantry.  Captain  of  Engineers  Mar.  3, 1853. 
In  charge  of  the  defenses  of  Lousiana  1853  to 
1860.  Appointed  Superintendent  of  U.  S.  Acad- 
emy at  West  Point,  but  resigned  in  a few  days 
to  enter  the  Confederate  Army.  Commissioned 
Brigadier  General  C.  S.  A.  and  directed  the 
attack  on  Fort  Sumpter  in  1861.  Promoted 
to  General  July  22,  1861.  Commanded  at  Cor- 
inth, Miss.,  also  at  Charleston,  S.  C.  In  Vir- 
ginia in  1864.  After  the  war  he  was  engaged  in 
railroad  management.  Adjutant  General 
of  Lousiana  in  1878. 

Bech,  James  B.— Born  in  Dumfriesshire, 
Scotland,  Feb.  13,  1822.  Received  academic 
education  before  coming  to  the  U.  S.  Gradu- 
ated in  Law  at  Transylvania  University,  Ky., 
1846,  beginning  practice  at  Lexington.  Member 
of  40th,  41st,  42d  and  43d  Congresses.  Declined 
re-election  to  the  44th.  Elected  U.  S.  Senator  as 
a Democrat,  taking  seat  March  5,  1877.  Re- 
elected 1882  and  1888.  Died  May  3,  1890. 

Beecher,  Henry  W.-This  celebrated  divine 
was  born  in  Litchfield,  Conn.,  June  24,  1813. 
Graduated  at  Amherst  College  in  1834.  Studied 
theology  at  Lane  Seminary,  of  which  his 
father  was  president.  Pastor  of  Plymouth 
Church,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. , from  1847  to  his 
death.  Editor  of  the  • ‘Independent”  1861  to 
1863.  Visited  Europe  in  1863,  where  he  did 
much  to  turn  the  current  of  public  opinion  in 
England  toward  the  North.  He  was  a promin- 
ent advocate  of  Temperance  and  Anti-slavery. 
Wrote  many  volumes  of  Lectures  and  Sermons, 


a Life  of  Christ  and  one  novel,  “Norwood.” 
Died  Mar.  8,  1887. 

Beecher,  Lyman.-The  father  of  the  fore- 
going was  born  in  New  Haven,  Conn.  Oct.  12, 
1775,  and  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1797 
Pastor  at  Litchfield,  Conn,  in  1810.  Removed 
to  Boston  in  1826  and  preached  in  Hanover  St. 
Church.  President  of  Lane  Seminary,  Cincin- 
nati 1832  to  1851.  He  published  “Views  on  The- 
ology” and  “Sermons  on  Temperance”,  which 
had  a large  circulation.  Died  at  Brooklyn,  N. 
Y. , Jan.  10,  1863. 

Bell,  John.— He  was  born  near  Nashville, 
Tenn. , Feb.  15,  1797  and  graduated  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Nashville  in  1814.  Elected  a member 
of  Congress  in  1827,  and  continued  a member 
for  fourteen  years.  Speaker  of  the  U.  S.  House 
of  Representatives  In  1834.  Secretary  of  War, 
Mar.  4,  1841,  and  resigned  in  Sept,  because  he 
disapproved  of  the  policy  of  President  Tyler. 
U.  S.  Senator  for  Tennessee  from  1847  to  1859. 
Was  nominated  for  President  of  the  U.  S.  in 
1860.  He  died  Sept.  10,  1869. 

Benjamin,  Judah  IP.— He  was  of  Hebrew 
extraction  and  born  in  Hayti  in  1812.  He 
practised  law  in  New  Orleans  : was  elected  U. 
S.  Senator  for  Lousiana  in  1852  and  re-elected 


1859.  He  acted  with  the  South  and  became 
identified  with  the  Confederate  cause.  He  was 
Secretary  of  State  C.  S.  A.  from  Feb.  1862  until 
the  surrender.  After  the  war  he  practiced  law 
in  London,  Eng.  He  died,  May  7 1884. 


BIOGRAPHICAL  DICTIONARY. 


Benton,  Thomas  H. — This  American 
statesman  was  born  near  Hillsborough,  N.  C. , 
March,  14,  1782.  He  came  to  Tennessee  and 
began  the  practice  of  Law  at  Nashville  about 
1810.  Was  Colonel  under  General  Jackson  in 
the  war  of  1812.  Removed  to  St.  Louis,  Mo. , in 
1815.  Elected  U.  S.  Senator  for  Missouri  in 
1820,  aud  continued  in  the  Senate  for  thirty 
years.  He  was  called  “Old  Bullion”  because  he 
joined  with  Gen.  Jackson  in  opposition  to  the 
U.  S.  Bank  and  in  favor  of  gold  and  silver  cur- 
rency. In  1852  he  was  elected  to  the  National 
House  of  Representatives.  He  opposed  the 
extreme  State  Rights  views  of  Calhoun  and  the 
repeal  of  the  Missouri  Compromise.  He  wrote 
“Thirty  Years’  View,  or  a History  of  the  Work- 
ing of  the  American  Government,  1820  to  1850.  ” 
He  died  April  10,  1858. 

Blackburn,  J.  C.  S.— Born  in  Woodford 
County,  Ky.,  Oct.  1, 1838.  Graduated  at  Centre 
College  1857.  Admitted  to  the  Bar  1858,  and 
practiced  until  1861.  Entered  Confederate 
Army  1861,  serving  through  war.  Resumed 


practice  1865,  and  elected  to  the  Legislature 
1871-73.  Elected  to  the  44th,  45th,  46th,  47th 
and  48th  Congresses,  and  U.  S.  Senator  1884. 

Black,  Jeremiah  S.— This  American  jurist 
was  born  in  Somerset  Co.,  Pa.,  Jan.  10,  1810. 
Judge  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Pennsylvania 
1851.  Attorney  General  under  President 


Buchanan  1857  and  Secretary  of  State  1860. 
Died  August  19,  1883. 

Blaine,  James  O.— This  distinguished 
American  Legislator  was  born  in  Washington 
Co.,  Pa.,  Jan.  31,  1830  and  graduated  from 
Washington  College  in  1847.  He  removed 
to  Maine  and  there  engaged  in  newspaper 
work.  He  was  elected  to  the  State  Legislature 
several  times,  and  was  Speaker  of  the  House  of 


Representatives  in  1861  and  1862.  He  served 
in  the  U.  S.  House  of  Representatives  in  1863  to 
1865  and  was  re-elected  five  times.  He  was 
Speaker  of  the  National  House  for  three 
terms,  from  1869  to  1875.  He  was  appointed 
Senator  from  Maine  to  fill  an  unexpired  term  in 
1876  and  elected  to  a full  term  in  1877.  He  was 
appointed  Secretary  of  State  by  President  Gar- 
field in  1881  but  resigned  in  Dec.  of  the  same 
year.  He  was  nominated  by  the  Republican 
Convention  in  1884  for  the  office  of  President  of 
the  United  States,  but  was  defeated.  He  wrote 
“Twenty  Year’s  in  Congress”  and  subsequently 
traveled  in  Europe.  He  was  nominated  Secre- 
tary of  State  by  President  Harrison  March  4, 
1889  and  confirmed  for  that  office  by  the  Senate. 
He  was  President  of  the  International  Congress 
of  American  Nations  which  convened  at  Wash- 
ington, D.  C.,  by  the  invitation  of  the  United 
States,  Oct.  2,  1889.  Mr.  Blaine  recommended 
Reciprocity  in  trade  between  the  nations  of  the 
American  continents,  or  any  of  them,  to  the 
United  States  Senate  in  1890,  after  the  adjourn- 
ment of  the  International  Conference. 


BIOGRAPHICAL  DICTIONARY. 


53 


Blair,  Montgomery. — This  American 
officer  and  politician  was  born  in  Franklin  Co. , 
Ky,,  May  10,  1813,  and  graduated  from  West 
Point  in  1835.  Served  in  the  Florida  War,  but 
resigned  May  20,  1836.  He  was  admitted  to  the 
Bar  and  practiced  in  St.  Louis,  Mo.  U.  S. 
Attorney  for  Missouri  1839  to  1843.  Judge  of 
the  St.  Louis  Court  of  Common  Pleas  1843  to 
1849.  Solicitor  of  the  U.  S.  in  the  Court  of 
Claims  1855  to  1858.  Counsellor-at-law  in 
Montgomery  Co.,  Md.,  1853  to  1861.  Post 
Master  General  of  the  U.  S.  1861  to  1864.  Died 
July  26,  1883. 

Boone,  Daniel.- This  famous  pioneer  and 
hunter  was  born  in  Bucks  Co.,  Pa.,  Feb.  11, 
1735.  He  emigrated  to  North  Carolina  in  1769. 
With  five  others  he  penetrated  the  wilderness 
of  Kentucky.  He  was  captured  by  the  Indians, 
but  escaped  from  them.  Returned  to  North 
Carolina  in  1771,  but  removed  with  his  own  and 
five  other  families  to  Kentucky  in  1773.  Built 
a fort  at  Boonesborough  in  1775.  This  fort  was 
attacked  several  times  by  the  Indians  in  1777, 
but  they  were  driven  away.  Boone  was  cap- 
tured in  Feb.  1778  and  taken  to  Detroit.  He 
however,  escaped  and  defended  his  fort  from  the 


attack  of  450  Indians  in  Aug. , 1778.  In  1795  he 
removed  to  Missouri  and  died  Sept.  20,  1820. 

Brag-g-,  Braxton.— He  was  born  in  Warren 
Co.,  N.  C.,  in  1817  and  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1837.  Commissioned  Captain,  June  18, 
1846.  Served  in  Florida  and  Mexico  and  was  on 
frontier  duty  1849  to  1855.  Brevetted  Major  and 
Lieut.  Colonel.  Resigned  Jan.  3,  1856  and  be- 
came a sugar  planter  in  Louisiana,  1856  to  1861. 


Commissioner  of  Public  Works  in  La.  1859  to 
1861.  Entered  the  service  of  the  Confederacy  ; 
Commanded  at  Pensacola  1861,  at  Shiloh  1862. 
Promoted  to  General,  but  was  relieved  of  com- 
mand Dec.  2,  1863.  Commanded  a small  force 
in  N.  C.  and  Ga.  in  1864.  Died  Sept.  27,  1876. 

Breckenridge,  John  C.— Was  born  near 
Lexington,  Ky.,  Jan.  21,  1821.  He  studied  Law 


and  was  admitted  to  practice  in  his  native  city 
in  1851.  Elected  to  Congress  the  same  year. 
Vice  President  of  the  U.  S.  in  1856.  Nominated 
for  President  in  1860  by  the  Anti-Douglass 
Democrats  and  received  72  votes  in  the  Elec- 
toral College.  Sworn  as  U.  S.  Senator  March 
1861,  but  joined  the  Confederate  Army  in  the 
Autumn  of  that  year.  Commissioned  as  Major 
General  C.  S.  A.  Became  Secretary  of  War  at 
Richmond,  Jan.,  1865  and  after  the  surrender 
visited  Europe.  He  returned  to  the  United 
States  in  1868  and  died  May  17,  1875. 

Brown,  Joseph  E.— This  distinguished 
citizen  of  Georgia  was  born  in  Pickens  Co., 
S.  C.,  April  15,  1821.  In  youth  he  removed 
with  his  parents  to  Georgia.  Five  times  Gov- 
ernor of  the  State  for  two  years  each  term, 
prior  to  1861.  He  took  a prominent  part  in  the 
reconstruction  and  under  the  new  State  Con- 
stitution became  Chief  Justice  of  the  Supreme 
Court  in  1868.  Resigned  and  took  the  Presi- 
dency of  the  Western  and  Atlantic  R.  R.  1871. 
U.  S.  Senator  1880— re-elected  1884. 

Bro wnlow,  Wm.  G. — This  celebrated 
Methodist  ‘divine  and  politician  was  born  in 
Wythe  Co.,  Va.t  Aug.  29,  1805.  He  entered 
the  itinerate  ministry  of  the  Methodist  Episco- 
pal Church,  but  removed  to  Tennessee  and 
edited  the  “Knoxville  Whig.”  In  1861  he  was 
a firm  adherent  of  the  Union  cause  and  was 
imprisoned  because  of  his  sentiments  during 
the  war.  Governor  of  Tennessee  in  1865  to  1869. 
United  States  Senator  1869.  Died  at  Knoxville, 
Tenn.,  April  29,  1877. 


64 


BIOGRAPHICAL  DICTIONARY. 


Buchanan,  James. — The  fifteenth  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States  was  born  in  Franklin 
Co.,  Pa.,  April  23,  1791;  graduated  at  Dickin- 
son College  in  1809.  Admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1812.  Elected  to  Congress  in  1828.  Minister  to 
Russia  1831.  U.  S.  Senator  1833  to  1845.  Secre- 
tary of  State  1845  to  1849.  Minister  to  England 
1853.  Inaugurated  President  1857.  His  admin- 
istration was  stormy  and  closed  with  the  mutter- 
ing of  Civil  War.  He  was  hostile  to  the  oppo- 
nents of  slavery  and  in  his  last  message  to  Con- 
gress affirmed  that  the  Executive  had  no  power 
or  right  to  prevent  the  secession  of  any  State. 
He  retired  to  private  obscurity  during  the  war, 
but  published  a defense  of  his  Presidential 
policy  in  1866  under  the  title,  “Mr.  Buchanan’f 
Administration.”  He  died  June  1,  1868. 

Bucking-ham,  Win.  A.- This  patriots 
War  Governor  was  born  at  Lebanon,  Conn., 
May  28,  1804.  After  holding  many  minor 
offices  he  was  elected  Governor  of  the  State  in 
1858  and  held  that  position  until  1867.  He  was 
elected  U.  S.  Senator  in  1869  and  died  at  Nor- 
wich, Conn.,  Feb.  5.  1875. 

Buckner,  Simon  B.— He  was  born  in  Ken- 
tucky in  1823,  and  graduated  at  West  Point  in 
1844.  Served  in  Infantry  1844-52.  Assistant 
Professor  at  West  Point  1846.  In  Mexican  War 
1846-48,  and  was  brevetted  First  Lieutenant 
and  Captain.  Resigned  March  26,  1855.  Super- 
intendent of  Construction  of  Chicago  Custom 


House  1855.  Joined  the  Southern  Army  1861. 
Surrendered  Feb.  16,  1862,  to  General  Grant  at 
Donaldson ; exchanged  in  Aug. , 1862.  Major 
General  C.  S.  A.,  and  surrendered  May  26, 
1865. 

Buell,  Bon  Carlos.— He  was  born  near 
Marietta,  Ohio,  Mar.  23,  1818,  and  graduated  at 
West  Point  in  1841.  Served  in  the  Infantry 
during  the  Florida  War,  1841-42;  in  Texas  1845- 


46  ; in  Mexico  1846-48.  He  was  brevettted  Cap- 
tain and  Major.  Assistant  Adjutant  General  at 
Washington,  D.  C.  1848-49,  and  at  various 
headquarters  until  1861.  In  the  Civil  War  he 
commanded  the  Department  of  the  Ohio,  1861- 
62 ; in  Kentucky,  1862-63 ; resigned  in  1864. 
President  Green  River,  Ky.,  Iron  Works  in 
1865. 

Burnside,  Ambrose  E.— He  was  born  at 
Liberty,  Ind. , May  23,  1824,  and  graduated  at 
West  Point  in  1847.  Served  as  Lieutenant  of 


Artillery  in  Mexico,  1847^18.  At  different 
points,  1848-53.  Frontier  duty  in  New  Mexico, 
1849-50.  With  Mexican  Boundary  Commis- 
sion, 1851-52.  Resigned  1853.  Invented  a breech- 
loading rifle  and  engaged  in  its  manufacture 
from  1853  to  1858  at  Bristol,  R.  I.  Employed 
by  the  Illinois  Central  R.  R.  1858  to  1861.  In 
the  Civil  War  served  as  Colonel  of  a Rhode 
Island  regiment.  Commissioned  Brigadier 
General  Aug.  6,  1861.  Promoted  to  Major  Gen- 
eral May  18,  1862.  Commanded  the  expedition 
to  North  Carolina.  Engaged  at  Roanoke 
Island,  Newburn,  Camden  and  Fort  Macon, 
1862.  Commanded  the  9th  Army  Corps  and 
assigned  to  the  command  of  the  Army  of  the 
Potomac,  Nov.  7,  1862  ; relieved  Jan.  28,  1863i; 
commanded  Army  of  the  Ohio  1863 ; com- 
manded 9th  Army  Corps  in  Richmond  Cam- 
paign 1864.  Resigned  from  volunteer  service 
April  15,  1865.  Civil  Engineer  1865-66.  Gov- 
ernor of  Rhode  Island  1866-69.  United  States 
Senator  1875,  re-elected  1880.  Died  Sept.  13, 
1881. 

Burr,  Aaron.— He  was  born  at  Newark, 
N.  J.,  Feb.  6,  1756,  and  graduated  at  Princeton 
College  in  1772.  Joined  the  Continental  Army  as 
private  in  1775.  Served  on  the  staffs  of  Gens. 


BIOGRAPHICAL  DICTIONARY. 


55 


Montgomery,  Arnold,  Putnam  and  Washing- 
ton; became  a Lieut.  Colonel.  Practiced  law  in 
Albany  and  in  New  York  City.  Attorney  Gen- 
eral of  N.  Y.  in  1789.  U.  S.  Senator  1791  to 
1797.  Vice  President  of  U.  S.  1801  under  Jeffer- 
son. Shot  Alexander  Hamilton  in  a duel  in 
1804.  Died  Sept.  14,  1836. 

It u tier,  Benjamin  V. — He  was  born  at 
Deerfield,  N.  H.,  Nov.  5,  1818;  graduated  at 
Waterville  College,  Me.,  and  was  admitted  to  the 


Bar  at  Lowell,  Mass. , in  1840.  He  served  in  the 
State  Militia  from  private  to  Brigadier  General. 
Member  of  Legislature  in  1853  and  of  the  State 
Senate  in  1859.  Proceeded  to  the  front  at  the 
outbreak  of  the  Civil  War.  Sent  two  of  his 
regiments  to  Fortress  Monroe.  Siezed  Annap- 
olis and  rescued  Washington.  Commissioned 
Major  General  May  16,  1861.  Commanded  at 
Fortress  Monroe  and  at  New  Orleans.  The 
latter  place  he  governed  with  ability  until  Dec. 
1862.  In  Nov.,  1863,  placed  in  command  of  the 
Department  of  Virginia  and  North  Carolina. 
He  occupied  City  Point  and  Bermuda  Hundred 
May  5,  1864.  He  was  unsuccessful  at  Fort 
Fisher  and  subsequenly  relieved  of  his  com- 
mand. Member  of  Congress  in  1866.  Governor 
of  Mass.  1883.  Failed  of  re-election  Nov.  6, 

1883.  ‘ ‘ Greenback  ” Candidate  for  President 

1884. 

Cal houn,  .John  C.— This  eminent  Southern 
statesman  was  born  in  Abbeville  District,  S.  C. , 
March,  1782.  He  graduated  at  Yale  College  in 
1804,  and  in  1811  took  his  seat  as  a member  of 
Congress.  He  was  politically  a Democrat  and 


a leader  of  the  War  party.  He  was  a warm  sup- 
porter of  the  Tariff  of  1816  and  of  the  U.  S.  Bank. 
He  served  as  Secretary  of  War  in  the  Cabinet 
of  President  Monroe,  and  became  Vice-President 
of  the  United  States  in  1825,  and  again  in  1829 
under  Gen.  J ackson.  About  this  time  he  adopt- 
the  views  of  Free  Trade  and  the  Sovereignty 
of  the  States.  He  wrote  the  “ South  Carolina 
Expositions,”  and  affirmed  the  principles  pro- 
claimed by  Robert  Y.  Hayne.  He  resigned  the 
office  of  Vice-President  in  1832  for  the  purpose 
of  taking  his  seat  as  Senator  from  S.  C.  In  the 
nullification  proceedings  he  took  part  with  his 
native  State.  The  “Ordinance  of  Nullification” 
was  to  take  effect  Feb.  12,  1833,  but  the  deter- 
mined attitude  of  General  Jackson  caused 
general  alarm,  and  when  Henry  Clay  proposed 
his  compromise  measure,  which  was  a virtual 
abandonment  of  the  protective  tariff  after  1843, 
Mr.  Calhoun  gave  him  his  cordial  support. 
He  retired  from  the  U.  S.  Senate  in  1843  and 
was  appointed  Secretary  of  State  by  Mr.  Tyler, 
Mar.  1844,  but  was  re-elected  to  the  Senate  in 
1845,  and  continued  a member  until  his  death. 
He  was  opposed  to  the  Mexican  War  in  1846, 
although  he  had  previously  negotiated  the 
treaty  for  the  annexation  of  Texas.  His  private 
character  was  above  reproach.  Two  works  of 
his  published  after  his  death, — one  a “ Dis- 


quisition on  Government,”  the  other,  “A 
Discourse  on  the  Constitution  and  Government 
of  the  U.  S.,”  are  held  in  high  esteem  by  his 
political  friends.  He  died  March  31,  1850. 


J56 


BIOGRAPHICAL  DICTIONARY. 


Cameron,  Simon.— He  was  bom  in  Lan-’ 

caster  Co.,  Pa.,  March  8,  1799.  Was  elected 
Senator  of  the  United  States  from  Penn,  in 
1845  as  a Democrat.  Joined  the  Republican 
party  and  elected  to  the  Senate  in  1856.  Sec- 
retary of  War  from  March,  1861,  to  Jan.,  1862. 
Sent  as  Minister  to  Russia,  but  returned  in  1863. 
In  1866  was  again  elected  to  the  U.  S.  Senate ; 
re-elected  in  1872  and  resigned  in  1877  to  be  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son,  James  D.  Cameron.  Died 
June  26,  1889. 

Canby,  Edw.  R.  S.— He  was  born  in  Ken- 
tucky in  1817.  Graduated  at  West  Point  1839. 


Served  in  the  Infantry  from  his  graduation 
until  1846.  In  Florida  1839HL2 ; transporting 
Indians  1842-46  ; Adjutant  2d  Infantry  1846-47  ; 
brevetted  Major  and  Lieutenant  Colonel  for  gal- 
lantry in  Mexico  ; Assistant  Adjutant  General 
of  Pacific  Division  1849-51 ; in  the  Adjutant 
General’s  office  in  Washington,  1851-55;  Utah 
Expedition  1857-60;  Navajo  Expedition  1860- 
61.  In  the  Civil  War,  commander  in  New 
Mexico,  1861-62 ; brevetted  Brigadier  General. 
Special  duty  War  Department  and  suppressing 
New  York  draft  riots  in  1863-64.  Commanded 
in  West  Missisippi  1864-65 ; brevetted  Major 
General.  Gulf  Department  1865-66.  Depart- 
ment of  Washington,  1866-67.  Commanded 
Department  of  the  Columbia  and  was  treach- 
erously killed  by  the  Indian  “Jack”  April 
11,  1873. 

Carlisle,  Joint  O.— Was  born  at  Coving- 
ton, Ky. , in  1835.  Began  to  teach  school  and 
read  law  in  1852  and  was  admitted  to  the  Bar 
in  1858.  Member  of  the  State  Legislature  in 
1864  to  1866,  and  Lieutenant  Governor  of  Ken- 
tucky 1875.  Member  of  Congress  1879  to  1889. 
Speaker  of  the  House  1883-1889.  U.  S.  Senator 
from  Kentucky  1890. 


Carroll,  John.— Born  in  Upper  Mark 
borough,  Md.,  Jan.  8,  1735.  Educated  at  St. 
Omer  College,  French  Flanders,  and  the  Jesuits’ 
College,  Liege.  Ordained  a Priest  1769;  con- 
secrated a Bishop  1790,  and  made  Archbishop 
1808.  At  request  of  Congress,  delivered  an 
eulogy  on  Washington,  Feb.  22,  1800.  Died 
Dec.  3,  1815. 

Cass,  Lewis. — W as  born  at  Exeter,  N.  H., 
Oct.  9,  1782.  Began  the  practice  of  Law  at 
Zanesville,  O.,  in  1802.  He  was  taken  prisoner 
in  the  War  of  1812,  and  afterwards  promoted  to 
Brigadier  General.  Governor  of  Michigan 
Territory  in  1814,  and  held  that  office  for  sixteen 
years,  negotiating  many  treaties  with  the 
Indians.  Appointed  Secretary  of  War  by 
President  Jackson  in  1831.  Minister  to  Frantee 
from  1836  to  1842.  U.  S.  Senator  from  the  State 
of  Michigan  in  1844.  Defeated  as  Democratic 
Candidate  for  Presideut  in  1848.  In  1849  was 
re-elected  to  the  U.  S.  Senate.  Became  Sec- 
retary of  State  in  1857,  and  resigned  in  Dec. , 
1860.  He  died  June  17,  1866. 

dimming,  William  E. — This  eminent 
American  author  and  divine  was  born  at  New- 
port, R.  I.,  April  7,  1780.  He  graduated  from 
Harvard  College  with  the  highest  honors  in 
1798.  Employed  as  tutor  in  Richmond,  Va.,  he 
received  a view  of  slavery  that  influenced  all 
his  subsequent  life.  Returning  to  Newport, 
R.  I.,  in  1800.  Regent  of  Harvard  College,  1802, 


but  became  Pastor  of  the  Federal  Street  Uni- 
tarian Church  in  1803.  He  delivered  his  cele- 
brated lecture,  perhaps  the  finest  of  all  his 
efforts,  on  the  fall  of  N apoleon  in  1814.  Harvard 
College  conferred  the  degree  of  D.  D.  upon  him 
in  1820.  In  1822  he  went  to  England  and  made 


BIOGRAPHICAL  DICTIONARY. 


57 


he  acquaintance  of  Wordsworth,  Coleridge 
and  many  others.  Coleridge  said  of  him,  ‘ ‘ He 
has  the  love  of  wisdom  and  the  wisdom  of  love.  ” 
His  ‘ ‘ Remarks  on  the  Life  and  Character  of 
Napoleon  Bonaparte,”  which  appeared  in  the 
“Christian  Examiner”  in  1828,  did  much  to 
spread  his  fame  to  all  civilized  lands.  “Evi- 
dences of  Christianity,”  a course  of  Lectures 
delivered  in  1821,  established  his  claim  to  be 
regarded  as  one  of  the  great  theological  writers 
of  the  century.  He  was  an  advocate  of  Tem- 
perance and  an  opponent  to  Slavery.  He  died 
Oct.  2,  1842. 


Chase,  Salmon  P.— This  American  States- 
man and  jurist  was  born  at  Cornish,  N.  H., 


Jan.  13,  1808.  He  was  the  sixth  in  direct 
lineage  from  Aquila  Chase,  who  came  from 
England  in  1630.  He  graduated  from  Dart- 
mouth College  in  1826.  He  studied  law  and 
taught  school  in  Washington,  D.  C.  Admitted 
to  the  Bar  in  1829.  In  1830  went  to  Cincinnati 
to  practice.  He  prepared  an  edition  of  the 
“Statutes  of  Ohio,”  with  notes  and  a His- 
torical Introduction,  which  brought  him  into 
notice.  In  1834  he  was  Solicitor  of  the  U.  S. 
Bank  in  Cincinnati  and  never  after  lacked 
employment.  He  was  opposed  to  the  spread 
of  Slavery  and  his  great  maxim  was,  ‘ ‘ Slavery 
is  sectional,  freedom  is  national.  ” U.  S.  Senator 
from  1849  to  1855.  Governor  of  Ohio  1855  to 


1859.  U.  S.  Senator,  Mar.  1.  1861,  but  he  was 
very  soon  called  into  Mr.  Lincoln’s  Cabinet  as 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury.  With  an  empty 
treasury  and  impaired  credit  at  first,  he  brought 
great  financial  ability  to  the  discharge  of  his 
duties.  His  important  public  measures  adopted 
by  Congress,  the  issue  of  legal  tender  currency 
and  a national  banking  system,  enabled  the 
Government  to  carry  on  a gigantic  war  and 
maintain  its  credit.  He  resigned  this  position 
in  June,  1864,  and  became  Chief  Justice  of  the 
U.  S.  in  Dec.,  1864,  in  place  of  Chief  Justice 
Taney.  In  this  position  he  had  to  deal  with 
questions  growing  out  of  the  war,  occasioned 
by  the  political  movements  in  which  he  had 
shared.  He  presided  over  the  Senate  at  the 
impeachment  of  President  Andrew  Johnson  in 
1868.  He  was  stricken  with  paralysis  in  1870, 
but  retained  his  mental  vigor  until  his  death,  4 
May  7,  1873. 

Cheves,  Langdon.-He  was  born  in  Abbey- 
ville  District,  S.  C.,  Sept.  17,  1776.  Member  of 
Congress  from  1811  to  1816.  Speaker  of  the 
House  of  Representatives  for  one  session,  Dec. , 
1814  to  1815.  He  voted  against  the  bill  to  re- 
charter the  United  States  Bank,  but  subse- 
quently became  President  of  that  Institution, 
1819  to  1822.  He  died  June  25,  1857. 

Church,  Frederick  E.— An  American 


landscape  painter,  was  born  at  Hartford, 
Conn. , May  14,  1826.  He  visited  South  America 
in  1853  to  study  the  scenery  of  the  Andes.  He 


58 


BIOGRAPHICAL  DICTIONARY. 


ranked  high  as  an  artist  on  account  of  his 
paintings,  “ The  Heart  of  the  Andes,”  “ Morn- 
ing on  the  Cordilleras,”  “ Sunrise  at  Mount 
Desert,”  “ The  Parthenon,  ” “Jerusalem,”  and 
many  others.  He  visited  the  Holy  Lands  in 
1868  and  made  a second  tour  to  South  America 
in  1875.  He  had  a studio  in  New  York  City. 

Cl  ail  in,  Horace  B.— Distinguished  mer- 
chant prince.  Born  in  Milford,  Mass.,  Dec. 


18,  1811.  Received  a common  school  education, 
and  after  serving  in  his  father’s  store,  went  into 
business  for  himself,  1882.  Opened  his  importing 
and  jobbing  dry  goods  house  in  New  York  City, 
July,  1843.  Suspended  briefly  in  panic  of  1860- 
61,  but  passed  creditably  thorough  those  of 
1857,  1873.  He  gave  largely  to  church  and 
charity.  Died  Nov.  14,  1885. 

Clay,  Cassius  H.— He  was  born  in  Madison 
Co.,  Ky.,  Oct.  19,  1810,  and  graduated  from 
Yale  College  in  1832.  He  was  strongly  opposed 
to  the  annexation  of  Texas,  favored  the  aboli- 
tion of  slavery  and  made  addresses  in  the  North 
in  1844,  in  favor  of  Henry  Clay.  He  was  Editor 
©f  the  “ Free- American,  ” an  anti-slavery  paper 
published  at  Lexington,  Ky.  He  was  several 
times  attacked  by  mobs,  but  defended  himself 
bravely.  Served  in  Mexico  as  Captain  in  1846- 
-47.  Brigadier  General  in  1861.  Minister  to 
Russia  1862  to  1869. 

Clay,  Henry.— This  American  orator,  legis- 
lator and  statesman  was  born  near  “The 
Slashes”  in  Hanover  Co.,  Virginia,  April  12, 
1777.  His  father  died  when  he  was  five,  and 
his  mother  married  again  ten  years  after,  leav- 
ing young  Henry  a clerk  in  a small  store  in 
Richmond.  He  soon  found  his  way  to  the  law 


office  of  the  Clerk  of  Courts,  and  four  years 
after  to  that  of  the  Attorney  General.  He  was 
licensed  to  practise  before  he  was  twenty-one 
years  of  age.  Then  he  followed  his  mother  and 
opened  a Law-office  at  Louisville,  Ky.  When 
the  State  Constitution  was  formed,  young  Clay 
publicly  besought  the  Convention  to  provide 
for  the  gradual  abolition  of  Slavery,  but  was 
outvoted,  as  he  was  fifty  years  after  when  he 
renewed  the  proposition  at  the  time  of  re\  ision. 
In  the  Presidential  election  of  1800,  young  Clay 
took  an  earnest  part,  and  the  favorite  orator 
was  elected  to  the  State  Legislature  in  1803. 
Late  in  1806,  before  he  was  quite  thirty  years 
of  age,  he  was  chosen  by  the  Legislature  to  fill 
out  an  unexpired  term  in  the  U.  S.  Senate. 
He  was  a member  only  one  session,  but  took  a 
high  rank.  He  was  chosen  Speaker  of  the 
House  of  Representatives  in  the  State  Legis- 
lature in  1807,  and  two  years  later  sent  to  the 
U.  S.  Senate  for  an  unexpired  term  of  two 
years.  In  1811  he  was  elected  as  U.  S.  Repre- 
sentative, and  the  first  day  of  the  session  was 
chosen  Speaker  of  the  House.  He  was  in  favor 
of  the  War  of  1812,  and  being  sent  to  Europe  to 


negotiate  peace,  came  home  with  honor.  He 
was  at  once  re-chosen  Speaker  in  1815.  He  be- 
came Secretary  of  State  under  President  Adams 
in  1825.  Mr.  Clay  was  three  times  a candidate 
for  President ; in  1824,  when  there  was  no  elec- 


BIOGRAPHICAL  DICTIONARY. 


69 


tion  by  the  people ; in  1832,  when  he  was  badly 
defeated  by  General  Jackson  ; and  in  1844,  when 
he  nearly  won  the  honor.  He  was  returned  to 
the  U.  S.  Senate  in  1832,  where  he  served  until 
his  death  with  only  an  interval  of  two  years, 
1842  to  1844.  He  made  his  last  journey  to 
Washington  in  1851  and  died  June  29,  1852. 

Cleveland,  Grover.- The  twenty-second 
President  of  the  United  States  was  born  in 
Caldwell,  Essex  Co.,  N.  J.,  March  18,  1837. 
He  obtained  a good  common  school  education, 
and  at  seventeen  years  of  age  went  to  Buffalo, 
N.  Y. , as  a Law  student.  He  was  admitted  to 
the  Bar  in  1859  ; was  Assistant  District  Attorney 
of  Erie  Co.  in  1863.  He  was  Sheriff  of  the 
County  from  1871  to  1873.  Mayor  of  Buffalo  in 
1881.  Governor  of  New  York  1883,  and  in- 
augurated President  of  the  United  States,  Mar. 
4,  1885.  Re-nominated  in  1888,  but  failed  of 
election. 

Cleveland,  Rose  E.— Miss  Cleveland  was 
born  in  Fayetteville,  N.  Y.  She  graduated  at 
Houghton  Seminary,  and  remained  there  as 
teacher  for  two  years.  Became  Principal  of 
the  Collegiate  Institute,  Lafayette,  Ind.  When 


her  brother  became  President  she  accompanied 
him  to  the  Executive  Mansion  at  Washington, 
D.  C.,  and  became  its  Mistress.  Author  of 
George  Eliot’s  Essays  and  other  studies,  1885. 


Cleveland,  Frances  F.— This  lady  was 
the  daughter  of  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Folsom,  of 
N.  Y.  Her  father  was  the  law  partner  of 


Grover  Cleveland.  Miss  Folsom  was  born  in 
1863  and  graduated  at  West  College,  Aurora, 
N.  Y.  After  graduation  she  travelled  in  Europe 
with  her  mother.  She  returned  to  the  United 
States  and  became  the  wife  of  Grover  Cleve- 
land, twenty-second  President,  on  the  2d  day  of 
June,  1886.  This  talented  and  well  educated 
lady  became  mistress  of  the  White  House  and 
assumed  her  position  as  the  leader  of  Washing- 
ton Society  with  a quiet  dignity  and  becoming 
grace  that  won  the  admiration  of  all  classes. 
She  met  the  requirements  of  her  station  with  an 
affability  and  courtesy  that  won  all  hearts. 
On  her  retirement  from  the  Presidential  Man- 
sion, she  found  herself  a favorite  in  all  parts 
of  the  country. 

Clinton,  DeWitt.- This  eminent  American 
Statesman  was  born  at  Little  Britain,  Orange 
Co. , N.  Y. , Mar.  2,  1769.  He  graduated  from 
Columbia  College  in  1786 ; studied  Law  and 
became  Private  Secretary  to  his  uncle,  then 
Governor  of  N.  Y.  Member  of  the  Assembly 
injl797  and  of  State  Senate  1798.  U.  S.  Senator 
1801.  Mayor  of  New  York  City  1803,  which 
office  he  held  for  nearly  eleven  years.  Lieu- 
tenant Governor  1811  to  1813.  He  differed  from 


60 


BIOGRAPHICAL  DICTIONARY. 


President  Madison  in  regard  to  the  War  of 
1812  and  retired  to  private  life  in  1814.  But  he 
became  a prominent  advocate  of  the  Canal 
system,  and  in  1817  was  elected  Governor  almost 


unanimously,  and  was  re-elected  in  1820.  He 
declined  to  run  in  1822,  but  was  again  elected  in 
1824.  When  the  opening  of  the  Erie  Canal 
was  celebrated  in  Oct. , 1825,  Gov.  Clinton  was 
conveyed  in  a barge  from  Erie  to  New  York  in 
triumph.  He  was  re-elected  in  1826,  and  died 
at  Albany  before  his  term  expired,  Feb.  11, 
1828. 

Clinton,  CJeorg-e.— The  fourth  Vice-Presi- 
dent of  the  U.  S.  and  uncle  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  Ulster  Co.,  New  York,  July  26, 
1739.  He  was  a Lawyer,  and  member  of  the 
first  Continental  Congress  in  1775.  He  voted 
for  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  but  was 
absent  in  command  of  a Brigade  of  Infantry 
when  it  was  signed.  Governor  of  N.  Y.  from 
1777  to  1795.  He  presided  at  the  Convention  to 
ratify  the  Constitution  of  the  U.  S.  in  1788,  but 
disapproved  of  that  document  because  it  gave 
too  much  power  to  the  Central  Government. 
Again'  Governor  in  1801.  Vice-President  of 
the  U.  S.  from  1805  until  his  death,  April  20, 
1812. 

Cobb,  Howell.— Was  born  in  Jefferson  Co., 
Ga. , Sept.  7,  1815.  Elected  to  Congress  in  1843, 
1845,  1847,  1849. — Speaker  of  the  House  in  the 
last-mentioned  year.  Governor  of  Georgia, 
1851.  Secretary  of  U.  S.  Treasury  under 


Buchanan,  1857  to  1860.  Resigned  and  was 
President  of  the  Congress  of  Secessionists  in 
Feb.,  1861.  Major  General  in  the  Confederate 
Army.  Died  in  New  York  City  very  suddenly, 
Oct.  9,  1868. 

Colfax,  Schuyler.— Was  a grandson  of  Gen. 
William  Colfax,  and  was  born  in  New  York 
City,  March  23,  1823.  He  removed  with  his 
widowed  mother  to  Northern  Indiana  in  1836 
and  settled  at  South  Bend.  In  1845  he  became 
Editor  of  the  “St.  Joseph  Valley  Register,” 
a Whig  paper  published  at  that  place.  Elected 
to  Congress  in  1854  and  continued  until  1869. 
Speaker  of  the  House  from  1863  to  1869.  Served 
as  Vice-President  of  the  United  States  1869  to 
1873.  Died  Jan.  13.  1885.  A bronze  statue  of 
him  was  erected  in  Indianapolis,  Ind. , in  1887. 

Conkling-,  Roscoe.-Born  in  Albany,  N. 
Y.,  Oct.  30,  1829.  Educated  for  the  Bar.  Re- 
moved to  Utica  1846.  District  Atty.  for  Oneida 
County  1850.  Mayor  of  Utica  1858.  Elected 
to  36th,  37th,  39th  and  40th  Congresses,  and  to 
U.  S.  Senate  1866,  1873,  1879.  Resigned  with 
his  colleague,  Mr.  Platt,  1880,  charging  bad 
faith  on  President  Garfield,  in  the  matter  of 


New  York  Collectorship.  Established  himself 
in  Law  Practice  in  New  York  City,  rigidly 
avoiding  politics.  Died  April  17,  1888. 

Columbus,  Christopher. — The  discoverer 
of  America  was  born  of  obscure  parents  at 
Genoa  in  1436.  He  styles  himself  ‘ ‘ formerly  a 
weaver.”  His  father’s  name  was  Dominico 
Columbo,  and  his  mother's,  Susanna  Fontana- 
rossa.  He  studied  at  Pavia,  and  at  fourteen 
went  to  sea.  In  a certain  letter,  he  mentions 


BIOGRAPHICAL  DICTIONARY. 


61 


that  he  commanded  a cruiser  in  the  service  of 
the  Count  of  Province;  he  also  speaks  of 
voyages  to  the  Archipelago,  and  in  1477  to  the 
Isle  of  Thule.  Once  he  was  shipwrecked  and 
swam  two  leagues  to  land.  Thence  he  walked 
to  Lisbon,  where  he  found  several  of  his  fellow- 
countrymen.  Here  he  married  Filipa  Monis  de 
Palistrello,  whose  father  was  an  able  navigator, 
but  now  old.  Columbus  supported  this  father- 
in-law,  as  well  as  his  own  brothers,  by  making 
maps  and  charts.  During  his  residence  at  Porto 
Santo,  his  mind  gradually  became  possessed  of 
the  idea  of  a western  ocean  track  to  the  East 
Indies.  He  corresponded  with  Toscanelli,  an 
Italian  mathematician,  who  had  written  upon 
the  subject.  After  trying  to  gain  royal  pat- 
ronage from  several  of  the  Courts  of  Europe, 
he  finally  set  sail  from  Palos,  Aug.  3,  1492,  with 
one  hundred  and  twenty  men  and  three  small 
vessels.  In  spite  of  many  obstacles  and  the 
threatened  mutiny  of  his  crew,  he  kept  on 
and  landed  upon  the  Island  of  San  Salvador, 
Oct.  12,  1492.  He  made  three  subsequent 
voyages  to  the  new  world,  suffered  violent 
persecutions  and  wrongs,  and  died  without 
knowing  the  full  extent  of  the  discoveries  he 
had  made.  He  died  at  Valladolid,  May  20,  1506, 
and  was  finally  buried  at  Havana  on  the  Island 
of  Cuba. 

Cooper,  James  Fenimore.- This  popular 
author  was  born  at  Burlington,  N.  J. , Sept.  15, 
1789,  and  was  the  son  of  Judge  William  Cooper. 
He  entered  Yale  College  in  1802  and  became  a 
midshipman  in  the  U.  S.  N avy  in  1806.  He  quit- 
ted that  service  in  1811.  In  1819  he  published  a 
novel,  entitled  “Precaution,”  which  was  con- 
sidered a failure.  His  next  work  was  “The 
Spy,”  published  in  1822,  which  met  with  great 
success  and  was  translated  into  several  Euro- 
pean languages.  His  fictitious  writings  are  dis- 
tinctly American  and  “are  instinct  with  a 
spirit  of  nationality.”  His  Leather-Stocking 
Tales  and  Tales  of  the  Sea,  are  considered 
specimens  of  classic  English.  He  died  at  Coopers- 
town  Sept.  14,  1851. 

Cooper,  l*eier. — This  American  inventor, 
manufacturer  and  philanthropist  was  born  in 
the  city  of  New  York,  Feb.  12,  }791.  His  father 
required  his  assistance  and  young  Peter  received 
only  a meager  schooling  of  one-half  of  each 
day  for  a year.  He  was  placed  to  learn  the 
trade  of  coachmaker  when  seventeen  years  of 
age,  and  at  the  close  of  his  apprenticeship  his 
master  offered  to  set  him  up  in  business,  but 
he  declined  to  accept  the  offer.  Mr.  Cooper 


invented  a machine  for  shearing  cloth  which 
came  into  use  in  the  war  of  1812,  but  after  its 
close  he  became  a’  cabinetmaker.  He  finally 
engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  glue  and  isin- 
glass, which  he  carried  on  for  fifty  years.  He 
saw  the  great  resources  of  this  country  for  iron, 
and  in  1830  erected  works  near  Baltimore  and 
later,  a rolling  mill  near  New  York.  In  1845 
he  erected  the  most  extensive  mill  of  this  kind 
then  in  the  country.  He  built  from  his  own 
designs  the  first  locomotive  ever  constructed  in 
this  country,  and  it  was  successfully  run  on  the 


Baltimore  and  Ohio  R.  R.  He  became  interested 
in  Telegraph  lines  and  took  active  part  in  the 
establishment  of  the  Atlantic  Cable  which  was 
laid  in  1854.  He  served  in  both  branches  of  the 
Common  Council  of  New  York  City  and  as 
School  Commissioner.  He  founded  the  Cooper 
Institute  and  laid  the  corner  stone  in  1854.  He 
was  nominated  by  the  Independent  party  for 
President  of  the  United  States  in  1876,  and 
received  nearly  one  hundred  thousand  votes. 
He  died  April  4,  1883. 

Corcoran,  Michael*— This  brave  General 
was  born  in  Carrowkeel,  Ireland,  Sept.  21,  1827. 
He  emigrated  to  the  United  States  in  1849  and 
settled  in  New  York  City.  He  became  Colonel 
of  the  69th  N.  Y.  Militia,  and  at  the  commence- 
ment of  the  Civil  War  departed  for  Washington 
and  participated  in  the  first  battle  of  Bull  Run. 
He  was  taken  prisoner  and  held  for  a year. 


62 


BIOGRAPHICAL  DICTIONARY. 


He  organized  the  Corcoran  Legion  after  being 
exchanged  and  was  promoted  to  be  Brigadier 
General,  to  date  from  the  day  of  his  capture, 
July  21,  1861.  He  was  thrown  from  his  horse 
at  Fairfax  Court  House,  Va.,  Dec.  28,  1868,  and 
fatally  injured. 

Corcoran,  William  W.— Distinguished 
philanthropist  and  art  patron.  Born  in  George- 


town, D.  C.f  Dec.  27,  1798.  Presented  the 
Washington  Orphan  Asylum  its  valuable 
grounds,  erected  and  endowed  the  Corcoran 
Art  Gallery,  and  the  Louise  Home  for  Women  ; 
endowed  Columbia  College  with  a princely 
estate,  and  gave  largely  to  the  College  of 
William  and  Mary,  the  Virginia  Military  Insti- 
tute, the  University  of  Washington  and  Lee, 
the  University  of  Virginia,  and  other  Insti- 
tutions. Died  Feb.  24,  1888. 

Cox,  Samuel  S.— This  genial  statesman  was 
born  at  Zanesville,  Ohio,  Sept.  30,  1824,  and 
graduated  from  Brown  University,  R.  I.,  in 
1846.  He  was  a Democratic  Member  of  Congress 
from  Ohio  from  1857  to  1865.  Then  he  removed 
to  New  York  City  and  was  sent  again  to  Con- 
gress in  1869  and  served  until  he  was  sent  as 
Minister  to  Turkey  in  1885.  He  resigned  the 
next  year  and  was  returned  to  Congress  for  the 
unexpired  term  of  J.  Pulitzer  in  1886.  Re- 
elected in  1887  and  served  with  credit  until  his 
death,  Sept.  16,  1889.  He  was  a well  known 
1 ecturer  and  published  several  popular  volumes. 


Among  them  are  “Why  We  Laugh,”  “Eight 
Years  in  Congress,  ” “ Three  Decades  of  Federal 
Legislation,  ” ‘ ‘ The  Isles  of  the  Princes,  ” ‘ ‘ The 
Pleasures  of  Prinkipo,”  etc.  He  died  Sept.  10, 

1889. 

Crittenden,  John  J.— Was  born  in  Wood- 
ford Co.,  Ky.,  Sept.  10,  1786.  He  studied  Law 
and  practised  with  distinction.  He  was  elected 
to  the  U.  S.  Senate  for  a short  term  in  1817. 
After  sixteen  years  of  private  life  he  was 
returned  to  the  U.  S.  Senate  by  the  Whigs  in 
1835,  and  served  six  years.  In  1841  he  was 
appointed  Attorney  General  of  the  U.  S. , but 
resigned  in  Sept,  of  that  year.  Again  a U.  S. 
Senator  in  1843.  Governor  of  Kentucky  in 
1848.  Attorney  General  under  Mr.  Fillmore 
from  July,  1850,  to  March,  1853.  Again  a 
Member  of  the  U.  S.  Senate  in  1855.  Opposed 
Secession  in  1860  and  1861.  The  author  of  the 
‘ ‘ Crittenden  Compromise.  ” Died  J uly  26,  1863. 

Cummings,  J o se p It.  — This  successful 
American  educator  was  born  in  Falmouth,  Me. , 
March  3,  1817,  and  graduated  at  Wesleyan  Uni- 
versity, Middletown,  Conn.,  in  1840.  Entered 
the  ministry  of  the  M.  E.  Church  in  1841.  Pro- 
fessor of  Theology  in  the  Biblical  Institute, 
Concord,  N.  H.,  1853.  President  of  Genesee 
from  1854  to  1857.  President  of  Wesleyan  Uni- 
versity, 1857  to  1872.  Pastor  of  Churches  in 
Mass. , 1872  to  1881.  President  of  North  Western 
University,  Evanston,  111.,  1881,  to  his  death, 
March  7,  1890. 

Curtin,  Andrew  Cf.— Governor  Curtin  was 
born  in  Centre  Co.,  Pa. , April  22,  1817.  He  was 


the  son  of  Roland  Curtin,  one  of  the  earliest 
iron  manufacturers  of  that  County.  Governor 
Curtin  studied  Law  at  Dickenson  College  and 
canvassed  the  State  for  Henry  Clay  in  1844. 
Secretary  of  the  Commonwealth  in  1854. 


BIOGRAPHICAL  DICTIONARY. 


63 


Governor  from  1860  to  1866.  Minister  to  Russia 
in  1869.  Member  of  Congress  1881  to  1887. 

Curtis,  George  William.— This  American 
author  and  orator  was  born  at  Providence, 
R.  I.,  Feb.  24,  1824.  He  visited  Europe,  studied 
in  the  University  of  Berlin  and  made  an  ex- 
tensive tour  in  the  Levant,  returning  in.  1850. 
He  published  among  other  works,  “Nile  Notes 
of  a Howadji”  in  1851;  “The  Howadji  in 
Syria,”  and  “ Lotus-Eating  ” in  1852;  “The 
Potiphar  Papers”  in  1854.  He  also  became 
distinguished  as  a popular  lecturer  and  an 
orator  for  the  Republican  party.  He  was  ap- 
pointed by  President  Grant  as  Chairman  of 
the  Advisory  Board  of  the  Civil  Service.  He 
was  Editor  of  “Harper’s  Weekly,”  and  of  the 
Easy  Chair  in  “Harper’s  Magazine.”  He  re- 
ceived a gold  medal  from  Boston  for  his  Eulogy 
on  Wendell  Phillips,  delivered  there  in  1884. 

Curtis,  Samuel  R.— This  American  officer 
was  born  near  Champlain,  N.  Y. , Feb.  3,  1805, 
and  graduated  at  West  Point  1831.  He  served 
at  Fort  Gibson  until  June  30,  1832,  when  he  re- 
signed. Civil  Engineer  1836  to  1841 ; Counsellor 
at  Law  1841  to  1846 ; Adjutant  General  of  Ohio 
1846 ; Colonel  of  the  2d  Ohio  Yols.  in  the  Mexi- 
ican  War,  1846-48;  Chief  Engineer  on  several 
important  works,  1847  to  185  5;  Member  of  Con- 
gress 1857  to  1861.  Colonel  of  Second  Iowa 
Vols.  in  1861 ; Major  General  of  Yols.  Mar.  21, 
1862  ; commanded  the  Department  of  Missouri 
1862-63 ; Department  of  Kansas  1864-65  ; Depart- 
ment of  the  Northwest  in  1865,  where  he  nego- 


tiated several  important  treaties  with  the  In- 
dians. United  States  Commissioner  to  examine 
the  U nion  Pacific  R.  R.  1865-66.  Mustered  out 
of  U.  S.  service  April  30,  1866.  Died  at  Council 
Bluffs,  la.,  Dec.  26,  1866. 


Cushing-,  Caleb.— This  renowned  Ameri- 
can jurist  and  scholar  was  born  in  Salisbury, 
Mass.,  Jan.  17,  1800.  He  graduated  at  Harvard 
and  traveled  in  Europe  in  1829.  Was  elected  to 
Congress  as  a Whig  in  1835  and  served  four 


consecutive  terms.  He  was  a political  friend  of 
Andrew  Jackson,  which  caused  him  to  separate 
from  his  former  party  in  1841.  He  was  nomin- 
ated as  Secretary  of  State  in  1843,  but  was  re- 
jected by  the  Senate.  Served  as  a Colonel  in 
the  Mexican  War  with  the  Regiment  which  he 
had  equipped  at  his  own  expense.  He  was 
Justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Mass,  in  1852, 
but  became  Attorney  General  of  the  U.  S.  in 
1853  and  retained  office  four  years.  General 
Grant  appointed  him  to  advocate  the  claims  of 
the  U.  S.  at  Geneva  in  1871.  Minister  to  Spain 
1873.  Died  Jan.  2,  1879. 

Cushing,  William  B.— Was  born  in  the 
State  of  Wisconsin,  Nov.  4,  1843,  and  appointed 
to  the  Naval  Academy  in  1857,  but  resigned  in 
1858.  He,  however,  entered  the  service  as  a 
volunteer  officer  in  1861  and  was  commissioned 
Lieutenant  in  the  Navy  July  16,  1862,  Lieuten- 
ant-Commander in  1864,  and  Commander  in 
1872.  He  became  distinguished  in  1861  on  the 
Blackwater,  in  the  Sounds  of  N.  C.  and  at  New 
River  Inlet.  He  added  to  his  renown  in  1864 
by  several  daring  exploits  and  covered  his  name 
with  glory  by  blowing  up  the  Confederate  ram, 
Albemarle,  at  Plymouth,  N.  C.,  in  1864.  He 
led  the  men  of  the  Monticello  in  the  attack  on 
Fort  Fisher  and  was  always  complimented  for 
his  “courage  and  conduct”  by  his  superiors. 
He  was  several  times  thanked  by  the  Navy 
Department  and  once  by  Congress  for  “dis- 
tinguished services.”  He  died  Dec.  17,  1874. 


64 


BIOGRAPHICAL  DICTIONARY. 


Dallas,  Oeorgfe  UI.— He  was  born  at  Phil- 
adelphia, Pa.,  July  10,  1792,  studied  law  and 
was  admitted  to  the  Bar  in  1813.  He  supported 
General  Jackson  for  President  in  1824.  Was 
elected  United  States  Senator  for  a short  term, 
which  expired  in  Mar. , 1833.  Sent  as  Minister 
to  Russia  in  1837  and  returned  in  1839.  Vice 
President  of  the  U.  S.  1845  to  1849.  Minister  to 
England  1856  to  1861.  Died  Dec.  31,  1864. 

Dai  is,  I> avid.— This  American  jurist  was 
born  in  Cecil  Co.,  Md. , Mar.  9,  1815,  educated 
at  Kenyon  College,  O. , and  studied  law  at  the 
Yale  Law  School.  He  settled  in  Bloomington, 
111. , in  1836.  Elected  to  the  lower  house  of  the 
Legislature  in  1844-45;  to  the  Constitutional 
Convention,  which  formed  a new  State  Consti- 
tution, in  1847.  Judge  of  the  Eighth  Judicial 
Court  1848  and  twice  re-elected,  1855  and  1861. 
Associate  Judge  of  the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court 
Oct.,  1862.  Resigned  and  was  elected  to  the 
U.  S.  Senate  for  six  years  from  1877.  President 


pro.  tem.  of  the  Senate  from  Oct.  13,  1881,  to 
Mar.  3,  1883.  Died  June  26,  1886. 

Davis,  Jefferson.— Was  bom  in  Christian 
Co.,  Ky.,  June  3,  1808;  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1828  ; served  on  various  posts  as  Lieu- 
tenant of  Infantry  1828-1833 ; Adjutant  of 
Dragoons  1833-34 ; resigned  June  30,  1835. 
Settled  as  a cotton-planter  in  Warren  Co., 
Miss.,  1835-46.  U.  S.  Congress  1845-46.  Colonel 
First  Missisippi  Rifle  Yols.  in  Mexican  War 
1846-47.  Member  U.  S.  Senate  1847-51.  Sec- 
retary of  War  in  President  Pierce’s  Cabinet 


1853-57.  Member  U.  S.  Senate  1857  to  ’61. 
President  of  the  Southern  Confederacy  1861,  to 


his  capture,  May  10, 1865.  Prisoner  of  war  1865- 
67,  at  Fortress  Monroe,  Ya.  Released  in  1868. 
Wrote  “Rise  and  Fall  of  the  Southern  Con- 
federacy. ” Resided  on  his  plantation  in  Missi- 
sippi until  his  death  at  New  Orleans,  La.,  Dec. 
6,  1889. 

Davis,  .Volin  W.— He  was  born  in  Lan- 
caster Co.,  Pa. , in  1799.  Completed  his  medical 
studies  and  settled  in  Indiana  in  1823.  He  was 
elected  to  several  minor  offices  : twice  Speaker 
of  the  State  House  of  Representatives ; Com- 
missioner to  treat  with  the  Indians ; U.  S. 
House  of  Representatives  1835,  1839,  1843.  In 
his  last  term  served  as  Speaker.  Commissioner 
to  China  1848 ; Governor  of  Oregon  Territory 
1853-54.  Died  Aug.  22,  1859. 

Deems,  Chas.  F.— He  was  born  in  Balti- 
more, Md.,  Dec.  4,  1820,  and  graduated  at 
Dickinson  College.  He  served  before  the  Civil 
War  in  the  ministry  of  the  M.  E.  Church 
South.  Was  Professor  of  the  University  of 
North  Carolina  1842-47.  Professor  of  Natural 
Science  in  Randolph  Macon  College  1847-52. 
From  1852  to  1860  he  served  in  the  regular  pas- 
toral work.  In  the  latter  year  he  visited  Europe. 
Acted  as  Presiding  Elder  of  M.  E.  Church  in 
N.  C.  from  1860  to  1865.  He  became  Pastor  of 
the  Church  of  the  Strangers,  New  York  City, 


BIOGRAPHICAL  DICTIONARY. 


65 


in  1866.  Author  of  “Life  of  Dr.  Clark,” 
“ Home  Altar,”  “ Light  of  Nations,”  and  many 
other  volumes. 

Depew,  Chauncey  M. — The  President  of 
the  New  York  Central  R.  R.  was  born  at  Peeks- 
kill,  N.  Y.,  in  1837.  His  ancestors  had  been 
farming  on  the  rugged  hills  of  Peekskill  for 


more  than  two  centuries.  Young  Depew 
graduated  from  Yale  College  in  1856  and  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1858.  He  won  his  first 
oratorical  reputation  in  the  Presidential  Cam- 
paign of  1860.  Member  of  the  New  York  Assem- 
bly 1861-62.  Secretaryof  State  one  term.  Com- 
missioned Collector  of  the  Port  of  New  York, 
but  would  not  accept ; also  declined  the  offer  of 
Minister  to  Japan.  He  was  made  Regent  of 
the  State  University  1877.  He  became  con- 
nected with  the  Vanderbilt  R.  R.  system  in 
1866  as  Attorney  for  the  Harlem  R.  R.  Attorney 
for  the  New  York  Central  1875  ; Vice  President 
1883,  and  President  on  the  death  of  Mr.  Rutter. 
His  name  was  presented  to  the  Republican 
Convention  of  1888  as  a candidate  for  President, 
but  was  withdrawn.  Visited  Europe  1890  and 
received  by  the  Prince  of  Wales. 

Dickinson,  JTolin.— This  American  States- 
man and  lawyer  was  born  in  Maryland,  Nov. 
13,  1732.  Studied  law  in  London  and  had  a 
successful  practice  in  Philadelphia.  Member 
of  the  first  Colonial  Congress  in  1765,  and  the 
first  Continental  Congress  in  1774.  He  spoke 
against  the  Declaration  of  Independence  and 
refused  to  sign  it.  For  this  he  became  un- 


popular, but  served  as  a private  in  the  War. 
In  1779  he  represented  Delaware  in  Congress. 
He  was  “President  of  Pennsylvania”  1782-85. 
Founded  and  endowed  the  College  which  bears 
his  name  at  Carlisle,  Pa. , 1783.  Died  Feb.  14, 
1808. 

Dix,  John  A.— This  American  Statesman 
and  General  was  born  at  Boscawen,  N.  H., 
July  24,  1798.  He  entered  the  Army  in  1812 
and  became  Captain  in  1825.  He  resigned  and 
studied  law.  Elected  Secretary  of  State  of 
N.  Y.  in  1833.  U.  S.  Senator  from  1845  to  1849. 
He  was  Secretary  of  the  U.  S.  Treasury  from 
Jan.  to  March,  1861,  and  issued  the  celebrated 
order,  “If  any  man  attempts  to  haul  down 
the  American  flag,  shoot  him  on  the  spot.” 
Major  General,  May,  1861.  In  command  at 
Fortress  Monroe  in  1862,  and  commanded  a 
Corps  in  1863  which  ascended  the  York  River. 
Minister  to  France  1867  to  1868.  Governor  of 
N.  Y.,  1873,  1874.  Died  at  New  York  City, 
April  21,  1879. 

Donbleday,  Aimer.— He  was  born  at 
Saratoga,  N.  Y. , June  26,  1819,  and  graduated 
from  West  Point  in  1842.  He  became  Captain 
in  1855  and  was  at  Fort  Sumpter  in  1861,  and  is 
said  to  have  fired  the  first  shot  in  the  War.  He 
was  commissioned  Brigadier  General  of  Volun- 
teers in  Feb.,  1862,  and  Major  General  in  Nov. 


of  the  same  year.  He  commanded  his  division 
or  corps  in  the  battles  of  Manassas,  South 
Mountain,  Antietam,  Chancellorsville  and 
Gettysburg.  He  was  brevetted  for  gallantry 
as  Brigadier  General  and  Major  General  in  the 
Regular  Army.  He  was  commissioned  as 
Colonel  of  Infantry  in  1867,  and  retired  in  1873 
at  his  own  request,  after  thirty  years  of  con- 
tinuous service. 


66 


BIOGRAPHICAL  DICTIONARY. 


Douglass,  Frederick.— An  American 
orator  born  in  slavery  in  Talbot  Co.,  Md., 
about  1817.  He  learned  to  read  and  write  by 
stealth  and  ran  away  from  his  master  in  1838. 
He  took  up  his  residence  in  New  Bedford,  Mass. 
He  began  to  lecture  against  slavery  in  1841 
and  very  soon  gained  distinction.  Published 
his  Autobiography  in  1845.  He  visited  England 
and  delivered  very  eloquent  addresses  on 
American  Slavery.  Editor  of  the  “North 
Star”  at  Rochester,  N.  Y.  In  1870  Editor  of 
the  “National  Era.”  In  1872  he  was  first  in 
the  list  of  Presidential  electors  chosen  by  the 
Republican  party  of  New  York.  U.  S.  Mar- 
shall D.  C. , 1877-85.  Minister  to  Hayti  1889. 

Douglas,  Stephen  A. — “The  little  giant” 
was  born  at  Brandon,  Vt.,  April  23,  1813.  His 
father,  a respectable  physician,  died  soon  after 
the  birth  of  his  illustrious  son.  At  fifteen  he 


engaged  at  work  with  a cabinet  maker  to  raise 
funds  to  put  himself  through  College.  But 
after  preparing  for  two  years  he  began  the 
study  of  law  and  going  to  Illinois  was  admitted 
to  the  Bar  and  opened  an  office  at  Jacksonville, 
111.,  in  1834.  Within  a year  thereafter,  he  was 
elected  Attorney  General.  In  1835  was  sent  to 
the  State  Legislature.  He  was  chosen  one  of 
the  Judges  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Illinois  in 
1841,  and  resigned  in  1843  to  take  a seat  in 
Congress.  His  first  speech  in  the  House  of 
Representatives  gave  him  a high  rank  among 
the  foremost  orators  in  that  body,  He  sup- 
ported the  annexation  of  Texas  and  the 
Mexican  War.  Mr.  Douglas  was  elected  to 
the  Senate  in  1847  for  six  years,  and  again  in 
1852.  He  was  the  leader  in  the  great  contest 
over  the  Territorial  question  in  1854,  and  suc- 
cessfully carried  the  measures  reported  by  him 


from  the  Senate  Committee.  He  was  re-elected 
Senator  in  1858,  after  a strong  contest  in  which 
he  was  antagonized  by  the  Democratic  Admin- 
istration, on  the  one  hand,  and  the  rising 
Republican  party,  on  the  other.  He  was  a 
prominent  Candidate  before  the  Charleston 
Convention  of  1860,  and  when  the  delegates  of 
certain  States  withdrew,  his  friends  carried  a 
motion  to  adjourn  to  Baltimore.  He  was 
unanimously  nominated  for  President  by  the 
Baltimore  Convention.  The  Presidential  Cam- 
paign was  the  most  bitter  in  the  history  of  the 
nation  and  resulted  in  the  election  of  Mr. 
Lincoln.  He  gave  his  support  to  the  call  for 
75,000  troops  and  aided  in  all  the  measures  that 
came  up  before  his  death,  which  occured  June 
3,  1861. 

Du  Font,  Samuel  F.  This  popular  Naval 
officer  was  born  of  French  ancestry  at  Bergen 


Point.  N.  J.,  Sept.  27,  1803.  He  entered  the 
U.  S.  Navy  as  a midshipman  in  1815 ; became 
Lieutenant  1826 ; Lieutenant  Commander  in 
1842 ; Captain  in  1855  and  Rear  Admiral  in 
1862.  He  commanded  the  “Cyane”  on  the 
west  coast  of  Mexico  in  the  War  with  that 
country ; commanded  the  Expedition  to  Port 
Royal,  S.  C ; engagement  with  Fort  Sumpter, 
April  7,  1863;  and  afterwards  in  the  South 
Atlantic  Squadron;  relieved  of  his  command 
July,  1863.  He  retired  to  his  home  where  he 
died  June  23,  1865. 

Dwlg-lit,  Theodore  W. — This  American 
jurist,  professor  and  editor  was  born  at  Catskill, 
N.  Y.,  July  18,  1822,  and  graduated  at  Hamilton 
College,  N.  Y. , in  1840.  He  studied  law  at  the 
Yale  Law  School.  He  established  a Law  School 
at  Hamilton  in  1846.  In  1858  he  was  elected 


BIOGRAPHICAL  DICTIONARY. 


67 


Professor  of  Muncipal  Law  at  Columbia  College. 
He  soon  became  Warden  of  the  Law  School. 
He  has  written  several  important  law  works. 
He  was  appointed  Judge  of  the  Commission  of 
Appeals  in  1874.  He  was  elected  non-resident 
Professor  of  Constitutional  Law  at  Cornell 
University,  and  Lecturer  at  Amherst  College. 

Edison,  Thomas  A. — “The  Wizard  of 
Electricity”  was  born  in  Milan,  0.,  Feb.  11, 


1847  ; educated  himself  while  a train  boy  on  the 
road  between  Port  Huron  and  Detroit.  He 
became  a telegraph  operator  and  made  his  first 
invention  in  Cincinati  in  1857,  by  which  two 
messages  can  be  sent  at  once  over  the  same 
wire.  He  invented  the  Phonograph  and  brought 
to  perfection  the  system  of  electric  lighting 
by  incandescence.  He  built  an  extensive 
laboratory  at  Menlo  Park,  N.  J.,  in  1876. 
His  inventive  genius  produced  the  telephone, 
the  phonograph,  the  electric  light  and  many 
other  inventions.  His  patents  for  electric 
appliances  number  more  than  one  hundred. 

Edmunds,  George  F. — He  was  born  at 
Richmond,  Vt.,  Feb.  1,  1828.  In  1854  he  was 
a member  of  the  Vermont  Legislature.  He  was 
elected  to  the  U.  S.  Senate  in  1865 ; also  in 
1869  for  six  years.  Again  in  1875,  1881  and 
1887.  He  served  on  the  most  important  Com- 
mittees and  March  3, 1883,  was  elected  President 
pro.  iem.  of  the  Senate.  He  declined  the  position 
of  Associate  Justice  of  the  U.  S.  Supreme 
Court  which  was  tendered  him  March  11,  1882. 

Ellsworth,  Oliver — This  Chief  Justice  of 
the  United  States  was  born  in  Windsor,  Conn., 


April  29,  1745,  and  graduated  at  Princeton  in 
1766.  He  was  admitted  to  the  Bar  in  1771  and 
elected  to  the  Continental  Congress  in  1777. 
In  1784  he  was  appointed  a Judge  in  the  Superior 
Court  and  sat  in  the  Convention  that  framed 
the  Constitution  of  the  U.  S.  He  was  elected 
to  the  Senate  of  the  U.  S.  1789,  and  in  that 
position  won  distinction  as  a debator.  He  was 
a strong  supporter  of  Washington’s  Adminis- 
tration, and  was  appointed  by  him  as  Chief 
Justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  in  1796.  He 
went  to  France  as  Envoy  Extraordinary  to 
negotiate  a treaty  with  that  country  in  1799. 
He  resigned  the  office  of  Chief  Justice  in  1800, 
and  died  Nov.  26,  1807. 

Emerson,  Ralph  W* — The  son  of  Rev. 
William  Emerson  and  Ruth  Haskins  Emerson 
Was  born  in  Boston,  Mass. , May  25,  1803.  He 
graduated  from  Harvard  College  at  eighteen 
years  of  age,  where  he  won  three  prizes  during 
his  course.  For  five  years  after  graduation  he 
taught  schools.  In  March,  1829,  he  was  ordained 
as  colleague  to  Rev.  Henry  Ware  of  the  Second 
Unitarian  Church  in  Boston.  In  1832  he  re- 
signed and  traveled  in  Europe  for  a year.  Soon 
after  his  return  he  began  the  career  of  a 
lecturer.  In  1834  he  gave  a series  of  biographi- 
cal lectures  in  Boston,  and  became  known  as 


one  of  the  best  popular  lecturers  of  the  country. 
He  took  extensive  lecture  tours  through  the 
West  and  South,  In  1835  Mr.  Emerson  took  up 
his  residence  in  Concord,  Mass. , and  the  next 
year  issued  his  celebrated  work,  “Nature,” 


£8 


BIOGRAPHICAL  DICTIONARY. 


which  marked  a new  era  in  thought.  He 
became  the  leader  of  the  school  of  thinkers, 
known  as  Transcendentalists.  He  was  known 
as  the  “Philosopher  of  Concord,”  but  the 
actual  traits  of  his  genius  seem  to  be  poetic 
and  literary.  A list  of  Mr.  Emerson’s  works 
would  make  an  extensive  catalogue.  Two 
volumes  of  Essays  in  1841  and  1844,  and 
“ Poems  ” in  1846.  His  miscellaneous  addresses 
were  collected  and  published  in  1849.  His 
“Representative  Men”  appeared  in  1850. 
These  were  followed  by  many  others.  Mr. 
Emerson  returned  from  an  extensive  European 
tour  with  his  daughter,  May  27,  1873,  to  find  that 
his  house  at  Concord,  which  had  been  burned 
in  his  absence,  had  been  rebuilt  by  his  fellow- 
townsmen  as  a tribute  of  respect.  He  died 
April  27,  1882. 

Ericsson,  Joint.— He  was  born  in  Verme- 
land,  a province  of  Sweden,  July  31,  1803.  He 
was  appointed  Cadet  in  the  Engineer  Corp 
when  eleven  years  old,  and  at  seventeen  rose  to 
Lieutenant.  He  resigned  from  the  Engineer 
Corps  in  1826  and  devoted  himself  to  mechani- 
cal invention.  He  made  improvements  in  steam 
boilers  and  in  1829  produced  a locomotive  that 
could  run  fifty  miles  per  hour ; a steam  fire 


engine  in  1832,  and  a hot  air  engine  in  1833. 
He  first  successfully  applied  the  screw  to  the 
propulsion  of  steam  vessels.  In  1839  he  came 
to  New  York  and  the  U.  S.  screw-steamer, 
Princeton,  was  built  by  him.  He  also  in- 


vented a ‘ ‘ solar  engine  ” and  many  ingenious 
instruments.  He  built  the  iron  clad  vessel, 
the  Monitor,  which  attacked  and  destroyed  the 
Confederate  Ram  Merrimac,  thereby  producing 
a radical  change  in  naval  warfare.  This  inven- 
tion was  produced  March  9,  1862.  He  received 
the  grand  cross  of  the  order  of  Naval  Merit 
from  the  King  of  Spain.  He  died  March  8, 
1889,  and  his  body  was  taken  to  Sweden  by  the 
U.  S.  Man-of-War,  Baltimore,  in  1890. 

Evarts,  William  JI. — An  eminent  lawyer, 
son  of  Jeremiah  Evarts,  was  born  in  Boston, 
Mass.,  Feb.  6,  1818,  and  graduated  at  Yale 
College  in  1837.  Admitted  to  the  Bar  in  1840 
and  won  distinction  in  New  York.  He  was 
employed  as  leading  Counsel  in  the  defense  of 
Andrew  Johnston  at  his  impeachment  before 
the  U.  S.  Senate  in  1868  and  became  Attorney 
General.  He  was  one  of  the  three  lawyers 
appointed  by  President  Grant  to  defend  the 
interests  of  the  citizens  of  the  United  States  at 
the  Geneva  Tribunal  to  settle  the  “Alabama 
Claims.”  Appointed  Secretary  of  State  by 
President  Hayes  March  7,  1877.  Elected  U.  S. 
Senator  from  New  York,  Jan.  21,  1885. 

Everett,  Edward — This  orator  and  states- 
man was  born  in  Dorchester,  Mass.,  April  11, 
1794.  He  graduated  from  Harvard  College 
when  seventeen,  having  taken  the  highest 


prize  twice  in  succession  from  the  Boston 
Schools.  He  was  ordained  Pastor  of  the  Brattle 
St.  Unitarian  Church  Feb.  9,  1814.  He  termi- 
nated his  career  as  a settled  Clergyman  before 
he  was  twenty-one  to  accept  the  Eliot  professor- 


BIOGRAPHICAL  DICTIONARY. 


69 


ship  at  Harvard,  March,  1815.  He  traveled 
and  studied  in  Europe  and  returned  in  1819  to 
assume  the  Chair  to  which  he  had  been  ap- 
pointed. Served  in  Congress  from  1825  to 
1835.  Governor  of  Massachusetts  1836  to  1840. 
Minister  Plenipotentiary  to  England  in  1841. 
President  of  Harvard  from  1845  to  1848.  Sec- 
retary of  State,  Nov.,  1852.  United  States 
Senator  from  Massachusetts  in  1853.  He  retired 
from  political  life  and  engaged  very  extensively 
in  lecturing.  He  devoted  his  energies  to  rais- 
ing sufficient  funds  to  purchase  Mount  Vernon. 
He  died  in  Boston  Jan.  15,  1865. 

Farragut,  David  €r. — This  American  Ad- 
miral was  born  at  Campbell  Station,  Tenn. , 
July  5,  1801,  and  entered  the  Navy  as  Midship- 
man Dec.  10,  1810.  He  saw  his  first  service 
under  Com.  David  Porter.  He  saw  and  took 
part  in  the  severe  contest  with  the  pirates  at 
Cape  Cruz  in  1823  which  resulted  in  their  com- 
plete overthrow.  The  opening  of  the  Civil 
War  found  him  a Captain.  He  was  pressed  to 
unite  his  fortunes  with  the  Confederacy  but 
instead  he  moved  his  family  to  the  North  and 
hastened  to  render  service  to  the  Government. 
He  commanded  the  fleet  at  the  capture  of 
New  Orleans  in  April  1862.  He  ran  the  bat- 
teries at  Vicksburg  the  same  year,  and  on  Mar. 


14,  1863  passed  Port  Hudson  and  opened  com- 
munication with  Com.  Porter.  In  Aug.  1864 
he  captured  Mobile.  Dec.  22,  1864  he  was  com- 
missioned Vice-Admiral.  In  July  1866,  the  rank 
of  Admiral  was  created  for  him,  but  with 
impaired  health  he  held  it  only  until  Aug.  14, 
1870  when  he  died. 

Field,  Cyms  W.— Son  of  Rev.  David  Field 
was  born  at  Stockbridge,  Mass.,  Nov.  30,  1819. 
He  was  educated  in  the  schools  of  his  native 


town,  and  became  a clerk  in  New  York  when 
fifteen.  He  travelled  in  South  America  for  six 
months  in  1853.  Upon  his  return  he  became 
interested  in  ocean  telegraphy.  The  idea  came 


to  him  in  connection  with  the  plan  to  aid  a 
telegraph  company,  to  build  a telegraph  across 
Newfoundland,  to  get  early  news  from  Atlantic 
steamers,  to  continue  the  wire  across  the  ocean. 
In  1854  he  obtained  the  exclusive  right  from  the 
Legislature  of  Newfoundland  to  land  telegraph 
wires  from  America  and  Europe.  The  first 
cable  was  lost  in  a storm  while  in  process  of 
being  laid  in  1855,  and  a second  was  laid  in 

1856.  Mr.  Field  accompanied  the  expedition  of 

1857,  the  two  of  1858,  and  the  subsequent  ones 
of  1865-66.  The  first  two  of  these  were  failures, 
the  third  worked  only  a little  while.  In  1865 
the  cable  was  lost  in  mid-ocean.  The  one  was 
laid  in  1866  and  then  the  lost  one  was  picked  up 
and  completed.  Mr.  Field  crossed  the  ocean 
fifty  times  within  the  thirteen  years  it  required 
to  bring  the  project  to  a success.  He  subse- 
quently became  connected  with  other  ocean 
telegraph  lines  and  also  with  elevated  rail-roads 
in  New  York  City.  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Field  made  a 
tour  of  the  world  in  1880-81. 

Fillmore,  Millard. — The  thirteenth  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States,  was  born  in  Summer 
Hill,  Cayuga  Co.,  N.  Y.,  Jan.  7,  1800.  At  the 
age  of  fifteen  he  was  apprenticed  to  a wool 
carder  and  cloth  dresser.  He  employed  his 
scanty  leisure  in  study,  and  when  nineteen 


70 


BIOGRAPHICAL  DICTIONARY. 


began  to  read  law  and  teach  school.  He  re- 
moved to  Buffalo  in  1822,  and  the  next  year 
was  admitted  to  the  Bar.  He  practiced  in  East 
Aurora  and  Buffalo.  He  was  a member  of  the 
State  Assembly  1829-32,  and  Representative  to 
Congress  in  1833-35  and  1837^41.  He  drew 
up  the  Tariff  Bill  of  1842.  Comptroller  of  the 
State,  1847-49.  Vice  President  1849-50,  and 
became  President  July  5,  1850,  upon  the  death 
of  General  Taylor.  Travelled  in  Europe  1855- 
56.  In  his  later  years  he  took  great  interest  in 
the  historical  and  fine  art  societies  of  Buffalo. 
He  died  Mar.  8,  1874. 

Floyd,  John  B. — He  was  born  in  Mont- 
gomery Co.,  Va.,  1805;  graduated  at  South 
Carolina  College  1826;  studied  and  practiced 
law.  He  removed  to  Helena,  Ark. , in  1836  but 
returned  to  Ya.  in  1839.  Member  of  Congress 
1847-49.  Governor  of  Virginia  1850-53  Active 
partisan  for  James  Buchanan,  who  appointed 
him  Secretary  of  War,  Mar.  4,  1857.  He  used 
this  position  to  favor  the  South,  and  on  the 


secession  of  South  Carolina  in  1861  he  resigned 
his  office.  He  was  indicted  by  the  Grand  Jury 
of  D.  C.  but  was  not  brought  to  trial.  Briga- 
dier General  in  the  Confederate  Army.  His 
course  during  the  war  was  severely  criticised 
by  the  press  of  Virginia.  He  died  Aug.  26,  1863. 

Foote,  Andrew  II. — Was  born  in  New 
Haven,  Conn.  May  4,  1808,  and  entered  the  U. 
S.  Navy  as  Midshipman,  Dec.  4,  1822.  Became 
Lieutenant  in  1830,  a commander  in  1852,  a cap- 
tain in  1861,  and  a Rear  Admiral  in  1862.  He 
was  assigned  to  the 'command  of  the  Western 
Flotilla  in  the  fall  of  1861.  He  was  obliged  to 
superintend  the  construction  of  his  gun  boats 
and  create  a river  navy,  which  he  successfully 
accomplished.  Feb.  6,  1862,  he  captured  Fort 


Henry  and  Feb.  14,  bombarded  Fort  Donaldson, 
aiding  in  its  capture  the  next  morning.  He 
effected  the  capture  of  Island  No.  10,  but  was 


soon  compelled  to  resign  his  command  on 
account  of  wounds.  June  16,  1862  he  received 
the  thanks  of  Congress  and  was  made  Rear 
Admiral.  He  was  taken  ill  when  on  his  way  to 
relieve  Admiral  Du  Pont  and  died  in  New  York, 
June  26,  1863. 

I ranklir,  Benj.— This  Statesman,  philos- 
opher, and  patriot,  was  born  in  Boston,  Mass. , 
Jan.  17,  1706.  He  was  the  fifteenth  of  a family 
of  seventeen  children.  His  father  apprenticed 
him  to  his  older  brother  James  to  learn  the  art 
of  printing.  Young  Benjamin  improved  his 
time  and  sparse  opportunities  by  much  reading, 
careful  and  extended  writing  and  the  unassisted 
study  of  mathematics,  until  he  ventured  to 
print  some  of  his  own  compositions  in  his 
brothers  newspaper.  This  led  to  a rupture 
between  the  brothers,  and  in  1723  Benjamin 
broke  his  indentures  and  ran  away  to  Philadel- 
phia where  he  worked  at  his  trade.  He  went 
to  England  in  1725-1726  and  on  his  return  to 
America  established  the  Pennsylvania  Gazette . 
He  soon  attracted  general  attention  on  account 
of  his  talent  and  judgment.  He  made  his 
world-renowned  investigations  into  the  nature 
of  lightning  1746  to  1752.  He  was  Postmaster 
General  of  the  Colonies  in  1753,  he  procured 
the  repeal  of  the  Stamp  Act  in  1766  and  tried  to 
prevent  the  war  then  impending.  But  was  ever 
a strong  defender  of  the  rights  of  the  Colonies 
and  signed  the  Declaration  of  Independence  as 
a delegate  from  Philadelphia.  He  was  Minister 
to  the  French  Court  and  aided  the  cause  of 
Independence  by  his  frank,  judicious,  and  wise 


BIOGRAPHICAL  DICTIONARY. 


71 


course.  These  nine  years,  from  1776  to  1785, 
were  the  dark  days  of  the  struggle  which  made 
us  a nation  and  Franklin  was  doing  his  part  in 
aid  of  his  country,  as  perhaps  no  other  man 
could  have  done  it.  He  served  as  a delegate  to 
the  convention  that  framed  the  Constitution  of 
the  United  States.  He  died  at  Philadelphia, 
April  17,  1790. 

Fremont,  John  C.— This  distinguished 
man  was  born  in  Savannah,  Ga.  Jan.  21,  1818. 
Graduated  at  Charleston  College,  S.  C.,  when 
seventeen.  He  turned  his  attention  to  engin- 


eering, and  was  appointed  Lieutenant  of 
Engineers.  He  was  employed  in  surveys  and 
making  maps  of  the  Mississipi  Valley.  In  1842 
he  explored  the  South  Pass  in  the  Rocky 
Mountains  and  three  years  later  was  on  his 
way  to  the  Pacific.  In  1846  the  Americans  in 
California  declared  themselves  independent  of 
Mexico  and  elected  Fremont  Governor.  Com. 
Stocton  in  command  of  the  Naval  forces  of  the 
U.  S.  caused  him  to  be  court-martialled,  and 
his  commission  was  taken  from  him.  He 
retrieved  his  honor  and  was  elected  as  one  of 
the  first  Senators  to  the  U.  S.  Senate  from  Cal. 
Was  Republican  Candidate  for  President  in 
1856.  Major  General  in  the  Union  Army  1861, 
but  was  required  to  turn  over  his  command  of 
the  W estern  Department.  Governor  of  Arizona 
Territory  from  1878  to  1882.  Died  at  New  York 
July  13,  1890. 

Fuller,  Melville  M. — The  eighth  Chief 
Justice  was  born  in  Augusta,  Me.,  Feb.  11, 


1883,  and  graduated  at  Bowdoin  College,  Maine, 
in  1853.  Began  the  practice  of  law  in  his  native 
city  1855.  Removed  to  Chicago,  111.,  in  1856, 
and  remained  in  practice  thirty-two  years. 
Member  of  Illinois  Constitutional  Convention 
in  1862  and  of  the  Legislature  in  1863-65.  He 
was  a delegate  to  the  Democratic  National  Con- 
vention in  1864,  1872,  1876  and  1880.  Chief 
Justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  U.  S.,  Oct. 
8,  1888. 

Fulton,  Robert. — The  first  person  to  prove 
the  practical  application  of  steam  to  navigation 
was  born  at  Little  Britain,  Lancaster  Co. , Pa. , 
1765.  When  seventeen  he  went  to  Philadephia 
and  engaged  in  minature  painting  there  and 
afterwards  at  New  York.  He  subsequently 
went  to  London  and  became  a pupil  of  Benjamin 
West.  While  in  England  his  attention  was 
turned  to  practical  invention  in  connection 
with  canals  and  the  new  invention  of  the  steam 
engine  by  Watts.  He  received  a British  patent 
for  canal  improvements  in  1796.  He  resided  in 
Paris  from  1797  to  1806  and  there  invented  a sub- 
marine torpedo  boat  for  maratime  defense.  He 
began  his  experiments  with  the  steamboat  in 
1803  on  the  Seine.  This  was  but  partially  suc- 
cessful. In  1806  with  the  aid  of  Livingston, 
the  U.  S.  Minister  to  France,  he  purchased  a 
Boulton  & Watts  engine,  and  shipped  it  to 
New  York.  After  careful  study  of  its  merits 


and  defects,  he  built  and  launched  the  first  suc- 
cessful steamboat  in  1807.  This,  however, 
attained  a speed  of  only  five  miles  an  hour  when 


72 


BIOGRAPHICAL  DICTIONARY. 


going  up  the  Hudson.  His  first  U.  S.  patents 
covered  only  the  points  regulating  the  shaft 
and  paddle  wheels,  and  in  consequence  he  was 
involved  in  endless  litigation  with  parties  who 
infringed  upon  his  patent  rights.  His  most 
important  vessel  was  “Fulton  the  First,”  a 
War  Steamer  built  in  1814  and  destroyed  by 
accident  in  1829.  He  was  persistent  in  his  belief 
that  steam  was  a desideratum  for  American 
Commerce.  Fulton  died  at  New  York,  Feb.  21, 
1815. 

Garfield,  James  A. — The  twentieth  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States  was  bom  in  Orange 
Cuyahoga  Co.,  O.,  Nov.,  1831.  He  graduated 
at  Williams  College,  Mass.,  in  1856;  studied 
and  practiced  law.  Member  of  the  Ohio 
Senate  1859  and  1860.  Colonel  of  the  42d  Ohio 
Volunteers  in  1861.  Brigadier  General  of  Vols. 
Jan.  11,  1862.  Chief  of  Staff  to  General  Rose- 
crans  1863,  at  which  time  he  was  promoted  to 
Major  General  \)f  Vols.  Sept.  19,  1863.  Member 
of  Congress  1863  to  1880,  when  he  was  elected 
to  the  U.  S.  Senate,  and  the  same  year  elected 
President  of  the  United  States.  He  entered 
upon  the  duties  of  that  office  March  4,  1881. 
Was  mortally  wounded  by  a shot  fired  by 
Charles  J.  Guiteau  July  2,  1881,  and  died  at 
Long  Branch,  N.  J.,  Sept.  19  of  the  same 
year. 

Oarfield,  Mrs.  Eucretia. — The  wife  of 
the  above  was  born  near  Hiram,  Ohio,  in  1837. 


She  was  educated  in  the  Hiram  College  and 
married  James  A.  Garfield  when  he  was  a 
professor  of  that  institution  in  1858.  She  was 


fully  fitted  by  natural  endowment  and  mental 
culture  to  be  a valuable  aid  to  her  illustrious 
husband  in  his  early  struggles  and  subsequent 
advancement.  In  his  congressional  and  mili- 
tary career  she  encouraged  and  assisted  him 
at  every  step  of  his  upward  course.  She  was 
his  constant  nurse  and  attendant  with  his  long 
continued  struggle  for  life,  ending  with  death. 

Goodyear,  Charles — This  inventor  was 
born  at  New  Haven,  Conn.,  Dec.  29,  1800; 


became  a partner  with  his  father,  a hardware 
manufacturer  of  Philadelphia.  After  the  failure 
of  his  firm  in  1830  he  began  the  experiment  on 
the  use  of  gum  elastic  or  caoutchouc  in  the  arts. 
With  many  discouragements  he  continued  his 
investigations  for  nine  years  before  he  perfected 
his  idea  of  vulcanizing  India-rubber  by  means 
of  sul  phur.  Many  other  improvements  followed 
and  more  than  sixty  patents  bear  the  name  of 
Goodyear.  He  wras  robbed  of  the  fruit  of  his 
labors  in  Great  Britain  and  France,  and  even 
in  the  United  States  many  infringements  and 
law  suits  cut  down  the  profits.  Mr.  Goodyear 
received  many  medals  and  the  Cross  of  the 
Legion  of  Honor.  He  died  at  New  YTork  July 
1,  1860. 

Cierry,  EIl>i*i<lge. — He  was  born  at  Marble- 
head, Mass.,  July  1744,  and  graduated  at 
Harvard  College  1762.  He  became  a successful 
merchant  in  his  native  town  and  was  especially 
interested  in  the  Naval  Operations  of  the  Revo- 
lution. Member  of  the  Continental  Congress 


BIOGRAPHICAL  DICTIONARY. 


73 


1776-85.  Signed  the  Declaration  of  Independ- 
ence. Member  of  the  Convention  to  frame  the 
Federal  Constitution,  but  would  not  sign  it. 
Member  of  Congress  1789-93  Special  Minister 
to  France  1797.  Governor  of  Massachusetts 
1810  and  1811.  Vice  President  of  the  United 
States,  1813.  Died  at  Washington,  D.  C.,Nov. 
23,  1814. 

Gougli,  John  B.— This  popular  lecturer 
was  born  in  Kent  Co. , England,  Aug.  22,  1817. 
He  came  to  the  United  States  in  1829,  and 
worked  at  bookbinding.  After  many  years  of 
extreme  poverty  caused  by  intemperance,  he 
reformed  and  became  a noted  Temperance 
orator.  From  1843  he  labored  with  great  zeal 
and  much  success  in  the  U.  S.  He  visited  his 
native  land  in  1853  and  again  in  1878.  He  won 
renown  as  a lecturer  upon  other  themes.  He 
wrote  and  published  several  volumes,  mostly 
on  Temperance.  Died  Feb.  18,  1886. 

Grady,  Henry  W. — This  rising  young 
journalist  and  orator  was  born  in  1850,  and 
served  in  the  Confederate  Army  during  the  Civil 
War.  After  its  close  he  became  a journalist 
and  arose  to  distinction  in  his  profession.  He 
was  connected  with  the  “Atlanta  Constitution,” 
and  attracted  much  attention  as  an  orator. 
He  made  a visit  to  Boston  in  1889  and  died  of 
pneumonia  contracted  while  on  his  way  home, 
Dec.  23,  1889. 

Grant,  Ulysses  S. — The  eighteenth  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States  was  born  at  Point 
Pleasant,  Clermont  Co.,  O.,  April  27,  1822. 
He  graduated  from  West  Point  at  the  age  of 
twenty-one,  and  served  eleven  years  in  the 
Army.  He  was  in  every  battle  in  the  Mexican 
War,  save  one,  and  won  two  brevets  for  gal- 
lantry in  action.  Resigned  his  commission 
and  engaged  in  farming  in  1854.  When  the 
Civil  War  broke  out  he  was  in  the  leather  trade 
with  his  father  in  Galena,  111.  April  19,  1861, 
found  him  engaged  in  drilling  a Company  of 
Volunteers  in  that  city.  He  was  commissioned 
as  Colonel  of  the  21st  Illinois  Volunteers  and 
reported  to  General  Pope.  Aug.  7 he  was 
promoted  to  Brigadier  General  of  Volunteers. 
Sept.  1 he  was  placed  in  command  of  South- 
east Missouri  and  on  the  6th  he  seized  Paducah 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Tennessee  river.  Fort 
Henry  was  taken  Feb.  4, 1862,  and  Fort  Donald- 
son Feb.  15.  Grant  was  promoted  to  Major 
General.  The  battle  of  Shiloh  and  the  victory 
of  Corinth  quickly  followed.  Jan. , 1863,  Grant 
took  command  of  all  the  forces  in  the  Mississipi 
Valley  and  after  various  movements  received  the 


surrender  of  Vicksburg,  July  4.  He  was  com- 
missioned Major  General  in  the  Regular  Army 
Oct.  16  and  placed  in  command  of  the  Division 
of  the  Mississipi.  His  successes  were  rapid  and 
numerous.  Congress  created  the  rank  of  Lieu- 
tenant General  and  bestowed  it  upon  Grant  in 
Feb. , 1864.  He  assumed  command  of  the  Armies 
of  the  United  States  March  17,  1864,  and  directed 
in  person  the  movements  about  Richmond. 
General  R.  E.  Lee  surrendered  to  him  April  9, 
1865.  After  the  assasination  of  President  Lin- 
coln, Grant  was  promoted  to  General  and  given 
greater  power  than  anyone  had  ever  received 
under  our  Constitution.  He  was  Secretary  of 
War  in  Johnson’s  Cabinet  for  a while.  Presi- 
dent from  1869  to  1877.  Made  a tour  of  the 
world.  Put  on  the  retired  list  with  full  pay 
March  4,  1885.  Died  July  23,  1885. 

Gniiif,  Julia,  I>. — Miss  Julia  Dent  was 
born  in  1826.  After  graduating  in  1848,  Lieut. 


Grant  formed  her  acquaintance,  and  on  his 
return  from  the  Mexican  War,  he  was  married 
to  her,  Aug.,  1848.  After  the  Civil  War  she 
shared  the  honors  paid  her  famous  husband. 
His  choice  of  a burial  place  was  conditioned  on 
a pledge  that  she  should  be  buried  beside  him. 
The  compositions  of  his  “Personal  Memoirs” 
was  lightened  by  the  fact  that  she  was  to  enjoy 
a large  royalty  from  its  sale,  after  his  death. 


74 


BIOGRAPHICAL  DICTIONARY. 


Ccreeley,  Horace. — This  famous  American 
journalist  was  born  in  Amherst,  N.  H.,  Feb.  3, 
1811.  He  could  read  before  he  was  two  years 
old.  When  he  was  ten  his  father  removed  to 
W esthaven,  Y t. , and  when  fifteen  he  was  appren- 


ticed to  the  printing  trade  at  East  Poultney,Yt. 
In  four  years  he  became  master  of  his  craft  and 
rendered  valuable  aid  in  the  conduct  of  the 
little  paper.  This  paper  was  discontinued  in 
1830  and  young  Greeley  worked  in  various 
offices  at  poor  pay,  until  he  decided  to  come  to 
New  York.  He  arrived  in  that  city  Aug.  17, 
1831,  and  worked  as  a journeyman  printer  until 
Jan.,  1834,  when  he  entered  into  partnership 
with  Francis  Story  in  the  publication  of  the 
“Morning  Post,”  the  first  daily  penny  paper 
ever  printed.  This  project  proved  unsuccessful 
after  three  weeks  trial,  but  Mr.  Greeley  con- 
tinued in  partnership  with  Story  until  the 
latter’s  death.  After  several  newspaper  enter- 
prises had  failed  to  succeed,  Mr.  Greeley  estab- 
lished the  New  York  “Tribune,”  with  which 
his  name  was  connected  until  his  death.  “ The 
Log  Cabin,”  a campaign  paper,  and  the  “ New 
Yorker”  were  merged  into  the  “Tribune,” 
the  first  number  of  which  was  issued  April  10, 
1841.  It  was  a small  sheet  with  only  five- 
hundred  subscribers,  but  in  six  months  it  was 
put  upon  a strong  financial  basis,  when  Mr. 
Thomas  McElrath  became  business  manager. 
Mr.  Greeley  was  in  Congress  1848  to  1849  to  fill 
out  a vacancy.  He  visited  Europe  in  1851.  In 
1859  he  made  an  overland  journey  to  the  Pacific 
and  had  a public  reception  in  San  Francisco.  He 
was  a delegate  to  the  Republican  Convention 


1860,  which  nominated  Mr.  Lincoln  for  Presi- 
dent. He  was  himself  nominated  by  the  Liberal 
Republicans  for  President  in  1872  and  endorsed 
by  the  Democratic  Convention,  but  lost  the 
election.  He  died  Nov.  29,  1872. 

Greene,  Nathaniel. — This  brilliant  officer 
of  the  Revolution  was  born  of  Quaker  parent- 
age at  Warwick,  R.  I.,  May  27,  1742.  He  was 
a member  of  the  Assembly  of  his  native  State 
in  1770,  and  from  that  time  until  his  death  took 
an  active  part  in  all  the  affairs  of  the  country. 
He  led  the  Rhode  Island  troops  to  Cambridge, 
and  soon  won  the  esteem  of  Washington.  In 
Aug.,  1776,  Congress  made  him  a Major  General. 
He  bore  an  active  part  in  the  battles  of  Tren- 
ton, Princeton,  Brandywine  and  German- 
town. He  was  appointed  Quartermaster 
General  in  March,  1778,  but  permitted  to  com- 
mand his  division  when  in  action.  This  he  did 
at  Monmouth  and  Tiverton  Heights.  During 
Genl.  Washington’s  visit  to  Hartford  he  was 
in  command  of  the  Army.  He  presided  at  the 
Court-martial  of  Major  Andre.  He  super- 
ceded  Gen.  Gates  in  command  of  the  Southern 
department.  He  planned  the  battles  of  Cow- 
pens  and  commanded  at  Guilford.  He  fought 
the  hardest  battle  of  the  War  at  Eutaw  Springs 
and  for  his  conduct  at  this  time  Congress  pre- 
sented him  with  a gold  medal  and  a British 


Standard.  The  States  of  North  and  South 
Carolina  and  Georgia  presented  him  with 
valuable  tracts  of  land  for  his  patriotic  services 
in  the  War.  In  1784  he  removed  his  family  to 
his  estate  near  Savannah,  where  he  died  June 
19,  1786. 


BIOGRAPHICAL  DICTIONARY. 


75 


Gresham,  Walter  G — He  was  bom  at 
Corydon,  Ind.,  March  17,  1833.  He  graduated 
from  Bloomington  University ; studied  Law 
and  began  practice  in  his  native  town.  Elected 
a member  of  the  Legislature  in  1860.  He  was 
Colonel  of  an  Ind.  Regiment  in  the  Civil  W ar 
and  served  under  Grant  at  Vicksburg;  under 
Sherman  before  Atlanta,  and  was  bre vetted 
a Major  General  in  1865.  Became  U.  S.  Judge 
of  the  District  at  Albany,  Ind.,  1872.  Post 
Master  General  1883.  Secretary  of  the  Treasury 
Sept.  24,  1884,  and  U.  S.  Circuit  Judge  for  the 
7th  circuit  the  same  year. 

Halleck,  Henry  W. — He  was  born  at 
Waterville,  Oneida  Co.,  N.  Y.,  Jan.  16,  1815. 
Graduated  at  West  Point  1839.  Assistant  Pro- 
fessor of  Engineering  at  Military  Academy  until 
1840.  Assistant  to  a Board  of  Engineers  at 
Washington,  D.  C. , 1841.  Assistant  in  charge 
of  construction  of  fortifications  in  N.  Y. 
Harbor  1842-46.  In  the  Mexican  War  he  was 
sent  to  the  Pacific  Coast  and  bore  an  influential 
part  in  the  military  and  civil  affairs  of  Cali- 
fornia. Resigned  his  commission  1854.  In  the 
Civil  War  was  appointed  Major  General  in 
the  Regular  Army  1861.  Commanded  the  De- 
partment of  the  Missouri,  embracing  eight 


States.  General  in  Chief  with  Head  Quarters 
at  Washington,  D.  C.,  from  the  fall  of  Corinth, 
Miss.,  until  U.  S.  Grant  was  commissioned 
Lieutenant  General.  Chief  of  Staff  1864-65. 
Commanded  the  Division  of  the  Pacific  1865-69, 
and  the  Division  of  the  South  1869  until  his 
death,  Jan.  2,  1872. 

Hamilton,  Alexander. — This  distinguish- 
ed political  writer  and  financier  was  born  in 
Nevis,  one  of  the  West  India  Islands,  Jan.  11, 


1757.  His  father  was  Scotch  and  his  mother 
a French  Huguenot.  She  died  while  he  was  a 
child.  His  father  failed  in  business  and  the 
young  lad  was  sent  to  a relative  in  Santa  Cruz, 
where  he  entered  a counting  house  in  1769. 
But  upon  the  display  of  literary  taste  he  was 
sent  to  the  U.  S.  to  be  educated  and  entered 


Kings  (now  Columbia)  College.  He  attracted 
popular  attention  by  his  speeches,  pamphlets 
and  newspaper  articles  while  still  in  College. 
In  1776  he  was  a Captain  of  Artillery  and 
served  with  distinction  as  aid-de-camp  to 
General  Washington.  He  was  entrusted  with 
most  delicate  and  important  business.  In  1780 
he  married  a daughter  of  General  Philip 
Schuyler.  He  resigned  his  commission  because 
of  a rebuke  from  Washington,  but  received  a 
commission  in  a New  York  battalion  of  Light 
Artillery  and  commanded  it  at  the  battle  of 
Yorktown.  He  was  a member  of  Congress  1782- 
83  and  1787-88,  and  also  of  the  Constitutional 
Convention.  He  was  the  chief  author  of  ‘ ‘ The 
Federalist,”  and  became  the  first  Secretary  of 
the  Treasury  under  Washington.  As  a strong 
Federalist  he  became  involved  in  controversies 
with  Jefferson  and  Madison,  but  he  used  his 
powerful  influence  to  have  the  former  elected 
President  instead  of  Aaron  Burr.  When  Burr 
was  defeated  as  a candidate  for  Governor  of 
N.  Y.,  Hamilton  was  accused  of  using  his 
influence  against  him.  Burr  challenged  the 
latter  to  a dual  and  shot  him  July  11,  1804. 
Hamilton  died  the  following  day. 

Hamlin,  Ibumibal.  — This  successful 
Statesman  was  born  at  Paris,  Maine,  Aug.  27, 
1809.  After  a limited  amount  of  schooling  he 
became  a printer.  He  was  admitted  to  the  Bar 


76 


BIOGRAPHICAL  DICTIONARY. 


as  a Lawyer  in  1833,  and  several  times  elected  to 
the  Maine  House  of  Representatives,  serving  as 
Speaker  for  a number  of  terms.  He  was  Repre- 
sentative to  Congress  from  1843  to  1847,  and 
U.  S.  Senator  from  1848  to  1857,  when  he  was 
elected  Governor  of  the  State.  The  latter  office 
he  resigned  to  enter  the  Senate  again,  where  he 
remained  as  Senator  and  Vice  President  until 
1865.  Collector  of  the  Port  of  Boston  1865. 
Again  U.  S.  Senator  1869  to  1881.  Minister  to 
Spain  1881  to  1883.  In  a long  and  successful 
political  career  of  more  than  forty  years,  he 
never  suffered  defeat  when  his  name  was  pre- 
sented for  the  suffrages  of  his  fellow  citizens. 
He  retired  to  private  life  in  1883. 

Hampton,  Wade. — He  was  born  in  Col- 
umbia, S.  C.,  1818;  graduated  at  the  South 
Carolina  College.  Served  in  both  branches  of 
the  Legislature  prior  to  the  war.  Commanded 
the  Hampton  Legion  in  the  first  battle  of  Bull 
Run.  Promoted  to  Brigadier  General  and 
commanded  a Brigade  at  Seven  Pines  1862. 
Engaged  at  the  battle  of  Antietam  Sept.,  1862, 


and  wounded  for  the  third  time.  Promoted 
|to  be  Lieutenant  General.  Commanded  the 
Cavalry  forming  the  rear-guard  of  the  Con- 
federate Army  in  1865.  Governor  of  S.  C.  1878. 
United  States  Senator  1879  to  1885,  and  re- 
elected in  1885  for  another  term. 

II  an  code,  .lolin. — The  first  signer  of  the 
Declaration  of  Independence  was  born  at 


Quincy,  Mass.,  Jan.  12,  1737.  His  father  was  a 
clergyman  of  the  same  name.  John  Hancock 
graduated  from  Harvard  College  in  1754,  and 
two  years  afterwards  inherited  the  property  of 


his  uncle,  Thomas  Hancock.  Young  Hancock 
was  present  at  the  coronation  of  George  III. 
of  England.  In  1770  he  delivered  the  fearless 
and  eloquent  oration  over  the  victims  of  the 
Boston  massacre.  He  was  President  of  the 
Continental  Congress  which  adopted  the  De- 
claration of  Independence,  and  his  bold  auto- 
graph at  the  head  of  the  list  of  signers  is 
characteristic  of  the  man.  He  was  commissioned 
Major  General  of  Militia  in  1778  and  served  in 
the  field  in  Rhode  Island.  He  was  Governor  of 
Massachusetts  from  1780  to  1785 ; a member  of 
Congress  1785-1786,  and  again  Governor  1787- 
1793.  He  was  a man  of  strong  and  decided 
character,  of  dignified,  courtly  but  pleasing 
manner,  and  of  benevolent  disposition.  His 
large  property  was  liberally  used  for  charitable 
and  patriotic  purposes.  He  was  entrusted  with 
various  positions  of  honor  besides  those  enurn- 
eratad  above.  He  died  on  the  eighth  day  of 
October,  1793. 

Hancock,  Winfield  S. — He  was  born  in 
Montgomery  Co.,  Pa.,  Feb.  14,  1824,  and  received 
his  early  education  at  Morristown,  Pa.,  Acad- 
emy. Graduated  from  West  Point  in  1844. 
Commissiontd  2d  Lieutenant  1846  ; First  Lieu- 
tenant 1853  ; transfered  to  the  Quarter-master’s 
department  with  the  rank  of  Captain  1855; 


BIOGRAPHICAL  DICTIONARY. 


Major  1868.  In  the  Mexican  W ar  he  served  with 
his  regiment.  September  23,  1861,  Brigadier 
General  of  Vols.  Promoted  to  be  Major  General 
of  Vols.  Nov.  29,  1862.  Displayed  marked 
ability  and  courage  at  Marye’s  Heights,  Chan- 
cellorsville,  Antietam,  Gettysburg,  and  all  the 
engagements  of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac.  Brig- 
adier General  in  the  Regular  Army  Aug.  12, 
1864.  Major  General  J uly  26,  1866.  Commanded 
the  Department  of  the  Gulf  1867-68.  Middle 
Division  of  the  Atlantic  1868-69 ; of  Dakota 
1869-72  ; of  the  Atlantic  1872  to  his  death.  He 
was  nominated  for  President  of  the  U.  S.  by 
the  Democratic  National  Convention  in  1880, 
but  was  defeated.  Died  Feb.  9,  1889. 

Harrison,  Benjamin — The  twenty-third 
President  of  the  United  States  was  born  at 
Nonth  Bend,  O. , Aug.  20,  1883  ; graduated  at 
Miami  University  1852,  and  studied  law  in 
Cincinnati.  Removed  to  Indianapolis,  Ind.,  in 
1854  and  practiced  law.  Official  Reporter  of 
Indiana  Supreme  Court.  Enlisted  as  2d  Lieut, 
of  Indiana  Vols.  July,  1862,  and  was  mustered 
out  as  Brigadier  General  June,  1865.  Repub- 
lican Candidate  for  Governor  1876,  but  was 
defeated.  Member  of  Mississipi  River  Com- 
mission 1879.  Elected  U.  S.  Senator  for  1881-87. 
Inaugurated  President  March  4,  1889.  Grand- 
son of  the  following : , 

Harrison,  William  H. — The  ninth  Presi- 
dent of  the  U nited  States  was  born  in  Charles 
Co. , Va. , Feb.  9,  1773.  In  1791  he  was  an  ensign 
in  the  Army,  and  in  1792  a Lieutenant  on  Gen- 
eral Wayne’s  Staff.  Promoted  to  Captain  in 
1795.  He  was  Secretary  of  the  North-west 
Territory  1797-98,  and  Delegate  to  Congress 
1799  and  1800.  From  1801  to  1813  he  was  Gov- 
ernor of  Indiana  Territory  and  Superintendent 
of  Indian  affairs.  In  the  latter  office  he  con- 
cluded thirteen  important  treaties.  He  won 
the  famous  victory  at  Tippecanoe  Nov.  7, 
1811.  He  was  made  Major  General  in  1813,  and 
gained  renown  at  the  defense  of  Fort  Meigs 
and  the  battle  of  the  Thames  Oct.  5,  1813. 
Member  of  Congress  from  Ohio  1816  to  1819. 
State  Senator  1819  to  1821.  U.  S.  Senator  1825 
to  1828.  Minister  to  Colombia  1828  and  1829. 
After  this  he  retired  to  his  farm  at  North  Bend 
for  twelve  years,  and  was  Clerk  of  Hamilton 
County,  O.  Elected  President  in  1840  and 
inaugurated  March  4,  1841.  He  died  April  4, 
1841,  just  one  month  after  his  inauguration. 

Harrison,  Caroline  Ij. — The  wife  of  the 
twenty-third  President  was  born  at  Oxford,  O., 


71 

1833,  and  graduated  from  Miami  University. 
Her  father  was  Rev.  J ohn  Scott,  principal  of  a 
Seminary  in  Oxford.  She  married  Benjamin 
Harrison  soon  after  he  had  graduated,  and 
shared  his  early  trials  and  triumphs.  They 
had  a son,  Russell,  in  1854,  and  a daughter, 
Mary  (Mrs.  McKee)  in  1858.  They  resided  at 
Indianapolis,  Ind. , until  she  removed  with  her 
husband  and  family  to  become  mistress  of  the 


White  House,  March  4, 1889.  Her  simple  refine- 
ment and  uniform  courtesy,  as  the  first  lady  in 
the  land,  characterized  her  administration  of 
the  social  amenities  of  the  capital. 

Hawley,  ®Fosepli  K. — He  was  born  at 
Stewartsville,  N.  C. , Oct.  31, 1826,  and  graduated 
at  Hamilton  College,  N.  Y. , 1847.  Commenced 
the  practice  of  law  at  Hartford,  Conn.,  1850. 
The  Republican  party  in  Conn,  was  formed  in 
his  office  and  upon  his  invitation,  by  a few 
prominent  men,  Feb.  4,  1856.  Mr.  Hawley 
became  Editor  of  the  “Hartford  Evening 
Press  ” about  this  time.  He  enlisted  April  15, 
1861,  and  served  as  Captain  in  a three  months’ 
regiment.  Colonel  of  the  7th  Conn.  Vols.  1862. 
Brigadier  General  of  U.  S.  Vols  1864.  Major 
General  1865.  Mustered  out  of  service  1866. 
Governor  of  Connecticut  May,  1866,  to  May, 
’67.  Elected  to  fill  a vacancy  in  the  42d  Con- 
gress 1872,  and  re-elected  in  1873  to  the  43d 


78 


BIOGRAPHICAL  DICTIONARY. 


Congress.  President  of  the  Centennial  Ex- 
position from  its  inception  to  its  close  in  1876. 
Member  of  the  46th  Congress.  U.  S.  Senator 
from  Conn.  1881-87.  Re-elected  in  1887. 

Ilawdioriu',  Nathaniel. — This  eminent 
American  author  was  born  at  Salem,  Mass., 
July  4,  1804.  Graduated  at  Bowdoin  College, 
Maine,  in  1825.  Removed  to  Salem  and  resided 
with  his  widowed  mother.  His  first  work, 
“Fanshawe”  (1828)  was  unsuccessful.  Edited 
the  “American  Magazine,  ” 1836,  until  it  became 
bankrupt.  “Twice  Told  Tales”  appeared  in 
1837.  This  displayed  the  powers  of  the  author. 
In  the  Boston  Custom  House  1838-41.  Removed 
to  Concord,  Mass. , 1843.  He  here  became  asso- 
ciated with  Emerson,  Thoreau,  Ellery,  Chan- 
ning  and  other  congenial  men,  and  gave  full 
scope  to  his  genius.  His  writings  are  numer- 
ous, widely  read  and  much  admired.  U.  S. 
Consul  at  Liverpool  1853-57,  and  afterwards 
spent  some  years  in  Italy.  He  died  May  19, 
1864. 

Hayes,  Rutherford.  R. — The  nineteenth 
President  of  the  United  States  was  born  at 
Delaware,  O.,  Oct.  4,  1822;  graduated  from 
Kenyon  College  1842,  and  from  Harvard  Law 
School  1845.  Removed  to  Cincinnati  1849  ; City 
Solicitor  1858-61.  Major  23d  Ohio  Vols.,  June  7, 
1861.  Lieut.  Col.,  Oct.  15.  1861.  Wounded  at 
South  Mountain  and  rejoined  his  regiment  as 
Col.,  Nov.  30,  1862.  Commissioned  Brigadier 
General  of  Volunteers  1864.  Member  of  Congress 
1865-66.  Governor  of  Ohio  1867-1869.  Member 
of  Congress  1875.  Inaugurated  President  March 
4, 1877.  Retired  to  private  life  1881 ; resided  at 
Mentor,  Ohio,  engaged  in  quiet  agricultural 
pursuits. 

Hayne,  Robert  Y. — He  was  born  in  Col- 
leton District,  S.  C.,  Nov.  10,  1791.  Studied 
1 aw  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1812.  Served 
for  a while  in  the  War  of  1812,  and  distinguished 
himself  in  the  State  Legislature  ; was  Speaker 
of  the  House  in  1818.  He  was  U.  S.  Senator 
from  1823  to  1832,  where  he  quickly  took  the 
first  rank  as  an  orator.  The  famous  debate 
between  him  and  Daniel  Webster  arose  on  the 
constitutionality  of  the  Protective  Tariff  of 
1824.  He  was  Chairman  of  the  Convention  in 
South  Carolina  which  reported  the  “ Ordinance 
of  Nullification”  in  the  great  Tariff  contro- 
versey.  He  was  elected  Governor  of  the  State 
the  same  year,  1832,  and  made  a defiant  reply 
to  the  famous  proclamation  of  President  Jack- 
son.  The  State  was  put  in  defense  for  resistance 


to  Federal  authority.  In  the  meanwhile  the 
Compromise  measure  of  Henry  Clay  was  passed 
by  Congress  and  the  threatened  resistance 
avoided.  The  State  C onvention,  held  the  follow- 
ing year,  repealed  the  Nullification  Ordinances. 
Mr.  Hayne  was  chosen  Mayor  of  the  city  of 
Charleston,  S.  C. , in  1834,  and  three  years  later 
became  President  of  a railroad.  He  was  the 
first  man  to  advance  in  Congress,  at  least,  the 
doctrine  that  a State  had  a right  under  the 
Constitution  to  arrest  enforcement  of  a Federal 
law  which  she  deemed  unconstitutional.  He 
died  at  Asheville,  N.  C. , Sept.  24,  1839. 

Hazen,  William  B. — This  General  was 
born  in  Hartford,  Windsor  Co.,  Ver. , Sept.  27, 


1830.  Graduated  at  West  Point  1855.  Com- 
missioned Second  Lieutenant  Sept.,  1855.  En- 
gaged on  frontier  until  1859.  First  Lieutenant, 
April,  and  Captain,  May,  1861.  Colonel  of  41st 
Ohio  Vols.  1861.  Brigadier  General  Vols., 
Nov.,  1862.  Major  General  Dec.,  1864.  Visited 
Europe  during  the  Franco-Prussian  War  1870. 
Chief  Signal  Officer  with  rank  of  Brigadier 
General,  Dec.,  1880.  Died  Jan.  16,  1887. 

Hendricks,  Thomas  A. — He  was  born  in 

Muskingum  Co.,  O. , Sept.  7,  1819.  He  removed 
with  his  father  to  Shelby  Co.,  Ind.,  and  grad- 
uated at  South  Hanover  College  in  1841.  Ad- 


BIOGRAPHICAL  DICTIONARY. 


79 


mitted  to  the  bar  in  1843.  He  was  an  active 
member  of  the  State  Constitutional  Convention 
in  1850.  Member  of  Congress  1851  to  1855. 
Commissioner  of  the  General  Land  Office  of 
the  U.  S.  1855  to  1859.  U.  S.  Senator  1863-69. 
Governor  of  Ind.  1872  to  1876.  Vice  President 
of  the  U.  S.  1885,  and  died  Nov.  25,  1885. 

Henry,  Patrick. — This  flaming  orator  of 
the  Revolution  was  born  at  Studley,  Hanover 


Co.,  Virginia,  May  29,  1736.  His  father  was  a 
magistrate  and  school  teacher,  and  young 
Henry  was  instructed  chiefly  by  him,  but  so 
fond  was  the  lad  of  hunting  and  fishing  that 
he  made  only  a poor  scholar.  At  eighteen  he 
married  the  daughter  of  an  inn-keeper  and  for 
a time  assisted  his  father-in-law  at  that  business. 
He  was  twice  a bankrupt  before  he  was  twenty- 
four.  Then  after  six  weeks  study  was  admitted 
to  the  bar,  but  for  three  years  obtained  no 
practice.  The  celebrated  “parson’s  cause” 
won  him  popularity  because  of  his  trumphant 
plea  for  the  people’s  rights.  He  was  a member 
of  the  Virginia  House  of  Burgesses  in  1765, 
where  he  won  imperishable  renown  by  his 
remarkable  speech  against  the  Stamp  Act. 
From  this  time  he  became  the  acknowledged 
leader  of  the  friends  of  liberty  in  the  Colony. 
He  was  admitted  to  the  general  practice  of  law 
in  1769,  in  which  pursuit  he  won  a fortune.  He 
was  the  first  Speaker  of  the  General  Congress 
at  Philadelphia  in  1774.  He  delivered  his  most 
famous  speech  at  the  Virginia  Convention,  in 
favor  of  putting  the  Colony  into  a state  of 
defense  in  1775.  For  a short  time  the  same 
year  he  was  Colonel  of  Militia.  He  served  as 


Governor  of  his  native  State  from  1776  to  1779, 
and  again  from  1781  to  1786.  He  opposed  the 
Constitution  of  the  U.  S. , but  acquiesced  after 
its  adoption.  He  declined  to  hold  any  office 
thereafter,  and  died  at  Red  Hill,  Charlotte  Co., 
Virginia,  June  6,  1799. 

Holmes,  Oliver  W.— This  witty  doctor- 
poet  was  born  at  Cambridge,  Mass.,  Aug.  29, 
1809,  and  graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1829. 
He  first  studied  law  and  then  medicine,  receiv- 
ing his  medical  degree  in  1836,  after  several 
years  attendance  in  European  hospitals.  Pro- 
fessor of  Anatomy  and  Physiology  in  Dart- 
mouth 1838  to  1847..  He  filled  the  same  chair 
at  the  Massachusetts  Medical  School,  Boston, 
from  1847  to  1882,  when  he  retired.  His  fame 
as  an  accurate  anatomist  and  microscopist  is 
equalled  by  his  popularity  as  a poet,  wit  and 
man  of  letters.  His  ‘ ‘ Phi  Betta  Kappa  ” and 
other  College  poems  and  papers  published  in 
the  “Atlantic  Monthly”  have  added  greatly 
to  his  reputation.  He  has  also  written  many 
medical  addresses.  He  received  the  unusual 
honor  to  an  American,  the  degree  of  L.  L.  D. , 
from  the  University  of  Edinburg,  Scotland,  in 
1888. 

Holt,  Josepli^-He  was  born  in  Brecken- 
ridge  Co.,  Ky.,  Jan.  6,  1807.  Educated  at  St. 
Joseph’s  College  and  Centre  College.  Began 
the  practice  of  law  in  1828  at  Elizabethtown, 


Ky.,  removing  to  Louisville  in  1832.  Attorney 
for  Jefferson  Co.  1833.  Commissioner  of  Patents 
1857-59.  Post-master  General  1859-60.  Secretary 
of  War  1860.  President  Lincoln  appointed  him 
Judge  Advocate  General  with  the  rank  of 
Colonel,  Sept.,  1862,  and  upon  the  establish- 
ment of  the  Bureau  of  Military  Justice  in  1864, 
he  was  retained  as  its  head  with  the  rank  of 
Brigadier  General.  Retired  Nov.,  1875. 


80 


BIOGRAPHICAL  DICTIONARY. 


Hood,  John  H. — He  was  born  at  Owings- 
ville,  Bath  Co.,  Ky.,  June  29,  1831,  and 
graduated  from  West  Point  1853.  Appointed 
Brevet  Second  Lieutenant  of  Infantry  and 


transferred  in  full  rank  to  Cavalry  1855.  First 
Lieutenant  1858.  Engaged  on  frontier  duty 
until  1861,  when  he  resigned.  He  served  in  the 
Confederate  Army  in  all  the  grades  from  First 
Lieutenant  up  to  Lieutenant  General.  He  was 
in  the  Virginia  Peninsula  Campaign,  second 
Bull  Run,  Antietam,  Gettysburg,  and  at 
Chickamauga,  where  he  lost  a leg.  Met  the 
Union  forces  in  battle  at  Franklin,  Nov.  30, 
1864,  and  at  Nashville,  Dec.  15-16.  Soon  after 
this  he  was  relieved  of  his  command.  Made  his 
residence  at  New  Orleans,  and  died  Aug.  30, 
1879. 

Hooker,  Joseph. — This  gallant  General 
was  born  at  Hadley,  Mass.,  Nov.  13,  1814,  and 


graduated  from  West  Point  in  1837.  He  served 
in  the  Seminole  War  and  on  the  frontier  until 


1846.  He  was  a staff  officer  in  Mexico  and  was 
brevetted  Captain,  Major  and  Lieutenant  Col- 
onel, for  gallantry  in  action.  He  designed  from 
the  Army  and  was  employed  in  Oregon  as 
superintendent  of  military  roads.  When  the 
Civil  War  began  he  tendered  his  services  to  the 
Government  and  was  commissioned  Brigadier 
General  May  17,  1861.  Appointed  to  command 
a division  of  the  Third  Corps  May,  1862.  Pro- 
moted to  Major  General.  In  January,  1863, 
appointed  to  command  the  Army  of  the  Poto- 
mac, but  was  relieved  at  his  own  request,  June 
27.  Assumed  command  of  the  20th  Army  Corps 
Sept.,  1863.  He  was  brevetted  Major  General 
in  the  Regular  Army,  and  retired  with  full  rank 
Oct.,  1868.  Died  Oct.  31,  1879. 

Hopkinson,  Francis. — One  of  the  signers 
of  the  Declaration  of  Independence  was  born  in 
Philadelphia,  Pa.,  in  1737.  He  graduated  at 
Princeton  in  1763,  and  Avas  admitted  to  the  bar 


in  1765.  Member  of  Congress  from  N.  J.  1776- 
77.  Admiralty  Judge  in  Pennsylvania  1779-89. 
U.  S.  District  Judge  1790-91.  Died  May  9,  1791. 
He  was  remarkable  for  his  witty  and  satirical 
sayings  and  wrote  many  humorous  and  pat- 
riotic poems  and  other  papers  which  were  very 
popular. 

Houston,  €len.  Sam. — Was  born  in  Rock- 
bridge Co. , Va. , March  2,  1793.  On  the  death  of 
his  father  he  went  with  his  mother  to  Tennessee, 
where  he  received  a scanty  education.  In  1813 
he  enlisted  as  a private  in  the  U.  S.  Army  and 
served  under  General  Jackson  against  the  Creek 
Indians.  Was  promoted  to  Lieutenant  for 
gallantry.  After  the  war  he  studied  law.  He 
was  sent  to  Congress  from  Tenn.  in  1823  and 
remained  four  years.  Governor  of  Tennessee  in 
1827,  but  resigned  before  expiration  of  his  term* 


BIOGRAPHICAL  DICTIONARY. 


81 


Resided  among  the  Cherokee  Indians  and  rep- 
resented them  at  Washington.  Went  to  Texas 
and  became  a delegate  to  Mexico.  Was  ap- 
pointed General  and  Commander  in  Chief  of 
the  Texas  forces,  which  won  their  independence. 
President  of  Texas  in  1836.  On  the  admission 
of  the  State  was  U.  S.  Senator  for  twelve  years. 
Died  July  25,  1863. 


Howe,  Elias. — The  inventor  of  the  sewing 
machine  was  born  at  Spencer,  Mass.,  July  9, 
1819.  Worked  in  machine  shops  in  Lowell  in 


1835,  and  afterwards  in  Boston.  Completed  his 
first  sewing  machine  in  1845  and  had  it  patented 
in  1846.  He  worked  in  poverty  and  neglect ; 
spent  two  years  in  England,  but  was  unsuccess- 
ful in  introducing  his  invention.  He  established 
his  claims  in  1854  and  began  to  realize  a fortune 
from  his  invention.  Died  Oct.  3,  1867. 

Ing-als,  John  J.— He  was  born  at  Middle- 
ton,  Essex  Co. , Mass. , Dec.  29,  1833,  and  grad- 
uated at  Williams  College  1855.  Admitted  to 
the  bar  1857  and  removed  to  Kansas  the  next 
year.  Delegate  to  the  Wyandotte  Constitu- 
tional Convention  in  1859 ; Territorial  Secretary 
1860 ; Secretary  of  State  Senate  1861 ; Member 
of  same  1862;  Major,  Lieutenant^Colonel,  and 
J udge  Advocate  of  State  troops  1863-64.  U nited 
States  Senate  March  3, 1873,  and  thrice  re-elected. 
President  Pro.  Tem.  of  the  Senate  1887. 

Ingalls,  Rufus.— He  was  born  in  Denmark, 
Maine,  1820,  and  graduated  from  West  Point 


1843.  Brevet  Second  Lieutenant  of  Rifles, 
transferred  to  Dragoons  1845,  and  to  Quarter- 
master’s department  with  rank  of  Captain  in 
1848.  Served  as  Quarter-master  with  his 
regiment  on  the  frontier  and  in  the  Mexican 
War.  In  1860  ordered  to  Washington,  D.  C., 
and  in  1861  assumed  the  duties  of  Chief  Quarter- 
master of  the  Army.  Brevetted  from  Lieut. 
Col.  to  Major  General.  Became  Quarter- 
master General  of  the  U.  S.  Army  in  1882. 
Retired  in  1883. 

Ingersoll,  Robert  O.— This  eminent  orator 
was  born  at  Dryden,  Gates  Co.,  N.  Y. , Aug. 
24,  1833.  Educated  in  common  school  and 
academy  and  taught  school  in  Tennessee.  Began 
the  practice  of  law  in  “Egypt,”  111.,  in  1854. 
He  was  Colonel  of  an  Illinois  Regiment  during 
the  Civil  War.  He  gained  much  renow  n as  a 
lawyer  and  platform  speaker.  He  was  the 
orator  of  the  day  on  May  30,  1882,  at  New 
York.  Author  of  many  publications  opposed 
to  the  Christian  religion.  Established  a law 
office  in  New  York  City,  and  practiced  in  the 
United  States  Courts. 

Irving-,  Washington. — The  youngest  son 
of  William  Irving,  merchant,  was  born  in  New 
York  City  April  3,  1783.  His  school  education 
closed  with  his  sixteenth  year.  Then  he  began 
the  study  of  law.  When  he  was  nineteen  he 
made  his  first  attempt  at  literature  in  the 
“Morning  Chronicle,”  edited  by  his  brother, 


Dr.  Peter  Irving.  He  made  a voyage  to  Europe 
in  1804  and  after  extensive  travels  returned  in 


82 


BIOGRAPHICAL  DICTIONARY. 


1806,  when  he  finished  his  legal  studies  and  was 
soon  after  admitted  to  the  bar.  He  began  the 
amusing  serial,  “Salmagundi,”  in  1807,  and  a 
year  later  he  wrote  “ Knickerbocker’s  History 
of  New  York.”  He  was  engaged  in  mercantile 
business  with  two  brothers  for  a while,  until 
1818,  when  he  was  editor  of  the  “Analectic 
Magazine.”  In  1814  he  was  appointed  Aid-de- 
camp  to  Governor  Tompkins  with  the  rank  of 
Colonel.  He  again  sailed  for  Europe  in  1815  on 
a pleasure  trip,  but  the  commercial  house  of 
which  he  was  a member  failed  in  1817,  and  he 
was  thrown  upon  his  literary  work  for  a living. 
With  the  aid  of  Sir  Walter  Scott,  he  found  a 
publisher  for  his  “ Sketch  Book,”  which  was 
brought  out  in  permanent  form  and  secured 
the  reputation  and  fortune  of  the  writer.  His 
“Sleepy  Hollow,”  and  “Rip  Van  Winkle,”  at 
once  took  favor  with  the  reading  public.  His 
subsequent  career  was  smooth,  and  his  writings 
appeared  with  great  rapidity.  He  won  a gold 
medal  given  by  George  IV.,  as  a prize  for  excel- 
lence in  historical  composition.  He  was  the 
first  American  author  to  gain  a standing  among 
English  critics.  His  great  work  is  the  “Life 
of  Washington.”  His  popularity  was  life-long, 
and  his  writings  are  regarded  as  classic.  He 
died  Nov.  28,  1859. 

J ackson,  Andrew.— The  seventh  President 
of  the  United  States  was  born  at  the  Waxhaw 
Settlement,  Union  Co.,  N.  C.,  March  15,  1767. 
His  father  died  before  his  birth,  and  his  mother 
was  left  in  destitute  circumstances.  His  early 
education  was  very  meager.  He  volunteered  to 
serve  in  the  Revolutionary  War  when  thirteen. 
He  was  a prisoner  in  1781  and  passed  through 
much  suffering.  He  and  his  brother  were  re- 
leased by  the  exertions  of  their  mother,  but 
the  latter  two  died  of  small-pox  contracted  while 
attending  the  prisoners.  Young  Jackson,  left 
entirely  destitute,  worked  in  a saddler’s  shop, 
afterwards  taught  school  and  studied  law.  W as 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1786  and  removed  to 
Nashville,  Tenn.,  then  the  western  district  of 
North  Carolina,  and  appointed  Solicitor  in 
1788.  He  was  appointed  U.  S.  Attorney  in  1790. 
He  was  a member  of  the  Constitutional  Con- 
vention of  Tennessee  1796,  and  was  elected  U.  S. 
Senator,  but  declined ; accepted  a position  on 
the  Supreme  Bench  of  the  State,  which  he  held 
until  1804.  He  retired  from  public  life  and 
lived  on  his  plantation  until  the  war  of  1812, 
when  he  tendeied  his  services  to  the  Govern- 
ment. He  marched  to  New  Orleans,  Jan.,  1813, 
at  the  head  of  the  Tennessee  contingent,  but 


in  March  received  orders  to  disband  his  forces. 
He  very  soon  took  the  field  again  in  the  Creek 
War  and  won  several  victories  over  the  Indians. 
In  1814  was  commissioned  as  Major  General  of 
the  U.  S.  Army  and  commanded  at  the  defense 
of  Mobile,  Sept.  15,  1814,  and  seized  Pensacola 
Nov.  6 of  the  same  year.  Then  he  transported 
his  forces  to  New  Orleans.  Martial  law  being 
declared  in  Louisania,  he  had  engagements 
with  the  British  forces  Dec.  23  and  28,  and  won 
the  famous  battle  of  New  Orleans  Jan.  8,  1815. 
Conducted  the  Seminole  War  in  Florida  in  1817- 
1819.  U.  S.  Senator  in  1823.  Inaugurated 
President  1829,  and  again  in  1833.  Named  Van 
Buren  as  his  successor  and  retired  to  private 
life.  Died  at  the  Hermitage  June  8,  1845. 

Jackson,  Thomas  J.— This  famous  Con- 
federate General  was  born  at  Clarksburg,  West 
Va.,  Jan.  21,  1824.  Graduated  at  West  Point 


in  1846.  Served  with  merit  in  Mexico,  winning 
the  brevets  of  Captain  and  Major.  Advanced 
by  promotion  to  First  Lieutenant  Aug.  20,  1847. 
After  the  war  he  resigned  and  became  Professor 
in  the  Virginia  Military  Institute.  When  the 
Civil  War  broke  out,  he  was  commissioned  as 
Colonel  and  captured  Harper’s  Ferry  May  3, 
1861.  Placed  in  command  of  a Brigade  known 
as  the  ‘ ‘ Stonewall  ” Brigade.  He  acquired  the 
sobriquet  of  “Stonewall”  at  the  battle  of 
Manassas.  He  was  commissioned  as  Major 
General  in  Sept. , 1861.  He  held  a conspicuous 
position  in  all  the  battles  of  1861  to  1863.  He 
was  mortally  wounded  by  his  own  men  when  in 
advance  of  the  line  and  mistaken  for  the  enemy, 
May  2,  1863,  and  died  May  10. 

•fay.  Joint.— He  was  born  in  New  York 
City,  May  12,  1745.  Graduated  at  King’s  Col- 
lege in  1764,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  1768. 
He  was  a member  of  the  First  Continental 
Congress.  Chief  Justice  of  New  York  in  1777. 


BIOGRAPHICAL  DICTIONARY. 


83 


President  of  Congress  in  1778  and  1779.  He 
was  sent  as  a special  minister  to  Spain  in  1779 
and  one  of  the  commissioners  to  negotiate  the 
treaty  of  peace  with  Great  Britain  at  the  close 
of  the  Revolution  in  1782.  He  was  appointed 
first  Chief  Justice  of  the  U.  S.  1789.  Minister  to 
England  1794 ; Governor  of  New  York  1795-1801. 
He  was  a strong  advocate  of  the  Constitution 


and  opposed  to  slavery  and  became  the  Presi- 
dent of  a society  to  promote  the  emancipation 
of  slaves  in  1785,  which  led  to  its  abolition  in 
New  York  in  1799.  He  died  May  17,  1829. 

Jefferson,  Thomas. — Third  President  of 
the  U nited  States  was  born  in  Albermarle  Co. , 
Virginia,  April  13,  1743.  He  was  the  third  in 
age  of  eight  children,  and  at  fourteen  was  left 
an  orphan.  At  his  father’s  dying  request  he 
was  educated  at  William  and  Mary’s  College. 
He  studied  law  under  George  Wythe  and  was 
admitted  to  practice  when  twenty-four  years  of 
age.  His  practice  rapidly  increased  until  it  in 
four  years  amounted  to  £500  sterling.  He  was 
married  Jan.  1,  1772,  to  a childless  widow,  Mrs. 
Martha  Sketon,  and  by  the  death  of  her  father 
became  possessed  of  a large  estate.  His  first 
patriotic  impulses  were  stirred  by  the  celebrated 
speech  of  Patrick  Henry.  He  served  in  the 
Virginia  House  of  Burgesses  from  1769  until 
the  Revolution.  He  took  his  seat  as  a member 
of  the  Continental  Congress  June  21,  1775,  the 
very  day  on  which  the  news  of  the  battle  of 
Bunker  Hill  reached  Philadelphia  and  on  which 
Washington  left  to  assume  command  at  Cam- 
bridge. He  drew  the  original  draft  of  the 
Declaration  of  Independence,  which  after  some 
amendment  was  signed  July  4,  1776.  He  suc- 


ceeded Patrick  Henry  as  Governor  of  Virginia 
June  1,  1779,  but  resigned  after  holding  the 
office  two  years.  He  was  Minister  to  France 
from  June,  1784,  to  Oct.,  1789.  Soon  after 
reaching  home  he  was  met  by  a letter  from 
Washington,  appointing  him  Secretary  of 
State.  He  accepted  the  office,  which  he  held 
until  Jan  1,  1794.  He  was  Vice  President  from 
1797  to  1801,  when  he  became  President.  This 
office  he  held  for  eight  years.  Having  declined 
a renomination  for  a third  term,  he  retired  to 
private  life  at  Monticello.  Here  he  died,  fifty 
years  after  signing  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence, July  4,  1826. 

Johnson,  Andrew.— The  seventeenth  Pres- 
ident of  the  United  States  was  born  at  Raleigh, 
N.  C.,  Dec.  29,  1808.  His  father  died  when  he 
was  four  years  old.  When  eleven  he  was  appren- 
ticed to  a tailor.  He  removed  to  Greenville, 
Tenn. , and  worked  as  journeyman  tailor  1826-28. 
Alderman  1828-30.  Mayor  1830-1832.  In  State 
Legislature  1835  and  1839.  State  Senator  1841. 
U.  S.  Congress  1843-1853.  Governor  of  Tenn. 
1853;  re-elected  1855.  U.  S.  Senate  1857.  Leader- 
of  the  Loyalist  Convention  for  East  Tenn.. 
1861.  Military  Governor  1862,  with  the  rank 
of  Brigadier  General.  Vice  President  of  the 
U.  S. , March  4,  1865.  President  to  succeed  Mr. 
Lincoln  April  15,  1865.  He  broke  with  the 
dominant  party  and  reconstructed  his  Cabinet 
pi  July,  1866.  Eleven  articles  of  impeachment 
were  presented  against  him  for  “high  crimes 
and  misdemeanors,”  March  5,  1868.  He  was; 
tried  before  the  Senate,  sitting  as  a High  Court*, 
presided  over  by  the  Chief  Justice  of  the  U.  S.r 
from  March  23  to  May  26,  and  was  acquitted  on 
each  article.  Remained  in  office  until  March  4, 
1869.  Elected  to  the  U.  S.  Senate  in  1875  and 
took  part  in  the  extra  session.  Died  July  31  s 
1875. 

Johnson,  IS  iclisurcl  ftl.— He  was  born  in 
Kentucky  Oct.  17,  1780,  and  educated  at  Tran- 
sylvania University;  studied  law  and  was 
admitted  to  the  bar.  Member  of  the  Legis- 
lature in  1803,  and  of  Congress  1807  to  1819. 
Colonel  of  a regiment  in  the  war  of  1812.  He 
rendered  brilliant  service  in  the  battle  of  the 
Thames  Oct.  5,  1813.  He  slew  with  his  own 
hand  the  Indian  Chief,  Tecumseh.  He  was 
wounded,  but  resumed  his  seat  in  Congress  in 
the  following  Feb.  U.  S.  Senator  from  Ky., 
1819  to  1829.  Member  of  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives 1829  to  1837.  Chosen  Vice  President 
by  the  Senate  March,  1837,  in  which  office  he 
served  four  years.  Retired  to  private  life  after 


84 


BIOGRAPHICAL  DICTIONARY. 


thirty  years  of  continuous  public  service.  He 
was  elected  to  the  State  Legislature,  and  while 
serving  in  this  position,  died  at  Frankfort,  Ky. , 
Nov.  19,  1850,  in  the  eighty-first  year  of  his 
age. 

Johnston,  Joseph  E.— He  was  born  in 
Prince  Edward  Co.,  Ya. , Feb.,  1807,  and  grad- 
uated at  West  Point,  and  was  promoted  to  2d 
Lieutenant  of  Artillery  July,  1829.  Served 


mostly  in  garrison  duty  until  1887 ; although 
he  was  for  a time  on  the  staff  of  Gen.  Scott  in 
the  Seminole  War.  He  resigned  in  1837,  but 
re-entered  the  service  in  1838  as  First  Lieutenant 
of  Topographical  Engineers,  and  was  brevetted 
Captain  for  former  gallantry  in  Florida.  He 
served  in  the  Mexican  War  and  was  wounded 
at  Yera  Cruz  and  at  the  final  assault  on  the  city 
of  Mexico.  In  1855  he  was  promoted  to  be 
Lieut. -Colonel  of  Cavalry  and  served  in  the 
Utah  Expedition  as  Inspector  General.  He 
was  appointed  Quarter-master  General,  with 
the  rank  of  Brigadier  General,  but  resigned 
this  position  April  22,  1861,  to  enter  the  Con- 
federate Army.  He  was  at  once  appointed 
Major  General  and  commanded  at  Harper’s 
Ferry  in  May.  At  the  battle  of  Bull  Run  he 
waived  rank  to  General  Beauregard.  He  com- 
manded the  Confederate  Army  in  the  Peninsula 
campaign  and  was  wounded  May  31,  1862.  After 
an  illness  of  several  months,  he  was  promoted 
to  Lieutenant- General  and  later  to  General. 
He  was  superseded  by  Gen.  J.  B.  Hood  in  1864, 
but  subsequently  reinstated  and  appointed  to 
command  in  the  Carolinas.  After  being  several 
limes  defeated  by  General  W.  T.  Sherman,  he 
finally  surrendered  to  the  latter,  April  26,  1865. 
He  was  a Member  of  Congress  in  1879-1881,  and 
became  United  States  R.  R.  Commissioner  April 
2,  1885. 


Jones,  Paul.- This  man,  whose  real  name 
was  John  Paul,  was  born  at  Abigland,  Scot- 
land, July  6,  1747.  At  the  age  of  twelve  he 
was  apprenticed  to  a shipmaster,  engaged  in 
the  American  trade.  His  first  voyage  was  to 
Virginia,  where  his  brother  William  lived.  He 
was  freed  from  his  indenture  by  the  failure  of 
his  master,  and  at  once  engaged  as  third  mate 
of  a vessel  in  the  slave  trade.  His  own  good 
sense  led  him  to  see  the  disgrace  of  this  pursuit 
and  he  took  passage  from  Jamaica  for  Scotland 
in  1768.  The  death  of  both  captain  and  the 
mate  left  him  in  command  and  he  brought  the 
ship  safely  home.  Then  he  made  several  voy- 
ages to  the  West  Indies.  His  brother  William 
having  died,  he  came  again  to  Virginia  to  receive 
the  estate.  Here  he  added  the  name  of  Jones 
to  his  own.  He  offered  his  services  to  Congress 
in  1775  and  was  appointed  senior  Lieutenant 
and  assigned  to  duty  on  the  flagship  Alfred. 
He  hoisted  with  his  own  hands  the  first  Ameri- 
can flag.  After  several  successful  exploits,  he 
was  put  in  command  of  the  Bon  Homme  Richard 
by  the  French  minister,  and  at  once  departed 
in  command  of  a squadron  to  spread  terror 
along  the  English  coast.  In  one  month’s  time 
26  vessels  had  been  captured  or  destroyed  by 


him.  He  defeated  the  Serapis  and  the  Count- 
ess of  Scarborough  Sept.  23,  1779,  but  the 
Bon  Homme  Richard  was  sunk.  Paul  Jones 
received  the  greatest  honors  in  Paris  and  the 
Cross  of  Military  merit.  Congress  also  gave 
him  a vote  of  thanks  and  the  command  of  the 
fine  frigate  America,  74  guns.  Jones  was  sub- 
sequently appointed  rear-admiral  in  the  Russian 
Navy,  and  died  in  Paris  July  18,  1792. 


BIOGRAPHICAL  DICTIONARY. 


85 


Kearney,  IMiilip.— He  was  born  in  New 
York  City  June  2,  1815,  and  graduated  at  Col- 
umbia College,  but  accepted  a Lieutenantcy  in 
the  First  Dragoons,  of  which  his  uncle  was 
Colonel  in  1837.  Visited  Europe  under  orders 
to  examine  and  report  upon  the  tactics  of  the 
French  Cavalry  system.  Served  under  the 
French  flag  as  a volunteer  in  the  Chasseurs 


d’Afrique  in  Algeria,  winning  the  Cross  of  the 
Legion  of  Honor.  Returned  home  in  1840  and 
served  on  the  staff  of  General  Scott  1841-44; 
Mexican  War,  Captain  of  Dragoons  1846  and 
bre vetted  Major ; lost  an  arm  at  San  Antonio 
gate,  but  subsequently  served  in  Cal.  and 
Oregon.  Went  to  Europe  and  served  in  the 
Italian  War  of  1859.  Engaged  at  Magenta  and 
Solferine,  winning  the  Cross  of  Honor  the 
second  time.  Returned  to  America  and  offered 
his  services  upon  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War, 
and  commissioned  at  once  as  Brigadier  General 
of  Vols.,  1861.  Promoted  to  Major  General  of 
Vols.,  to  date  July  4,  1862.  This  brave,  bril- 
liant and  successful  officer  was  killed  at  Chan- 
tilly, Sept.  1,  1862. 

Kent,  James.-He  was  born  at  Philipi, 
Putnam  Co. , N.  Y. , July  31, 1763,  and  graduated 
at  Yale  College  in  1781.  Was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1787  and  elected  to  the  Legislature  in 
1790  and  1792.  He  became  Recorder  of  New 
York  in  1797,  and  1798-1804  was  Associate  Judge 
of  the  Supreme  Court;  in  1804  Chief  Justice. 
He  was  appointed  Chancellor  of  New  York  in 
1814,  and  retained  that  position  until  1823.  He 
was  a member  of  the  Convention  in  1822  to 
revise  the  Constitution  of  the  State  of  New 
York.  He  resumed  the  professorship  of  law  in 
Columbia  College  in  1824.  His  great  work  in 


four  volumes,  “Commentaries  on  American 
Law,”  was  published  in  1826-30.  It  is  acknow- 
ledged in  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States 
as  a standard  on  American  Jurisprudence. 
Chancellor  Kent  died  Dec  12,  1847. 

Kilpatrick,  Hugh  J.— This  dashing  Cav- 
alry officer  was  born  near  Deckertown,  N.  J., 
Jan.  14,  1836.  Graduated  at  West  Point  May 
6,  1861,  and  entered  the  Army  as  Second  Lieu- 
tenant. Commissioned  as  Captain  of  the  5th 
N.  Y.  Vols.,  and  was  wounded  at  Big  Bethel 
June  10.  On  his  recovery  was  commissioned  as 
Lieut. -Colonel  of  the  2d  N.  Y.  Cav.  Vols.,  and 
became  Colonel,  Dec.,  1862.  Promoted  to  be 
Brigadier  General,  June,  1863.  At  the  battle 
of  Gettysburg  he  commanded  a brigade  and  a 
division.  He  was  again  severely  wounded  at 
the  battle  of  Resaca,  May,  1864.  He  was  in 
command  of  the  Cavalry  on  Sherman’s  ‘ ‘ march 
to  the  sea,”  and  often  engaged  the  enemy.  He 
was  promoted  to  Major  General  of  Vols.  in 
June,  1865  ; also  Brevet  Brigadier  General,  and 
Brevet  Major  General  in  the  Regular  Army. 


He  resigned  his  commissions  in  the  Regular 
Army  in  Dec.,  1865,  and  in  the  Volunteer 
service  Jan.  1,  1866.  Was  Minister  to  Chili  in 
1865,  and  again  in  1881.  Died  Dec.  4,  1881. 

King-,  Rufus.— He  was  born  at  Scar- 
borough, Maine,  March  24,  1755,  and  graduated 
at  Harvard  College  in  1777.  Studied  law  and 
served  on  the  staff  of  Gen.  Glover  in  Rhode 
Island  in  1778.  Admitted  to  the  bar  and  com- 
menced to  practice  at  Newburyport  in  1780. 
Member  of  the  General  Court  1782.  Delegate 
to  Continental  Congress  1784.  Author  of  the 
provision  excluding  slavery  forever  from  the 
North-west  Territories.  Commissioner  from 
Mass,  to  settle  the  New  York  boundary  ques- 


BIOGRAPHICAL  DICTIONARY. 


tion.  Member  of  the  Convention  to  frame  a 
IT.  S.  Constitution.  U.  S.  Senator  1789 ; re- 
elected in  1795.  Minister  to  England  in  1796 
and  remained  in  London  eight  years.  Settled 


on  a farm  at  Jamaica,  L.  I.,  in  1804.  U.  S. 
Senator  1818-1825.  Appointed  Minister  to  Eng- 
land 1825,  but  resigned  and  returned  home  on 
account  of  ill  health  1826.  Died  April  29, 
1827. 

King-,  William  II.— He  was  born  in  Samp- 
son Co.,  N.  C.,  April  7,  1786;  graduated  at 
University  of  North  Carolina  in  1803  ; admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1806.  Elected  to  the  Legislature 
the  same  year,  and  re-elected  1807,  but  resigned 
to  accept  the  position  of  Solicitor  for  the 
Wilmington  circuit.  Member  of  Legislature 
1807.  Member  of  Congress  1810-16.  Secretary 
of  Legation,  first  to  Naples  and  then  to  St. 
Petersburg.  On  his  return  he  removed  to 
Alabama  and  was  a member  of  the  Convention 
to  forma  State  Constitution  1819.  U.  S.  Senator 
from  Ala.  from  1819  to  1844.  Minister  to  France 
1844-46.  Remained  in  private  life  two  years 
and  was  then  appointed  to  fill  the  unexpired 
term  in  the  U.  S.  Senate ; re-elected  for  a full 
term  in  1849,  and  in  1850  he  was  unanimously 
elected  President  Pro.  Tem.  of  the  Senate.  He 
was  elected  Vice  President  of  the  U.  S.  in  1852 ; 
but  his  health  failed  and  he  was  in  Havana  at 
the  time  of  the  inauguration  and  there  took  the 


oath  of  office.  He  returned  and  died  at  his 
home  in  Alabama  in  April,  1853. 

Knox,  Henry.— The  confidential  friend  of 
Washington  and  his  Secretary  of  War  for  six 
years  was  born  in  Boston,  Mass.,  July  25,  1750. 
He  was  a book-seller  and  an  officer  of  the 
militia.  He  secretly  retired  to  Cambridge  be- 
fore the  battle  of  Bunker  Hill  and  offered  his 
services  to  General  Ward.  At  the  battle  June 
17,  1775,  he  acted  as  aid  to  that  General.  He 
attracted  the  attention  of  General  Washington 
by  his  skill  when  engaged  as  engineer  and 
artillery  officer  during  the  siege  of  Boston. 
He  was  promoted  to  Brigadier  General  of 
Artillery  and  put  in  command  at  New  York. 
He  acted  a brilliant  part  in  the  battles  of 
Trenton  and  Princeton ; also  at  Germantown, 
Brandywine  and  Monmouth.  He  was  a member 
of  the  Court-martial  which  tried  Major  Andre, 
and  after  the  surrender  of  Cornwallis  was  pro- 
moted to  Major  General.  He  was  assigned  to 
command  at  West  Point  and  appointed  to 
attend  to  the  disbandment  of  the  Continental 
troops.  He  was  a commissioner  to  arrange 
for  the  surrender  of  New  York  City,  with  Sir 
Gen.  Carleton.  He  succeeded  General  Lincoln 
as  Secretary  of  War  in  1785  and  held  this  office 
during  the  administration  of  Washington.  He 
was  granted  a large  tract  of  land  in  the  District 
of  Maine,  and  in  1795  removed  to  the  banks  of 
the  St.  George’s  river,  where  he  built  an  elegant 
mansion  and  lived  in  what  is  now  Thomaston, 
Maine.  He  died  here  Oct.  25,  1806. 

Lee,  Henry.- ‘ ‘Lighthorse  Harry”  was  Dorn 
in  Westmoreland  Co.,  Ya. , Jan.  29,  1756,  and 
graduated  at  Princeton  in  1773.  Entered  the 
Continental  Army  in  1776  as  Captain  of  horse, 
and  commanded  an  independent  corps  known 
as  ‘Lee’s  Legion.  ” He  here  won  the  sobriquet 
of  “Lighthorse  Harry,”  and  was  renowned  for 
boldness,  activity,  and  efficiency.  Member  of 
Congress  1786:  Governor  of  Virginia  1792-95. 
Commander-in-chief  against  the  Wiskey  insur- 
gents. Member  of  Congress  1799.  Delivered 
his  celebrated  oration  on  Washington,  in 
which  first  occurs  the  phrase,  “First  in  war, 
first  in  peace,  and  first  in  the  hearts  of  his 
countrymen.  ” He  was  confined  for  debt  in  the 
jail  at  Spottsylvania  in  1809.  He  was  the  guest 
of  Mr.  Alexander  C.  Hanson  in  Baltimore  when 
the  house  was  attacked  by  a mob  (1814)  and  in 
its  defense  received  injuries  from  which  lie 
never  recovered.  Died  Mar.  25,  1816.  He  was 
father  of  the  following: 


BIOGRAPHICAL  DICTIONARY. 


Lee,  Robert  E.— The  valiant  leader  of  the 
Army  of  Northern  Virginia,  was  born  at  Strat- 
ford House,  Westmoreland  Co. , in  that  State, 
Jan.  19,  1807.  He  graduated  second  in  his  class 
from  West  Point  Military  Academy  in  1829. 
He  was  commissioned  as  Second  Lieutenant  of 
Engineers  and  attached  to  the  army  July  1, 
of  that  year.  He  was  specially  detailed  for  the 
important  work  of  settling  the  boundary  line 
between  Ohio  and  Michigan.  Commissioned 
Captain  of  Engineers  in  1838,  he  saw  his  first 
field  service  in  the  war  with  Mexico,  where  he 
won  the  brevet  of  Major-Lieut.  -Colonel  and  Col- 
onel, for  gallant  conduct.  He  was  wounded 
at  the  battle  of  Chapultepec.  From  Sept.  1, 
1852,  to  Mar.  81,  1855  he  was  superintendent  of 


the  Military  Academy.  He  assumed  the  duties 
of  Lieutenant-Colonel  of  the  2d  Cavalry  and 
served  on  the  Texan  border  for  several  years. 
March  16,  1861,  he  became  Colonel  of  his  Regi- 
ment, but  resigned  his  commission  in  three 
weeks  thereafter  upon  the  secession  of  his  na- 
tive State.  He  tendered  his  services  and  was 
appointed  Major-General  of  the  forces  of  Vir- 
ginia, assuming  command  April  23,  1861.  Gen- 
eral Lee  was  closely  identified  with  the  import- 
ant defense  of  Richmond  and  the  movements  of 
the  Army  of  Northern  Virginia,  of  which  he 
was  Commander-in-Chief  Jan.,  1865,  until  the 
surrender,  April  9,  1865.  After  the  war  he  was 
President  of  the  Washington  College  at  Lexing- 
ton, Va.,  until  his  death,  Oct.  12,  1870. 


87 

Lincoln,  Abraham.- The  sixteenth  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States  was  born  Feb.  12, 
1809,  in  a cabin  in  what  is  now  Larue  Co., 
Ky.  His  father  removed  his  family  to  Indi- 
ana when  young  Abraham  was  eight  years  old. 
His  mother  died  when  he  was  ten  and  his  father 
was  married  again  to  an  estimable  lady,  who 
gave  the  lad  his  first  encouragement  to  study. 
The  Lincolns  removed  to  Illinois  in  1830.  Abra- 
ham Lincoln  resided  for  many  years  in  New 
Salem,  111.,  where  he  labored  as  clerk,  grocer, 
surveyor  and  postmaster.  He  was  elected  to 
the  Legislature  in  1834  as  a Henry  Clay  Whig. 
Admitted  to  the  bar  in  1837  and  opened  an 
office  in  Springfield,  meeting  with  good  success. 
He  took  an  active  part  in  the  campaigns  of 
1840  and  1844  and  in  1846  was  elected  to  Con- 
gress. In  this  one  term  at  Washington  Lincoln 
attained  but  little,  if  any,  prominence.  For 
several  years  he  was  indifferent  to  political 
affairs,  but  in  1854  he  was  aroused  by  the 
Slavery  agitation  and  engaged  in  debate  with 
Stephen  A.  Douglass.  He  was  a candidate  for 
the  U.  S.  Senate  but  defeated  in  1855  and  again 
in  1858.  He  was  elected  President  of  the  U.  S. 
in  1860.  The  secession  of  eleven  States  and  the 
Civil  War  followed  as  a consequence.  Thence- 
forth the  career  of  Mr.  Lincoln  became  a part 
of  the  history  of  his  country.  He  called  an 
extra  session  of  Congress  to  convene  July  4, 
when  he  asked  for,  and  obtained,  400,000  men 
and  $400,000,000  for  carrying  on  the  war.  The 
Emancipation  Proclamation  was  issued  Jan  1, 
1863.  The  second  inauguration  of  Mr.  Lincoln 
took  place  Mar.  4,  1865.  He  was  shot  by  John 
Wilkes  Booth,  an  actor,  April  14,  1865,  and 
died  the  following  morning.  His  body  is  buried 
at  Springfield,  111. 

Lincoln,  ISenjamin.  — He  was  born  at 
Hingham,  Mass.,  Feb.  3,  1733,  and  was  a farmer 
in  his  native  town  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Revo- 
lution. Member  of  the  Legislature  and  Pro- 
vincial Congress,  Secretary  of  the  latter  1774, 
and  was  appointed  Major-General  of  the  State 
troops.  Gained  the  confidence  of  Washington 
at  Boston  and  in  Jan.,  1776,  led  an  expedition 
which  cleared  Boston  harbor  of  British  vessels. 
Aided  in  many  important  movements  of  the 
war  and  was  commissioned  Major-General  by 
Congress  Feb.  19,  1777.  After  many  brilliant 
achievements  was  obliged  to  surrender  to  Corn- 
wallis at  Charleston,  S.  C.,  1780,  and  was  ex- 
changed 1781.  Received  the  sword  of  Corn- 
wallis at  his  surrender  at  Yorktown.  Secretary 
of  War  from  1781  to  1784.  Lieutenant  Governor 


BIOGRAPHICAL  DICTIONARY. 


of  Mass.  1787.  Collector  of  the  port  of  Boston 
1789  to  1809.  Died  May  9,  1810. 

Livingston,  Edward.— He  was  born  at 
Clermont,  Columbia  Co.,  N.  Y.,  May  26,  1764, 
and  graduated  at  Princeton  1781.  Member  of 
Congress  1795-1801.  U.  S.  District  Attorney 
1802.  Mayor  of  New  York  1801-1802.  Removed 
to  New  Orleans  1804  and  won  a brilliant  repu- 
tation as  a lawyer.  Acted  as  aid-de-camp  to 
Gen.  Jackson  at  the  battle  of  New  Orleans, 
Jan.  8,  1815.  Won  a lasting  fame  in  Europe 
and  Spanish  America  by  his  legal  works.  Mem- 
ber of  Congress  1823-29  ; U.  S.  Senator  1829-31  ; 
Secretary  of  State  1831-33 ; Minister  to  France 
1833-35.  Died  at  Rhinebeck,  N.  Y.,  May  26, 
1836.  He  was  brother  of  the  following  : 

Livingston,  Robert  B. — He  was  born  at 
New  York,  Nov.  27,  1747;  graduated  at  Colum- 
bia College  1765  and  became  a successful  lawyer. 
Recorder  of  New  York  1773-1775.  Member  of 
Continental  Congress  1775-77  and  1779-81.  Was 
on  the  committee  which  reported  the  Declar- 
ation of  Independence,  but  was  prevented  from 
signing  it.  Secretary  of  Foreign  Affairs  1781  to 


’83.  Chancellor  of  New  York  1777-1801.  Min- 
ister to  France  1801-1804,  and  effected  the 
purchase  of  Louisiana.  He  aided  Robert  Fulton 
in  his  steamooat  experiments.  He  died  Feb.  26, 
1813. 


Eog-a.ii,  John  A.— He  was  born  in  Jackson 
Co.,  111.,  Feb.  9,  1824,  and  received  but  limited 
education.  Entered  the  Army  as  private  of  the 
1st  Illinois  Yols.  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Mexican 
War  and  soon  became  Quarter-master  with  rank 


of  1st  Lieutenant.  Was  elected  Clerk  oi  his 
native  county  in  1849;  graduated  from  the 
Louisville  University  in  1852  and  began  the 
practice  of  law.  Member  of  the  State  Legis- 
lature in  1852,  1853,  1856,  1857,  and  of  Congress 
1859  to  1861.  He  resigned  to  enter  the  army. 
Colonel  of  the  31st  111.,  Sept.,  1861.  Wounded 
at  Fort  Donaldson,  Feb.,  1862.  Brigadier  Gen- 
eral of  Volunteers  March,  1862.  Major  General 
Nov.,  1862.  Commanded  the  15th  Corps  until 
the  death  of  McPherson,  when  he  assumed 
command  of  the  Army  of  the  Tennessee.  Was 
relieved  by  Gen.  G.  O.  Howard,  but  was  re- 
turned to  the  same  command  in  May,  f865. 
Member  of  the  40th  and  41st  Congress  as  Repre- 
sentative. U.  S.  Senate  from  1870  to  his  death, 
Dec.  26,  1886. 

Eongfellow,  Henry  W.— This  eminent 
American  poet  was  born  in  Portland,  Maine, 
Feb.  27, 1807,  and  graduated  at  Bowdoin  College 
in  1825.  He  entered  the  law  office  of  his  father, 
but  soon  accepted  the  Chair  of  Modern  Lan- 
guages at  Bowdoin,  with  the  privilege  of  travel- 
ing in  Europe  for  three  years.  After  studying 
in  Germany,  France,  Spain  and  Italy,  he  as- 
sumed the  Professorship  in  1829.  In  1835  he 
was  elected  to  the  Chair  of  Modern  Languages 


BIOGRAPHICAL  DICTIONARY. 


89 


and  Literature  at  Harvard  University  and  again 
went  to  Europe.  He  entered  upon  his  new 
position  in  1836,  and  took  his  residence  in  the 
famous  Washington’s  Head-quarters  in  Cam- 
bridge, Mass.  He  resigned  in  1854,  but  continued 
his  residence  there.  His  poetical  works  have 
received  a wide  circulation,  and  many  of  them 
have  been  translated  into  several  languages  of 
Europe.  He  once  received  a large  compli- 
mentary vote  for  the  Lord  Rectorship  of  the 
University  of  Edinburg.  He  died  March  24, 
4882. 

Ijong’street,  James.— Was  born  in  South 
Carolina  in  1820.  Graduated  from  West  Point 


in  1842.  Commissioned  Lieutenant  of  Infantry 
and  served  with  credit  in  the  Mexican  War, 
being  brevetted  Captain  and  Major.  Commis- 
sioned as  Captain  in  1852  ; transferred  to  Pay- 
master's department  in  1858  with  rank  of 
Major.  Resigned  in  June,  1861,  and  appointed 
Brigadier  General  C.  S.  A.  Promoted  to  Major 
General  1862.  Lieutenant  General  in  1863.  Com- 
manded the  right  wing  of  the  Confederate 
Army  at  Antietam  and  at  Gettysburg,  and  the 
left  wing  at  Fredericksburg.  Besieged  Burn- 
side at  Knoxville,  but  was  compelled  to  raise 
the  siege.  He  was  wounded  May  6,  1864,  in  the 
Wilderness.  Surveyor  of  New  Orleans  in  1869. 
Commissioner  of  Eng.  for  Louisiania  1871  to 
1875.  Minister  to  Turkey  1880  to  1881.  U.  S. 
Marshall  for  Georgia  1882  to  1885. 

Loomis  Klias.— He  was  born  in  Tolland 
Co.,  Conn.,  1811,  and  graduated  at  Yale  College 
1830.  Tutor  Yale  1833-36,  Resided  in  Paris, 
France,  attending  lectures  in  astronomy,  mag- 
netism and  meteorology,  1835-37.  Professor  of 
Natural  Philosophy,  Western  Reserve  College, 


1837.  Called  to  the  University  of  New  York 
1844,  and  to  Yale  College  1860.  Author  of  many 
college  text-books  in  mathematics  and  the 
exact  sciences.  Died  Aug.  15,  1889. 

Lowell,  James  R.— This  popular  poet 
was  born  at  Cambridge,  Mass.,  Feb.  22,  1819, 
and  graduated  at  Yale  College  1838;  Harvard 
Law  School  1840.  Printed  a small  volume  of 
poems  in  1841.  In  1851-52  he  traveled  in  Europe. 
Professor  of  Modern  Languages  in  Harvard 
College  1855.  Editor  of  “Atlantic  Monthly” 
1857-62;  “North  American  Review”  1863-72; 
traveled  in  Europe  1872-74.  U.  S.  Minister  to 
Spain  1877,  and  to  England  1880-85.  Elected 
Lord  Rector  of  St.  Andrew’s  University,  Glas- 
gow, Scotland,  but  soon  resigned  that  office  as 
incompatible  with  his  position  as  Minister  to 
England. 

Lyon,  Nathaniel. — This  gallant  officer  was 
bom  at  Ashford,  Windham  Co. , Conn. , July  14, 
1819  ; graduated  at  West  Point,  and  entered  the 
Army  as  Second  Lieutenant  of  Infantiy  1841. 
Promoted  to  First  Lieutenant  1847  and  Captain 
1851.  Served  throughout  the  Mexican  War; 
was  wounded  and  brevetted  Captain  for  gal- 
lantry. Resided  for  five  years  in  California. 
Served  in  Kansas  during  the  political  excite- 
ment and  resumed  active  duty  on  the  frontier. 
In  command  of  the  U.  S.  Arsenal  at  St.  Louis, 
Mo.,  which  he  defended  May  10,  1861,  from  a 
threatened  attack,  and  also  captured  a Con- 
federate force  and  twenty  cannon.  Commis- 
sioned Brigadier  General  May  17,  1861.  He 
routed  a camp  of  State  guards  at  Boone ville ; 
he  met  and  defeated  McCulluck  at  Day  Spring, 


Mo. , Aug.  2,  1861 ; he  fought  the  battle  of 
Wilson’s  Creek,  Aug.  10,  1861,  and  after  being 
twice  wounded  was  instantly  killed  by  a rifle 
shot  while  leading  the  charge  of  a regiment 
whose  Colonel  had  been  killed. 


90 


BIOGRAPHICAL  DICTIONARY. 


;i e«lo  11  o 11  g- li,  Thomas.  — Commodore 

Macdonough  was  bom  in  New  Castle  Co., 


Delaware,  Dec.  23,  1783.  When  he  was  seven- 
teen years  of  age  he  entered  the  United  States 
N aval  Service  as  a midshipman.  H e was  p resent 
at  Tripoli  in  1803  and  1804  under  Commodore 
Decatur.  Was  promoted  to  Lieutenant  in  1807 
and  Commander  July  24,  1813.  At  the  cele- 
brated victory  on  Lake  Champlain,  September 
11,  1814,  a naval  contest  of  two  hours’  duration 
with  the  English  fleet,  which  was  destined  for 
the  destruction  of  Plattsburg,  and  resulted 
in  the  capture  of  nearly  every  vessel,  Mac- 
donough gained  the  rank  of  Captain.  He  was 
presented  with  a gold  medal  by  Congress,  and 
the  State  of  Vermont  gave  him  an  estate  on 
Cumberland  Hill,  which  overlooked  the  scene 
of  the  battle.  He  was  also  rewarded  by  the 
State  of  New  York  and  the  cities  of  New  York 
and  Albany,  for  his  defense  of  the  country. 
He  was  in  command  of  the  Mediterranean 
squadron,  and  while  returning  home  from  his 
command  died  at  sea,  Nov.  16,  1825. 

UlcCIellaii,  Cieorg-e  15.— Was  born  in 
Philadelphia,  Pa. , Dec.  3,  1826 ; graduated 
from  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  1842,  and 
from  West  Point  1846.  Served  in  the  Mexican 
War  and  was  bre vetted  1st  Lieutenant  and 
Captain  for  gallantry.  Visited  the  Crimea  in 
1855  as  one  of  a military  commission.  Resigned 
from  the  army  and  was  Chief  Engineer  and 
Vice  President  of  the  Illinois  Central  R.  R.  in 
1857.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  was 


commissioned  by  the  Governor  of  Ohio  as  Major 
General,  April  23,  1861.  Major  General  in  the 
U.  S.  Army  May  14,  1861.  He  was  directed  by 
the  President  to  disperse  the  Confederate  forces 
in  West  Virginia.  He  accomplished  this  by  the 
14th  of  July  and  Congress  tendered  him  a vote 
of  thanks.  Assigned  to  the  command  of  the 
Army  of  the  Potomac  Aug.  20,  1861.  After  the 
unfortunate  campaign  of  the  Peninsula  and  the 
battles  of  South  Mountain  and  Antietam,  he 
was  relieved  of  command  Nov.  7,  1862.  Nomin- 
ated for  President  by  Democratic  Convention 
1864.  Made  an  extensive  tour  of  Europe  1865 
to  1868.  In  1870  he  was  appointed  Chief  En- 
gineer of  the  Department  of  Docks  in  New 


York  City,  and  resigned  in  1872.  Governor  of 
New  Jersey  1878-1881.  Died  Oct.  29,  1885. 

UlcCiilIitclt,  Kenjsimin. — He  was  born  in 
Rutherford  Co.,  Tenn. , 1814,  and  received  but 
little  schooling.  Being  fond  of  hunting  he 
became  an  expert,  and  went  to  Texas  to  join 
the  expedition  of  Davy  Crockett,  but  arrived 
there  after  his  death.  Served  as  a private  in 
the  battle  of  San  Antonio,  but  subsequently 
was  Captain  of  a company  of  Texas  Rangers 
in  the  Mexican  War.  Distinguished  himself  at 
Monterey,  Buena  Vista  and  City  of  Mexico. 
U.  S.  Marshall  in  1853,  and  Commissioner  to 
Utah  1857.  He  espoused  the  Southern  cause  in 
the  Civil  War  and  was  commissioned  Brigadier 
General.  Served  in  Texas  and  Missouri.  He  was 
killed  at  the  battle  of  Pea  Ridge  Sept.  7,  1862. 


BIOGRAPHICAL  DICTIONARY. 


91 


McDowell,  Irwin.— He  was  bom  at  Col- 
umbia, 0.,  Oct.  15,  1818,  and  was  educated  at 
College  de  Troyes,  France,  and  graduated  at 
West  Point  1888.  Second  Lieutenant  of  Artillery 
and  Adjutant  at  West  Point  1841-45.  Aid-de- 
camp  to  General  Wool  in  the  Mexican  War. 
Brevetted  Captain  and  Assistant  Adjutant 
General  1847.  Promoted  to  Brevet  Major  in 
1856.  Appointed  Brigadier  General  May  14, 
1861.  Commanded  at  the  first  battle  of  Bull 
Run,  July  21, 1861.  Promoted  to  Major  General 
of  Vols. , March,  1862.  Commanded  the  First 
Corps  1862 ; the  Third  Corps,  Aug. , 1862 ; 
Department  of  the  Pacific  1864 ; of  Cal.  1866 ; 
of  the  East  1868.  Major  General  in  the  Regular 
Army,  Nov.,  1872.  Assigned  to  the  depart- 
ment of  the  South,  Dec. , 1872  ; retired  Oct.  15, 
1882.  Died  May  4,  1885. 

McPherson,  James  B.— He  was  born  in 
Sandusky  Co.,  O.,  Nov.  14,  1828;  graduated  at 


the  head  of  his  class  at  West  Point  1858.  Re- 
tained at  the  U.  S.  Military  Academy  as 
Assistant  Instructor  of  Engineering  until  Sept. , 
1854.  He  was  then  assigned  to  New  York  as 
Assistant  Engineer  on  the  defenses  of  the 
Harbor.  Promoted  to  full  2d  Lieutenant,  Dec., 
1854.  In  charge  of  the  construction  of  Fort 
Delaware,  and  later  of  defenses  in  San 
Francisco  Harbor.  Promoted  to  First  Lieu- 
tenant 1858.  Engaged  in  organizing  a corp  of 
Engineers  in  Boston,  1861.  Promoted  to  Cap- 
tain, and  chosen  by  General  Halleck  as  Aid-de- 
camp  and  Assistant  Engineer  of  the  Department 
of  Missouri,  with  rank  of  Lieutenant-Colonel, 
Nov.,  1861.  Promoted  to  Colonel  May,  1862. 
Brigadier  General  U.  S.  Yols.  and  Major  Gen- 
eral in  Oct.,  1862.  His  brilliant  record  from 
1862  to  the  fall  of  Vicksburg,  is  summed  up  in 
the  words  of  General  Grant  recommending  him 


for  promotion,  “ He  is  one  of  the  ablest  engin- 
eers and  most  skilful  generals.”  Upon  this 
recommendation  he  was  commissioned  as  Brig- 
adier General  in  the  Regular  Army,  Aug.  1, 
1863.  He  was  next  in  command  to  Gen.  Sher- 
man on  his  raid  to  Meridian,  and  distinguished 
himself  in  every  battle  in  which  he  was  engaged. 
Commanded  the  left  grand  division  at  Atlanta, 
and  was  killed  in  action  July  22,  1864. 

Madison,  James.— The  fourth  President 
of  the  United  States  was  born  at  Port  Conway, 
Va.,  March  16,  1751  ; graduated  at  Princeton 
College  1771.  Elected  to  the  General  Assembly 
of  Virginia  1776  ; to  the  Executive  Council  1778, 
and  to  Congress  1780-83.  Member  of  the  State 
Legislature  1784-86,  and  a delegate  to  the  Con- 
stitutional Convention  in  1786.  Member  of  the 
first,  second,  third  and  fourth  Congresses,  1789- 
97.  Secretary  of  State  1801-1809.  President  of 
the  U.  S.  1809-1817.  Died  June  28,  1836. 

Mann,  Horace.— This  renowned  educator 
and  lawyer  was  born  at  Franklin,  Mass. , May 
4,  1796 ; graduated  at  Brown  University  1819 ; 
admitted  to  the  bar  1823  and  settled  at  Dedham, 
Mass.  ; removed  to  Boston  in  1833.  He  was 
often  a member  of  the  State  Legislature  ; Sec- 
retary of  the  State  Board  of  Education  1837-48. 
Member  of  Congress  1848-53.  President  of 
Antioch  College  at  Yellow  Springs,  O.,  1852- 
1859.  Died  Aug.  2, 1859.  He  published,  ‘ ‘ Lec- 
tures on  Education,”  1848;  “Letters  and 
Speeches  on  Slavery,”  1851;  “Lectures  on 
Intemperance,”  1852. 

Marion,  Francis.— He  was  born  at  Win- 

yaw,  near  Georgetown,  S.  C. , 1732  ; went  to  sea 


when  sixteen  and  barely  escaped  with  his  life 
from  shipwreck.  Volunteered  against  the 


92 


BIOGRAPHICAL  DICTIONARY. 


Cherokees  in  1759;  serving  as  Lieutenant  in  a 
company  commanded  by  his  brother.  Captain 
in  1761,  and  led  the  forlorn  hope  at  the  battle 
of  Etchoee.  Member  of  Congress  from  S.  C. 
1775.  Served  in  Col.  William  Moultrie’s  regi- 
ment as  Captain  ; promoted  to  Major  and  aided 
in  the  repulse  of  the  British  from  Fort  Moul- 
trie, June  28,  1776.  Left  in  command  of  the 
fort  1779.  Escaped  from  capture  at  the  sur- 
render of  Charleston  1780,  because  of  being  sent 
back  to  the  country  with  a broken  leg.  As 
Colonel  of  an  independent  body  of  rangers,  he 
rescued  the  prisoners  captured  by  the  British 
at  the  battle  of  Camden.  Surprised  and  scat- 
tered two  bodies  of  Tories  in  quick  succession 
a few  days  later,  and  thus  acquired  the  sobri- 
quet of  ‘ ‘ Swamp  Fox.  ” His  forces  increased 
and  were  organized  into  a brigade  and  he  became 
General.  Marion  disbanded  his  forces  in  1782 
and  returned  to  his  farm.  Served  in  the  State 
Senate  and  the  Convention  to  ratify  the  U.  S. 
Constitution  1790.  General  of  Militia  until  1794. 
Died  Feb.  29,  1796. 

Marshall,  John.— An  eminent  jurist  of  the 
United  States,  was  born  in  Germantown,  Va., 


Sept.  24,  1755,  and  saw  active  service  in  the 
War  of  the  Revolution  from  1775  to  1779.  He 
studied  law  and  was  admitted  to  practice  in 
1781.  He  strongly  advocated  the  adoption  of 
the  Constitution  in  the  Virginia  Legislature, 
of  which  he  was  a member.  He  was  Envoy  to 
the  Court  of  France  in  1798  and  a member  of 
Congress  in  1799.  The  next  year  he  was  ap- 
pointed Secretary  of  War  and  soon  after  Sec- 


retary of  State.  He  was  nominated  Chief 
Justice  of  the  United  States  by  President  * 
Adams  in  1801,  and  held  that  office  with  honor 
for  many  years.  His  fame  as  an  honest  Judge, 
sound  reasoner  and  able  jurist,  extended  to  other 
nations.  He  died  at  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  July  6, 
1885. 

Mather,  Cotton.— Son  of  Increase  and  grand- 
son of  J ohn  Mather  was  born  at  Boston,  Mass. , 


Feb.  12,  1663 ; graduated  at  Harvard  College 
1678,  and  ordained  as  his  father’s  colleague  over 
the  North  Church  1684.  Actively  and  aggres- 
sively engaged  in  promoting  the  ascendency  of 
the  Church  and  ministry  in  civil  affairs.  Chief 
instigator  of  the  suppression  of  witchcraft  by 
law  at  Salem.  His  cruelty  and  bigotry  did  not 
entirely  hide  from  sight  his  better  qualities  of 
benevolence  to  the  poor,  for  whom  he  zealously 
labored.  He  died  Feb.  13,  1728. 

Mathews,  Stanley.— He  was  born  at  Cin- 
cinnati, O.,  July  21,  1824,  and  graduated  from 
Kenyon  College  1840;  studied  law  and  was 
admitted  to  the  bar.  Editoral  manager  of  the 
“ Cincinnati  Herald  ” from  1846-1849.  Elected 
Judge  of  the  Court  of  Common  Pleas  1851,  and 
to  the  State  Senate  in  1855.  U.  S.  District 
Attorney  1858.  At  the  commencement  of  the 
Civil  War  became  Lieut. -Colonel  of  the  23d  Ohio 
Vols.,  Oct.,  1851.  Colonel  of  57th  Ohio  Vols. , 
and  commanded  a brigade  in  the  Army  of  the 
Cumberland.  J udge  of  the  Inferior  Court  1863. 
U.  S.  Senate  1878.  Assistant  Judge  of  the 
Supreme  Court  of  the  U.  S.  1881  to  his  death. 
March  22,  1889. 


BIOGRAPHICAL  DICTIONARY. 


9b 


Meade,  George  G.— Was  born  at  Cadiz, 
Spain,  Dec.  30,  1815,  while  his  father  was  acting 
as  Navy  agent  for  the  U.  S.  He  graduated 


from  West  Point  in  1835  and  was  commissioned 
Second  Lieutenant  of  Artillery  the  same  year. 
He  resigned  in  Oct.,  1836,  and  was  engaged  as 
Civil  Engineer  for  six  years  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Mississippi  and  in  the  survey  of  the 
boundary  line  of  Texas.  In  1842  he  was  survey- 
ing the  N.  E.  boundary,  and  was  re-appointed 
to  his  former  rank  in  the  army.  He  served 
with  distinction  in  the  Mexican  War.  After 
the  close  of  that  war,  in  which  he  was  brevetted 
First  Lieutenant,  he  was  engaged  in  light-house 
construction.  He  became  Captain  in  1856  and 
Major  in  1862.  He  commanded  the  2d  Brigade 
of  Pennsylvania  Reserves  as  Brigadier  General 
of  Volunteers.  Major  General  Nov.,  1862.  Was 
appointed  to  command  the  Army  of  the  Poto- 
mac at  the  battle  of  Gettysburg  to  the  close  of 
the  war.  Commissioned  full  Major  General 
in  the  Regular  Army,  Aug.,  1864.  Died  at 
Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Nov.  6,  1872. 

Meagher,  Thomas  Eh— 1 This  distinguished 
General  was  born  in  Ireland,  at  Waterford, 
Aug.  3,  1823;  studied  at  the  Jesuit  College  of 
Clongawes,  Kildare,  and  at  Stony  hurst  College, 
England.  He  soon  became  a favorite  orator 
with  the  Young  Ireland  party  and  was  sen- 
tenced to  death,  but  the  sentence  was  commuted 
and  he  was  transported  to  Tasmania  for  life. 
Escaped  in  1852  and  came  to  New  York.  En- 
tered law  and  wrote  for  the  press ; became 
Editor  of  the  “ Irish  News  ” 1856.  Captain  and 
then  Major  of  the  69th  New  York  Vols.  1861. 
Raised  a brigade  which  he  commanded  1862-63. 
Secretary  of  Montana  Territory  1865.  Drowned 
July  1st,  1867. 

Mitchel,  Ormsby  M. — This  eminent  as- 
tronomer and  General  was  born  in  Union  Co., 
Ky.,  Aug.  28,  1810,  and  became  clerk  in  a store 


at  Miami,  O. , when  twelve;  graduated  from 
West  Point  1829.  Assistant  Professor  of  Mathe- 
matics until  1831.  He  then  studied  law  and 
was  admitted  to  the  bar;  practiced  at  Cincinnati 
until  1834,  when  he  became  Professor  of  Mathe- 
matics, Natural  Philosophy  and  Astronomy  of 
Cincinnati  College.  He  delivered  lectures  on  his 
favorite  science  of  astronomy,  and  visited 
Europe  to  procure  apparatus  for  the  observatory 
on  Mount  Adams  in  1842.  The  corner-stone  of 
this  building  was  laid  by  John  Quincy  Adams 
1843.  General  Mitchel  invented  several  scien- 
tific instruments  and  made  independent  dis- 
coveries in  astronomy.  In  1859  he  became 
Director  of  the  Dudley  Observatory  at  Albany, 
N.  Y. , but  in  1861  tendered  his  services  to  the 
Government.  Commissioned  Brigadier  General 
Aug.  9,  1861 ; Major  General,  April  11,  1862 ; 
appointed  to  command  the  Department  of  the 
South,  but  while  making  active  preparation 
for  the  coming  campaign,  died  of  yellow  fever 
at  Beaufort,  S.  C. , Oct.  30,  1862. 

Monroe,  James.— The  fifth  President  of 
the  U.  S.  was  born  in  Westmoreland  Co.,  Va., 
April  28,  1758;  educated  at  William  and  Mary 
College.  Served  with  distinction  in  the  Revo- 
lutionary War  1776-78,  and  was  wounded  at 
Trenton.  Studied  law  with  Jefferson  and  re- 
entered the  army  in  the  latter  part  of  the  war. 
Delegate  to  Congress  1783-86 ; opposed  the 
adoption  of  the  U.  S.  Constitution ; was  U.  S. 
Senator  1790-94 ; Minister  to  France  1794-96 ; 
Governor  of  Virginia  1799-1802,  and  again  1811 ; 
Envoy  to  France  1802  ; to  Spain  1805 ; Minister 
to  England  1803-08  ; Secretary  of  State  1811-17  ; 
also  of  War  1814-15;  President  of  the  United 
States  1817-25 ; removed  to  New  York  1831,  and 
died  there  July  4,  1831. 

Morgan,  Edwin  IK— He  was  born  at 
Washington,  Mass.,  Feb.  8,  1811,  and  became 


clerk  when  seventeen  in  a large  wholesale 
grocery  store  in  Hartford,  Conn,  and  afterwards 


*94 


BIOGRAPHICAL  DICTIONARY. 


a partner ; removed  to  New  York  City  1836 ; 
State  Senator  1843-53 ; Governor  1859-62  ; ranked 
as  Major  General  of  U.  S.  Yols.  (without  pay) 
1861-62  ; U.  S.  Senator  1863-69  ; declined  the 
proffered  appointment  of  Secretary  of  the  U.  S. 
Treasury,  Feb.,  1865  and  1881.  Died  Feb.  14, 
1883. 

Morris,  Robert.— This  staunch  financial 
supporter  of  the  Continental  Army  was  born  in 
England,  Jan.  20,  1734,  and  came  with  his  father 


to  America  in  1747.  He  served  his  apprentice- 
ship in  the  counting-house  of  Charles  Willing 
until  1754,  when  he  entered  into  partnership 
with  his  master’s  son  and  continued  a successful 
business  until  1793.  Mr.  Morris  opposed  the 
Stamp  Act  and  in  spite  of  his  business  interests 
signed  the  non-importation  agreement  of  1765. 
He  cast  his  vote  against  the  Declaration  of 
Independence  in  the  Congress  of  which  he  was 
a member,  but  subsequently  signed  his  name  to 
that  immortal  document.  He  was  twice  re- 
elected to  Congress  1777-1778.  His  great  service 
to  his  country  was  in  aiding  her  in  her  deep 
financial  distress.  In  this  respect  he  was  of 
incalculable  value.  At  one  time  he  pledged  his 
personal  credit  to  the  extent  of  $1,400,000  to 
furnish  supplies  to  the  destitute  army.  With- 
out this  timely  aid  the  campaign  of  1781  would 
have  been  an  utter  failure.  He  also  established 
the  Bank  of  North  America,  and  as  “Superin- 
tendent of  Finance  ” from  i781  to  1785,  used  his 


personal  credit  to  aid  his  department  in  carry- 
ing forward  the  Government.  He  was  United 
States  Senator  from  1786  to  1795,  having  declined 
the  proffered  office  of  Secretary  of  the  Treasury 
under  Washington.  He  suggested  the  name 
of  Alexander  Hamilton  for  that  position,  and 
Hamilton  was  appointed.  Mr.  Morris  became 
involved  in  an  unsuccessful  land  speculation, 
which  swept  away  the  last  vestage  of  his 
princely  fortune.  The  last  days  of  this  patriot 
were  passed  in  a debtor’s  prison.  He  died  May 
8,  1806. 

Morse,  Samuel  F.  B.— The  inventor  of 
the  modern  telegraph  was  born  in  Charlestown, 
Mass.,  April  27,  1791.  He  went  to  London  in 
1811  to  study  art  under  Benjamin  West.  Re- 
ceived a gold  medal  for  his  first  effort  in  sculp- 
ture. Founded  the  National  Academy  of 
Design  in  New  York.  Visited  Europe  in  1829 
for  the  second  time,  and  on  the  return  voyage 
in  1832  he  conceived  and  drew  the  plans  of  the 
recording  telegraph  which  bears  his  name.  He 
was  one  of  the  first  Professors  of  the  U nivereity 
of  the  City  of  New  York.  He  set  up  his  rude 
telegraph  in  1835,  but  did  not  bring  it  to  public 
notice  until  1844.  By  the  aid  of  the  Govern- 
ment he  opened  the  first  line  from  Baltimore  to 
Washington,  and  sent  this  message,  May  24, 
1844,  “What  hath  God  wrought.”  He  passed 


at  once  from  poverty  to  riches,  and  received 
honors  and  decorations  from  colleges  and  socie- 
ties in  Europe  and  America.  Died  April  2, 1872. 


BIOGRAPHICAL  DICTIONARY. 


95 


Morton,  I^evi  I*.— The  twenty-second  Vice 
President  of  the  U.  S.  was  born  in  Shoreham, 
Vt.,  May  16,  1824.  He  prepared  for  college, 
but  abandoned  the  plan  at  fifteen,  and  entered 
a store  at  Enfield,  Mass. , and  two  years  after- 
ward his  employer  at  that  time  established  him 
in  a branch  store  at  Amherst,  Mass.  He  went 
to  Boston  in  1849,  and  two  years  later  he  opened 
a branch  in  New  York  as  partner  under  the 
name  of  J.  M.  Beebe,  Morgan  & Co.  He 
organized  the  house  of  Morton  & Grinnell  in 
1854.  Late  in  1861  he  established  the  mercantile 
firm  of  L.  P.  Morton  & Co.  Mr.  McCune,  one 
of  the  partners,  withdrew,  and  the  others 
founded  the  banking  house  of  L.  P.  Morton  & 
Co. , 1863  ; in  1869  the  London  branch  under  the 
name  of  Morton,  Rose  & Co. , and  the  New  York 
branch,  Morton,  Bliss  & Co.,  were  established. 
These  branches  acted  as  fiscal  agents  for  the 
U.  S.  Government  in  the  Geneva  and  Halifax 


Awards.  Member  of  Congress  1879-81;  Minister 
to  France  1881-85.  Inaugurated  Vice  President 
of  the  U.  S. , March  4,  1889. 

Naglee,  Henry  M.— He  was  born  at  Phila- 
delphia, Pa.,  Jan.  15,  1815,  and  graduated  at 
West  Point  1835;  resigned  Dec.,  1835.  Served 
in  the  Mexican  War  as  Captain  of  New  York 
Vols.,  and  afterwards  became  a merchant  in 
San  Francisco ; was  appointed  Lieutenant 
Colonel  of  the  16th  Infantry,  May,  1861.  He 


was  commissioned  Brigadier  General,  Feb., 
1862 ; commanded  a Division  in  1863 ; com- 
manded the  7th  Army  Corps  July,  1863  ; was 
mustered  out  April,  1864 ; engaged  in  banking 
in  California,  and  died  March  5,  1886. 

Nelson,  William.— He  was  born  in  Mays- 
ville,  Ky.,  in  1825,  and  entered  the  Navy  in 


1840.  He  participated  in  the  siege  of  Vera 
Cruz  in  1847,  and  was  promoted  to  Commander 
in  1861.  He  exchanged  the  naval  for  the  military 
service  and  was  commissioned  Brigadier  Gen. 
Sept.  16,  1861.  He  was  a successful  General ; 
commanded  the  2d  division  of  General  Buell’s 
Army  at  Shiloh,  Miss. ; promoted  Major  General 
July  17,  1862.  He  was  killed  in  an  altercation 
at  the  Galt  House,  Sept.  29,  1862. 

Newman,  Jolrn  I*.— This  eminent  Method- 
ist divine  was  born  in  New  York  City,  Sept.  1, 
1826,  and  received  his  education  at  Cazenovia 
Seminary.  Entered  the  ministry  of  the  M.  E. 
Church  and  was  for  several  years  Pastor  of  the 
Metropolitan  M.  E.  Church,  Washington,  D.  C. 
Chaplain  of  the  U.  S.  Senate  1869-74  ; Inspector 
of  U.  S.  Consulships  in  Asia  1874-75  ; Pastor  of 
Madison  Avenue  Cong.  Church  1882-84  ; again 
Pastor  of  Metropolitan  M.  E.  Church  1886 ; 
Bishop  of  the  M.  E.  Church  1888. 

Newton,  Isaac.— This  American  name- 
sake of  the  great  English  philosopher  was  born 
in  New  York  City  in  1838 ; studied  civil  engin- 
eering at  the  University  of  New  York ; com- 
misioned  Engineer  U.  S.  Navy  in  1861,  and  at 
Mr.  Ericsson’s  especial  request  was  appointed 
Chief  Engineer  of  the  iron-clad,  “Monitor,” 
and  was  commended  for  coolness,  skill  and 
energy  in  her  engagement  with  the  Merrimac  ; u 
ordered  to  duty  as  Superintendent  of  con- 
struction of  iron-clads.  He  resigned  at  the 


96 


BIOGRAPHICAL  DICTIONARY. 


. close  of  the  war  and  engaged  with  a large  coal 
and  iron  company.  Principal  Assistant  En- 
gineer, department  of  docks,  New  York  City, 
1871-72.  He  superintended  the  construction  of 
the  masonry  pier  near  the  Battery.  Died  Sept. 
25,  1884. 

Nohle,  John.— He  was  born  in  Lancaster, 
Ohio,  Oct.  26,  1831.  Graduated  at  Yale  College 


1851.  Admitted  to  the  bar  and  began  prac- 
ticing in  St.  Louis,  Mo. , 1855,  afterward  removed 
to  Keokuk,  Iowa.  Became  Brevet  Brigadier 
General  in  the  Union  Army  in  the  Civil  War. 
Returned  to  St.  Louis  at  the  close  of  the  war. 
U.  S.  District  Attorney  1866-70.  Counsel  in 
many  cases  involving  large  interests.  Ap- 
pointed Secretary  of  the  Interior  1889. 

O’Connor,  Charles.— This  eminent  lawyer 
was  born  in  New  York  City  in  1804.  After  re- 
ceiving a common  school  education  he  studied 
law  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1824.  By 
unremitting  industry  and  application  he  at- 
tained the  position  of  leader  of  his  profession 
in  the  city  of  his  birth.  His  first  noted  case, 
which  became  widely  known  and  established 
so  firmly  his  reputation,  was  that  of  the  fugitive 
slave,  ‘ ‘ Jack,”  which  was  carried  to  the  highest 
tribunals  of  the  State.  He  gained  every  point 
(1835).  Other  celebrated  cases  were  the  Lis- 
penard  will  case  in  1843,  and  the  Forrest 
1 divorce  case.  He  was  a Democrat,  but  never 
held  office,  save  for  a few  months  as  Attorney 
General  under  President  Pierce,  and  as  a mem- 
ber of  the  Constitutional  Convention  in  1864. 
He  died  May  12,  1884. 


Ord,  Edward  O.  C.— He  was  born  in  Cum- 
berland, Alegheny  Co. , Md. , Oct.  19,  1818  ; grad- 
uated from  West  Point  1839 ; served  in  the 
Florida  War  until  1842;  on  the  frontier  in 
various  expeditions  against  the  Indians  ; at  the 
outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  was  appointed 
Brigadier  General  of  U.  S.  Vols.,  Sept.,  1861; 
promoted  to  Major  General  in  May,  1862  ; trans- 
ferred to  the  West  and  commanded  the  left 
wing  of  General  Grant’s  Army,  Aug. -Sept. , 
1862.  Commanded  the  13th  Corps  during  the 
siege  and  capture  of  Vicksburg.  Commanded 
8th  Corps,  July,  1864;  the  18th  Corps,  Sept., 
1864 ; relieved  Gen.  Butler  Jan.  9,  1865 ; was 
promoted  to  Lieut. -Colonel  in  the  Regular 
Army,  but  retained  his  volunteer  rank  until 
Sept. , 1866.  Was  mustered  out  of  the  Volunteer 
Service  and  commissioned  Brigadier  General  in 
the  Regular  Army,  to  date  from  July,  1866. 


Retired  with  the  rank  of  Major  General  Jan. 
28,  1881.  Died  July  22,  1883. 

O’Reilly,  John  Boyle.— This  man  was 
born  in  Dowth  Castle,  County  Meath,  Ireland, 
June  28,  1844.  He  became  a journalist  in  early 
life  and  at  twenty-one  was  arrested  as  a revo- 
lutionist, tried  and  convicted.  He  was  sentenced 
to  death,  but  this  was  commuted  to  banishment 
for  twenty  years  to  an  English  penal  colony. 
At  the  age  of  twenty-five  he  escaped  from  West 
Australia  and  came  to  America.  He  resided  in 
Boston,  Mass. , from  1869  to  his  death.  He  was 
Editor  of  the  “Boston  Pilot,”  and  a poet  of 
known  ability.  He  died  Aug.  9,  1890. 

Barker,  Theodore.— He  was  born  in  Lex- 
ington, Mass.,  Aug.  24,  1810,  and  was  the  son 
of  the  famous  captain,  John  Parker,  who  com- 
manded the  company  at  that  town  April  19, 


BIOGRAPHICAL  DICTIONARY. 


97 


1775.  Educated  in  his  native  town  and  at  Har- 
vard. He  became  proficient  in  many  languages  ; 
graduated  from  Cambridge  Divinity  School 
1834;  settled  as  Pastor  of  the  Second  Church 
(Unitarian)  West  Roxbury  1837.  Travelled  in 
Europe  in  1842-44.  He  became  Pastor  of  the 
Twenty-eighth  Congregational  Society  in  1846. 
He  opposed  slavery  and  intemperance.  Was 
indicted  in  the  U.  S.  Court  for  resistance  to  the 
Fugitive  Slave  Law  in  1854,  but  never  brought 
to  trial.  Died  in  Florence,  Italy,  May  10,  1860. 

Patterson,  Rol>ert— He  was  born  in  Cap- 
pagh,  Co.  Tyrone,  Ireland,  Jan.  12,  1792.  His 


father  fled  to  America,  having  been  engaged  in 
organizing  the  Irish  rebellion  of  1798.  Robert 
served  through  the  war  of  1812-14,  retiring  a 
Captain,  and  returning  to  the  counting-house 
business  in  Philadelphia.  Became  Major  Gen- 
eral of  State  Militia,  and  quelled  the  ‘ ‘ Red 
Row”  riots  in  1838,  and  the  “ Native- American”’ 
riots  In  1844.  Appointed  Major  General  of 
Volunteers  for  the  Mexican  War ; he  rendered 
conspicuous  services  throughout  the  campaign. 
In  April,  1861,  he  was  selected  to  command  the 
Pennsylvania  troops,  and  Gen.  Scott  placed 
him  over  the  Department  of  Washington,  and 
gave  him  unlimited  powers.  Returned  to  his 
business  at  the  close  of  his  term.  Died  Aug.  7, 
1881. 

Paulding,  Hiram.— He  was  born  in  West- 
chester Co.,  N.  Y. , Dec.  11,  1797,  and  entered 
the  U.  S.  Navy  as  midshipman  1811.  In  the 
engagement  on  Lake  Champlain  1814;  Lieu- 
tenant 1816  ; Captain  1844 ; Rear  Admiral  on 
the  retired  list  1861.  Commanded  at  the  Navy 
Yard,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  1862-65,  and  rendered 
valued  service  at  the  time  of  the  New  York 
draft-riots  in  1863.  Governor  of  the  Philadel- 
phia Naval  Asylum  1866.  Died  Oct.  20,  1878. 


Pemberion,  John  C. — He  was  born  in 
Pennsylvania,  Aug.,  1814,  and  graduated  at 
West  Point  in  1837 ; served  in  Florida  and 
Mexico,  and  was  brevetted  Captain  and  Major  ; 
resigned  April  29,  1861,  when  Captain  of 
Artillery.  Entered  the  Confederate  Service  as 
Colonel  of  Cavalry  and  rose  by  promotion  to 
Lieutenant  General.  Commanded  in  Miss,  in 
1863.  Surrendered  at  Vicksburg,  July  4,  1863. 
Served  as  Inspector  of  Artillery  afterwards, 
and  became  a farmer.  Died  July  13,  1881. 

Pendleton,  George  II.— He  was  born  at 
Cincinnati,  Ohio,  July  25,  1825,  and  became  a 
lawyer.  Member  of  Congress  1857-65 ; U.  S. 
Senator  1879-85;  U.  S.  Minister  to  Germany 
1885-1889.  Died  Nov.  24,  1889. 

Penn,  William.— This  celebrated  member 
of  the  Society  of  Friends  and  the  founder  of 
the  State  which  bears  his  name,  Pennsylvania, 
was  born  Oct.  14,  1644.  The  son  of  an  English 
admiral,  he  received  a liberal  education  at 
Oxford.  He  became  a Quaker  and  was  expelled 
from  the  University.  He  went  to  Cork,  Ireland, 
and  managed  the  family  estate  with  great  suc- 
cess. He  was  imprisoned  for  attending  a Quaker 
meeting  and  had  to  leave  Ireland.  He  went  to 
London  and  was  there  cast  into  the  Tower,  but 


by  the  influence  of  the  Duke  of  York  he  was 
released.  He  inherited  the  property  of  his 
father,  in  which  was  a claim  against  the  Govern- 
ment for  £16,000.  In  the  settlement  of  this  claim 
he  received  a tract  of  land  in  America  with  the 
right  to  found  a colony  with  such  institutions 


98 


BIOGRAPHICAL  DICTIONARY. 


and  laws  as  he  deemed  best.  In  1682  he  visited 
America,  honorably  bought  the  land  of  the 
Indians,  and  made  a treaty  with  them  which 
was  kept  inviolate.  He  issued  a “charter  of 
liberties,  ” instituted  a democratic  Government, 
planned  the  City  of  Philadelphia,  and  left  the 
colony  in  a flourishing  condition.  In  the  reign 
of  James  II.  he  was  intimate  with  the  court, 
and  after  the  overthrow  of  that  King  was 
accused  of  treason,  and  by  an  order  of  Council, 
March  14,  1692,  was  divested  of  his  title  to  Penn- 
sylvania. He  was  tried  on  the  charge  and 
acquitted,  whereupon  his  lands  were  restored 
to  him.  He  visited  America  a second  time  in 
1699  and  returned  in  1701.  He  was  brought  to 
the  verge  of  bankruptcy  by  the  villiany  of  his 
agent  and  cast  into  the  Fleet  prison  in  1708. 
His  health  was  so  affected  by  this  that  he  was 
stricken  by  apoplexy  in  1712,  and  although  he 
recovered  his  health,  his  mental  faculties  were 
permanently  impaired.  He  died  July  8,  1718. 

Perry,  Oliver  H.— He  was  born  at  South 
Kingston,  R.  I.,  Aug.  28,  1785,  and  entered  the 


U.  S.  Navy  as  midshipman  when  thirteen  years 
of  age.  He  cruised  with  his  father,  Christopher 
R.  Perry,  in  the  West  Indies  for  two  years. 
Was  engaged  in  the  war  with  Tripoli  in  1804-05 
and  commissioned  Lieutenant  Jan.  15,  1807. 
When  the  war  began  in  1812  he  was  transferred 
at  his  own  request  from  the  Atlantic  Squadron 
to  Lake  Ontario  to  serve  under  Com.  Isaac 
Chauncey.  He  was  appointed  to  fit  out  a squad- 
ron for  Lake  Erie,  and  having  successfully 


equipped  nine  small  vessels,  gave  battle  to  the 
British  fleet  near  Put-in-Bay,  O. , Sept.  10, 1813. 
He  gained  a complete  victory  over  the  British, 
and  sent  his  famous  dispatch,  “We  have  met 
the  enemy  and  they  are  ours.”  He  was  pro- 
moted to  Captain  and  Congress  gave  him  a 
vote  of  thanks  and  a gold  medal.  Oct.  3,  1813, 
Perry  co-operated  with  Gen'l.  Harrison  at 
Detroit  and  the  battle  on  the  Thames.  The 
next  year  he  was  on  the  Potomac  and  at  the 
defense  of  Baltimore.  He  commanded  the  Java 
in  Decatur’s  Squadron  in  the  Mediterranean  in 
1815  and  went  to  the  Spanish  Main  in  command 
of  the  Squadron,  June,  1819.  He  ascended  the 
river  Orinoco  in  J uly  of  that  year,  and  died  at 
Port  Spain  on  the  island  of  Trinidad  of  yellow 
fever,  Aug.  23,  1819.  His  remains  were  taken 
in  a United  States  vessel  to  Newport,  R.  I.,  by 
order  of  Congress,  and  there  buried  Dec.  4, 
1826.  An  imposing  obelisk  was  there  erected 
by  the  State  of  Rhode  Island.  A fine  bronze 
statue  of  Commodore  Perry  was  unveiled  at 
Newport,  R.  I.,  Sept.  10,  1885. 

Phillips,  Wendell.— This  life-long  cham- 
pion of  human  rights  was  born  in  Boston, 
Mass. , Nov.  29, 1811.  His  father,  John  Phillips, 
was  the  first  Mayor  of  that  city.  Wehdell 
Phillips  graduated  from  Harvard  College  in 
1831 ; from  Cambridge  Law  School  in  1833,  and 


was  admitted  to  Suffolk  bar  in  1834.  He  had 
from  the  first  the  prospect  of  success  in  his 
chosen  profession.  The  heated  discussions  of 


BIOGRAPHICAL  DICTIONARY. 


99 


the  Anti-Slavery  question  had  greatly  excited 
the  public  mind  and  William  Lloyd  Garrison, 
the  leader  of  that  movement,  was  dragged 
through  the  streets  of  Boston  with  a rope 
about  his  neck  in  1835.  He  was  rescued  from 
the  mob  by  the  subterfuge  of  arresting  him 
as  a disturber  of  the  peace  and  putting  him 
in  jail.  Young  Phillips,  not  then  twenty- 
five,  looked  on  the  “broad  cloth  mob,”  as 
it  was  called,  and  at  once  gave  his  whole  soul 
to  the  unpopular  side.  He  made  his  first  mark 
as  a distinguished  speaker  at  an  Anti-Slavery 
meeting  in  1837.  He  resigned  his  commission 
as  a member  of  the  bar,  because  he  could  not 
swear  to  support  a Constitution  which  upheld 
slavery.  He  became  well  known  as  the  fore- 
most orator  of  the  despised  abolition  cause, 
and  was  everywhere  heard  in  its  defense.  He 
also  advocated  the  cause  of  Woman’s  Rights 
and  of  Prohibition.  He  was  regarded  as  one  of 
the  foremost  orators  of  the  country.  He  died 
Peb.  2,  1884. 

Pickett,  George  E.— He  was  born  in  Rich- 
mond, Va. , Jan.  25,  1825,  and  graduated  at 
West  Point  1846.  Served  in  Mexico  from  the 
siege  of  Yera  Cruz  to  the  fall  of  Mexico,  and 
was  brevetted  First  Lieutenant  and  Captain 
for  gallantry.  On  frontier  duty  until  1861.  He 
was  appointed  Colonel  in  the  Confederate  Army 
Sept.,  1861,  and  became  Brigadier  General  and 
Major  General  in  1862.  His  Division  led  the 


famous  charge  at  Gettysburg,  July  3,  1863,  and 
made  the  final  stand  at  Five  Forks  in  1865. 
Died  July  30,  1875 

Pierce,  Franklin.— The  fourteenth  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States  was  born  at  Hills- 
borough, N.  H.,  Nov.  23,  1804,  and  graduated 


at  Bowdoin  College,  Maine,  in  1824.  Admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1827.  Member  of  Congress  from 
1833  to  1837,  and  U.  S.  Senator  1837  to  1842. 
Colonel  of  the  16th  U.  S.  Infantry  1846.  Brig- 
adier General  in  1847.  Served  in  Mexico.  Presi- 
dent of  the  New  Hampshire  Constitutional 
Convention  in  1850-1851.  Inaugurated  Presi- 
dent March  4,  1853.  The  Gadsden  Purchase, 
the  repeal  of  the  Missouri  Compromise,  the 
Fugitive  Slave  Act  and  the  beginning  of  the 
troubles  in  Kansas  occurred  during  his  term. 
Throughout  the  Civil  War  his  sympathies  were 
with  the  South.  He  died  at  Concord,  N.  H., 
Oct.  8,  1869. 

Pillow,  Gideon  •!.— He  was  born  in  Wil- 
liamson Co. , Tenn. , June  8,  1806,  and  graduated 


at  the  University  of  Nashville  1827;  studied 
law  and  practiced  with  success  at  Columbia. 
Brigadier  General  of  Tenn.  Yols.  1846.  Served 
in  Mexico  and  was  one  of  the  Commissioners  to 
receive  the  surrender  of  Santa  Cruz.  Promoted 
to  Major  General  April  13,  1847.  Came  into 
collision  with  General  Scott,  tried  by  Court- 
martial  and  acquitted.  Major  General  in  Con- 
federate Army  1861.  Commanded  at  Belmont 
Nov.  7,  1861.  Second  in  command  at  Fort 
Donaldson,  but  escaped  before  the  surrender. 
Died  Oct.  8,  1878. 

Pinckney,  Charles  C.— He  was  born  at 
Charleston,  S.  C.,  Feb.  25,  1746,  and  was 
educated  at  Westminister,  at  Christ  Church, 
Oxford  and  Middle  Temple,  London.  Studied 
Military  Science  at  Caen,  France.  Practiced 
law  at  Charleston  1769.  Served  as  Captain  and 
as  Colonel  in  the  War  of  the  Revolution.  Aid- 
de-camp  to  Washington  in  1777.  Brigadier 
General  1783,  and  later  Major  General  of  the 
State,  and  afterwards  of  the  U.  S.  Assisted  in 
framing  the  U.  S.  Constitution.  Minister  to 


100 


BIOGRAPHICAL  DICTIONARY. 


France  1796-97,  when  he  was  ordered  to  leave 
the  country.  Author  of  the  maxim,  ‘ ‘ Millions 
for  defence,  but  not  one  cent  for  tribute.  ” Died 
Aug.  16,  1825. 

I*  in  kiiey,  William.— He  was  born  at 
Annapolis.  Md. , March  17,  1764  ; studied  medi- 
cine and  law;  admitted  to  the  bar  1786  and 
rapidly  rose  to  distinction.  He  was  a member 
of  the  Constitutional  Convention  of  1788.  U.  S. 
Commissioner  to  England  1796-1804.  Attorney 
General  of  Md.  1805;  Minister  Extraordinary 
with  Monroe  to  Great  Britain  1806 ; Minister 
Resident  to  the  same  Court  1806-1811.  U.  S. 
Attorney  General  1811-14 ; Member  of  Congress 


1815- 16;  Minister  to  Naples  1816;  to  Russia 

1816- 18 ; U.  S.  Senator  1820-22.  Died  Feb.  23, 
1822. 

Pocahontas.  — This  Indian  chieftain’s 
daughter  was  born  about  the  year  1595.  Her 
father  was  Powhattan,  the  chief  of  a powerful 
tribe  in  Virginia.  John  Smith  in  his  “True 
Relation,”  claimed  that  she  saved  his  life  by 
throwing  herself  between  him  and  the  uplifted 
club  of  her  father  in  1607,  when  she  could  not 
have  been  much  more  than  twelve  years  of  age. 
But  this  story  seems  to  have  been  a later  inven- 
tion of  Smith,  as  he  does  not  mention  it  in  his 
earlier  narrative.  In  1609  she  told  Smith  of  the 
intended  advance  of  the  Indians  upon  the 
colonists,  and  several  times  supplied  their  needs 
when  corn  was  scarce.  Three  years  after  she 
was  sold  to  a person  named  Argali  for  a copper 
pot  by  the  chief,  Japazaws,  and  her  father 


offered  500  bushels  of  corn  as  a ransom  for  her. 
She  was  married  to  a colonist,  Thomas  Rolfe, 


in  1613,  and  was  baptized  as  Rebecca.  She  went 
to  London  and  was  there  presented  at  court. 
She  had  one  child,  Thomas  Rolfe,  from  whom 
many  leading  families  trace  their  decent, 
notably,  the  Randolphs,  E Bridges,  Murrays, 
Bollings,  Guys  and  Hemmings.  Pocahontas 
died  at  Gravesend,  England,  in  March,  1617. 

I*oe,  Edgar  A.— This  gifted  poet  was  born 
in  Boston,  Mass.,  Feb.  19,  1809.  His  parents 
died  when  he  was  quite  young  and  he  was 
adopted  by  a wealthy  citizen  of  Richmond,  Va. 
Entered  the  University  of  Virginia  in  1826,  but 
was  expelled  within  a year ; resided  with  his 
benefactor  for  two  years.  Admitted  as  a Cadet 
at  West  Point  1830,  but  expelled  March  6,  1831. 
He  soon  after  quarrelled  with  his  benefactor 
and  enlisted  as  a private  in  the  army.  In  1833 
he  competed  for  two  prizes  of  $100  each  offered 
by  a Baltimore  Journal  and  won  them  both. 
He  became  Editor  of  the  ‘ ‘ Southern  Literary 
Magazine,  ” and  conducted  himself  properly  for 
two  or  three  years.  Quarrelling  with  his  pub- 
lisher he  went  to  New  York,  Jan.,  1837,  and 
issued  his  first  prose  work  1838.  Editor  of 
“Gentleman’s  Magazine”  1839-40;  “Graham’s 
Magazine”  1840-42.  Wrote  the  “Raven”  in 
1845,  which  gained  him  great  popularity.  En- 
gaged in  various  literary  enterprises  in  New 
York  and  Philadelphia.  Died  in  Baltimore 
Hospital  Oct.  7,  1849. 


BIOGRAPHICAL  DICTIONARY. 


101 


Polk,  James  K.— The  eleventh  President 
of  the  U.  S.  was  bom  in  Mecklenburg  Co.,  N. 
C.,  Nov.  2,  1795,  of  a Scotch-Irish  family  orig- 
inally named  Pollock.  Young  Polk  removed 
with  his  father  to  Tenn,  in  1806,  and  graduated 
from  the  University  of  Nashville  1818 ; admitted 
to  the  bar  at  Columbia  1820.  Member  of  the 
State  Legislature  1823-25.  Member  of  Congress 
1825-1839.  Elected  Speaker  of  the  House  1835 
and  ’37.  Governor  of  Tenn.  1839-40.  President 
of  the  U.  S.  1845-49.  The  Mexican  War  took 
place  and  ended  with  peace  during  his  term  of 
office.  Died  June  19,  1849. 

Porter,  David  !>.— He  was  born  in  Penn- 
sylvania, June  8,  1814.  He  entered  the  Navy 
as  midshipman,  and  was  a Lieutenant  actively 
engaged  on  the  east  coast  of  Mexico  in  1846. 
He  was  a Commander  when  the  Civil  War 
began  and  was  ordered  in  command  of  the 
Powhattan  to  the  relief  of  Fort  Pickens,  Fla. 
In  the  Fall  of  1862  he  was  placed  in  command 
of  all  the  naval  forces  on  the  western  rivers 
above  New  Orleans  as  Rear  Admiral.  He  was 
transferred  to  the  Atlantic  coast  in  1864.  In 


1866  he  was  made  Vice-Admiral  and  appointed 
Superintendent  of  the  Naval  Academy.  He 
succeeded  Farragut  as  Admiral  of  the  Navy  in 
1870.  Died  Feb.  13,  1891. 

Powderly,  Terrence  V.— Mr.  Powderly 
was  born  January  29,  1849,  at  Carbondale,  Pa. 


After  receiving  a moderate  education,  he  secured 
a situation  as  a switch-tender,  and  finally  be- 
came a machinist.  He  settled  in  Scranton  in 


1869,  and  joined  the  Machinists’  and  Black- 
smiths’ Union.  At  30  years  of  age  he  was 
elected  Grand  Master  Workman  of  the  Knights 
of  Labor  and  has  been  re-elected  six  times.  In 
1878  he  was  triumphantly  elected  Mayor  of 
Scranton,  and  corrected  many  official  abuses. 
He  was  re-elected  Mayor  in  1880,  and  to  a third 
term  in  1882.  His  articles  on  the  Labor 
Question  have  been  published  in  the  leading 
American  magazines.  He  was  at  one  time  Editor 
of  the  “Labor  Advocate”  of  Scranton.  He 
became  prominent  in  the  strike  on  the  New 
York  Central  R.  R.  in  1890. 

Prentiss,  S5eiij;imiii  HI. — Was  born  at 
Bellville,  Va.,  Nov.  23,  1819;  removed  to  Mis- 
souri and  afterward  settled  in  Quincy,  111. , in 
1841.  In  the  war  with  Mexico  was  Adjutant  of 
the  1st  111.  Vols.,  and  then  Captain.  He  dis- 
tinguished himself  at  Beuna  Vista.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  Civil  War  he  was  Colonel  of 
the  7th  111.  Vols.  Appointed  Brigadier  General 
of  U.  S.  Vols.,  May,  1861.  At  the  battle  of 
Shiloh,  Miss.,  he  was  surprised  and  captured, 
but  was  released  in  Oct.,  and  made  Major 
General  of  Volunteers  Nov.  29,  1862.  Com- 
manded at  Helena,  Ark.,  July  4,  1863,  and 
defeated  General  Holmes. 

Prescott,  William  II. — This  eminent 
American  writer  was  born  at  Salem,  Mass., 
May  4,  1796,  and  removed  to  Boston  1808.  He 


102 


BIOGRAPHICAL  DICTIONARY. 


graduated  with  high  rank  from  Harvard  Col- 
lege 1814,  although  he  received  an  injury  to  his 
left  eye  during  his  first  year.  Spent  several 
months  in  the  Azores  Islands  in  1815-16,  and  in 
Europe  1816-19.  He  devoted  years  to  an  elab- 
orate study  of  ancient  and  modern  history, 
and  published  the  result  of  his  researches  in 
the  * ‘ North  American  Review.  ” He  published 
(1838)  his  “History  of  the  Reign  of  Ferdinand 
and  Isabella,”  “History  of  the  Conquest  of 
Mexico”  1843;  “Conquest  of  Peru”  1847; 
“ History  of  the  Reign  of  Philip  the  Second  ” 
1855.  He  died  Jan.  28,  1859. 

I* rice.  Sterling:.— He  was  born  in  Prince 
Edward  Co.,  Va.,  Sept.,  1809,  and  settled  in 


Missouri  in  1830.  Was  a Member  of  Congress 
1845-47 ; Colonel  of  a Mo.  Regiment  in  the 
war  with  Mexico  and  commanded  at  the  battle 
of  Canada,  N.  M.,  Jan.  24,  1847.  Promoted  to 
Brigadier  General  July  20,  1847.  Governor  of 
Missouri  1853-57 ; became  Major  General  of  the 
State  forces  in  the  Civil  War,  but  failed  in  his 
attempt  to  have  Missouri  secede.  Major  Gen- 
eral C.  S.  A. , May,  1862.  After  the  war  went 
to  Mexico  and  received  a grant  of  land  from 
Maximillian,  but  returned  to  the  United  States 
after  the  death  of  the  Archduke,  and  died  in 
poverty  Sept.  27,  1867. 

Quincy,  Josiali.— There  has  been  four 
eminent  men  of  this  name  in  Massachusetts. 

The  first,  Josiah,  sen. , was  born  1709  and  died 
1784.  He  was  a successful  merchant  and  zealous 
patriot  of  Boston. 

The  second,  Josiah,  jr.,  son  of  the  former, 
was  born  Feb.  23, 1744 ; graduated  from  Harvard 
1763,  and  was  an  eminent  lawyer.  He  went  to 
England  in  1774,  and  was  active  in  promoting 
the  cause  of  his  country.  He  died  on  the  return 
voyage,  April  26,  1775. 


The  third  of  the  name  was  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, and  was  born  at  Boston,  Mass. , Feb.  4, 
1772;  graduated  at  Harvard  College  1790;  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  1793.  Member  of  State  Legis- 
lature 1804 ; of  Congress  1805-13 ; State  Senator 
1813-21 ; State  House  of  Representatives  1821-23 ; 
Mayor  of  Boston  1823-29  ; President  of  Harvard 
1829-45.  Died  July  1,  1864. 

The  fourth,  was  son  of  President  Quincy, 
and  was  bom  Jan.  18,  1802  ; graduated  at  Har- 
vard 1821,  and  became  a lawyer.  Member  of 
City  Council  1833-37 ; President  of  Mass.  Senate 
1842 ; Mayor  of  Boston  1845  ; Treasurer  of  West- 
ern R.  R.  for  many  years.  He  died  Nov.  2, 
1882. 

Quincy,  Josiah  Phillips. — Son  of  the  last 
mentioned  was  born  in  Boston  in  1830 ; graduated 
at  Harvard  1860,  and  devoted  his  talents  to 
literature. 

Rains,  Oahriel  JT.— He  was  born  in  North 
Carolina  in  1805  and  graduated  from  West 
Point  1827.  He  gained  distinction  in  the 
war  with  the  Seminole  Indians  and  won  the 
brevet  of  Major  April  28,  1840.  He  served  in 
the  war  with  Mexico  and  attained  the  rank  of 
Lieut. -Colonel.  In  the  Civil  War  he  became 
Brigadier  and  Major  General  in  the  Confederate 
Army.  Died  Aug.  6,  1881. 

Ramsay,  Darid.-He  was  born  in  Lancas- 
ter Co.,  Pa.,  April  2,  1749,  and  graduated  at 


Princeton  1765  ; settled  as  a physician  in  Char- 
leston, S.  C.,  1773.  Served  in  the  Revolution 
as  a field  surgeon.  Was  a leading  member  of 
the  S.  C.  Legislature  1776-83.  Captured  at 
Charleston  and  kept  in  close  confinement  by 
the  British  for  eleven  months.  Member  of  the 
Continental  Congress  1780-86.  The  latter  term 
serving  as  acting  President  on  account  of  the 


BIOGRAPHICAL  DICTIONARY. 


103 


sickness  of  John  Hancock.  For  the  last  four- 
teen years  of  his  life  Dr.  Ramsay  was  a member 
of  the  State  Legislature.  Died  May  8,  1815, 
from  a wound  inflicted  by  a lunatic. 

Ramsey,  Alexander. — He  was  born  near 
Harrisburg,  Pa.,  Sept.  8,  1815.  Member  of 
Congress  1848-47.  Governor  of  Minnesota  Terri- 
tory 1849.  Mayor  of  St.  Paul  1855.  Governor 
of  the  State  1858-62.  U.  S.  Senator  1868-75. 
Secretary  of  War  1879-81. 

Randall,  Alexander  W. — He  was  born  in 
Montgomery  Co.,  N*  Y.,  Oct.,  1819.  He  studied 
law  and  settled  in  Waukesha,  Wis. , 1840.  Post- 
master and  Member  of  the  Legislature.  Judge 
of  the  Second  District  1856.  Governor  of  Wis. 
1857-1861.  Minister  to  Italy  1861-65.  Assistant 
Postmaster-General  1865-66.  Postmaster-Gen- 
eral 1866-69.  Practiced  law  in  Elmira,  N.  Y. , 
until  his  death,  July  25,  1872. 

Randall,  Samuel  J. — The  leader  of  his 
party  for  many  years,  was  born  in  the  City  of 
Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Oct.  10,  1828.  He  received 
an  academical  education  and  became  a merchant 
in  his  native  city.  He  soon  entered  into  the 
local  political  strife.  He  served  the  city  for  a 
number  of  years  in  both  branches  of  the  Coun- 
cil. He  served  in  the  State  Senate  1858  and 
1859.  He  was  elected  to  Congress  as  a Demo- 
crat in  1862  and  at  every  subsequent  election 


until  his  death.  He  served  upon  the  most  im- 
portant committees  of  the  House  of  Represent- 
atives and  in  Dec. , 1875,  was  strongly  supported 
for  the  position  of  Speaker.  He  was  chosen  to 


that  office  at  the  last  session  of  the  44th  Con- 
gress in  1876  and  presided  over  the  House  until 
the  close  of  the  46th  Congress,  March  4,  1881. 
He  was  sworn  in  as  a Member  of  the  51st  Con- 
gress while  in  his  sick  room,  which  he  was  un- 
able to  leave.  He  died  in  Washington,  D.  C., 
April  18,  1890. 

Randolph,  John. — He  was  a descendant  of 
the  Indian  chieftess,  Pocohontas,  and  was  born 


at  Cawsons,  Chesterfield  Co.,  Va.,  June  2, 
1773.  His  father  died  while  he  was  an  infant 
and  left  him  a large  amount  of  property.  He 
studied  law  at  Philadelphia  and  was  elected  to 
Congress  in  1799.  He  was  re-elected  to  each 
Congress  thereafter,  except  two  sessions,  un- 
til 1825.  He  was  prominent  as  an  advocate 
of  State  Rights  and  a strong  partisan  of  Jeffer- 
son’s administration  until  1806,  when  he  separ- 
ated from  his  associates,  opposed  Madison  and 
the  measure  which  led  to  the  war  of  1812.  Was 
defeated  in  the  election  of  that  year,  but  was 
returned  to  Congress  in  1814.  He  opposed  the 
Missouri  Compromise  in  1820  and  in  1822  visited 
England.  He  fought  a duel  with  Henry  Clay 
in  1826.  In  1827  he  was  a member  of  the  Vir- 
ginia Convention  to  revise  the  Constitution. 
He  supported  Gen.  Jackson  and  was  sent  as 
Minister  to  Russia.  Returned  and  was  re- 
elected to  Congress,  but  died  before  taking  his 
seat,  June  24,  1833. 

Read,  Thomas  Ruclianan. — He  was  born 
in  Chester  Co.,  Pa.,  Mar.  12,  1822.  Studied 
sculpture,  but  soon  turned  his  attention  to 


104 


BIOGRAPHICAL  DICTIONARY. 


painting,  which  he  practiced  in  New  York  and 
Boston ; removed  to  Philadelphia  in  1846.  Re- 
sided in  Florence,  Italy,  from  1850  to  1872. 
Author  of  several  volumes  of  poems  and  was  a 
successful  portrait  painter.  His  best  produc- 
tions are  a painting  and  a poem,  both  entitled 
“Sheridan’s  Ride.”  Died  May  11,  1872. 

Reed,  Thomas  15. — He  was  born  in  Port- 
land, Maine,  Oct.  18,  1839,  and  graduated  at 
Bowdoin  College  in  1860.  He  was  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  1863.  Member  of  the  State  Legisla- 
ture 1868-69  and  of  the  State  Senate  1870. 
Attorney  General  of  Maine  1870-72  ; City  Solic- 
itor of  Portland  1874-77.  Member  of  Congress 
1877-1893.  Speaker  of  the  National  House  of 
Representatives  of  the  51ct  Congress.  Re-elected 
to  the  52d  Congress. 

Reynolds,  Joseph  J. — He  was  born  in 
Kentucky  in  1822  and  graduated  from  West 


Point  in  1843.  Assistant  Professor  at  the  Mili- 
tary Academy  1846-49 ; principal  Professor 
1849-55.  Resigned  and  became  Professor  in 
Washington  University,  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  until 

1860.  Brigadier  General  U.  S.  Vols.,  June, 

1861.  Resigned  in  Jan.,  1862,  but  was  re-ap- 
pointed in  Nov.  and  promoted  to  Major  Gen- 
eral Feb.  2,  1863.  Commanded  the  Department 
of  Arkansas  from  Nov.,  1864,  to  Apr.,  1866. 
Bre vetted  Brigadier  and  Major  General  U.  S. 
A.  for  gallantry.  Retired  June,  1877. 

Rittcxihoitsc,  9>avid — He  was  born  near 
Germantown,  Pa.,  April  8,  1732,  and  became 
eminent  as  a mathematician  and  inventor  of 
mathematical  instruments.  He  was  employed 
in  connection  with  Mason  and  Dixon  in  1763  to 
determine  the  initial  point  of  their  survey, 
which  he  accomplished  with  instruments  of  his 


own  manufacture.  Determined  the  boundaries 
of  Penn,  and  of  other  States.  Member  of  the 
Legislature  of  Penn  1775 ; State  Treasurer  1777- 
89.  Director  of  the  U.  S.  Mint  1792-95.  Died 
at  Philadelphia  June  26,  1796. 

Roebling',  Joint  A. — Was  born  at  Mul- 
hausen,  Prussia,  June  12,  1806,  and  received 


the  degree  of  Civil  Engineer  from  the  Polytech- 
nic School  at  Berlin.  He  came  to  America  in 
1831  and  began  the  work  of  his  profession  on 
the  Beaver  River.  He  was  employed  by  the 
State  of  Penn,  to  survey  a railroad  route  over 
the  Allegheny  Mountains  from  Harrisburg  to 
Pittsburg.  In  1844  he  received  the  contract  to 
replace  the  wooden  acqueduct  over  the  Alle- 
gheny River  with  a wire  suspension  one.  It 
was  opened  in  May,  1845.  He  superintended 
the  construction  of  the  Monongahela  suspen- 
sion bridge  and  the  one  at  Niagara.  The  ele- 
gant bridge  over  the  Allegheny  at  Pittsburg 
and  over  the  Ohio  at  Cincinnati  were  among 
his  works.  His  final  and  grandest  undertak- 
ing was  the  construction  of  the  bridge  across 
the  East  River  connecting  New  York  and 
Brooklyn.  He  died  July  22,  1866,  and  left  the 
completion  of  this  work  to  his  son,  Washing- 
ton A.  Roebling. 

Rush,  Benjamin. — This  prominent  physi- 
cian and  patriot  was  born  near  Philadelphia, 
Pa.,  June  4,  1746,  and  graduated  at  Princeton 
1760.  Studied  medicine  at  Philadelphia,  Edin- 
burg, London  and  Paris.  Commenced  practice 
in  Philadelphia  Aug.  1769,  and  was  chosen  Pro- 


BIOGRAPHICAL  DICTIONARY. 


105 


fessor  of  the  Medical  College.  Member  of  Pro- 
vincial Conference  1776,  and  moved  the  reso- 
lution to  consider  a Declaration  of  Independ- 
ence. Became  a member  of  the  Continental 
Congress  in  June  and  was  one  of  the  signers  of 
the  Declaration  of  Independence  in  July,  1776. 
Surgeon  General  1777.  Member  of  the  Penn. 
Convention  to  ratify  the  U.  S.  Constitution 
1787.  Rendered  great  service  to  humanity  and 
medical  science  in  the  Yellow  Fever  epidemic 
of  1793,  for  which  he  received  testimonials  from 
the  King  of  Prussia,  the  Queen  of  Etruria  and 
the  Czar  of  Russia.  One  of  the  founders  of 
Dickinson  College.  Member  of  numerous  relig- 
ious and  medical  societies.  Treasurer  of  the 
U.  S.  Mint  from  1799  to  his  death,  April  19, 
1813. 

Busk,  Jeremiah  HI. — He  was  born  in 
Morgan  Co.,  Ohio,  June  17,  1830.  Received 


public  school  education.  Engaged  in  farming 
in  Vernon  Co.,  Wis.,  in  1853.  Entered  the 
Union  Army  as  Major  and  became  Brevet  Brig- 
adier General.  Was  State  Bank  Controller 
1866-69,  and  Member  of  Congress  1871-77.  De- 
clined appointments  of  Charge  d’Affaires  to 
Paraguay  and  Uruguay,  and  Chief  of  the  Bu- 
reau of  Engraving  and  Printing  in  1881.  Was 
Governor  of  Wisconsin  1881-88.  Appointed 
Secretary  of  the  newly  created  Department  of 
Agriculture  1889. 


Rutledge,  John. — He  was  born  at  Charles- 
ton, S.  C. , 1739,  and  studied  law  at  the  Temple, 
London.  Commenced  practice  at  Charleston 
1761.  A prominent  member  of  the  “Stamp 
Act”  Congress  in  New  York  1765;  of  the  S.  C. 
Convention  1774,  and  of  the  Continental  Con- 
gress 1774-75 ; of  the  S.  C.  Convention  of  1776, 
and  Chairman  of  the  Convention  to  draft  a 
State  Constitution.  Governor  of  S.  C.  1779. 
On  the  fall  of  Charleston  accompanied  the 
army  of  General  Gates  until  1782,  when  he  be- 
came a Member  of  Congress  and  sat  in  the  Con- 
stitutional Convention.  Justice  of  the  Supreme 
Court  of  the  U.  S.  1789  and  nominated  for  Chief 
Justice  of  same  1795,  but  having  lost  his  reason 
was  not  confirmed.  Died  July  23,  1800. 

Schofield,  John  HI. — He  was  born  in  Chau- 
tauqua Co. , N.  Y. , Sept.  29,  1831,  and  gradu- 
ated from  West  Point  1853;  became  Captain 
of  Artillery  May  14,  1861.  Professor  at  West 
Point  from  1855  to  1860.  Major  of  1st  Missouri 
Vols.  April  26,  1860.  Brigadier  General  U.  S. 
Vols.  Nov.,  1861,  commanding  the  district  of 
St.  Louis.  Major  General  of  Vols.  Nov.,  1862, 
commanding  the  Army  of  the  Frontier.  Com- 
manded the  Army  of  the  Ohio  1864.  Com- 
manded the  23d  Corps  at  Atlanta,  Nashville 
and  Franklin.  Appointed  Brigadier  General 
in  the  regular  Army  1864.  Commanded  the 
Department  of  North  Carolina  1865;  First  Mil- 
itary District  of  Virginia  1866-67.  Secretary  of 
War,  ad  interim , May,  1868.  Major  General  in 
the  regular  Army  Mar. , 1869,  commanding  De- 
partment of  Missouri.  Commanded  Division  of 
the  Pacific  1870.  Superintendent  of  the  Mil- 


itary Academy  at  West  Point  1876.  Com- 
manded the  Division  of  the  Pacific  1882-83 ; of 
Missouri  1883,  and  of  the  Atlantic  1886-88.  On 
the  death  of  General  Philip  H.  Sheridan  he 


106 


BIOGRAPHICAL  DICTIONARY. 


became  ranking  officer  commanding  the  United 
States  Army. 

Schuyler-,  Philip. — This  patriotic  officer 
was  born  at  Albany,  N.  Y.,  Nov.  20,  1733.  In 
June,  1755,  while  a Captain  of  Volunteers,  he 
was  engaged  in  the  expedition  against  the 
French  at  Crown  Point.  After  this  campaign 
he  left  the  army.  Two  days  after  the  battle  of 
Bunker  Hill  he  was  made  a Major  General  by 
Congress  and  put  in  command  of  the  Northern 
Department.  He  was  censured  after  the  failure 
of  the  Canada  expedition  and  resigned  his  com- 
mission. Congress  refused  to  accept  it,  and  at 
his  request  a committee  of  investigation  was 
appointed.  This  committee  approved  his  course 
and  he  resumed  his  command.  When  he  fell 
back  upon  Saratoga  after  the  forced  abandon- 
ment of  Ticonderoga  by  St.  Clair  the  public 
clamor  again  arose,  and  Congress  ordered  Gen- 
eral Gates  to  supersede  him.  Schuyler  obedi- 
ently turned  over  his  command,  but  remained 
with  the  army  to  aid  the  cause.  After  the  sur- 
render of  the  British  General,  Burgoyne,  an- 
other court  of  inquiry  approved  his  manage- 
ment in  very  strong  terms.  He  nevertheless 
resigned  his  commission,  although  he  continued 


to  render  valuable  service  in  the  operations 
within  his  native  State.  He  was  a member  of 
the  Continental  Congress  from  1778  to  1781. 
He  was  appointed  to  succeed  Aaron  Burr  as  U. 
S.  Senator  from  New  York  in  1797.  While  in  the 
Senate  of  New  York  he  contributed  largely  to 
the  formation  of  the  code  of  laws.  He  died  in 
his  native  city  Nov.  18,  1804. 


Scott,  Winfield. — This  illustrious  General 
of  the  War  of  1812  and  the  Mexican  War  was 
born  in  Dinwiddie  Co.,  Virginia,  June  13,  1786. 
He  graduated  from  William  and  Mary  College, 
studied  law  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar.  He 
was  commissioned  as  Captain  of  Light  Artillery 


in  1808  and  ordered  to  New  Orleans.  Promoted 
to  Lieutenant-Colonel  July  12,  1812,  and  was 
ordered  to  Philadelphia  to  organize  troops  for 
the  field.  Thence  he  was  sent  to  the  Niag- 
ara frontier  at  Queenstown,  and  after  Col.  Van 
Renselaer  was  wounded  he  made  a stubborn 
resistance,  but  was  forced  to  surrender  with  his 
command.  In  Mar. , 1813,  he  was  promoted  to 
the  full  colonelcy  of  his  regiment  and  led  the 
attack  on  Fort  George,  May  27,  when  he  was 
severely  wounded,  but  was  the  first  to  enter 
the  works.  He  was  the  hero  of  Chippewa  and 
Lundy  Lane.  At  the  latter  battle  he  had  two 
horses  shot  under  him.  Congress  voted  him  a 
gold  medal  and  promoted  him  to  Major  Gen- 
eral. He  prepared  his  “General  Regulations 
of  the  Army”  in  1818  and  a “ System  of  Infant- 
ry and  Rifle  Tactics”  in  1826.  In  the  war  with 
Mexico  he  was  ordered  to  take  command  in 
Nov.,  1846.  The  battles  of  Vera  Cruz,  Cerro 
Gordo,  Molino  del  Rey  and  Chapultepec  were 
followed  by  the  triumphant  entry  of  the  army 
into  the  City  of  Mexico,  with  General  Scott  at 
its  head.  He  declined  the  Presidency  of  the 
Republic  of  Mexico,  which  was  proffered  him, 
and  received  a vote  of  thanks  and  a gold  medal 
from  the  Congress  of  the  United  States.  He 
was  a candidate  for  President  on  the  Whig 
ticket  in  1852.  In  1855  the  title  of  Lieutenant 
General  by  brevet  was  conferred  upon  him. 
He  was  placed  on  the  retired  list  with  full  pay 
Nov.  1,  1861,  and  died  at  West  Point,  N.  Y., 
May  29,  1866. 


BIOGRAPHICAL  DICTIONARY. 


107 


Sedgwick,  John. — He  was  bom  in  Corn- 
wall, Conn.,  Sept.  13,  1813,  and  graduated  at 
West  Point  in  1837.  Served  in  the  Seminole 
and  Mexican  Wars.  Bre vetted  Captain  and 

Major  for  gallantry.  Lieutenant-Colonel  2d 
Cavalry  Mar.,  1861 ; Brigadier  General  of  Vol- 


unteers Aug.,  1861;  Major  General  of  Volun- 
teers July  4,  1862;  command  of  Sixth  Corps 
Peb. , 1863,  and  stormed  Marye’s  Height  May  3. 
Made  a forced  march  of  35  miles  in  one  day  and 
arrived  at  Gettysburg  July  2,  to  enter  at  once 
into  the  engagement.  Pursued  the  enemy  July 
5.  He  commanded  the  right  wing — 5th  and  6th 
Corps — at  Rappahanock  Station  Nov.  7.  At 
the  head  of  the  6th  Corps  in  the  battles  of  the 
Wilderness  and  Spottsylvania.  He  was  killed 
on  the  morning  of  May  9,  1864,  by  a sharp- 
shooter, while  on  the  front  line.  A monument 
of  cannon  captured  by  the  6th  Corps  is  erected 
to  his  memory  at  West  Point,  N.  Y. 

Seward,  William  II. — Was  born  in  Flor- 
ida, Orange  Co.,  N.  Y.,  May  16,  1801.  Entered 
Union  College  at  fifteen  years  of  age.  Began 
the  practice  of  law  in  1823.  Elected  to  the 
State  Senate  in  1830.  Defeated  as  a candidate 
for  Governor  in  1834,  but  elected  to  that  office 
in  1838  and  re-elected  in  1840.  Declined  a re- 
nomination in  1842  to  devote  himself  to  the 
practice  of  law.  Elected  to  the  U.  S.  Senate  in 
1849  and  re-elected  in  1855.  He  was  a prominent 
candidate  before  the  Republican  Convention 
for  President  in  1860,  but  the  successful  candi- 
date, Abraham  Lincoln,  nominated  him  as  Sec- 
retary of  State.  He  retained  this  position  until 
1869.  At  the  time  of  the  brutal  assassination 
of  President  Lincoln  Mr.  Seward  was  assaulted, 
but  retained  office  under  Johnson.  He  made  a 
tour  of  the  world  and  died  Oct.  10,  1872. 


Sheridan,  Philip  II. — Was  born  in 
Albany,  N.  Y.,  March  6,  1831,  and  graduated 
from  West  Point  in  1853,  where  he  was  assigned 
to  the  1st  U.  S.  Infantry.  At  the  commence- 
ment of  the  Civil  War  he  was  serving  as  Captain 
in  the  13th  U.  S.  Infantry,  in  Oregon  and  Wash- 
ington. He  was  recalled  to  the  States  and 
assigned  to  the  Army  of  S.  W.  Missouri  as 
Quarter-master.  May,  1862,  he  was  commis- 
sioned as  Colonel  of  the  2d  Michigan  Cavalry, 
and  in  five  days  was  in  full  pursuit  of  the  enemy 
from  Corinth.  Commissioned  Brigadier  Gen- 
eral of  Volunteers  July  1,  1862,  and  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  Department  of  the  Ohio.  He 
fought  bravely  at  Murfreesboro  and  Chatta- 
nooga, and  when  Grant  was  appointed  Lieu- 
tenant-General, he  requested  to  have  Sheridan 
transferred  to  the  East.  He  was  appointed 
Chief  of  Cavalry  in  the  Army  of  the  Potomac. 
He  rendered  gallant  service  in  this  position 
all  through  the  campaign  of  1864,  and  Aug.  7 
was  assigned  to  the  command  of  the  Middle 
Department,  comprising  West  Virginia,  Wash- 
ington, Susquehanna.  The  battle  in  the  valley 
of  the  Shenandoah  quickly  followed  and  the 
victory  of  Cedar  Creek.  Sheridan  was  promoted 
to  be  Brigadier  General  in  the  Regular  Army, 


Sept.  20,  1864,  and  Nov.  8 he  became  Major 
General.  Returning  to  the  Army  of  the  Poto- 
mac in  March,  1865,  he  commanded  at  the  battle 
of  Five  Forks,  which  compelled  Lee  to  evacuate 
Petersburg.  The  engagement  at  Sailor’s  Creek 
and  at  Appomatox  Station  was  quickly  followed 


108 


BIOGRAPHICAL  DICTIONARY. 


by  the  surrender  of  Lee.  March  4,  1869, 
Sheridan  was  promoted  to  be  Lieutenant- 
General,  and  assumed  command  of  the  Army. 
He  was  promoted  to  General  in  1888,  and  died 
Aug.  5,  1888. 

S He i-iii jin,  William.  X. — W as  born  in  Lan- 
caster, O.,  Feb.  8,  1820,  and  graduated  from 
West  Point  in  1840.  He  was  at  once  commis- 
sioned a full  Second  Lieutenant  in  the  3rd 
Artillery  and  promoted  to  First  Lieutenant  in 
1841.  He  was  transferred  to  the  Commissary 
Department  with  rank  of  Captain,  in  Sept., 
1850,  and  resigned  from  the  army  Sept.  6,  1853. 
He  practiced  law  in  Kansas  for  a while,  and 
Jan.,  1860,  became  President  of  a Military 
Academy  in  Louisana,  but  Jan.  16,  1861,  he 
wrote  to  the  Governor,  asking  to  be  relieved 
“ the  moment  the  State  determined  to  secede.” 
He  was  soon  relieved.  He  became  Colonel  of 
the  13th  Regular  Infantry  May  14,  1861,  and  at 
the  battle  of  Bull  Run,  July  21,  was  in  com- 
mand of  a brigade.  Commissioned  as  Brigadier 
General,  he  was  assigned  to  the  Army  of  the 
Cumberland,  and  succeeded  to  the  com- 
mand Oct.  8,  1861.  He  did  valliant  service 
at  Shiloh,  and  Corinth ; was  promoted  to  be 


Major  General  of  Volunteers,  May  1,  1862.  He 
was  entrusted  by  General  Grant  with  important 
positions  in  the  Vicksburg  campaign  and  at 
Chattanooga ; raised  the  siege  of  Knoxville, 
and  after  some  of  the  fiercest  engagements  of 
the  war  captured  Atlanta,  Geo.  Then  started 
Nov.  15,  1864,  on  his  famous  “march  to  the 


sea  ” ; captured  Savannah,  Dec.  20.  He  turned 
northward  with  his  army  Feb.  1,  1865,  and 
after  several  engagements  accepted  the  sur- 
render of  Johnston’s  Army  on  a “basis  of 
agreement,  ” which  was  not  acknowledged  by  the 
Government,  but  April  26  the  same  terms 
accorded  to  Lee  were  accepted.  Promoted  to 
Lieutenant  General  July  25,  1866,  and  became 
General  March  4,  1869.  He  was  placed  on  the 
retired  list  Feb.  8,  1884.  Died  Feb,  14,  1891. 

Sickles,  Daniel  E. — He  was  born  in  New 
York  City  Oct.  20,  1822,  and  was  educated  at 


the  University  of  New  York,  but  did  not 
graduate.  Admitted  to  the  bar  1843 ; Member 
of  Legislature  1847 ; Corporation  Attorney  of 
his  native  city  1853  ; Member  of  Congress  1857- 
61.  On  Feb.  27,  1859,  he  shot  and  instantly 
killed  Philip  Barton  Key,  and  was  tried  for 
murder,  but  acquitted.  Colonel  of  the  70th 
N.  Y.  Vols.,  June,  1861;  nominated  Brigadier 
General  of  Vols.,  Sept.,  1861,  but  not  confirmed 
at  first;  subsequently  confirmed  to  date  from 
original  nomination.  Commissioned  Major 
General  Nov.  29,  1862 ; distinguished  for  gal- 
lantry at  Chancellorsville,  and  commanded  the 
Third  Corps  at  Gettysburg,  Avherehe  lost  a leg. 
Commanded  the  District  of  North  and  South 
Carolina  1866-67.  Commissioned  a Colonel  in 
the  regular  Army  July  28,  1866,  and  retired 
with  rank  of  Major  General  April,  1869.  U.  S. 
Minister  to  Spain  1869-74. 

Simpson,  Mathew. — This  eloquent  divine 
was  born  at  Cadiz,  Harrison  Co.,  O.,  June  21, 
1810 ; graduated  at  Madison  College  1829 ; 
studied  medicine  and  received  the  degree  of 
M.  D.  in  1833,  and  was  licensed  the  same  year 
to  preach  in  the  M.  E.  Church.  Vice-President 


BIOGRAPHICAL  DICTIONARY. 


109 


and  Professor  of  Natural  Science  at  Allegheny 
College  1837.  President  of  Asbury  University, 
Indiana,  1839.  Editor  of  the  “ Western  Chris- 
tian Advocate”  1848.  Elected  Bishop  of  the 
M.  E.  Church  1852.  He  was  an  intimate  friend 
of  President  Lincoln,  and  made  many  patriotic 
addresses  during  the  Civil  War.  He  visited 
Syria  and  the  East  in  1863-64,  and  did  much  to 
enlighten  public  sentiment  on  the  issues  of  the 
war.  He  delivered  an  eulogy  on  the  death  of 
Lincoln,  and  opened  the  Centennial  Exposition 
1876  with  prayer.  He  died  June  18,  1884. 

Slocum,  Henry  W. — He  was  born  at  Pom- 
pey.  Onondaga  Co.,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  24,  1827,  and 
graduated  from  West  Point  1852.  Promoted 
to  First  Lieutenant  1855 ; resigned  to  engage  in 
the  practice  of  law  1856.  Member  of  Legislature 
1859.  Colonel  of  the  27th  New  York  Yols.  May, 
1861 ; commissioned  Brigadier  General  of  Yols. 
Aug.,  1861;  Major  General  of  Vols.  July  4, 
1862.  Succeeded  General  Hooker  in  command 
of  the  20th  Corps  and  was  the  first  to  enter 
Atlanta,  Ga.  Commanded  the  left  grand 
division  on  Sherman’s  “march  to  the  sea.’’ 


Resigned  from  the  army  Sept. , 1865.  Member 
of  the  41st,  42d  and  43d  Congress.  President 
of  the  Board  of  Public  Works  City  of  Brooklyn 
1876-78. 

Smith,  E.  Kirby. — He  was  born  at  St. 
Augustine,  Fla.,  in  1824;  graduated  at  West 
Point  1845.  He  distinguished  himself  in  the  war 


with  Mexico  and  was  brevetted  First  Lieutenant 
and  Captain  for  gallantry.  He  became  Major 


of  his  regiment  Jan.,  1861,  and  resigned  in 
April.  He  was  commissioned  Brigadier  Gen- 
eral in  the  Confederate  Army  and  served  under 
Gen.  J.  E.  Johnston.  Made  Major  General  in 
1862  and  transferred  to  East  Tennessee  and 
placed  in  command.  Promoted  to  Lieutenant 
General  and  full  General.  He  was  the  last  to 
surrender  his  forces,  which  he  did  May  26, 
1865. 

Stanley,  Henry  M. — This  celebrated  cor- 
respondent and  explorer  was  born  near  Den- 
bigh, Wales,  in  1840.  His  parents  were  in  des- 
titute circumstances  and  he  remained  in  the 
poor-house  until  he  was  thirteen  years  old. 
He  taught  school  for  a while  and  then  shipped 
as  cabin  boy  for  New  Orleans.  He  was  adopted 
by  a merchant  by  the  name  of  Stanley,  whose 
name  he  took  in  place  of  his  own.  John  Row- 
lands. His  adoptive  father  died  intestate  and 
young  Stanley  enlisted  in  the  Confederate 
Army  ; was  taken  prisoner  and  volunteered  in 
the  U.  S.  Navy,  as  an  acting  ensign  on  an  iron- 
clad. When  the  war  ended,  in  1865,  he  went 
to  Turkey  and  Asia  Minor  as  a newspaper  cor- 
respondent. He  was  employed  by  the  New 
York  ‘ ‘ Herald  ” as  its  correspondent  and  accom- 
panied the  British  Army  to  Abyssinia  in  1869. 
He  was  sent  by  the  same  paper  in  Oct.,  1869,  to 
lead  an  expedition  into  the  interior  of  Africa 
in  search  of  Dr.  Livingstone,  who  had  not 
been  heard  from  for  two  years.  Succeeded  in 
finding  him  in  Nov.,  1871,  and  furnished  him 
with  supplies.  He  explored  the  northern  part 
of  Lake  Tanganyika  and  set  out  on  his  return 
in  Mar.,  1872,  arriving  in  England  in  July. 
Here  he  was  received  with  distinguished  honor. 
In  a work  entitled  ‘ ‘How  I Found  Livingstone,” 


110 


BIOGRAPHICAL  DICTIONARY. 


published  in  Nov.,  1872,  he  details  the  incidents 
of  this  expedition.  Tidings  of  the  death  of  Dr. 
Livingstone  having  reached  the  civilized  world, 


Mr.  Stanley  was  engaged  jointly  by  the  New 
York  “Herald”  and  the  London  “Telegraph” 
to  make  an  extended  exploration  of  the  Lake 
region  about  the  equator  in  Africa.  He  left 
the  western  coast  of  Africa  in  Nov.,  1872,  with 
three  hundred  men.  He  passed  through  many 
hardships  and  severe  conflicts  with  native 
tribes,  losing  one  hundred  and  ninety-four  men 
by  death  and  desertion,  but  succeeded  in  reach- 
ing Lake  Victoria  N’yanza  Feb.  27, 1875.  Sailed 
around  the  lake  in  a boat  which  he  had  trans- 
ported across  the  country  in  sections,  finding 
the  lake  to  be  one  continuous  body  of  water, 
thus  confirming  the  opinion  of  Spike  and 
Grant,  in  contradistinction  to  that  of  Burton 
and  Livingstone.  April  17,  1875,  he  began 
his  exploration  in  the  direction  of  lake 
Albert  N’yanza  and  arrived  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Congo  River  Aug.  12,  1877.  He  had  ex- 
plored its  entire  course  and  then  wrote  a book, 
“Through  the  Dark  Continent”  (1878).  He 
returned  to  the  Congo  in  1879  as  the  leader  of  a 
Belgian  International  Expedition  and  subse- 
quently he  describes  this  in  his  book,  ‘ ‘ Congo 
and  the  Founding  of  its  Free  State.”  He  made 
a lecture-tour  of  the  United  States  in  1886  and 
returned  to  Congo  Free  State  in  1887  to  lead  an 
expedition  to  the  relief  of  Emin  Bey.  (See  the 
article  on  Congo  Free  State  in  another  part  of 
this  work).  He  was  successful  in  this  expedi- 
tion as  he  had  been  in  all  of  his  former  under- 
takings, and  reached  the  east  coast  of  Africa  at 


Bagamoyo  Dec.  8,  1889.  He  returned  to  Eng- 
land, where  he  received  the  honors  of  the 
nobility  and  of  Government.  He  was  married 
to  Miss  Tennant,  of  England,  in  July,  1890, 
while  still  suffering  from  the  effects  of  African 
fever. 

Stanton,  Edwin  M. — He  was  born  in  Steu- 
benville, O.,  Dec.  19,  1814,  and  was  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  1836.  He  was  reporter  of  courts  from 
1842  to  1845.  He  gained  national  prominence 
in  the  case  of  the  State  of  Pennsylvania  against 
the  Wheeling  Bridge  Company,  and  in  1856 
removed  to  Washington,  D.  C.,  to  conduct  his 
practice  before  the  U.  S.  Courts  there.  He 
went  to  California  in  1858  as  counsel  for  the 
U.  S.  in  land  claims  involving  $150,000,000,  and 
aided  in  the  legal  and  righteous  adjustment  of 
these  claims.  Was  appointed  Attorney  General 
of  the  U.  S.  in  Dec.,  1860.  He  became  Secretary 
of  War  under  Mr.  Lincoln  Jan.  20,  1862.  He 
supported  President  Lincoln’s  administration 
and  remained  in  the  Cabinet  of  President  John- 
son until  the  latter  suspended  him  from  office, 
Aug.  12,  1367,  but  he  resumed  the  office  by 
vote  of  the  Senate  Jan.  13,  1868.  The  President 
attempted  to  remove  him,  but  the  Senate  de- 
cided that  Mr.  Johnson  had  no  power  under 


the  Constitution  to  do  so.  The  House  of  Rep* 
resentatives  thereupon  impeached  the  Presi- 
dent. The  conviction  failed  by  one  vote.  Then 
Mr.  Stanton  voluntarily  resigned.  The  Senate 
again  resolved  that  Mr.  Stanton  had  not  been 
legally  removed,  but  based  its  confirmation  of 
his  successor  upon  his  voluntary  retirement. 
He  received  a vote  of  thanks  from  both  Houses 
of  Congress.  Appointed  Associate  Judge  of  the 
Supreme  Court  Dec.  20,  1869.  He  died  before 
taking  the  oath  of  office,  Dec.  24,  1869. 


BIOGRAPHICAL  DICTIONARY. 


Ill 


Stanton,  Elizabeth  C. — Elizabeth  Cady 
was  born  at  Johnstown  N.  Y.,  Nov.  12,  1815. 
She  was  the  daughter  of  Judge  Daniel  Cady. 


Her  education  was  pursued  at  the  academy  of 
her  native  town,  where  she  fitted  for  college  at 
the  age  of  fifteen.  After  this  she  attended  Mrs. 
Willard’s  Seminary  at  Troy.  While  studying 
Blackstone,  Story  and  Kent,  she  perceived  the 
disabilities  of  her  sex  before  the  law.  In  1840 
she  married  Henry  B.  Stanton  and  went  with 
him  to  the  World’s  Anti-Slavery  Convention 
in  London.  While  there  she  became  acquainted 
with  Lucretia  Mott,  in  connection  with  whom 
she  signed  the  call  for  the  first  Woman’s  Rights 
Convention.  It  was  held  at  her  home  in  Seneca 
Falls,  N.  Y.,  July  19-20,  1848.  She  made  a 
strong  plea  before  the  Legislature  of  New  York 
in  1854  on  the  rights  of  married  women.  In 
1860  she  advocated  before  the  same  body  divorce 
for  drunkenness.  She  has  repeatedly  spoken 
before  Congressional  Committees  in  favor  of 
woman  suffrage.  She  made  a canvass  of  the 
State  of  Kansas  in  1867  and  of  Michigan  in 
1874,  when  this  question  was  submitted  to 
popular  vote.  She  was  one  of  the  editors  of 
“The  Revolution.” 

Stewart,  Alexander  T. — This  successful 
merchant  was  born  near  Belfast,  Ireland,  Oct. 
27, 1802,  and  was  left  an  orphan  at  an  early  age. 
He  came  to  New  York  in  1818  with  a few  hun- 
dred pounds  which  he  had  inherited.  He 
taught  for  a while  in  a private  school.  He  was 
forced  to  become  a trader  on  account  of  having 
invested  his  money  and  being  left  alone  with 
the  establishment  on  his  hands.  He  built  up 


an  immense  business  from  a small  beginning, 
until  he  had  about  eight  thousand  persons  in 
his  employ  in  all  branches.  When  he  died  he 
was  regarded  as  one  of  the  three  wealth- 
iest men  in  the  U.  S.,  John  Jacob  Astor  and 
Cornelius  Vanderbilt  being  the  other  two.  He 
died  April  10,  1876. 

Stowe,  Harriet  JB — This  talented  woman 
was  the  daughter  of  Rev.  Lyman  Beecher. 
She  was  born  at  Litchfield,  Conn.,  June  14, 
1812,  and  engaged  for  several  years  in  teaching 
in  Hartford.  In  1832  she  married  Rev.  Calvin 
E.  Stowe,  D.  D. , then  a Professor  in  Lane  Sem- 
inary, Cincinnati,  O.  She  published  “The 
Mayflower,  or  Sketches  of  the  Descendeuts  of 
the  Pilgrims  ” in  1849.  Two  years  later  she  began 
a serial  story  in  the  “National  Era,”  a paper 
published  in  Washington,  D.  C.,  which  was 
published  in  book  form  in  1852  under  the  title 
of  “ Uncle  Tom’s  Cabin.”  This  work  met  with 
an  unparalleled  sale  and  attained  a remarkable 
success,  both  at  home  and  abroad.  It  was  trans- 
lated into  fifteen  languages  spoken  in  Europe, 
also  into  Arabic,  Japanese  and  Chinese.  In 
1853  she  put  forth  a “Key  to  Uncle  Tom’s 
Cabin,”  in  which  she  presented  the  main  facts 
upon  which  the  story  was  based.  She  spent  a 
year  with  her  husband  and  brother  in  Europe, 


and  on  her  return  produced  a work,  entitled, 
“Sunny  Memories  of  Foreign  Lands.”  She 
wrote  many  other  works,  among  which  are 
“Dred,  a Tale  of  the  Great  Dismal  Swamp,” 
“ The  Minister’s  Wooing,”  “ The  Pearl  of  Orr’s 
Island,”  “ Oldtown  Folks,”  “ My  Wife  and  I,” 


112 


BIOGRAPHICAL  DICTIONARY. 


“Agnes  of  Sorento,”  and  “A  Dog’s  Mission.” 
Her  husband  died  Aug.  22,  1886,  at  which  time 
she  was  living  in  Hartford,  Conn. , where  she 
continued  to  reside  until  1890. 

StuyvesaiU,  Peter.— He  was  born  in  Hol- 
land in  1602,  and  served  in  the  West  Indies, 
where  he  was  for  a time  Director  of  the  Colony 
of  Curacoa,  and  in  the  attack  made  by  the 
Portuguese  upon  the  Island  of  St.  Martin,  lost 
a leg.  He  returned  to  Holland  in  1644,  and 
three  years  after  was  appointed  Director- 
General  of  the  New  Netherlands,  which  position 
he  held  for  seventeen  years,  or  until  the  colony 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  English  in  1664.  His 
first  measure  was  to  make  peace  with  the 
Indians,  who  had  been  stirred  up  by  the  policy 
of  his  predecessor.  Then  he  visited  the  English 
Settlements  on  the  Connecticut,  and  arranged 
a boundary  line  between  his  province  and  New 
England.  In  1655  he  sailed  to  the  Delaware 
with  600  or  700  men  and  recaptured  a fort, 
which  Rising,  the  Swedish  Governor,  had  taken 


from  the  Dutch  the  year  previous.  For  ten 
years  his  administration  was  peaceful  from 
without,  but  within  the  colony  discontent  was 
brewing,  caused  by  the  arbitrary  methods  of 
the  Dutch  West  India  Company.  This  brought 
the  Governor  and  the  people  into  unfriendly 
relations.  At  length  King  Charles  II.  of  Eng- 
land gave  his  brother,  the  Duke  of  York,  a 
charter  covering  all  the  land  between  the  Hud- 
son and  the  Delaware.  This  grant  included 
New  Netherlands,  with  other  territories.  In 


August  of  that  year  an  English  fleet  appeared 
off  New  Amsterdam  and  demanded  its  sur- 
render. At  first  the  Governor  refused,  but  not 
being  sustained  by  the  people,  he  surrendered 
Sept.  8,  1664.  The  name  of  the  city  and  pro- 
vince was  changed  to  New  York.  Stuyvesant 
went  to  Holland,  but  afterwards  returned  and 
lived  eighteen  years  on  his  farm.  He  died 
Aug.,  1682. 

Sumner,  Charles.  — He  was  born  in 
Boston,  Mass.,  Jan.  6,  1811 ; graduated  from 


Harvard  College  1830 ; entered  Cambridge 
Law  School  in  1831,  and  admitted  to  the  bar 
in  1834.  He  was  the  intimate  friend  of  Judge 
Story,  who  gave  him  such  a letter  of  intro- 
duction when  he  visited  Washington,  as  to 
secure  for  him  the  friendship  of  Kent,  Marshall 
and  other  legal  minds.  He  was  Lecturer  at  the 
Harvard  Law  School  from  1835  to  1837,  and 
again  in  1843.  He  had  but  little  practice  at  the 
bar,  but  was  engaged  in  editing  “ Story’s  De- 
cisions,” “Dunlap’s  Admiralty  Treatise,”  and 
other  legal  works.  In  1837  he  visited  Europe 
and  returned  in  1840.  He  delivered  his  masterly 
oration,  “The  True  Grandeur  of  Nations,”  in 
Boston,  July  4,  1845.  This  was  highly  criticised 
at  home  and  as  highly  commended  abroad. 
On  his  return  from  Europe  he  was  received  as 
the  pet  of  society,  but  his  radical  views  soon 
caused  these  doors  to  be  closed  to  him.  He 
turned  to  political  life  and  strongly  opposed  the 


BIOGRAPHICAL  DICTIONARY. 


113 


admission  of  Texas  and  the  Mexican  War.  He 
was  defeated  in  1848,  when  he  was  a candidate 
for  Congress.  In  1851  he  was  sent  to  the  U.  S. 
Senate  from  Massachusetts,  after  a long  and 
obstinate  contest  of  three  months’  duration. 
He  opened  his  attack  on  slavery  in  1852,  and 
was  the  avowed  champion  of  the  anti-slavery 
cause  when  Washington  was  filled  with  men 
who  desired  his  death.  May  22,  1856,  while 
writing  at  his  desk  in  the  Senate  Chamber,  he 
was  brutally  stricken  down  by  Brooks,  a 
Member  of  the  House  from  South  Carolina. 
He  was  obliged  to  go  to  .Europe  for  treatment, 
w hich  kept  him  away  for  three  years.  He  was, 
however,  re-elected  to  the  Senate  in  1857,  in 
1863  and  1869,  filling  the  office  for  twenty-three 
years.  He  died  at  his  home  in  Washington, 
March  11,  1874. 

Swayne,  John  W. — He  was  born  at  Colum- 
bus, 0.,  in  1835;  graduated  at  Yale  College; 
studied  law  and  practiced  in  his  native  city. 
Major  of  an  Ohio  Regiment  in  1862  and  pro- 
moted to  Colonel,  serving  through  the  Atlanta 
campaign  and  losing  a leg  at  Salkahatchie. 
Brevetted  Brigadier  Gen’l  and  Major  General  in 
1865.  He  was  Assistant  Commissioner  of  Ref- 
ugees, and  retired  from  the  army  in  1870.  He 
practiced  law  in  New  York. 

Sway  lie,  Noah  If. — He  was  born  in  Cul- 
pepper Co.,  Va.,  Dec.  27,  1804,  and  served  as 
an  apothecary’s  clerk.  Studied  law  and  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1824.  Removed  to  Ohio 
and  elected  to  the  Legislature  in  1829.  U.  S. 
District  Attorney  1830-39.  Declined  the  elec- 
tion as  Judge  of  the  Court  of  Common  Pleas 
1834.  Member  of  Legislature  1836.  Prominent 
in  organizing  asylums  for  the  deaf  and  dumb, 
for  the  blind  and  the  insane.  Justice  of  the 
U.  S.  Supreme  Court  1861 ; resigned  1881.  Died 
June  8,  1884. 

Taney,  Roger  B. — This  Chief  Justice  was 
born  in  Calvert  Co.,  Md.,  Mar.  17,  1777;  gradu- 
ated from  Dickinson  College  1795  and  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1799.  Delegate  to  the  General 
Assembly  1800.  Member  of  State  Senate  1816. 
Appointed  U.  S.  Attorney  by  General  Jackson 
1831.  Appointed  Chief  Justice  of  the  U.  S. 
Supreme  Court  1836  and  took  his  seat  Jan.  1837. 
He  delivered  the  famous  or  infamous  Dred 
Scott  decision  in  1857.  He  also  wrote  out  an 
opinion  that  President  Lincoln  had  no  author- 
ity to  suspend  the  execution  of  a writ  of  habeas 
eorpus  May  1,  1861.  Died  Oct.  12,  1864. 


Taylor,  Zacliery. — The  twelfth  President 
of  the  United  States  was  born  in  Orange  Co,, 
Va.,  Sept.  24,  1784.  He  was  appointed  First 
Lieutenant  of  the  7th  Infantry  May  3,  1808. 
Promoted  to  Captain  Nov.  1810.  Commanded 
Fort  Harrison  on  the  Wabash  River  and  made 
a successful  defense  against  the  Indians  Sept.  4 
and  5,  1812,  for  which  he  was  brevetted  Major 
and  promoted  to  full  rank  in  1814.  Resigned  in 
1815  but  re-entered  the  army  in  1816  as  Major  of 
the  3d  Infantry.  Fought  the  Indians  in  the 
Black  Hawk  and  Florida  Wars.  Promoted 
Colonel  in  1832.  Brevetted  Brigadier  General 
for  his  gallantry  at  the  battle  of  Okee-cho-bee 
Dec.  25,  1837.  In  the  Mexican  War  fought  the 
battle  of  Palo  Alto  May  8,  1846,  and  Reseca  de 
la  Palma  the  next  day.  Brevetted  Major  Gen- 
eral May  28,  and  promoted  to  full  rank  a month 
later.  Commanded  in  many  other  battles,  for 
which  he  received  the  thanks  of  Congress  and  a 
gold  medal.  Inaugurated  President  Mar.  4, 
1849.  He  died  July  9,  1850  and  was  succeeded 
by  Millard  Fillmore  as  President. 

Thomas,  <*eorge  Henry. — He  was  born 
in  Southampton  Co.,  Va.,  July  31,  1816,  and 


graduated  at  West  Point  1840  as  2d  Lieutenant 
of  Artillery.  He  was  brevetted  for  gallantry 
as  First  Lieutenant  Nov.  6,  1841.  In  the  war 
with  Mexico  received  the  brevets  of  Captain 
and  Major  ; Instructor  of  Cavalry  and  Artillery 
1851-54 ; Major  of  Cavalry,  May,  1855.  All  the 
ranking  officers  of  his  regiment  resigned  to 
enter  the  Confederate  service  and  he  became 
Colonel  May  3,  1861.  Brigadier  General  of  Vols. 
Aug.,  1861.  He  became  conspicuous  in  all  the 
battles  from  Mill  Spring  to  Chattanooga.  Com- 
missioned Bri  gadier  General  in  the  regular  Army 


114 


BIOGRAPHICAL  DICTIONARY. 


Oct.  27,  1862.  He  was  appointed  Major  General 
in  Dec.,  1862.  He  won  the  sobriquet  of  “ Rock 
of  Chickamauga  ” by  five  hours  incessant  fight- 
ing against  great  odds  in  that  battle.  Congress 
gave  -him  a vote  of  thanks,  and  the  State  of 
Tennessee  bestowed  upon  him  a valuable  gold 
medal  for  his  decisive  victory  over  General 
Hood,  Dec.  15-16,  which  drove  the  Confederates 
out  of  Tennessee.  Gen.  Thomas  commanded 
the  Division  of  Tenn.  1865-66  ; the  Department 
of  Tenn.  1866-67 ; of  the  Cumberland  1867-69 ; 
of  San  Francisco  from  Dec. , 1869,  to  his  death, 
May  27,  1870. 

Thompson,  Jacob.— He  was  born  in  Cas- 
well Co.,  N.  C.,  May  15,  1810,  and  graduated  at 
the  University  of  North  Carolina  1831 ; admit- 
ted to  the  bar  1834  and  settled  in  Miss.  1835* 
Member  of  Congress  1839-51.  Secretary  of  the 
Interior  from  Mar.  1857,  to  Jan.,  1861,  when  he 


resigned.  Governor  of  Mississipi  1862-64  and 
afterwards  Aide-de-camp  to  Gen.  Beauregard 
and  Inspector  General  for  Miss.  Died  Mar.  24, 
1885. 

Thurman,  Allen  Cm.— He  was  born  near 
Lynchburg,  Va.,  Nov.  13,  1813;  removed  to 
Ohio  1819.  Studied  law  and  was  admitted  to 
the  bar  1835.  Member  of  Congress  1845-47. 
Judge  of  the  Superior  Court  of  Ohio  1851; 
Chief  Justice  1855-56.  U.  S.  Senator  1869-1881. 

Til  den,  Samuel  «J.— He  was  born  in  New 
Lebanon  Co. , N.  Y. , Feb.  9,  1814.  Educated  at 
Yale  College  and  the  University  of  New  York, 
and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1841.  He 
amassed  by  his  practice  the  largest  fortune  ever 
accumulated  in  the  legal  profession.  He  was 
a member  of  the  State  Conventions  for  the  Re- 
vision of  the  Constitution  in  1846  and  in  1867. 
He  served  in  the  Legislature  in  1846  and  in  1872. 


Elected  Governor  of  N.  Y.  in  1874,  and  acquired 
a national  reputation  by  his  Messages  to  the 


Legislature.  He  was  nominated  for  President 
in  1876  and  received  the  largest  majority  on  the 
popular  vote,  but  by  a special  Electoral  Com- 
mission, 185  electoral  votes  were  assigned  to  his 
competitor.  He  traveled  in  Europe  for  his 
health  in  1877.  On  account  of  impaired  health 
he  declined  to  be  a canditate  before  the  Con- 
vention of  1880,  and  again  in  June,  1884.  He 
bequeathed  several  million  dollars  to  the 
establishment  of  public  libraries  in  New  York 
and  other  cities.  He  died  Aug.  4,  1886. 

Tompkins,  David  !>.— Was  born  at  Scars- 
dale  Westchester  Co.,  N.  Y.,  June  21,  1774; 
graduated  at  Columbia  College  in  1795  and 
admitted  to  the  bar  the  next  year.  Elected  to 
the  Legislature  and  to  the  Convention  to  revise 
the  Constitution  1801.  Member  of  Congress 
1804-1805.  Judge  of  the  N.  Y.  Supreme  Court 
1804.  Governor  of  the  State  1807-17.  Com- 
manded the  Third  Military  District  during  the 
war  1812-15.  Vice  President  of  the  U.  S.  1817- 
25.  He  recommended  the  abolition  of  slavery 
in  New  York.  Chancellor  of  the  University  of 
New  Y7ork  and  delegate  to  the  State  Consti- 
tutional Convention  of  1821.  Died  June  11, 
1825. 

Trumbull,  Jonathan. — This  patriotic 
Governor  of  the  Revolution  was  born  at  Leban- 
on, Conn.,  June  10,  1710,  and  graduated  at 
Harvard  College  1727.  He  studied  theology 


BIOGRAPHICAL  DICTIONARY. 


115 


and  was  licensed  to  preach,  but  changed  to  the 
profession  of  law.  He  was  elected  to  the  Assem- 
bly in  1733  and  was  Speaker  in  1739.  Became 
an  assistant  in  1740  and  was  re-elected  twenty- 


two  times.  He  was  Governor  in  1769  and  held 
that  office  until  the  close  of  the  war.  Resigned 
in  1783.  He  was  an  enthusiastic  supporter  of 
the  popular  cause  and  his  advice  was  much 
prized  by  W ashington.  He  was  a leader  of  the 
Whigs  in  New  England.  He  died  Aug.  17,  1785. 

Tyler,  John.- The  tenth  President  of  the 
United  States  was  bom  in  Charles  City  Co., 
Va.,  March  29,  1790;  graduated  at  William  and 
Mary  College  in  1806,  and  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  1809.  Member  of  State  Legislature  1811-16, 
and  1823-25  ; Member  of  Congress  1816-21 ; Gov- 
ernor of  Virginia  1825-27 ; U.  S.  Senator  1827- 
36.  In  the  latter  year  he  resigned  because  of 
the  vote  of  t?ie  Legislature  of  Virginia  instruct- 
ing him  to  vote  opposite  to  his  own  views. 
Member  of  State  Legislature  1839-40 ; elected 
Vice  President  on  the  ticket  with  General 
Harrison,  succeeded  to  the  Presidency  April  4, 
1841,  and  held  that  office  until  1845.  Member 
of  the  “Peace  Convention,”  over  which  he 
presided  in  Washington  in  Feb.,"  1861.  Died 
Jan.  17,  1862. 

Undervrood.  Joseph.  R.— He  was  bom  in 

Goochland  Co.,  Va.,  Oct.  24,  1791.  Removed 
with  his  uncle  to  Kentucky  and  graduated 
from  the  University  of  Lexington  1811.  Served 
in  the  war  of  1812  and  was  severely  wounded  in 
Dudley’s  retreat.  Entered  upon  the  practice  of 
law  1813  at  Glasgow,  Ky.  ; Member  of  the  Leg- 
islature 1816-19  ; removed  to  Bowling  Green  in 
1823,  and  was  Member  of  the  Assembly  1825-26 ; 
Judge  of  the  Court  of  Appeals  1828-35  ; Member 


of  Congress  1835-43;  Member  and  Speaker  of 
the  House  of  Representatives  of  Kentucky  1846  ; 
U.  S.  Senator  1847-53.  Died  at  Bowling  Green, 
Ky.,  Aug.  23,  1876. 

Upham,  Charles  W.— He  was  born  at  St. 
John,  New  Brunswiek,  May  4,  1802;  graduated 
at  Harvard  College  1821  and  Cambridge  Divinity 
School  1824.  Settled  over  the  First  Church  in 
Salem,  Mass.,  1824-44;  Member  of  Massachusetts 
House  of  Representatives  1849  ; of  State  Senate 
1850-51;  of  the  U.  S.  Congress  1854-55 ; of  State 
Senate  1858  ; of  State  House  of  Representatives 
1859-60.  Died  June  15,  1875. 

Upton,  Emory. — He  was  born  at  New  York, 
Aug.  27,  1839;  graduated  from  West  Point  1861 
as  2d  Lieutenant  of  Artillery.  Commanded  his 
battery  at  Yorktown,  Gain’s  Mills  and  Glendale, 
also  an  Artillery  Brigade  at  South  Mountain 
and  Antietam.  Colonel  of  the  121st  New  York 
Vols. , Oct.,  1862.  Commanded  a Brigade  of 
the  6th  Corps  and  assigned  to  a division  of 
Cavalry  in  the  West.  Mustered  out  of  Volun- 
teer Service  in  1866.  Commissioned  Lieut. - 
Colonel  of  the  25th  Infantry  and  perfected  a 
“System  of  Infantry  Tactics,”  which  was 
adopted  in  1867.  Transferred  to  the  17th 
Infantry  1869,  and  to  the  1st  Artillery  1870. 
Commander  of  Cadets  at  West  Point  1870-75. 
Bre vetted  from  Major  to  Major  General  for 
gallantry  in  the  Civil  War.  Died  March  15, 
1881. 

Tallamli^hain,  Clement  L. — He  was 

born  at  New  Lisbon,  O.,  in  1822,  and  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1842.  Member  of  Ohio 


Legislature  1845-46 ; Editor  of  “Day  ton  Empire” 
1847-49 ; Member  of  Congress  1857-63 ; opposed 
the  Government  during  the  war  and  was  arrest* 


116 


BIOGRAPHICAL  DICTIONARY. 


ed  by  order  of  Genl  A.  E.  Burnside.  He  was 
tried  by  Court-martial  and  sentenced  to  close 
confinement  during  the  war.  This  was  com- 
muted to  banishment  beyond  the  lines  by 
President  Lincoln.  He  went  South,  but  being 
dissatisfied  with  his  reception  by  the  Con- 
federates, he  made  his  way  to  Canada.  He  was 
nominated  for  Governor  of  Ohio,  but  was  de- 
feated. Died  June  17,  1871. 

Va n litireu.  llartin. — The  eighth  Presi- 
dent of  the  U nited  States  was  bom  in  Kinder- 
hook,  N.  Y.,  Dec.  5,  1782.  He  studied  law 
when  fourteen  and  took  an  active  part  in  poli- 
tics before  he  was  twenty  years  of  age.  Elected 
to  the  State  Senate  in  1812.  Attorney  General 
1815-19 ; a State  Senator  for  the  second  time  in 
1816.  He  became  a member  of  the  “Albany 
Regency"  in  181S,  which  controlled  the  politics 
of  the  State  for  twenty  years.  IT.  S.  Senator 
1821-28.  Governor  in  1828.  Secretary  of  State 
in  President  Jackson's  Cabinet  from  Mar. , 1829, 
to  April,  1831.  Vice  President  1833-37.  Presi- 
dent 1837-1841.  Nominated  for  re-election  but 
defeated.  Visited  Europe  1853-1854  Died  July 
24,  1862. 

Vanderbilt,  Cornelias. — Was  bom  at 

Staten  Island,  N.  Y.,  May  27  1794,  of  sturdy 


Holland  stock.  When  sixteen  years  old  he 
purchased  a boat  and  ran  a ferry  between  New 
York  and  Staten  Island.  In  the  war  of  1812  he 
carried  some  officers  from  Fort  Richmond  in  a 
storm.  In  1817,  having  earned  $9,000,  he  retired 


from  his  harbor  trade  and  became  Captain  of  a 
small  steamer  running  between  New  York  and 
New  Brunswick,  N.  J.  In  1851  he  established 
a line  of  steamers  between  New  York  and 
California,  which  he  managed  for  two  years 
and  sold.  Having  become  very  wealthy,  in  1853, 
he  built  the  Steamship  North  Star  and  took 
his  whole  family  on  a tour  to  Europe.  In  1855 
he  established  the  steamship  line  between  New 
York  and  Havre.  In  1862  he  presented  to  the 
U.  S.  Government  his  finest  steamship,  the 
Vanderbilt,  and  received  the  thanks  of  Con- 
gress. He  presented  a Church  to  be  known  as 
the  “ Church  of  Strangers”  to  Rev.  Dr.  Deems 
in  1870.  He  endowed  the  U niversity  of  his  name 
at  Nashville,  Tenn.,  March  27,  1873.  He  died  at 
New  York,  Jan.  4,  1877. 

Vanderbilt,  William  II.— The  richest 

man  in  the  world.  He  was  born  at  New  Bruns- 
wick, N.  J. , May  8,  1821.  Educated  at  Colum- 
bia College  Grammar  School,  New  York.  On 
the  death  of  his  father,  Cornelias  Vanderbilt, 
Jan.  4, 1877,  he  came  into  possession  of  a fortune 
of  $95,000,000.  He  died  Dec.  8,  1885,  and  in  his 
will  bequeathed  the  enormous  sum  of  $200,000,- 
000  in  cash,  securities  and  realty. 

Van  Renselaer,  Stephen. — He  was  born 
in  New  York  Nov.  1,  1764  and  graduated  from 
Harvard  College  in  1782.  Member  of  Assembly 
1789 ; of  the  State  Senate  1790-95.  Lieutenant- 
Governor  1795-1801 ; Member  of  State  Consti- 
tutional Convention  1801 ; Commissioner  to 
explore  the  proposed  line  for  a canal  from  Lake 
Erie  to  the  Hudson  1810,  and  one  of  the  Canal 
Commissioners  from  1816  to  his  death.  Com- 
manded the  State  Militia  in  the  wa*r  of  1812. 
Regent  of  New  York  University  1819.  Paid 
for  a geological  survey  of  the  State  by  Prof. 
Hitchcock  in  1824  Founded  the  Renselaer 
Institute  1824.  Member  of  Congress  1823-29. 
By  his  casting  vote  in  the  New  York  delegation 
he  made  John  Quincy  Adams  President.  Died 
Jan.  26,  1839. 

Voorbees,  Daniel  W. — He  was  bom  in 
Fountain  Co.,  Ind.,  Sept.  26,  1828.  Graduated 
at  Asbury  University  1849.  Admitted  to  the 
bar  1851.  Appointed  U.  S.  District  Attorney 
for  Indiana  1858.  Member  of  37th,  38th,  41st 
and  42d  Congresses ; seat  successfully  contested 
in  the  39th.  Appointed  successor  to  O.  P. 
Morton  in  U.  S.  Senate  1877;  elected  for  full 
terms,  ending  March,  1891,  Jan.,  1885.  Prom- 
inent as  a Democratic  leader. 


BIOGRAPHICAL  DICTIONARY. 


117 


Waite,  Morrison  R.— He  was  born  at 
Lynn,  Conn.,  Nov.  29,  1816;  graduated  at  Yale 
College  1837.  He  studied  law  and  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  and  settled  at  Maumee  City,  O.  He 


was  elected  to  the  State  Legislature  in  1849. 
He  removed  to  Toledo  in  1850  and  won  a high 
rank  in  his  profession.  He  declined  repeated 
nominations  to  Congress  and  a proffered  posi- 
tion on  the  bench  of  the  Supreme  Court  of 
Ohio.  He  greatly  distinguished  himself  as 
Counsel  of  the  U.  S.  at  the  Geneva  Tribunal 
1871.  He  was  President,  of  the  State  Consti- 
tutional Convention  1873,  and  appointed  Chief 
Justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  U.  S. 
March  4,  1874.  He  declined  to  serve  on  the 
Electoral  Commission  to  decide  the  election  of 
President  in  1876.  He  died  March  23,  1888. 

Wallace,  I^ewis.— This  popular  soldier 
and  author  was  born  in  Fountain  Co.,  Ind., 
about  1828.  He  studied  law  and  was  admitted 
to  the  bar.  In  the  war  with  Mexico  he  served 
as  2d  Lieutenant  in  the  1st  Indiana  Yols.  He 
returned  to  his  profession  and  served  one  term 
in  the  Ohio  Senate.  He  was  placed  in  command 
of  the  11th  Indiana  Vols.,  April,  1861;  Brig- 
adier General  Sept.,  1861,  and  stationed  in 
Kentucky.  He  commanded  a division  at  the 
capture  of  Fort  Donaldson,  and  won  a com- 
mission as  Major  General  of  Yols.,  March  21, 
1862.  President  of  a Court  of  Inquiry  in  the 
case  of  General  Don  Carlos  Buell.  Commanded 
the  8th  Army  Corps  1864.  Member  of  the  Com- 


mission to  try  the  assassins  implicated  in  the 
murder  of  President  Lincoln  1865.  Minister  to 
Constantinople  1881 ; Envoy  Extraordinary  and 
Minister  Plenipotentiary  to  the  same  court  1882. 
The  latter  office  he  held  until  March,  1885. 
Author  of  “Ben  Hur,”  and  other  popular 
works. 

Wanamaker,  Joint. — He  was  born  in 
Philadelphia,  Pa.,  July  11,  1837.  Received 
country-school  education  ; learned  the  clothing 
business  and  opened  a store  of  his  own  1861, 
which  has  grown  into  an  enormous  establish- 
ment. Devoted  Presbyterian  and  Sunday- 
school  and  Y.  M.  C.  A.  worker.  Founded 
Bethany  College  and  its  preparatory  and  train- 
ing schools.  Active  in  charitable,  religious, 
and  educational  movements.  Millionaire  Pro- 
tectionist and  large  contributor  to  presidential 
election  canvass  1888.  Appointed  Postmaster 
General  1889. 

W»slil>iii*ne,  Israel,  Jr.— He  was  born  at 
the  Norlands,  Livermore,  Me.,  June  6,  1813. 
He  received  a classic  education  under  tutors 
and  was  admitted  at  the  bar  Oct. , 1834.  Mem- 


ber of  Congress  1850-60  ; Governor  of  the  State 
1861-62 ; declined  re-election.  Collector  of 
Customs  for  the  Port  of  Portland  1863.  Died 
May  12,  1883. 

W asliing’ton,  George.- The  General-in- 
Chief  of  the  Colonial  Army,  and  the  first  Pres- 
dent  of  the  United  States,  was  born  in  Wash- 
ington Parish,  Westmoreland  Co.,  Virginia, 
Feb.  22,  1732.  His  father  was  Augustine  Wash- 
ington and  his  mother  Mary,  daughter  of  Col. 
Ball,  of  Lancaster  Co.,  Virginia.  George  was 
left  an  orphan  at  the  age  of  twelve,  with  the 
homestead  as  his  inheritance.  His  elder  broth- 
er, Lawrence,  his  guardian,  received  the  estate 
at  Mount  Vernon.  This  brother  had  married 


118 


BIOGRAPHICAL  DICTIONARY. 


the  daughter  of  the  wealthy  William  Fairfax. 
Fairfax  and  Lawrence  Washington  had  served 
with  Admiral  Vernon,  and  through  the  influence 
of  the  latter  young  Washington  received  a 
commission  as  midshipman,  but  at  the  request 
of  his  mother  he  gave  it  up  and  became  a Sur- 
veyor. He  surveyed  the  vast  estate  of  Fairfax 
in  1748.  Commissioned  as  Major  1751 ; Col. 
1754.  Married  in  1759  and  served  in  the  House 
of  Burgesses.  Delegate  to  first  Continental 
Congress  1774 ; elected  Commander-in-Chief 
June  15,  1775,  declining  to  receive  any  salary. 
Resigned  his  commission  Dec.  23,  1783.  Pre- 
sided over  the  Convention  which  framed  the 
Constitution  in  Philadelphia  1787.  Inaugurated 
first  President  of  the  U.  S.  April  30,  1789 ; 
elected  to  a second  term  1792.  Issued  his 
“Farewell  Address”  Sept.  19,  1796  Commis- 
sioned as  Lieutenant-General  upon  danger  of  a 
French  invasion,  May,  1798,  and  died  at  Mount 
Vernon  Dec.  14,  1799.  The  life  of  George 
Washington  is  so  closely  connected  with  the 
early  history  of  his  country  as  to  form  a con- 
spicuous part  of  it. 

Washington,  .llartha. — The  wife  of 
George  Washington  was  Martha  Dandridge, 


who  was  born  in  New  Kent  County,  Virginia, 
in  1732.  She  married  Daniel  Park  Curtis  in 
1749,  by  whom  she  had  two  children.  She  be- 
came a widow  when  about  twenty-five  years  of 
age,  and  the  young  Colonel,  George  Washing- 


ton, fell  in  love  with  her  for  her  wonderful 
beauty  and  accomplishments.  They  were  mar- 
ried Jan.  17,  1759.  For  fifteen  years  they 
enjoyed  the  quiet  and  peaceful  life  at  the  mag- 
nificent estate  on  the  Potomac,  which  had 
come  into  the  possession  of  George  after  the 
death  of  his  brother,  Lawrence  Washington, 
and  an  infant  niece.  His  estate  at  Mount 
Vernon  was  much  enlarged  by  purchases.  This 
unobtrusive  agricultural  life  was  interrupted 
only  by  their  annual  visits  to  the  Legislature, 
of  which  her  husband  was  a member.  At 
length  he  was  called  to  a position  which  was 
to  make  his  name  the  first  in  the  country. 
Martha  Washington  shared  with  her  husband 
the  anxieties  and  privations  qf  the  long  struggle 
and  finally  she  bore  her  rightful  share  in  the 
honors  which  came  to  him.  She  was  called  to 
preside  over  the  Mansion  in  New  York  and 
afterwards  in  Philadelphia  as  “the  first  lady 
in  the  land.”  Without  a precedent  to  guide 
her,  with  wonderful  grace  and  becoming  dig- 
nity, she  sustained  her  part  at  public  receptions 
and  in  the  home  of  the  Chief  Magistrate  of  a 
nqw  nation,  marking  out  a course  of  simple 
dignity  and  dignified  simplicity.  She  survived 
the  death  of  her  illustrious  husband  less  than 
three  years,  dying  in  1802. 

W ayne,  Anthony— Was  born  at  East  Town, 
Chester  Co.,  Pa.,  Jan.  1,  1745.  Educated  at 
Philadelphia  Academy  and  became  an  intimate 
friend  of  Benjamin  Franklin.  Elected  to  various 
offices  in  his  native  county ; Member  of  Con- 
vention and  Legislature  in  1774.  Raised  a 
regiment  to  invade  Canada  and  became  its 
Colonel  Jan  3, 1776.  Commanded  the  fortresses 
of  Ticonderoga  and  Mount  Independence  with 
five  regiments  until  1777.  Brigadier  General 
Feb.  21, 1777.  Commanded  a division  at  Brandy- 
wine Sept.  11,  and  the  right  wing  of  the  army 
at  Germantown  Oct.  4 ; led  the  attack  on  Stony 
Point  July  16,  1779,  where  he  was  wounded. 
Received  the  thanks  of  Congress  and  a gold 
medal.  He  defeated  the  British  and  Indians  in 
1782.  Served  in  the  Pennsylvania  Legislature 
1784-1785,  and  in  the  Convention  that  ratified 
the  U.  S.  Constitution.  Made  Major  General 
April  2,  1792.  Defeated  the  Indians  Aug.  20, 
1794,  and  concluded  a treaty  with  them  at  Green- 
ville in  1795.  He  died  while  on  his  return  home- 
ward, Dec.  16,  1796,  and  is  buried  near  Waynes- 
boro, Pa. 

Wel>ster,  Daniel.— Was  born  at  Salisbury, 
N-  H.,  Jan.  18,  1782.  His  early  advantages 


BIOGRAPHICAL  DICTIONARY. 


119 


were  limited,  but  by  his  own  exertions  he  suc- 
ceeded in  graduating  from  Dartmouth  College 
as  the  first  scholar  in  his  class  in  1801.  Studied 
law  and  was  admitted  to  .the  bar  in  1805,  and 
soon  rose  to  eminence.  He  was  elected  to  Con- 
gress in  1812  and  took  his  seat  in  1818,  making 
his  first  speech  Jan.  10  of  that  year.  He  took 
a prominent  part  in  debates  upon  the  war  and 
finances.  He  removed  to  Boston  in  1816  and 
for  seven  years  devoted  himself  to  the  practice 
of  law.  His  most  remarkable  success  in  the 
celebrated  Dartmouth  College  case  won  him  a 
national  reputation.  In  1820  he  was  a member 
of  the  Massachusetts  Convention  to  revise  the 


Constitution  of  the  State.  In  Dec.  22  of  that 
year  delivered  his  oration  on  the  200th  Anni- 
versary of  the  landing  of  the  Pilgrims.  Elected 
to  Congress  from  Boston  in  1822,  and  for  three 
times  thereafter.  Transferred  to  the  Senate  in 
1827,  and  retained  his  seat  in  that  body  until 
1841.  He  was  appointed  Secretary  of  State  by 
President  Harrison  and  continued  in  office  under 
Tyler  until  1843,  when  he  resigned.  Resumed 
the  practice  of  law,  but  was  engaged  in  speaking 
on  all  the  great  political  questions  of  the  day. 
His  bitter  disappointment  in  not  receiving  the 
nomination  for  President  on  the  Whig  ticket  in 
1848  and  1852  was  a life-long  grief  to  him.  He 
became  Secretary  of  State  again  in  1850  under 
Fillmore.  His  masterly  orations,  his  knowledge 
of  law  and  wonderful  grasp  of  financial  and 


political  subjects  have  placed  him  in  the  front 
rank  of  American  statesmen.  His  last  forensic 
effort  was  made  at  Trenton,  N.  J. , in  the  great 
Goodyear  patent  case,  Jan.,  1852.  He  was 
thrown  from  his  carriage  in  May  of  that  year, 
seriously  injured,  and  died  at  Marshfield,  Mass., 
Oct.  24,  1852. 

Webster,  I^’oab.- This  noted  lexicographer 
was  bom  at  West  Hartford,  Conn.,  Oct.  16, 
1758.  He  graduated  at  Yale  College  1778,  and 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  1781.  Taught  a classic- 
school  at  Goshen,  N.  Y.,  1782-83;  prepared 
while  there  his  Spelling-Book,  Grammar  and 
Reader.  The  sale  of  the  first  had  exceeded 
40,000, 000  up  to  1876.  He  wrote  political  articles 
1784;  “Sketches  of  American  Policy”  1785, 
advocating  the  Constitution  of  the  U.  S.  He 
traveled  through  the  South  and  visited  General 
Washington  the  same  year  ; taught  an  Academy 
at  Philadelphia  1787 ; practiced  law  in  Hartford 
1789-93 ; settled  in  New  Haven  1798,  and  pub- 
lished a number  of  works  on  legal  and  educa- 
tional subjects.  In  1807  he  began  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  great  work  of  his  life,  ‘ ‘The  American 
Dictionary  of  the  English  Language.”  He 
resided  at  Amherst,  Mass.,  1812-22,  then  re- 
turned to  New  Haven.  Visited  Europe  1824-25, 
completing  his  work  in  1825  at  Cambridge, 
England.  He  was  several  times  a member  of 
the  Legislatures  in  Mass,  and  in  Conn.,  and 
closely  connected  with  the  interests  of  Amherst 
and  Yale  Colleges.  He  carefully  superintended 
the  revision  of  his  Dictionary,  2d  Edition,  1840- 
41,  and  died  March  28,  1843. 

Weed,  Tliurlow.— He  was  born  at  Cairo, 
Greene  Co.,  N.  Y.,  Nov.  15,  1797.  He  was 
a cabin  boy  on  the  Hudson  when  ten  years 
old,  and  at  twelve  entered  a printing  office. 
Served  in  the  war  of  1812  as  Quarter-master 
Sergeant.  Established  the  “ Agriculturist  ” in 
Norwich,  N.  Y.,  in  1818,  and  was  Editor  of  sev- 
eral papers  during  the  ten  years  thereafter. 
Member  of  the  Legislature  1826-30.  Founded 
the  “ Albany  Evening  Journal  ” 1830.  One  of 
the  original  leaders  of  the  Whig  party,  he  con- 
tributed largely  to  the  election  of  W.  H.  Seward 
as  Governor  in  1838  and  1840,  as  well  as  that  of 
Gen.  Harrison  as  President.  He  visited  Europe 
at  the  request  of  President  Lincoln  in  1861-62, 
and  exerted  considerable  influence  upon  pop- 
ular opinion  in  England.  Settled  in  New  York 
in  1865  and  edited  the  “Commercial  Advertiser.” 
He  retired  from  active  journalism  in  1868,  but 


120 


BIOGRAPHICAL  DICTIONARY. 


retained  his  powerful  influence  in  politics  for 
some  years.  Died  Nov.  22,  1882, 

West,  XCenjamin— ' This  great  American 
artist  was  born  at  Springfield,  Pa.,  Oct.  10, 
1788.  His  parents  were  members  of  the  Society 
of  Friends.  Young  Benjamin  displayed  an 
artistic  precocity  even  in  childhood,  and  by 
the  aid  of  a wealthy  uncle  was  enabled  to  pur- 
sue his  studies  in  Philadelphia,  whither  he 
went  in  1757.  He  practiced  his  art  in  that  city, 
the  surrounding  towns  and  in  New  York.  Then 
he  went  to  Italy  in  1760,  where  he  remained  for 
three  years.  In  1768  he  took  up  his  residence 
in  London,  where  he  married  an  American 
lady.  His  reputation  as  an  artist  increased 
and  he  enjoyed  the  friendship  of  the  great 
English  painter,  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds.  He  was 
made  a member  of  the  Royal  Academy  in  1768, 
and  acted  as  its  President  1792  to  1802,  and  then 
after  an  interval  of  one  year,  until  his  death. 
He  had  a career  of  prosperity  and  success,  pro- 
ducing more  than  400  pictures.  The  best  known 
of  which  are,  “The  Battle  of  La  Hogue,” 
“The  Death  of  Wolfe,”  “Christ  Healing  the 
Sick,”  “ Christ  Rejected,”  and  “ Penn’s  Treaty 
with  the  Indians.”  He  died  Mar.  11,  1829. 

Wlieeler,  William  A. — He  was  born  in 
Malone,  Franklin  Co.,  N.  Y.,  June  30,  1819. 
Educated  at  the  University  of  Vermont.  Prac- 
ticed law  and  served  as  District  Attorney  for  a 
number  of  years.  Superintendent  of  common 
schools  for  Franklin  Co.  Member  of  the  State 
Assembly  1850-51,  and  of  the  Senate  1858-59. 
Served  as  President  of  the  N.  Y.  Constitutional 
Convention  1867-68.  Member  of  the  37th,  41st, 
42d,  43d  and  44th  Congresses.  Vice  President  of 
the  United  States  1877-1881.  He  died  June  4, 
1887. 

Whipple,  Abraham.- This  gallant  naval 
officer  was  born  at  Providence,  R.  I.,  Sept. 
16,  1733.  He  commanded  a vessel  in  the  West 
Indies  trade  when  quite  young.  Captain 
of  the  privateer  “Game  Cock”  during  the 
French  War,  1759-60.  Captured  in  a single 
cruise  twenty-three  prizes.  Led  the  expedition 
which  burned  a British  revenue  vessel  in  Nar- 
ragansett  Bay.  Commodore  of  two  armed  ves- 
sels fitted  out  by  Rhode  Island  in  June,  1775. 
When  commander  of  the  Columbus,  afterwards 
the  Providence,  he  captured  more  British  prizes 
than  any  other  vessel.  Commanded  the  new 
frigate,  Providence  ; ran  the  blockade  of  Narra- 


gansett  Bay  and  took  ten  prizes  in  1779.  He 
was  captured  at  Charleston,  S.  C.,  harbor  and 


held  as  a prisoner  until  the  close  of  the  war 
Settled  in  Ohio  1788  and  died  May  29,  1819. 

Whitney,  William  C.— He  was  bora  at 

Conway,  Mass.,  July  5,  1841,  and  graduated 
from  Yale  College  1863.  Studied  law  and  com- 
menced practice  in  New  York  1865.  Rose  rap- 
idly in  his  profession  and  became  Corporation 
Counsel  in  1875.  Appointed  Secretary  of  the 
Navy  1885  and  retired  from  that  office  in  1889 
to  resume  the  practice  of  his  profession. 

Whittier,  John  Gr.— He  was  born  in  Hav- 
erhill, Mass.,  Dec.  17,  1807.  He  received  a 
common  school  education  and  spent  his  early 
life  on  a farm.  Began  to  write  for  the  “ Hav- 
erhill Gazette”  when  eighteen.  Editor  of 
“American  Manufacturer”  in  1829,  and  of  the 
“New  England  Review”  in  1830.  Edited  the 
“Haverhill  Gazette”  in  1832  and  1836.  Member 
of  the  General  Court  in  1835  and  1836.  Edited 
the  “Pennsylvania  Freeman”  1838-1839,  when 
his  office  was  sacked  and  burned  by  a mob. 
He  was  a member  of  the  Massachusetts  elec- 
toral college  in  1860  and  1864.  He  contributed 
literary  productions  to  the  leading  periodicals 
of  the  country.  Several  editions  of  his  col- 
lected poems  have  been  published  since  1876. 
His  residence  was  in  Amesbury,  although  he 
passed  much  of  his  time  at  Oak  Knoll,  Danvers, 
Mass. 


BIOGRAPHIC Aij  DICTIONARY. 


121 


Wilkes,  diaries. — He  was  bom  in  New 
York  City  in  1801  and  entered  the  Navy  as  mid- 
shipman June  1,  1818.  Became  Lieutenant 
1826 ; Commander  1843 ; Captain  1855 ; Commo- 
dore 1862.  He  commanded  the  expedition  sent 
out  to  explore  the  Southern  and  Pacific  Oceans 
and  was  gone  from  1838  to  1812.  He  published 
an  account  of  this  voyage  on  his  return,  giving 
a detailed  report  of  its  scientific  and  geograph- 
ical results.  In  1861  he  caused  the  Confederate 
Commissioners  to  be  taken  from  the  British 
mail-steamer,  Trent,  and  delivered  them  as 
prisoners  of  war,  but  they  were  quietly  surren- 
dered on  the  demand  of  the  English  Govern- 
ment. He  was  promoted  to  Rear-Admiral  July, 
1866,  and  soon  after  was  placed  on  the  retired 
list.  He  died  Feb.  8,  1877. 

Williams,  Roger. — The  founder  of  the 
first  commonwealth  in  America  allowing  free- 
dom of  religious  worship,  was  born  in  Wales 
about  1599.  He  was  educated  at  Cambridge. 
Took  orders  in  the  Church  of  England,  but 
soon  after  he  became  a non-conformist  with 
very  radical  views.  He  arrived  in  New  England 
in  1631  and  was  at  once  called  to  a church  in 
Boston,  but  declined  the  offer.  He  finally  set- 
tled in  Salem.  He  held  peculiar  views  as  to 
the  rights  of  the  Colony  to  hold  lands  under 
the  Royal  charter.  For  this  and  other  doc- 


trines which  he  preached  he  was  ordered  to 
leave  the  Colony  within  six  days,  but  was  per- 
mitted to  remain  until  Spring  on  the  condition 
that  he  would  not  ‘ ‘ go  about  to  draw  others  to 
his  opinions.  ” His  enemies  charged  him  with 
breaking  this  condition  and  determined  to  send 
him  to  England,  but  he  departed  in  Jan.,  1636, 
and  bought  lands  of  an  Indian  chief  in  what  is 
now  Warren,  R.  I.  He  soon  found  that  he  was 
still  within  the  jurisdiction  of  Plymouth  Col- 
ony, and  removed  across  the  river.  Here  he 


founded  the  town  of  Providence  about  May  29, 
1636,  as  “a  shelter  for  persons  persecuted  for 
conscience.”  “A  covenant  of  peaceful  neigh- 
borhood ” was  made  with  the  Indian  sachems. 
The  settlers  drew  up  and  signed  articles  of 
agreement  to  subject  themselves  to  the  will  of 
the  majority  “only  in  civil  things.”  In  1643 
Roger  Williams  visited  England,  where  he  ob- 
tained a charter  for  his  plantation  from  the 
King.  He  returned  to  America,  but  in  1651 
went  back  to  England,  where  he  remained 
three  years.  Then  again  returning  to  his  Col- 
ony he  was  chosen  President,  rendered  great 
service  to  all  the  Colonies  and  died  on  his  own 
estate  in  1683. 

Wilson,  Henry.— He  was  born  in  Farm- 
ington, N.  H.,  Feb.  12,  1812.  At  ten  years  of 


age  he  was  bound  as  an  apprentice  to  a farmer 
until  he  should  become  twenty-one.  He  then 
went  to  Natick,  Mass.,  commencing  life  with 
limited  schooling  and  $80.  In  1840  he  was 
elected  Representative  to  the  State  Legislature 
and  in  1844  and  1845  served  in  the  State  Senate. 
In  1850  he  was  again  elected  to  the  Senate  and 
became  its  President.  Elected  to  the  U.  S. 
Senate  in  1855,  where  he  served  on  the  most 
important  committees ; continuously  re-elected 
until  he  became  Vice  President  in  1873.  He 
was  the  colleague  of  Charles  Sumner  when  the 
latter  was  stricken  down  by  the  blows  of  a 
Representative  from  S.  C.,  and  he  denounced 
the  outrage  in  most  fitting  terms.  Died  Nov. 
22,  1875. 

Windom,  William.— He  was  born  in  Bel- 
mont Co.,  Ohio,  May  10,  1827.  Received  aca- 
demic education.  Admitted  to  the  bar  1850, 
and  elected  District  Attorney  of  Knox  Co.  ^852. 
Removed  to  Winona,  Minn.,  1855.  Member  of 
Congress  1858-69.  U.  S.  Senator  to  fill  vacancy 


122 


BIOGRAPHICAL  DICTIONARY. 


1871,  and  again  1871-77.  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury  1881.  Resigned  after  President  Gar- 
field’s death,  and  engaged  in  railroad  and  finan- 
cial business.  Appointed  Secretary  of  Treasury 
1889.  Died  Jan.  29,  1891.  He  was  succeeded  by 

Charles  Foster  of  Ohio. 

Winslow,  *Fo!n&  A. — -This  gallant  naval 
hero  was  born  in  North  Carolina,  Nov.  9,  1811. 
He  entered  the  Navy  as  midshipman  Feb.  1, 


1827 ; became  Lieutenant  1839 ; Commander 
1855 ; Captain  1862 ; Commodore  1864 ; Rear. 
Admiral  1866.  He  served  on  the  east  coast  of 
Mexico  during  qur  war  with  that  country.  He 
was  the  hero  of  the  naval  engagement  with  the 
Confederate  steamer  “Alabama,”  June  19,  1864. 
He  was  commander  of  the  ‘ * Kearsage  ” at  the 
time.  The  two  vessels  were  nearly  equal  in 
equipment  and  armament.  After  an  hour’s 
time  the  “Alabama”  was  sunk  and  her  surviv- 
ors were  rescued  by  French  and  English  boats. 
Admiral  Winslow  died  Sept.  29,  1873. 

Wise,  Henry  A.— He  was  born  in  Drum- 
mondtown,  Va.,  Dec.  3,  1806.  Graduated  at 
Washington  College,  Pa.,  1825.  Elected  to 
Congress  1833,  and  twice  re-elected  ; Senate  re- 
jected his  nomination  for  Minister  to  France 
1842 ; appointed  Minister  to  Brazil  1844 ; elected 
Governor  of  Virginia  1855.  John  Brown’s 
seizure  of  Harper’s  Ferry,  his  capture,  trial 
and  execution,  occurred  under  Gov.  Wise’s 
administration,  1859.  Member  of  State  Con- 
vention 1861,  and  labored  to  effect  a compromise 
with  the  seceded  States.  Upon  the  secession 
of  Virginia  he  entered  the  Confederate  military 
service  as  Brigadier  General.  Died  Sept.  12, 
1876. 

W intlirop,  Joloi.— John,  the  son  of  Adam 
Winthrop,  was  born  in  Groton,  England,  Jan. 
12-23,  1587.  Educated  at  Trinity  College.  He 


was  appointed  a Justice  of  the  Peace  at  the 
age  of  eighteen,  and  was  chosen  Governor  of 
the  “Company  of  the  Massachusetts  Bay  in 
New  England”  in  1629.  He  came  to  the  prov- 
ince the  next  year  with  a large  body  of  emi- 
grants, having  sold  his  estates  in  Suffolk  Co., 
Eng.  About  900  colonists,  among  whom  were 
many  renowned  names,  came  in  the  expedition, 
sailing  in  seventeen  vessels.  He  settled  on  the 
site  of  Boston  Sept.  7,  1630.  He  visited  Ply- 
mouth and  came  to  an  amicable  understanding 
with  that  Colony.  He  was  re-elected  Governor 
of  the  Colony  annually  until  1635,  when  1m  was 
replaced  by  John  Haynes ; also  the  nex>  vear 


by  Henry  Vane;  but  was  again  Governor  1637- 
1640.  He  had  a controversy  with  Henry  Van© 
and  his  party,  which  ended  in  the  latter’s  re- 
turn to  England,  when  he  was  again  chosen 
Governor,  1641-43;  Deputy  Governor  1644-45; 
and  in  1646  he  was  again  re-elected  Governor, 
which  office  he  held  until  he  died  in  1649.  He 
left  many  valuable  literary  works,  among  which 
may  be  mentioned  “The  History  of  New  Eng- 
land from  1630  to  1649,”  “Life  and  Letters  of 
John  Winthrop, ’’and  “The  Winthrop  Papers.” 

Wintlirop,  Robert  C. — He  was  born  at 

Boston,  Mass.,  May  12,  1809,  and  graduated  at 
Harvard  College  1828.  Studied  law  with 
Daniel  Webster  1828-31.  Member  of  the  State 
Legislature  1836-40,  and  Speaker  of  the  House 
for  the  last  two  years.  Member  of  Congress 


BIOGRAPHICAL  DICTIONARY. 


128 


1841-42  and  1843-50.  Speaker  of  the  National 
House  of  Representatives  1847-49.  Ke  delivered 
the  official  oraticn  at  the  laying  of  the  corner- 
stone of  the  Washington  monument  in  W'ash- 
itgton,  D.  C.,  July  4.  1848,  and  wrote  the  one 
which  was  read  at  its  completion  leb.  21,  1885. 
U.  S.  Senator  by  appointment  1850-51.  He  was 
President  of  the  Massachusetts  Historical  Soci- 
ety for  thirty  yeais— from  1855  to  1885.  He 
contributed  to  the  leading  magazines  for  many 
years. 

Wool,  John  E.— He  was  born  in  Newburg, 
N.  Y.,  Feb.  20,  1784.  He  was  engaged  in  the 
book  business  for  a time,  but  turned  his  atten- 
tion to  law.  This  he  abandoned  April,  1812, 
and  became  a Captain  in  the  13th  Infantry.  He 
was  promoted  to  Major  April  13, 1813,  and  was 
brevetted  Colonel  for  gallantry  at  Plattsburg. 
Appointed  Brigadier  General  1841,  having  been 


brevetted  as  such  in  1826.  He  commanded  for 
a while  in  Mexico,  until  he  was  relieved  by  Gen. 
Taylor,  and  after  the  latter  was  recalled  he 
again  held  the  command.  In  command  of 
various  military  districts  until  1861,  when  he 
was  placed  in  command  of  Fortress  Monroe. 
Promoted  to  Major  General  1862.  He  was 
placed  on  the  retired  list  Aug.  1,  1863,  and  died 
Nov.  10,  1869. 

Woolsey,  Theodore  I>.— He  was  born  in 
New  York  City  Oct.  31,  1801,  and  graduated  at 
Yale  College  1820.  Tutor  at  Yale  1823-25 ; 
studied  in  Germany  1827-30  ; Professor  of  Greek 
at  Yale  1831-46;  President  1846-71.  Resided  in 
New  Haven  until  his  death.  He  was  busily 
engaged  in  researches  and  studies,  chiefly  in 
political  science.  He  was  for  many  years  one 
of  the  Regents  of  the  Smithsonian  Institute, 
Washington,  D.  C.  He  published  a work  on 
“Political  Science”  1877,  “Essay  on  Divorce 


and  Divorce  Legislation”  1889,  “Communism 
and  Socialism,”  etc.  He  died  July  1,  1889. 

Worcester,  Joseph  E.— He  was  born  at 
Bedford,  N.  H.,  Aug.  24,  1784,  and  graduated  at 
Yale  College  1811.  Taught  school  and  studied 
theology.  Settled  at  Cambridge,  Mass.,  1819. 
He  devoted  himself  to  the  preparation  of  his 
text-books  and  dictionary,  for  which  purposes 
he  visited  Europe  1830-31.  His  great  work, 
“A  Dictionary  of  the  English  Language,” 
divides  with  Webster’s  the  suffrage  of  the 
English-speaking  world.  He  wrote  and  pub- 
lished many  other  works  of  an  educational 
character,  among  which  are,  “Elements  of 
Geography,  Ancient  and  Modern,”  “Elements 
of  History,  Ancient  and  Modern,”  “Ancient 
Classical  and  Scriptural  Geography,”  etc.  He 
died  Oct.  27,  1865. 

Yancey,  William  E — He  was  born  at 
Ogeechee  Shoals,  Ga.,  Aug.  10,  1814.  He  was 
well  educated  at  the  North,  and  admitted  to 
to  the  bar  at  Abbeville,  S.  C.,  but  removed 
to  Alabama  in  1836.  Edited  the  “Cahawba 
Democrat,”  and  the  “Wetumpka  Argus.” 
Served  in  both  branches  of  the  Legislature, 
and  in  1844-47  was  Member  of  Congress.  Re- 
ported the  Ordinance  of  Secession  in  the  Ala- 
bama Convention,  Jan.,  1861.  Went  to  Europe 
as  Agent  of  the  Confederate  Government,  and 
afterwards  was  Member  of  the  Confederate 
Congress.  Died  July  28,  1863. 

Yates,  Ricliard. — He  was  born  at  Warsaw, 
Ky.,  Jan.  18,  1818;  graduated  at  Illinois  College 
and  studied  law.  He  served  in  the  State  Legis- 
lature 1842-46  and  1848-49 ; Member  of  Congress 
1851-55  ; Governor  of  Illinois  1861-65  ; U.  S. 
Senator  1865-71.  Died  Nov.  27,  1873. 


Zollicoiiec,  Felix  K.— He  was  born  in 
Maury  Co. , Tenn. , May  19,  1812.  Received  an 
academical  education  and  became  a printer. 
Editor  of  a paper  at  Paris,  Tenn. , 1829.  Pub- 
lished the  “Columbian  Observer”  1834.  State 
Printer  1835.  State  Comptroller  1845-49.  State 
Senator  1849.  Member  of  Congress  1853-59. 
Brigadier  General  in  Confederate  service,  com- 
manding in  Tenn.,  Aug.  8,  1861.  Defeated  at 
Camp  Wild  Cat,  Ky.,  Oct.  21,  and  at  battle  of 
Mill  Spring,  Ky.,  where  he  was  killed,  Jan.  19, 
1862. 


MARTHA  WASHINGTON  IN  HER  EARLY  DAYS. 


WASHINGTON  S FIRST  INTERVIEW  WITH  MRS.  CUSTIS.  AFTERWARDS  MRS. 


RENOWNED  ARTISTS 


AND  THE  PROGRESS  OF  MODERN  ART. 


The  fine  arts  of  painting  and  sculpture  found  their  highest  perfection  in 
the  classic  lands  of  Greece  and  Rome.  The  loftiest  conceptions  of  nat- 
ural beauty  were  reached  by  the  sculptors  of  Greece,  who  were  able  to 

copy  the  beauties  of  the  hu- 
man form  divine,  and  trace  in 
imperishable  marble  all  the 
wonderful  changes  of  expres- 
sion and  sentiment  of  which 
the  human  mind  is  capable. 
Nor  was  their  art  confined  to 
the  delineations  of  real  life, 
but  arose  into  the  realm  of  the 
imagination,  and  delighted  to 
treat  of  weird  and  grotesque 
as  well  as  of  lofty  and  exalted 
subjects.  The  mythologies 
of  Greece  afforded  her  artists 
ample  scope  in  this  direction, 
while  the  wonderful  history 
of  her  brave  sons  furnished 
stories  of  heroism  and  cour- 
age worthy  the  chisels  of  her  grandest  artists.  The  principal  cities  of  Greece  thus 
became  renowned  for  their  rich  displays  of  sculpture,  in  which  the  fancy  of  the  designs 
was  equaled  by  the  exquisiteness  of  execution.  But  after  the  Romans  conquered  the 
country  and  carried  the  richest  treasures  of  art  to  the  uncongenial  clime  of  Italy  there 
was  a rapid  decline  in  this  branch  of  art.  The  Vandals  of  the  North  poured  over  the 
plains  of  Italy  and  devastated  the  imperial  city,  destroying,  in  their  rude  and  barbarous 
fashion,  the  grandest  statuary  the  world  had  ever  seen.  The  darkness  of  the  middle 
ages  succeeded,  in  which  the  brain  of  the  artist  and  the  intellect  of  the  scholar  lay  dor- 
mant for  a thousand  years.  In  the  process  of  time  the  muse  of  sculpture  awoke  from 
her  slumber.  Michael  Angelo  (Buonarroti)  rekindled  the  fires  of  the  national  genius, 
and,  aided  by  the  skill  and  perseverance  of  his  successors,  the  rich  treasures  of  anti- 
quity were  collected,  and  modern  art  began  her  noble  endeavor  to  rival  the  grace,  sub- 
limity and  beauty  which  existed  in  the  remains  of  the  ancient.  From  the  very  nature 
of  the  case,  the  art  of  sculpture  is  limited  within  certain  bounds,  but  within  this  sphere 
it  is  capable  of  great  variety  and  intricate  treatment.  The  essential  property  is  cor- 
rectness, and  if  to  correct  and  perfect  form  is  added  the  embellishments  of  grace,  dignity 
of  subject,  and  appropriate  expression,  as  is  seen  in  many  of  the  examples  presented 


| 


126 


RENOWNED  ARTISTS  AND  THE  PROGRESS  OF  MODERN  ART. 


to  us,  it  can  truly  be  said  that  this  noble  art  has  accomplished  its  purpose.  The  Apollo 
Belvidere,  the  Venus  de’  Medici — which  is  the  finest  specimen  of  ancient  art  which 
has  been  preserved  to  our  times — the  Laocoon,  the  Moses  of  Michael  Angelo,  and 
many  more  which  we  might  mention,  have  been  the  models  for  succeeding  generations 
of  artists.  Previous  to  the  time,  of  Mr.  Greenough  there  had  arisen  no  American  sculp- 
tor of  any  note,  but  since  his  day  the  sculptures  of  Hiram  Powers,  Crawford,  Brown, 
Clevinger,  Rogers,  Palmer,  Miss  Hosmer,  Vinnie  Ream,  and  others,  have  proved  that 
America  can  produce  talents  in  this  direction  not  a whit  inferior  to  the  highest  effort 
of  artists  in  the  same  line  in  other  countries.  The  statuettes  of  Rogers,  which  are 
placed  within  the  reach  of  all  classes,  have  done  much  to  refine  the  tastes  and  create 
a love  for  art  in  many  homes  throughout  our  country  ; while  the  subjects  treated  have 
shown  us  that  artists  need  not  go  back  to  the  ancient  days  of  fable,  or  even  the  charac- 
ters of  sacred  histo  to  find  subjects  worthy  of  their  genius  and  their  labor. 

ANTONIO  CANOVA. 


This  illustrious  sculptor  of  Italy,  of  the  eighteenth  century,  was  born  at  Pos- 
sagno,  in  Venetia,  in  1757.  He  is  one  of  the  greatest  sculptors  since  the  revival  of  art 

in  Italy,  and  his  works  are  remarkable  for 
their  sentiment  of  feeling  and  beauty  of 
expression.  His  severe  critics  claim  that  this 
sentiment  verges  upon  the  extreme  of  senti- 
mentality. He  loved  to  treat  of  those  sub- 
jects which  demanded  the  highest  expression 
of  this.  They  are  such  as  “ Venus  and  Ado- 
nis,” “ Cupid  and  Psyche,”  “ Mary  Magda- 
lene,” etc.  After  richly  earning  the  honors 
which  came  to  him  he  died  in  1822,  in  the 
sixty-sixth  year  of  his  age.  No  successful 
follower  of  his  school  has  yet  arisen. 

The  art  of  painting  has  a close  connection 
with  that  of  sculpture.  It  has  for  its  design 
the  representation  of  objects  in  nature,  or  thr 
incidents  of  human  life,  with  a faithfulness  of 
expression,  and  grooping  upon  a plain  surface 
by  means  of  a pencil,  crayon,  or  pigments. 
There  are  two  particular  things  to  be  consid- 
ered in  this  art.  First,  the  design  ; second,  the 
coloring.  Design  is  the  art  of  presenting  the 
contour  of  objects,  and  color,  which  gives 
the  picture  not  only  its  proper  tints,  but  also 
the  form,  and  relief  proper  to  the  object. 
This  art  began  with  the  dawn  of  civilization, 
and  reached  a high  degree  of  perfection  in 
Greece  and  Rome.  This  art  suffered  in  common  with  all  others  at  the  decline  of  Rome, 


ANTONIO  CANOVA. 


RENOWNED  ARTISTS  AND  THE  PROGRESS  OF  MODERN  ART. 


127 


anc^  was  revived  in  Italy  in  the  fifteenth  century.  There  were  then  three  schools,  or 
modes  of  treatment,  viz.:  the  Roman,  the  Venetian,  and  the  Tuscan.  Afterward  there 
came  the  German,  Dutch,  Flemish,  French,  and  Spanish.  The  painting  of  the  Egyp- 
tians was  very  crude,  with  no  attempt  at  color  or  perspective ; that  of  the  Etruscans, 
as  evidenced  from  their  vases,  was  elegant.  The  Greeks  must  have  had  considerable 
merit,  yet  from  the  nature  of  the  art  but  little  has  been  preserved  to  our  times.  The 
Romans  reached  a high  degree  of  excellence  in  painting,  as  exhibited  by  examples 
which  may  be  ^een  at  the  city  of  Pompeii. 

There  are  several  distinct  departments  of  this  art,  explained  by  the  names  given, 
viz.:  historical,  portrait,  landscape,  animal,  marine,  floral,  etc.  There  is  also  a distinc* 
tion  recognized  in  regard  to  the  materials  employed,  such  as  water  colors,  oil-painting, 
fresco,  distemper,  miniature,  and  mosaic. 

Historical  painting  is  the  highest  department  of  the  art,  for  in  this  the  artist  vies 
with  the  poet  in  the  representation  of  ideas  to  the  observer.  He  must  have  technical 
skill,  a practical  eye  and  hand,  and  understand  how  to  group  his  figures  so  as  to  embody 
the  idea  he  would  represent ; but  all  this  is  insufficient  without  the  poetic  genius  which 
can  form  a striking  conception  of  a historical  event,  or  create  imaginary  scenes  of  beauty. 
The  works  on  painting  are  very  numerous  and  extensive,  but  a full  understanding  of 
the  subject  can  be  obtained  only  by  careful  and  laborious  research,  supplemented  by 
continued  practice.  The  art  of  chromo  reproduction  has  done  much  to  bring  the  adorn- 
ment of  the  homely  pictures  within  the  reach  of  all  classes  ; but  we  sometimes  fear  that 
their  cheapness,  in  more  senses  than  one,  has  done  harm,  rather  than  good,  in  pervert- 
ing the  taste  of  the  common  people. 

PETER  PAUL  RUBENS. 

This  celebrated  artist  was  the  most  eminent  painter  of  the  Flemish  school, 
imd  was  equally  successful  in  every  department  of  the  art.  His  masterpiece 
is  doubtless  “The  Descent  From  the  Cross,”  which  he  painted  for  the  Cathedral 
at  Antwerp.  The  grooping  of  the  figures,  the  expression  on  the  face  of  the  liv- 
ing human  beings,  and  on  the  face  of  the  dead  Christ,  are  unequaled  by  any 
work  of  modern  times.  The  design  is  most  excellent,  and  the  coloring  and  detail 
of  execution  unsurpassed  by  any  specimen  of  the  school  which  he  represents. 
This  artist  was  born  at  Siegen,  1577.  He  was  the  pupil  of  Van  Noort  and  Van  Veen  at 
Antwerp,  and  resided  for  a number  of  years  in  Italy,  where  he  studied  the  best  models 
of  his  art.  He  at  last  returned  to  Antwerp,  and  in  1608  was  appointed  as  court  painter 
to  the  Archduke  Albiot  of  the  Netherlands.  In  the  year  1629  he  was  sent  as  an  embas- 
sador to  the  court  of  St.  James  (England),  where  he  effected  a treaty  between  that 
country  and  Spain.  He  received  at  this  time  the  order  of  knighthood.  In  his  art 
he  combined  depth  of  coloring  with  breadth  of  style.  His  work  has  stood  the  severe 
criticism  of  time,  and  has  been  held  to  be  the  highest  type  of  the  Flemish  school 
He  lied  in  1640. 


128 


RENOWNED  ARTISTS  AND  THE  PROGRESS  OF  MODERN  ART. 


REMBRANDT  VAN  RYN  AT  HIS  WORK. 

This  artist,  who  did  much  to  elevate  the  art  of  painting  in  the  seventeenth  century, 
was  the  son  of  a miller,  whose  house  and  mill  were  built  upon  the  banks  of  a tributary 
of  the  Rhine  at  Leyden.  Of  the  two  dates  which  have  been  assigned  for  his  birth,  that 
of  July  15,  1608,  resting  upon  the  evidence  of  the  painter’s  marriage-cetificate,  dis- 
covered within  a few  years,  seems  to  be  the  more  likely  correct.  He  was  an  attendant 
at  the  Latin  school  in  the  city  of  Leyden  for  a few  years  and  then  became  a pupil  of 
the  famous  Jacob  van  Swanenburg,  after  which  he  studied  art  under  Pieter  Lastman, 


REMBRANDT  VAN  RYN. 


at  Amsterdam,  and  Jacob  Pinas,  at  Haarlem.  He  then  returned  home,  and  became 
a devoted  student  of  nature.  Such  was  the  merit  of  his  artistic  work  that  he  very 
quickly  attracted  the  attention  of  the  patrons  of  art,  and  was  induced  to  establish  him- 
self at  Amsterdam,  where  he  soon  achieved  a most  brilliant  success.  He  executed 
portraits,  landscapes,  historical  and  genre  subjects,  and  also  a series  of  most  exquisite 
etchings,  amounting  to  three  hundred  and  sixty  in  number.  This  painter  holds  the 
chief  place  in  the  Dutch  school  of  art.  As  regards  their  composition,  color,  light,  and 


RENOWNED  ARTISTS  AND  THE  PROGRESS  OF  MODERN  ART. 


129 


shade,  his  pictures  rank  with  those  of  the  best  artists  of  the  world,  while  his  power 
and  originality  are  exemplified  in  every  branch  of  the  art  to  which  he  turned  his  pen- 
cil. He  was  twice  married,  and  died  in  1669,  leaving  two  children.  His  son  Titus  had 
died  before  the  death  of  the  painter. 

SIR  JOSHUA  REYNOLDS. 

This  man  was  the  greatest  portrait  painter  of  England.  His  birthplace  was 


Plympton,  where  he  first  saw  the  light  in  1723. 
afterward  resided,  and  rapidly  won  a national 
and  continental  reputation.  He  united  with 
Dr.  jchnson,  the  celebrated  lexicographer,  in 
forming  the  renowned  “ Literary  Club,”  and  four 
years  after  he  became  president  of  the  Royal 
Academy.  This  Academy  had  been  found* 
ed  by  men  of  no  common  order.  Sir  Joshua 
was  intimately  associated  with  the  founders  in 
its  early  history.  The  art  of  portrait  painting  was 
at  once  raised  by  him  from  the  low  level  of  imi- 
tation to  that  of  a high  rank  of  art.  Without 
attempting  to  rival  the  great  masters  in  the 
higher  walks  of  painting  he  endeavored  to 
compete  with  the  worthiest  in  his  own  line. 
All  that  he  aimed  to  do  he  did  perfectly.  Mr. 
Knight,  in  his  “Popular  History  of  England,” 
has  accorded  to  him  all  the  praise  that  his 
merits  deserve  when  he  says,  “Not  only  was 
Reynolds  the  greatest  colorist  that  England 
had  ever  seen,  but  her  most  intellectual  portrait 
painter,  and  she  had  men,  women,  and  chil- 
dren well  worthy  the  best  pencil  that  could  be 
found  to  hand  them  down  to  posterity.” 
Reynolds,  Wilson,  and  Gainsborough  were  co- 
temporaries, and  the  latter  especially  was  the 
first  painter  of  the  poetry  of  homely  English 
scenery.  In  his  own  way  Sir  Joshua  Rey- 
nolds has  found  no  successor  and  no  superior. 

Wilson  was  a famous  landscape  painter, 
but  his  greatness  was  conventional  rather  than 
broad  in  its  scope.  The  father  of  English  2 
historical  painting  was  not  an  Englishman  at 
all,  and  was  younger  than  any  of  these  three 
already  mentioned.  He  was  Benjamin  West, 
an  American,  who  had  the  courage  to  take  a 
step  far  in  advance  of  his  cotemporaries. 


He  came  to  London  in  1746,  where  he 


SIR  JOSHUA  REYNOLDS. 


RENOWNED  ARTISTS  AND  THE  PROGRESS  OF  MODERN  ART. 


136 


BENJAMIN  WEST, 

The  first  American  painter,  was  born  of  Quaker  parents  in  Chester  County, 
State  of  Pennsylvania,  in  the  year  1738.  He  evinced  a great  talent  at  an  early 
age.  When  a mere  lad  he  used  to  draw  with  chalk  and  charcoal  upon  the  sur- 
face of  a board  figures  that  showed  the  germs  of  genius.  It  is  related  of  him  that 
once  he  was  left  to  take  care  of  an  infant  sister,  sleeping  in  her  cradle,  while  the 
mother  was  absent.  As  he  watched  the  little  one  a smile  rested  upon  its  features,  and 
young  Benjamin,  with  the  quickest  appliances  he  could  get — a charred  stick  and 

rough  paste-board — drew  the  smiling  in- 
fant so  accurately  that  his  mother  em- 
braced him  with  joy  on  her  return,  for 
she  saw  the  indication  of  genius  in  this 
youthful  attempt  of  her  son.  He  was 
accustomed  to  say  in  after  years,  “ That 
kiss  made  me  a painter.”  A maternal 
uncle  of  some  little  means  aided  him  in 
his  first  studies  in  Philadelphia,  and  at  the 
age  of  seventeen  he  began  his  profession 
of  portrait  painter  in  that  city.  Several 
gentlemen  of  wealth  became  interested  in 
the  young  man,  and  furnished  him  with 
money  to  pursue  his  studies  in  Italy, 
whither  he  went.  From  there  he  went 
to  London,  and  became  famous  as  a his- 
torical painter  under  the  patronage  of 
King  George  III.  In  1792  he  became 
President  of  the  Royal  Academy,  succeed- 
ing Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  in  that  office. 
His  principal  pieces — “ The  Death  of 
benjamin  west.  Wolfe  "and  “ Christ  Healing  the  Sick” — 

are  now  on  exhibition  in  the  British  National  Gallery,  while  “ Death  on  the  Pale 
Horse”  and  others  are  in  the  possession  of  the  Philadelphia  Academy  of  Fine  Arts. 

When  West  was  preparing  his  “ Death  of  Wolfe,”  in  spite  of  the  advice  of  his 
friends,  he  departed  from  the  traditionary  treatment  demanded  by  the  conventional  rules 
of  the  times,  and  painted  his  men  in  such  garments  as  they  then  wore,  the  cocked  hats 
and  short  breeches  of  the  colonial  period.  One  of  the  celebrated  painters,  to  prove 
the  error  of  West,  painted  the  same  scene  in  the  traditionary  drapery  which  the  strict 
rules  of  art  then  required,  and  presented  the  ludicrous  spectacle  of  the  American  mili- 
tia contending  with  the  snows  of  Canada  and  the  forces  of  Montcalm  in  Roman  togas 
and  bare  legs.  It  is  needless  to  say  that  West  carried  off  the  palm. 

The  air  of  Italy  is  redolent  with  the  spirit  of  sacred  art.  The  themes  suggested  in 


RENOWNED  ARTISTS  AND  THE  PROGRESS  OF  MODERN  ART. 


131 


the  Bible  narrative  and  the  early  Church  histories  filled  the  glowing  imagination  of  the 
artist  with  subjects  worthy  the  highest  conception  and  most  exalted  treatment.  The 
best  models  of  the  past  ages  are  constantly  before  their  eyes ; the  monuments  of  grand- 
eur and  the  beauties  of  nature  alike  appeal  to  every  sentiment  of  our  nature.  The 
people,  the  climate,  the  whole  surroundings,  are  congenial  to  the  noblest  expressions  of 
art.  “ Italy,  the  home  of  painting  and  of  song,”  will  continue  to  be  the  Mecca  toward 
which  the  eager  feet  of  the  artist  will  turn  from  all  parts  of  the  world.  The  most 
poetic  sentiments,  the  grandest  types  of  art,  and  the  atmosphere  of  genius,  are  to  be 
found  in  this  sunny  land. 

The  Church  of  Rome  has  long  been  the  patron  of  the  higher  types  of  art,  in  sculp- 
ture, painting,  and  music,  and  the  Vatican  at  Rome  is  the  depository  of  many  of  the  finest 
paintings  and  sculpture  in  the  world,  while  everywhere  her  churches  are  adorned  with 
the  richest  specimens  of  these  fine  arts  and  their  music  is  the  noblest  and  grandest 
production  of  the  great  masters,  while  the  paintings,  statues,  and  architecture  are 
of  the  highest  style  which  can  appeal  to  the  human  heart  through  the  eye.  Thus  she 
teaches  that  religion  and  art  should  go  hand  in  hand  for  the  elevation  of  the  race 
and  the  good  of  man. 

Bring  the  best  specimens  of  art  to  the  home,  if  possible,  where  the  daily  life  can 
come  in  contact  with  its  influence,  and  learn  its  lessons  of  refinement,  and  purity, 
above  all,  do  not  divorce  the  noblest  teachings  of  the  arts  from  their  association  with 
religious  and  devotional  themes.  In  this  respect  at  least  the  Puritans  went  to  an  extreme 
in  their  fear  of  countenancing  idolatry.  There  must  be  a distinction  between  the  appre- 
ciation of  beauty  in  art  and  the  homage  due  to  the  author  of  art.  The  trouble  is  not 
with  the  thing  in  its  essence,  but  with  our  want  of  perception  of  its  spirit. 

A distinctive  American  school  of  painting  did  not  arise  until  1825,  when  Thomas 
Cole  (born  1801,  died  1848)  originated  what  he  termed  the  American  school  of  land- 
scape  painting.  Some  of  his  autumnal  scenes  were  presented  in  England  and  regarded 
as  the  work  of  an  extravagant  Yankee,  but  they  were  true  to  nature  and  the  critics 
were  compelled  to  acknowledge  their  merit.  Cole  performed  for  America  with  his 
brush  what  Bryant  has  performed  with  his  pen,  he  gave  the  Europeans  true  glimpses 
of  the  beauties  of  American  scenery.  Among  American  artists  these  names  are  deserv- 
ing of  mention:  Thomas  Doughty,  Henry  Inman,  Rembrant  Peale  (born  1787,  died 
1830),  Page,  a fine  colorist,  Eastman  Johnson,  Homer,  Leutze,  Wier,  May,  Powell, 
Coleman,  Perry,  Wood.  Among  the  marine  painters  are  Bradford,  Dana,  De  Haas, 
Dix,  Haseltine,  Moran,  and  others,  while  Church,  Brown,  Kensett,  Inness,  the  Harts, 
the  Giffords,  Bristol,  Gignoux,  and  others  are  devoted  to  landscape  painting.  The 
painters  of  animals  are  J.  H.  and  W.  H.  Beard,  Butler,  P.  Moran,  Tait,  Hay,  Hicks, 
and  Hinkley.  Much  attention  has  been  given  to  the  superior  art-illustrations  which 
of  late  years  have  been  introduced  into  American  publications  and  which  are  essentially 
native  in  conception  and  execution. 

Landscape  painting  offers  the  best  field  for  the  development  of  a pure  and  noble 
American  school  of  art,  where  the  practice  of  relying  upon  foreign  schools  maybe,  and 
without  doubt  will  be,  avoided.  There  should  be  cultivated  instead  of  the  departed 
classicism  of  the  old  masters,  or  the  fashionable  adaptation  of  the  French  colorists,  or 
the  realistic  and  unpoetic  representations  of  the  English  school,  an  honest,  persistent 


132 


RENOWNED  ARTISTS  AND  THE  PROGRESS  OF  MODERN  ART. 


study  of  American  scenery,  and  this  will  require  no  aid  from  these  foreign  schools  to 
produce  the  most  magnificent  and  ennobling  effects. 

Historical  painting  also  opens  a range  of  subjects  which  demand  the  highest  ideal 
of  a school  distinct  from  any  of  those  which  now  exist  beyond  the  Atlantic.  As  the 
renowned  American  painter,  West,  boldly  advanced  beyond  the  conventional  trammels 
of  art  in  his  day  so  may  some  rising  genius  mark  out  a path  for  a still  higher  advance, 
and  teach  the  savants  of  the  old  world  that  there  is  still  remaining  on  earth  something 
of  the  spirit  of  inspiration  unbound  by  the  traditions  of  the  past. 

With  the  development  of  art  in  America  and  the  tendency  to  attain  excellency  and 
.rise  to  a higher  standard,  her  artists,  having  illimitable  resources  and  possibilities  open 
before  them  in  landscape  and  history,  give  high  promise  for  the  brilliant  future  before 
them,  and  may  produce  achievements  which  will  rival  any  of  the  productions  of  the 
past.  The  inclination  of  our  earlier  artists  may  have  been  too  much  toward  the  realis- 
tic English  school,  but  among  our  more  recent  painters  the  tendency  has  been  toward 
the  French  and  the  schools  of  Munich  and  Diiseldorf.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  gro- 
tesqueness of  the  preraphaelite  movement  which  arose  in  England  and  spread  to  some 
extent  in  this  country  will  prevent  that  style  from  becoming  national  among  our  artists. 
The  American  can  find  for  his  brush  and  his  pencil  as  fine  subjects  in  his  native  land  as 
ever  rose  before  the  vision  of  poet  or  painter,  and  he  can  treat  them  with  success  only 
from  the  standpoint  of  the  American  school. 


THE  BUSINESS  MANUAL. 

* 

A Valuable  Repository  op  Practical  Information, 

RESPECTING 


Business  Methods,  Penmanship,  Book-keeping, 
Legal  and  Commercial  Forms. 


EXECUTED  WITH  A STEEL  PEN  BY  PROF.  R,  C.  LOVERIDGE, 


THE  BUSINESS  MANUAL 


A Valuable  Repository  of  Practical  Information, 

RESPECTING 

Business  Methods,  Penmanship,  Book-keeping, 
Legal  and  Commercial  Forms. 


WHAT  CONSTITUTES  GOOD  PENMANSHIP. 

EW  persons  are  aware  how  great  a loss  of  time,  and  ot  money,  is  occasioned 
by  imperfect  and  defective  methods  of  teaching  penmanship.  The  time 
has  come  when  all  should  be  informed  upon  the  matter.  That  the  intelli- 
gent student  and  even  teachers  may  become  conversant  with  a philosophi- 
cal and  scientific  system  of  penmanship  we  insert  the  following  well  pre- 
pared lessons  in  the  art: 

The  Three  Essential  Points  to  be  Observed  in  Writing  a Good  Hand  are 
legibility,  rapidity,  and  beauty.  Of  these  the  first  is  most  important.  For  if  writing  can 
not  be  easily  read  at  sight,  it  is  worse  than  useless. 

There  should  therefore  be  some  easily  recognized  system  in  making  each  letter,  and 
proper  spacing  between  letters  and  words. 

Rapidity  comes  next,  and  in  acquiring  this  care  should  be  given  to  have  the  fewest  j 
movements  possible.  The  lines  should  be  fine,  of  a regular  slope,  and  the  movement 
graceful. 


138 


THE  ART  OF  PENMANSHIP. 


Correct  Position  of  the  Hand  and  Pen  for  Pen  Flourishing. 

Beauty  requires  uniformity  in  slanting,  height,  and  regularity  of  curves. 

There  must  be  a judicious  compromise  in  attaining  these  three  requirements,  for  let- 
ters cannot  at  the  same  time  be  vertical  and  slanting,  large  and  small,  angular  and 
curved.  Perfection  and  accuracy  may  be  acquired  in  many  arts  by  tedious  and  laborious 
approaches,  but  good  penmanship  requires  direct,  masterly  and  decisive  effort. 


INSTRUCTIONS. 


DIRECTIONS  FOR  POSITION  OF  BODY  AND  ARMS 

1st — Sit  squarely  in  front  of  the  desk,  your  whole  weight  in  the  chair;  2d — Place 
your  arms  at  right  angles  ; 3d — Let  your  elbows  project  from  the  edge  of  the  desk  about 
two  inches  ; 4th — See  that  the  fleshy  part  of  the  fore-arm  rests  on  the  desk;  5th — Turn 
the  wrist  as  near  flat  over  the  desk  as  possible,  without  its  resting  or  touching ; 6th — 
Your  feet  and  limbs  should  be  straight  with  the  body,  and  not  drawn  up  under  the  chair; 
this  being  done,  your  body  and  arms  are  in  the  proper  position  for  easy  writing. 


Correct  Position  of  the  Hand  for  Writing. 


THE  ART  OF  PENMANSHIP 


139 


DIRECTIONS  FOR  HOLDING  THE  PEN  AND  PAPER. 

1st — Take  the  pen  between  the  thumb  and  first  finger,  allowing  it  to  pass  across  the 
corner  of  the  nail  of  the  second  (which  should  be  rather  under  the  pen  than  against  the 
side  of  it),  the  end  of  the  thumb  resting  against  the  holder,  nearly  under  the  first  finger 
joint ; 2d — The  two  last  fingers  should  be  drawn  under  the  hand  so  as  to  rest  on  the 
nails  ; 3d — The  holder  should  cross  the  hand  a very  little  in  front  of  the  knuckle  joint ; 
4th — The  point  of  the  pen  should  extend  about  three-fourths  of  an  inch  beyond  the  end 
of  the  second  finger.  The  paper  should  be  held  square  with  the  desk. 


Oval  No,  1,  Left  Curve,  Oval  No,  2,  Right  Curve, 


Commence  with  Oval  No.  I,  by  placing  the  pen  at  the  top,  and  passing  down  the 
side,  indicated  by  the  arrow,  twice  every  second,  counting  as  you  practice,  down,  down, 
down,  &c.,  to  keep  the  time,  touching  the  paper  with  the  pen  as  light  as  you  possibly 
can.  Do  not  let  the  finger  joints  move  (for  this  practice),  but  press  forward  and  back  on 
fleshy  part  of  the  fore-arm.  CAUTION — See  that  the  coat  sleeve  does  not  move  with  the 
arm  on  the  desk , but  that  the  fore-arm  works  in  and  out  of  the  sleeve.  At  first  it  may  be 
necessary  to  use  a little  force  from  the  shoulder  to  produce  the  movement  quick  enough. 
Do  not  raise  the  pen  or  stop  your  work  until  it  has  passed  around  15  or  20  times,  or  the 
paper  begins  to  wear ; then  if  you  have  carried  your  pen  as  lightly  as  you  ought  to  have 
done,  your  work  will  be  of  a grayish  color,  instead  of  black  (although  you  use  black  ink). 
Follow  these  instructions  for  the  practice  of  No.  2,  devoting  most  time  to  the  Oval,  which 
is  most  difficult  for  you  to  execute. 

REMARKS — As  movement  precedes  form,  it  is  our  first  business  to  acquire  the  habit 
of  moving  the  fore-arm  in  writing,  and  for  that  purpose  I have  introduced  the  simplest 
exercises  possible,  to  aid  in  giving  that  command  of  the  pen  which  is  necessary  to  pro- 
duce correct  forms.  The  learner  cannot  practice  them  too  much,  as  the  freedom  which 
they  will  give  in  movement  will  be  of  great  advantage  in  the  coming  lessons. 


140 


THE  ART  OF  PENMANSHIP 


FOR  THE  FOLLOWING  INSTRUCTIONS  SEE  CORRESPONDING  NUM- 
BERS IN  THE  ENGRAVED  EXERCISES  HEREWITH. 

No.  3. —-When  practising  this  exercise,  rest  the  fleshy  part  of  the  fore-arm  lightly 
on  the  desk,  using  the  finger  movement  in  forming  the  letters,  but  in  passing  from  one 
to  the  other,  use  the  arm  or  muscular  movement. 

No.  4. — The  capital  letter  O should  be  made  by  the  muscular  movement,  same  as  in 
the  first  exercise.  The  remainder  with  the  combination  movement,  that  is,  using  the 
fingers  in  forming  the  letters,  and  the  muscles  in  passing  from  one  letter  to  the  other  as 
before  described. 

Commence  with  No.  5,  by  placing  the  pen  at  the  top  of  Oval  and  passing  down  the 
right  side  of  small  oval,  as  indicated  by  the  arrow,  passing  around  to  the  top  again  and 
down  on  the  right  of  large  Oval,  as  indicated  by  arrow,  around  again  to  the  top,  and  so 
on  alternately,  small  and  large,  counting  as  you  practice,  down,  DOWN  ; down,  DOWN ; 
giving  accent  on  second  count,  of  large  Oval. 

No.  6. — Should  be  shaded  same  as  copy. 

REMARKS. 

E greatest  difficulty  which  any  teacher  of  penmanship  has  to  contend 
with,  is  the  want  of  proper  appreciation  by  his  pupils  of  the  value  of 
thotough  drilling  in  the  first  exercises.  My  first  lesson  is  simply  a practice 
upon  ovals — and  you  may  be  tempted  to  ask  “ What  are  these  things  for  ?” 
and  “What  have  they  to  do  with  writing  ?”  My  answers  to  these  ques- 
tions, carefully  studiedy  will  give  you  a complete  understanding  of  the  theory  which  I 
teach  ; 1st,  because  in  the  oval  exercise  I combine  two-thiras  of  the  principles  of  writing ; 
2d,  because  in  no  other  known  way  than  by  continual  practice  of  the  oval  and  straight 
line  exercises  can  the  beginner  be  cured  of  the  usual  complaints  of  the  hand  becoming 
cramped,  and  of  its  rolling  over  when  the  attempt  is  made  to  write  a long  word, 
and  the  inability  to  move  it  easily  and  lightly  across  the  paper. 

Now,  to  give  you  ordinary  writing  for  copies,  while  you  are  laboring  under  these 
difficulties,  would  be  as  inconsistent  as  to  ask  you  to  perform  difficult  music  on  the  piano 
if  you  were  in  ignorance  of  the  rudiments  of  music  and  totally  unskilled  in  handling  the 
keys.  Much  training  and  practice  is  as  necessary  for  the  skillful  and  satisfactory  use  of 
the  pen  as  the  piano,  and  in  the  first  we  must  begin  with  the  ground  work  no  less  than 
I in  the  last.  Hence,  in  the  study  of  Penmanship  I give  the  oval  and  the  straight  line  to 
learn  you  the  freedom  of  movement,  to  learn  you  to  use  the  fore-arm  to  assist  your 
fingers,  to  learn  you  to  move  the  pen  lightly,  promptly,  and  with  confidence,  and  for  the 
purpose  of  eradicating  all  the  difficulties  experienced  by  the  beginner. 

The  straight  line  is  a prominent  element  of  Penmanship,  and  I give  it  in  three 
different  lengths  for  practice,  because  you  complain  that  it  is  hard  work  for  you  to  make 
letters  above  and  below  the  line,  and  especially  where  the  g and  h are  connected  The 
loops  are  the  most  difficult  part  of  the  letters,  and  are  formed  of  a simple  right  curve 
{this  curve  is  the  right  of  the  oval),  and  the  straight  line. 


THE  ART  OF  PENMANSHIP. 


141 


I give  you  that  part  of  the  loop  which  you  will  experience  the  greatest. difficulty  in 
making,  viz  : the  downward  stroke,  or  straight  line  ; commencing  with  the  shortest  which 
is  a little  longer  than  the  corresponding  straight  line  in  general  writing  ; taking  next,  one 
twice  the  length,  and  then  one  three  times  the  length.  Now,  the  theory  is,  if  you  can  by 
practice  acquire  the  latitude  of  movement  equal  to  the  longest  line  so  that  you  will  expe- 
rience little  if  any  trouble  in  making  it,  you  certainly  can  make  a straight  line  one-third 
the  length  with  ease  and  precision.  These  lines  are  to  be  made  with  the  finger  move- 
ment, and  are  not  to  be  shaded. 

The  horizontal  straight  lines  are  to  be  executed  with  a slow  movement  while  resting 
on  the  fleshy  part  of  the  forearm.  This  is  an  excellent  practice  for  steadying  the  hand 
and  learning  you  to  make  good  hair-lines.  They  must  not  be  shaded. 

Observe  in  No.  7,  we  have  capital  loop,  and  compound  curve.  No.  8,  capital  loop, 
right  curve,  slight  left  curve,  ending  with  sharp  left  cmve.  No.  9,  capital  loop,  last 
reversed  loop  or  left  curve.  No.  10,  capital  looop — right  curve  as  in  U>  then  finish  with 
loop.  No.  1 1,  capital  loop  ; make  small  loop  at  base  line,  and  finish  with  loop  as  in  small 
z.  Here  we  have  a practical  application  of  the  principles  of  writing  as  taught  by  the 
preceding  lessons.  In  the  lessons  which  follow  in  due  order  in  my  system  of  instruction, 
all  the  remaining  letters/both  small  and  capital,  will  be  each  separately  treated,  and 
explained,  and  accompanied  by  such  exercises  as  are  needed  in  developing  the  necessary 
movements. 

GOOD  PENMANSHIP. 

Good  Penmanship  is  one  of  the  essential  accomplishments  of  the  scholar  as  well 
as  the  man  of  business,  and  as  a single  element  of  success  in  business,  it  stands  without 
a rival.  The  rapid  growth  of  our  business  and  commercial  interests,  makes  it  a matter 
of  prime  necessity  that  every  young  man  should  not  only  write  well  but  with  ease  and 

RAPIDITY. 

The  idea  so  long  prevalent,  that  good  writing  must  ever  be  confined  to  the  few.  and 
that  a person,  to  excel  in  penmanship,  must  possess  a peculiar  natural  talent,  has  been 
thoroughly  and  effectually  controverted ; and  it  is  being  constantly  demonstrated  that, 
under  the  new  and  practical  methods  of  instruction  and  drill  here  introduced,  any  person 
can  acquire  at  least  a ready  and  legible  hand  writing. 

No.  12. — This  exercise  should  be  executed  with  the  full  arm  movement,  with  no 
rest  except  on  the  ends  of  the  last  two  fingers. 

No.  13. — This  exercise  should  be  executed  with  the  full  arm  movement. 

No.  14. — Commence  with  the  exercise  and  practice  with  same  movement  as  in  previ- 
ous copies,  passing  around  same  way  as  indicated  by  the  arrows,  fifteen  or  twenty  times 
before  stopping.  You  will  advance  faster  by  confining  your  practice  to  the  exercise  until 
you  are  perfectly  familiar  with  the  movement.  Then  take  the  capital  stem,  resting  easily 
on  the  fleshy  part  of  the  fore  arm,  and  do  not  let  the  coat  sleeve  move  on  the  desk  ; count- 
ing— shade,  dot,  shade,  dot — a little  slower  than  in  the  first  lesson.  Bring  the  shade  as 
near  the  ruled  line  as  possible. 

You  will  find  this  copy  difficult  to  execute,  and  you  may  be  inclined  to  say,  “ I caritf 
but  you  can  if  you  will  persist  and  overcome  the  awkwardness  attending  the  first  trial. 


142 


THE  ART  OF  PENMANSHIP, 


No,  15. — The  straight  line  is  given  in  three  lengths,  to  be  made  by  the  finger  move- 
ment. The  other  copies  in  the  exercise  should  be  executed  by  the  muscular  movement 
The  facility  of  using  the  fingers,  together  with  the  muscles  of  the  fore-arm,  are  indispen- 
sable to  a skillful  use  of  the  pen  and  the  elegant  formation  of  letters. 


HE  ART  OF  PENMANSHIP. — No  one  can  hope  to  attain  proficiency^ 
in  the  art  of  penmanship,  without  constant  and  unremitting  practice  of 
the  principles  as  laid  down.  There  must  be  a system  throughout  all- 
The  formation,  shading,  inclination  and  curving  of  the  various  letters, 
both  small  and  capital  letters,  must  be  according  to  some  well  understood^ 
method.  The  movement  must  be  free  and  graceful,  and  the  position  of  each  letter  asjo, 
space  and  size,  must  be  uniform. 

Let  the  student  carefully  read  and  apply  the  observations  which  we  have  given  and 
practice  them  with  patience  and  earnestness,  and  hold  the  instructor  responsible  for  tha 
result.  There  is  no  doubt  that  the  patient  and  faithful  practice  of  these  rules  will. result' 


THE  ART  OF  PENMANSHIP. 


143 


in  securing  for  the  pupil  a free,  elegant  and  graceful  style  of  penmanship,  such  as  will 
be  pleasant  to  the  eye  and  legible  as  print. 

No.  1 6. — These  exercises  are  to  be  written  with  the  muscular  movement. 

I will  first  present  to  you  important  points  to  be  remembered  in  forming  the  letters 
found  in  the  copies. 

Commencing  with  h , you  will  observe  that  No.  17  is  a right  curve,  extending  the 
full  height  of  the  letter,  showing  that  the  cnrve  is  formed  in  the  upward  movement.  No. 
18  is  a perfectly  straight  line  sloping  at  an  angle  of  52  degrees.  No.  19  shows  curved 
line  and  straight  line  joined — the  last  part  of  the  letter  is  formed  by  the  combination  of 
the  three  principles  already  given.  Reverse  the  paper  and  you  have  the_y. 

You  should  not  fail  to  reverse  the  paper  and  correct  your  work  whenever  your  copy 
will  admit  of  it. 

The  double  oval  should  be  made  with  the  left  curve  as  shown  by  arrows  in  the  cut, 
which  is  the  reverse  movement  of  W and  should  be  practiced  with  both  muscular  and  full 
arm  movement.  This  exercise  should  be  continued  until  the  student  can  accomplish  it 
with  perfect  ease.  The  reader  is  to  understand  when  the  expression,  “full  arm  move- 
ment,” is  used  under  a copy  that  he  is  to  use  a free  full  arm  movement,  with  no  rest 
except  on  the  nails  of  the  two  last  fingers.  The  muscular  movement  has  been  fully  ex- 
plained heretofore.  It  consists  in  resting  the  fleshy  part  of  the  forearm  lightly  on  the 
desk,  using  the  finger  movement  in  forming  the  letters,  but  in  passing  from  one  to  the 
other  use  the  arm  or  muscular  movement. 

We  will  first  give  attention  to  the  analysis  of  the  copies  given : 


In  No.  I of  the  analysis,  we  first  have  a line  bending  to  the  left  called  the  “ left 
curve”;  next,  simply  a straight  line  ; and  last,  a line  bending  to  the  right,  called  the 
* right  curve."  In  No.  2,  we  have  these  lines  joined,  and  upon  reversing  the  paper,  we 
find  this  character  appears  the  same  as  before  the  reversal,  which  shows  the  right  and 
left  curves  to  be  of  the  same  angle,  being  alike  from  a straight  line.  In  No.  3 we  have 
two  right  curves  joined  to  a straight  line,  making  the  letter  /,  or  one  character  of  the 
letter  U.  From  this  analysis,  then,  we  find  that  all  left  curves  must  be  parallel  with 
each  other,  and  all  right  curves  the  same ; likewise,  the  straight  lines  should  be  parallel 
with  each  other. 


Copy  A. 


In  copy  A , I have  introduced  the  exercise  “mu”  with  an  equal  number  of  left  and 
right  curves  joined  to  straight  lines,  consequently  they  must  appear  the  same  when  the 
paper  is  reversed,  if  correctly  executed. 


144 


THE  ART  OF  PENMANSHIP. 


Copy  B. 


In  copy  By  the  exercise  “minu”  must  read  the  same  on  the  reversal  of  the  paper. 
Practice  counting,  up,  down,  up,  down,  etc.,  every  second.  Do  not  shade,  but  carry  the 
pen  as  light  as  possible  on  the  paper;  the  fingers  may  assist  in  forming  the  letters  in 
this  exercise. 

REMARKS. 

In  the  above  exercises  are  embraced  all  the  principles  of  small  writing,  and,  as 
learners  are  enabled  to  criticise  their  own  work  by  reversing  the  paper,  they  are  espec- 
ially valuable. 

The  first  upward  line  determines  the  slope  of  your  writing;  if  it  slants  too  much, 
start  the  line  straighter  up;  if  it  does  not  slant  enough,  start  the  line  at  a greater  slope. 
If  you  follow  these  instructions  closely,  it  will  require  but  a very  short  time  to  write  a 
uniform  hand. 

The  full  arm  movement  is  highly  important  to  those  who  aspire  to  ornamental  pen- 
manship, or  as  giving  a complete  command  of  the  pen  in  executing  capital  letters.  It 
should  not  be  overlooked  by  any  one  who  desires  to  become  a bold  and  dashing  penman. 
It  will  be  found  a pleasant  practice. 

We  should  advise  students  to  practice  all  capital  letters  and  small  writing  with 
muscular  movement  until  they  have  permanently  established  the  habit  of  using  the  fore- 
arm in  writing.  In  the  small  writing  be  careful  to  bring  every  letter  straight  to  the 
ruled  line. 

Having  given  the  necessary  instructions  and  copies,  \ now  refer  the  student  to  the 
engraved  examples  for  practice,  No.  20  to  No  64,  on  the  following. pages,  which  have  not 
been  given  in  the  above. 


LESSONS  IN  PENMANSHIP. 

Nos.  3,  4,  5.  6,  7,  8,  9,  10,  11,  12s  13  See  INSTRUCTIONS. 


LESSONS  IN  PENMANSHIP. 

Nos.  14,  15,  16,  17,  18,  19,  20,  21. 
See  Instructions. 


LESSONS  IN  PENMANSHIP 

Nos.  22,  23,  24,  25,  26,  27,  28. 
(Ladies’  Angular  Hand.) 


This  exercise  is  designed  to  enable  the  student  to  acquire  a perfect  command  of  the  pen,  and 
should  be  practiced  with  the  muscular  movement  only,  resting  upon  the  nails  of  the  two  last  fingers. 


May  be  practiced  with  the  combination  movement  (finger  and  muscular) ; great  care  should  be 
taken  in  following  the  slope  and  angles  as  given  above. 


(Ladies’  Angular  Hand.) 


This  exercise  should  be  written  with  the  combination  movement. 


(Ladies’  Angular  Hand.) 


This  exercise  should  be  practiced  with  full  muscular  movement. 


LESSONS  IN  PENMANSHIP. 

Nos.  29,  30,  81,  32,  33,  34,  35,  36. 


Muscular  movement,  without  raising  the  pen  from  the  paper  except  at  the  ending. 


In  practicing  the  student  should  be  particular  to  observe  the  same  slope  given  in  copy. 


(Ladies’  Angular  Hand.) 


The  letters  r and  s commence  with  a full  right  curve  extends  a little  further  above  base  line  than 
the  other  letters  of  the  alphabet. 


Special  care  should  be  taken  to  make  the  letters  perfectly  angular  as  given  in  copy. 


This  exercise  should  be  practiced  with  both  muscular  and  full  arm  movement.  The  student  will 
find  it  of  great  help  in  acquiring  a free  movement. 


This  exercise  should  be  practiced  until  a rapid  movement  is  acquired,  using  only  the  muscular  or 
full  arm  movement. 


This  copy  may  be  practiced  with  the  full  aria  movement  gliding  upon  the  nails  of  the  two  last 
fingers. 


LESSONS  IN  PENMANSHIP,, 

Nos.  37,  38,  39,  40,  41,  43,  43,  44,  45. 


LESSONS  IN  PENMANSHIP. 

Nos.  46,  47,  48,  49,  50,  61,  62. 


(Ladies,  Angular  Hand.) 


We  give  all  the  principles  which  are  used  in  the  formation  of  the  loop  letters.  It  will  be  observed 
<.hat  the  downward  line  is  perfectly  straight  the  upward  line  only  being  curved. 


In  practicing  great  care  should  be  taken  in  forming  the  small  letters  imitating  as  closely  as 
possible  the  copy. 


This  exercise  should  be  practiced  with  the  combination,  or  muscular  and  finger  movement,  the 
fleshy  part  of  the  forearm  resting  lightly  on  the  table  or  desk,  and  the  hand  gliding  over  the  paper 
on  the  nails  of  the  two  last  fingers. 


(Ladies*  Angular  Hana.) 


We  give  this  exercise  that  the  student  may  acquire  perfect  control  of  the  pen  and  a full  free 
movement,  using  only  the  muscular  movement  in  practicing  the  above  copy. 


may  be  written  as  directed  under  this  exercise. 


^-0 


teiz-awtn'eZ'n'C'e'. 


LESSONS  IN  PENMANSHIP 

Nos.  53,  54,  55,  56,  57,  58. 


The  full  arm  movement  is  highly  important  to  those  who  aspire  to  ornamental  penmanship,  or 
as  giving  a complete  command  of  the  pen  in  executing  capital  letters.  It  should  not  be  overlooked 
by  any  one  who"  desires  to  become  a bold  and  rapid  penman. 


(Ladies*  Angular  Hand.) 


The  above  exercise  should  be  practiced  with  full  muscular  movement  without  removing  the  pen 
from  the  paper  until  the  completion  of  the  exercise.  After  an  easy  execution  has  been  attained 
student  should  join  them,  writing  the  entire  line  without  removing  the  pen. 


In  practicing  this  exercise  use  the  combination  movement,  imitating  as  closely  as  possible  the 
copy.  The  following  words  should  be  practiced  as  directed  under  this  exercise. 


This  exercise  is  given  to  help  the  student  acquire  an  easy  and  free  movement,  and  should  be 
written  with  the  muscular  or  free  arm  movement 


LESSONS  m PENMANSHIP. 

Nos.  59,  60,  61,  62,  63,  64. 


May  be  practiced  with  both  muscular  and  free  arm  movement. 


To  be  written  with  the  combination  or  muscular  movement. 


SCIENCE  OF  BOOKKEEPING; 


SET  ONE. — DObBLE  ENTRY.  DAY  BOOK , JOURNAL,  LEDGER,  IN- 
VOICE BOOK ; SALES  BOOK,  CASK  BOOK  AND 
PRIVA  TE  LEDGER, , 

SET  TWO.— SIX  COL  UMN JO  URNAL-DA  Y BOOK  AND  I TEA  UXILIARIES 
SET  THREE.— SINGLE  ENTRY.  DA  Y BOOK,  CASH  BOOK  AND 

LEDGER. 


BOOKKEEPING  IN  ITS  NEW  AND  IMPROVED  METHOD. 


ONTRARY  to  the  usual  custom,  we  will  commence  with  our  Double- 
Entry  set,  and  leave  the  Single-Entry  until  last,  as  it  will  take  no  longer 
to  learn  our  Double-Entry  than  the  usual  Single-Entry,  and  Double-Entry 
is  decidedly  the  only  way  to  keep  books  properly. 


The  demand  for  an  accurate  and  improved  system  of  keeping  accounts  is  felt  by 
all  classes  in  the  commercial  world.  There  are  three  things  essential  to  a correct  and 
trustworthy  system.  First;  security  from  error ; second,  the  utmost  brevity  to  a clear 
and  accurate  statement  of  fact,  and  third,  a uniformity  of  system. 

In  the  business  houses  where  the  most  extensive  and  intricate  operations  of  trade 
are  conducted,  it  is  a very  rare  occurrence  to  find  irregularities  in  the  management  of 
their  accounts.  It  is  imperatively  necessary  that  every  means  should  be  taken  to  effect- 
ually prevent  the  disastrous  consequences  which  would  necessarily  arise  if  there  were 
any  confusion  in  this  matter.  But  with  those  who  are  engaged  in  the  middle  and 


154 


THE  SCIENCE  OF  BOOKKEEPING. 


smaller  lines  of  business  there  is  a lamentable  amount  of  inattention,  if  not  down  right 
ignorance,  upon  this  matter.  This  has  been  made  apparent  by  the  repeated  failures  in 
business  among  men  of  this  class.  In  adjusting  their  accounts  consequent  to  winding 
up  their  affairs,  there  is  almost  always  found  a deplorable  amount  of  looseness  and  con- 
fusion in  the  keeping  of  books. 

It  is  the  imperative  duty  of  every  one  to  see  that  his  accounts  are  kept  in  a method- 
ical and  systematic  way,  showing  correctly  the  form  of  record  for  every  transaction,  small 
or  large.  This  should  be  done  not  only  because  of  the  pecuniary  interest  involved,  but 
also  because  of  the  loss  of  credit  and  business  reputation,  which  is  sure  to  follow  the  de- 
tection, sooner  or  later,  of  ignorance  or  carelessness  in  the  keeping  of  accounts.  The  atten- 
tive student  of  this  work  can,  by  judicious  application  to  the  system  which  we  unfold  in 
the  following  pages,  not  only  perfect  himself  in  the  science  and  art  of  bookkeeping,  but 
acquire  a knowledge  of  a profession  that  will  secure  him  a livelihood  even  when  not 
transacting  business  for  himself. 

Definition. — We  define  bookkeeping  to  be  the  science  of  accurately  recording  com- 
mercial transactions  in  a concise  and  systematic  method. 

BOOKKEEPING  BY  DOUBLE-ENTRY. 

HE  acme  of  the  science  of  Bookkeeping  is  reached  in  Double-Entry,  and 
this  is  the  only  perfect  and  philosophical  method  of  keeping  accounts. 

The  principle  of  Double-Entry  is  that  for  every  debit  there  must  be  a 
corresponding  credit  in  the  account  to  which  it  properly  belongs.  This  is 
done  that  the  exact  condition  of  each  department  of  the  business  may  be 
clearly  seen  at  any  time ; then  the  proprietor  can  know  at  once  the  exact  gain  or  loss  on 
the  class  of  articles  bought  or  sold ; what  is  due  on  notes  and  bills  ; what  are  the  ex- 
penses, as  well  as  what  may  be  owing  to  or  from  the  individuals  with  whom  he  is  dealing. 
Now,  all  this  may  be  learned  in  twenty-four  hours  by  the  attentive  student. 


THE  DAY-BOOK. 


1HIS  BOOK  contains  the  first  record  of  all  transactions  in  the  order  in 
which  they  have  occurred  during  the  day.  When  there  is  a single  propri- 
etor in  the  business  he  is  credited  with  all  capital  invested  and  debited 
with  all  that  is  withdrawn.  But  in  partnership  account  every  partner  in 
the  firm  is  credited  in  his  own  name  with  what  he  invests  and  debited  with 
what  he  withdraws.  Each  person  having  transactions  with  the  house  is  to  be  debited 
with  all  merchandise  delivered  him  on  his  account  and  all  monies  paid  him  on  his  ac- 
count. He  is  credited  by  all  merchandise  or  monies  received  from  him  on  his  account. 

All  accounts  of  general  and  miscellaneous  transactions  are  entered  in  the  Day- 
Book. 


THE  SCIENCE  OF  BOOKKEEPING.  THE  DAY  BOOK. 


155 


ZD_A.1T  book:. 

New  York , January , 1899. 


9 

9 

9 

10 


10 


for  Cash 
630  gal.  at  60c 

on  Acct. 
750  lbs.  at  75c 
at  $8.00 

for  Cash 
375  lbs.  at  85c 
at  $8.50 
63  gal.  at  69c 

on  Acct. 
at  70c 
at  $1.44 


Commenced  business  this  day  at  No.  350  Chapel  St.,  with  a 
cash  capital  of 

Paid  W.  L.  Jones,  Bill  for  Store, 

Fixtures  and  Furniture,  Cash, 

Bought  of  James  Goodwin, 

10  HhdSo  Molasses, 

Bought  of  John  Hamilton, 

10  Chests  Y.  H.  Tea, 

100  Bbls.  St.  Louis  Ex.  Flour, 

Sold  W.  H.  Clark 

5 Chests  Y.  H.  Tea, 

10  Bbls.  St.  Louis  Ex.  Flour, 

1 Hhd.  Molasses, 

Bought  of  Amos  Snow, 

2000  Bu.  Corn, 

1000  u Spring  Wheat, 

Sold  Henry  Rand  for  his  Note  at  Six  Months, 

5 Hhds.  Molasses, 

5 Chests  Y.  H.  Tea, 

Sold  E.  R.  Felton, 

1000  Bu.  Spring  Wheat, 

1500  u Corn, 

Gave  John  Hamilton,  on  Acct.,  Cash, 

Paid  Store  Rent  in  Cash, 

Bought  ot  John  Smith  for  my  Note  at  60  days* 

500  Lbs.  Java  Coffee, 

20  Tubs  York  State  Butter, 

Sold  E.  R.  Felton, 

500  Bu.  Corn, 

50  Bbls.  St.  Louis  Ex.  Flour, 

10  Tubs  York  State  Butter, 

Sold  Jas.  Hudson, 

4 Hhds.  Molasses, 

500  Lbs.  Java  Coffee, 


315  gal.  at 
375  lbs.  at 


70c 

90c 


for  Cash, 
at  $1.43£ 
at  71c 


at  30c 
at  $10.00 


252  gal.  at 
at 


on  Acct. 
at  70 Jc 
at  $ 8.25 
at  $10.75 

on  Acct. 

65c 
35c 


Gave  Amos  Snow  on  Acct.  our  sight  draft  on  E.  R0  Felton, 

Received  of  James  Hudson,  on  Acct. 

R.  C.  Jones7  Note  at  30  days, 

Received  of  E.  R.  Felton,  in  full  of  Acct.,  Cash, 

Gave  John  Hamilton,  in  full  of  Acct.,  Cash, 

Bought  of  John  Hamilton,  for  Note  at  3 mos., 

20  Chests,  Y.  H.  Tea,  1500  lbs.  at  76c 

50  Bbls.  Greenfield  Ex.  Flour,  at  $ 7.90 

Paid  Insurance  on  Stock,  Cash, 


562 

800 

318 

85 

43 


50 


75 

47 


1,400 

1,440 

220 

337 

1,435 

1,065 


50 

50 


150 

200 


352 

412 

107 


50 

50 

50 


163 

175 


80 


1,140 

395 


5,000 

595 

378 

1,362 


50 


447 

2,840 

558 

2,500 

950 

150 

350 

872 

338 

800 

250 

72 

412 

1,535 

75 


22 


50 


80 


50 

50 


156 


THE  SCIENCE  OF  BOOKKEEPING.  THE  DAY  BOOK* 


BOOK. 

New  York,  January,  1899. 


11 


16 

17 


18 

19 

19 

25 

25 

25 

25 

26 
26 
28 

28 


Sold  E.  R.  Felton, 

25  Bbls.  St.  Louis  Ex.  Flour, 
40  u Greenfield  u 
10  Chests  Y.  H.  Tea, 


on  Acct. 
at  $ 8.30 
at  $ 8.10 
750  lbs.  at  80c 


Received  of  R.  C.  J^hes  for  Note  due  this  day,  Cash, 


on  Acct. 
630  gal.  at  55c 
at  $18.00 
at  $17.50 


Bought  of  Jas.  Goodwin, 

10  Hhds.  Molasses* 

20  Bbls.  Beef, 

10  Bbls.  New  Mess  Pork, 

Received  of  E.  R.  Felton  in  full  of  Acct.,  his  Draft  at  6 days 
sight  on  Phelps  & Hodge,  accepted, 

Gave  Amos  Snow)  in  full  of  Acct.,  E.  R.  Felton’s  Draft  on 
Phelps  & Hodge, . a 
Cash  for  balance, 

Gave  Jas.  Goodwin  on  Acct.,  Cash, 

Paid  for  Clerk  hire,  Cash, 

Paid  Freight,  Cash, 

Bought  of  C.  B.  Hall,  ,v  on  Acct. 

1 Horse  and  Wagon, 

Bought  of  R.  C.  Loveridge,  for  Cash. 

10  Shares  Lake  Shore  R.  R., 

Stock  at  10  per  cent,  discount, 

Bought  of  G.  C.  Payne,  for  Cash 

House  and  Lot,  located  at  No.  10  Admiral  street, 

Sold  E.  J.  Keeler,  for  Cash 

5 Shares  Lake  Shore  R.  R.  Stock,  at  5 per  cent,  premium, 
Bought  of  L.  E.  Whiting,  for  Cash 

8 Shares  New  Jersey  Central  R.  R.  Stock,  at  30  per  cent.| 
discount, 


Sold  C.  A.  Gates 

5 Tubs  York  State  Butter, 
10  Bbls.  New  Mess  Pork, 


on  Acct. 
at  $10.00 
at  $18.00 


I IN’ NT  IE  IN"  T OJEtHT. 

Mdse,  unsold  as  follows  : 

10  Bbls.  Greenfield  Ex.  Flour,  at  $8  25, 

15  “ St.  Louis  “ “ 8.50, 

10  Chests  Y.  H.  Tea.  750  lbs.,  at  77c., 

5 Tubs  York  State  Butter,  at  $10.50, 

10  Hhds.  Molasses,  630  gal.  at  6oc., 

20  Bbls.  Beef,  at  $18  00, 

Personal  Property, 

Real  Estate, 

8 Shares  N.  J.  C.  R.  R.  Stock  at  29  per  cent,  below  par 
5 Shares  L.  S.  R.  R.  Stock,  at  2 per  cent,  above  par. 
Store  Fixtures  and  Furniture, 


207 

324 

600 


346 

360 

175 


1,131 

908 


50 

180 


$ 82.50 

12750 

577-50 
52.50 
378  00 
360  00 

1,578 

425 

2,500 

568 

5IQ 

5io 

50 


50 


1,131 

250 


881 

1,131 

2,040 

500 

175 

100 

500 

900 

2,000 

525 

560 

230 


50 


50 

50 


6,091 


THE  SCIENCE  OF  BOOKKEEPING. 


157 


THE  JOURNAL 


HE  debits  and  credits  of  the  Day-Book  are  so  arranged  in  the  Journal 
that  they  can  be  easily  presented  to  view  in  transferring  them  to  the 
Ledger,  and  thus  avoid  the  chances  of  any  errors. 

There  are  two  money  columns  on  the  right-hand  side  of  the  page,  in 
the  first  of  which  the  amount  of  debits  are  placed,  and  in  the  second  the 
amount  of  credits.  The  name  of  the  debtor,  whether  a person,  firm  or  an  account,  is 
entered  on  the  left  of  the  page,  and  that  of  the  creditor  on  the  right,  with  the  word  “To” 
between  them. 

The  entry  “ Sundries  ” is  made  simply  as  a heading  for  convenience,  and  is  not  a 
Ledger  account.  It  indicates  that  there  are  more  than  one  debtor  or  creditor  in  the 
transaction  presented.  The  Journal  is,  therefore,  an  analysis  of  the  transactions  recorded 
in  the  Day-Book,  showing  the  debits  and  credits  that  enter  into  the  transaction. 

The  student  would  do  well  to  impress  upon  his  mind  the  following 

Rule — That  for  which  value  is  received  should  be  credited  ; that  for 
which  value  is  paid  should  be  debited.  When  you  receive  cash  it  is  always 
debtor  ; when  you  pay  it  out  it  is  always  creditor.  When  persons  cause  you  to  part  with 
value  they  are  debtors  ; when  they  cause  you  to  receive  it,  then  they  are  creditors. 
Merchandise  when  bought  is  debited  ; and  when  sold  it  is  credited.  Interest,  Commis- 
sion, Expense  and  other  accounts  must  be  credited  when  anything  is  received  from  them, 
and  debited  for  any  outlay  they  occasion. 

A check  mark  should  be  placed  in  the  marginal  column,  on  the  left-hand  side  of  the 
Day-Book,  after  the  account  has  been  Journalized. 

There  may  arise  instances  when  it  is  proper  to  transfer  an  amount  to  a different 
account  than  the  one  in  which  it  stands,  before  it  is  posted  in  the  Ledger.  Then  it 
should  be  shown  in  the  Day-Book  by  an  entry  to  that  effect,  in  order  to  explain  it. 

In  regard  to  notes,  drafts,  &c.,  which  may  appreciate  or  depreciate  in  value,  the  ac- 
count is  kept  at  the  value  of  the  face  of  the  note,  & c.,  and  the  interest  or  discount, 
allowed  for  prompt  payment  or  payment  before  it  was  due,  is  usually  made  in  the  interest 
or  discount  account  The  losses  arising  from  the  failure  of  persons  to  meet  their  obliga- 
tions are  carried  to  the  “ Profit  and  Loss  ” account 


158 


THE  SCIENCE  OF  BOOKKEEPING. 


New  Yorky  January , 1899.  Dr.  Cr. 


Jan.  100 

1 

Cash, 

5,000 

100 

To  Stock, 

5,000 

101 

1 

Store  Fixtures  and  Furniture, 

595 

100 

To  Cash, 

595 

100 

2 

Mdse., 

378 

100 

To  Cash, 

378 

100 

2 

Mdse., 

1,362 

50 

102 

To  John  Hamilton, 

1,362 

50 

100 

2 

Cash, 

447 

22 

10Q 

To  Mdse., 

j 

447 

22 

100 

3 

Mdse, 

2,840 

102 

To  Amos  Snow, 

2,840 

102 

3 

Bill  Bee., 

558 

100 

To  Mdse., 

558 

100 

3 

Cash, 

2,500 

100 

To  Mdse., 

2,500 

102 

3 

John  Hamilton, 

950 

100 

To  Cash, 

950 

102 

4 

Rent, 

150 

100 

To  Cash, 

150 

100 

4 

Mdse, 

350 

102 

To  Bill  Pay., 

350 

103 

5 

E.  R.  Felton, 

872 

50 

100 

To  Mdse., 

872 

50 

103 

5 

Jas.  Hudson, 

338 

80 

100 

To  Mdse., 

338 

80 

102 

9 

Amos  Snow, 

800 

103 

To  E.  R.  Felton, 

800 

102 

9 

Bill  Rec., 

250 

103 

To  Jas.  Hudson, 

250 

100 

9 

Cash, 

72 

50 

103 

To  E.  R.  Felton, 

72 

50 

102 

10 

John  Hamilton, 

412 

50 

100 

To  Cash, 

412 

50 

100 

10 

Mdse., 

1,535 

102 

To  Bill  Pay., 

1,535 

THE  SCIENCE  OF  BOOKKEEPING. 


159 


croTJ^isr^.L. 

New  York , January , 1899  Dr.  Cr. 


102 

10 

Insurance, 

75 

100 

To  Cash, 

75 

103 

11 

E.  R.  Felton, 

1,131 

50 

100 

To  Mdse., 

1,131 

50 

100 

16 

Cash, 

250 

102 

To  Bill  Rec., 

250 

100 

17 

Mdse., 

881 

50 

103 

To  Jas.  Goodwin, 

881 

50 

102 

18 

Bill  Rec., 

1,131 

50 

103 

To  E.  R.  Felton, 

1,131 

50 

102 

19 

Amos  Snow,  To  Sundries, 

2,040 

102 

Bill  Rec., 

1,131 

100 

Cash, 

908 

103 

19 

Jas  Goodwin, 

500 

100 

To  Cash, 

500 

101 

25 

Expense, 

175 

100 

To  Cash, 

175 

101 

25 

Expense, 

100 

100 

To  Cash, 

100 

101 

25 

Personal  Property, 

500 

103 

To  C.  B.  Hall, 

500 

101 

25 

Lake  Shore  R.  R.  Stock, 

900 

100 

To  Cash, 

900 

101 

26 

Real  Estate, 

2,000 

100 

To  Cash, 

2,000 

100 

26 

Cash, 

525 

101 

To  L.  S.  R.  R.  Stock 

525 

101 

28 

Hew  Jersey  Central  R.  R.  Stock, 

560 

100 

To  Cash, 

560 

103 

28 

230 

To  Mdse., 

230 

30,411 

52 

30,411 

52 

160 


THE  SCIENCE  OF  BOOKKEEPING. 


THE  GASH  BOOK. 


N accurate  record  of  all  monies  received  or  paid  out  is  kept  in  this  book, 
but  no  credit  transactions.  In  keeping  this,  all  monies  received  are 
debited,  and  all  sums  paid  out  are  credited.  Draw  a balance  at  the  end 
of  the  day’s  business,  and  subtracting  the  total  on  the  debit  side  from  the 
total  on  the  credit  side,  enter  that  balance  in  red  ink  on  the  credit  side  . 


dr.  o .a.  s h:  . 


1899. 

- 

Jan. 

1 

To  Stock,  for  amt.  of  Capital  Invested, 

5,000 

u 

2 

u Mdse.,  received  from  W.  H.  Clark, 

447 

22 

u 

3 

u Mdse.,  received  from  E.  R.  Felton, 

2,500 

u 

9 

“ E.  R.  Felton,  received  in  settlement  of  Account, 

72 

50 

a 

16 

“ Bill  Rec.,  received  for  R.  C.  Jones,  Note, 

250 

a 

26 

“ L.  S.  R.  R.  Stock,  received  from  E.  J.  Keeler. 

525 

3,794 

72 

8,794 

72 

1883. 

Jan. 

30 

To  Balance  from  Old  Acct., 

1,090 

72 

THE  SCIENCE  OF  BOOKKEEPING. 


161 


After  making  this  balance  entry,  draw  a line,  as  will  be  shown  in  the  form  of  “ Cash 
Book/’  and  carry  this  forward  to  new  account  for  the  following  day.  All  ruling  must  be 
in  red  ink. 


C -A.  S ZEE . Cr. 


1899 

Jan. 

1 

By  Store  Fixtures  and  Fur.,  paid  W.  L.  Jones*  Bill, 

595 

u 

2 

u Mdse.,  paid  Jas.  Goodwin, 

378 

a 

3 

16  John  Hamilton,  paid  him  on  Acet., 

950 

u 

4 

“ Bent,  paid  for  Store  Bent, 

150 

a 

10 

u John  Hamilton,  paid  him  in  settlement  of  Acct., 

412 

50 

u 

u 

u Insurance,  paid  for  Insurance  on  Stock, 

75 

u 

19 

“ Amos  Snow,  paid  him  in  full  of  Acct., 

908 

50 

u 

u 

u James  Gordon,  paid  him  on  Acct., 

500 

u 

25 

u Expense,  paid  Clerk  hire, 

175 

u 

u 

u Expense,  paid  for  Freight, 

100 

1% 

u 

u L.  S.  B.  B.  Stock,  paid  B.  C.  Loveridge, 

900 

u 

26 

u Beal  Estate,  paid  G.  K.  Payne, 

2,000 

a 

28 

u K.  J.  C.  B.  B.  Stock,  paid  L.  E.  Whiting, 

560 

7,704 

00 

a 

30 

u Balance  to  Kew  Acct., 

1,090 

72 

8,794 

72 

? 


162 


THE  SCIENCE  OF  BOOKKEEPING. 


THE  LEDGER. 

E Day-Book,  as  we  have  said,  is  a record  of  all  transactions  during  the  day 
in  the  order  in  which  they  occur.  The  Ledger  contains  the  account  of 
each  person  dealing  with  the  concern,  in  which  all  debits  are  entered  on 
the  left-hand  side  and  all  credits  upon  the  right-hand  side  of  the  page  or 
folio.  The  name  is  written  in  bold  hand  between  them,  thus : 

John  H.  Stetson.  Ct, 

ANALYSIS  OF  ACCOUNTS  IN  THE  LEDGER. 

CASH  ACCOUNT. 

The  receipts  and  disbursements  of  all  cash  enters  into  account,  and  it  will  display 
the  amount  on  hand.  All  monies  received  are  debited  to  this  account,  and  all  monies 
paid  out  are  credited.  The  “balance”  is  the  difference  between  what  comes  in  and  what 
goes  out,  and  the  cash  on  hand  must  always  equal  this  difference.  When  a Cash  Book 
is  kept,  let  it  be  balanced  every  night,  and  the  balance  carried  forward  to  open  the  ac- 
count for  the  following  day. 

REAL  ESTATE. 

All  purchases  of  real  estate  are  debited  in  this  account,  together  with  expenses  in- 
curred upon  it,  and  credited  with  whatever  accrues  therefrom.  When  the  account  is 
closed,  the  market  value  of  the  property  remaining  unsold  is  entered  on  the  credit  side 
The  balance  shows  the  gain  or  loss. 

BILLS  RECEIVABLE. 

Under  this  account  the  notes  that  have  been  received  by  the  concern  are  exhibited 
All  notes  or  drafts  which  have  been  received  are  entered  on  the  debit  side,  and  when  the 
amount  is  paid  it  is  entered  on  the  credit  side.  The  balance  should  show  all  that  is  due 
on  paper  still  held  by  the  concern. 


BILLS  PAYABLE. 

All  notes  and  bills  in  the  hands  of  other  parties  against  the  concern  are  placed  under 
this  account.  When  the  notes  are  given  they  are  entered  on  the  credit  side,  and  when 
paid  on  the  debit.  The  full  amount  of  notes  due  from  the  concern  will  be  shown  by  the 
balance  in  this  account. 

MERCHANDISE  ACCOUNT. 

In  this  account  is  entered  on  the  debit  side  the  cost  of  all  goods  bought,  and  on 
the  credit  side  the  amount  received  for  all  goods  sold.  In  closing  this  account  we  first 
enter  the  total  inventory  or  market  value  of  all  goods  remaining  unsold  upon  the  credit 
side  of  the  account.  The  difference  between  the  two  sides  of  this  account  will  be  the  net 
gain  or  loss,  as  the  case  may  be.  If  the  debit  side  exceeds  the  credit,  then  there  will  be 
a loss  ; if  the  reverse,  then  there  will  be  a gain. 


THE  SCIENCE  OF  BOOKKEEPING. 


163 


PERSONAL  ACCOUNTS. 

They  are  kept  on  the  same  principle  as  any  other  account:  Debited  with  what  they 

take,  and  credited  with  what  they  bring. 

EXPENSE  ACCOUNT. 

In  this  account  all  expenditures  for  the  business  are  entered  on  the  debit  side,  such 
as  rent,  gas,  water,  coal,  clerk  hire,  & c. 

partners’  account. 

The  account  with  each  partner  is  kept  in  his  own  name,  the  same  as  other  personal 
accounts. 

INTEREST  OR  DISCOUNT  ACCOUNT. 

When  a large  business  is  done  in  negotiable  paper  to  a considerable  extent  there  is 
an  account  kept  termed  “Interest”  or  “Discount  Account,”  in  which  all  interest  re- 
ceived is  credited,  and  all  interest  paid  is  debited.  This,  however,  is  usually  entered  in 
“ Profit  and  Loss  Account,”  when  the  parties  do  not  wish  so  many  accounts 

“ PROFIT  AND  LOSS  ACCOUNT.” 

Under  this  account  are  entered  all  gains  and  losses  in  the  business,  the  gains  on 
the  credit  side,  and  the  losses  on  the  debit.  If  the  credit  side  be  the  greater,  there  has 
been  a net  gain,  but  if  the  debit  side,  then  there  has  been  a net  loss. 

* 

SUSPENDED  ACCOUNT. 

When  several  personal  accounts  of  doubtful  value  have  been  balanced  and  remain 
unsettled,  instead  of  entering  them  at  once  upon  Profit  and  Loss  Account,  it  is  usual  to 
carry  them  at  the  time  of  balancing  to  Suspended  Account,  so  termed,  as  many  of  them 
may  sometime  prove  good,  and  yet  it  is  risky  to  consider  them  as  assets. 

Example  as  follows  : 


Dr.  Suspended  Account.  Cr. 


18 

Dec. 

3i 

John  Paul  Jones, 

L.F. 

U 

30 

00 

18 

Jan. 

1 

Profit  and  Loss, 

30 

00 

« 

Geo.  W.  Ames, 

i25 

00 

Geo.  W.  Ames, 

25 

00 

These  accounts  have  been  running  for  more  than  a year,  and  were  of  doubtful  value. 

CLOSING  THE  LEDGER. 

The  Ledger  can  be  closed  as  often  as  desired,  and  is  usually  done  at  the  end  of  the 
year. 

The  reason  of  this  is  to  avoid  carrying  the  unused  accounts,  and  to  bring  down  each 
of  these  accounts  into  one  item  and  thus  clearly  exhibit  the  result  of  the  business  for  the 
period  since  last  closed. 

THE  METHOD  OF  CLOSING. 

The  first  step  in  the  process  is  to  make  a trial  balance,  and  this  is  the  test  of  the 
correctness  of  the  Ledger,  for  if  the  total  amounts  of  credits  equal  the  total  amounts  of 
debits,  then  the  Ledger  is  correct ; if  not,  then  there  must  be  an  error  somewhere. 


164 


THE  SCIENCE  OF  BOOKKEEPING. 


The  Taking  Account  of  Stock. — This  is  an  inventory  of  all  merchandise,  &c. 
remaining  unsold  taken  at  its  market  value.  This  must  be  credited  on  the  trial  balance 
“ By  Mdse,  as  per  inventory.” 

For  example,  if  there  are  $3, 600  worth  of  goods  unsold,  they  must  be  credited  to 
Merchandise  Account,  because  it  was  all  charged  when  that  account  was  opened,  or  as  it 
was  bought  from  time  to  time.  The  account  has  been  credited  with  all  that  has  been 
sold,  and  we  need  only  carry  to  the  credit  side  the  value  of  which  is  on  hand  at  the  time, 
to  determine  whether  there  has  been  a gain  or  loss.  In  doing  so,  use  the  term,  “ By 
Balance,”  for  the  goods  unsold  are  to  be  regarded  as  so  much  assets. 

The  same  principal  holds  in  regards  to  all  the  other  accounts. 

The  “Interest”  or  “Discount  Account.” — Where  interest  has  accrued  in  the 
favor  of  the  business,  and  in  the  favor  of  other  parties,  it  is  commonly  considered  best  to 
enter  both,  each  on  its  respective  side,  “To  Balance,”  if  it  is  a liability,  “By  Balance,”  if 
it  is  an  asset. 

First  close  up  all  these  accounts  where  balances  have  been  found,  by  taking  account 
of  stock,  such  as  Real  Estate,  Merchandise,  Stocks  and  Bonds,  &c.,  &c.,  and  this  will  tell 
whether  there  has  been  a gain  or  loss.  The  final  entry  in  each  account  shows  this,  and 
should  be  written  in  red  “To,”  or  “By”  “ Profit  and  Loss,”  as  the  case  may  be.  Proceed 
in  like  manner  with  all  other  accounts,  not  yet  closed  in  Ledger. 

Then  carry  the  profit  and  loss,  in  black,  to  their  proper  side  in  that  account,  and  the 
Balances  in  the  same  way  to  “Balance  Account.” 

Close  the  “ Profit  and  Loss  Account.”  If  it  be  a partnership  business,  the  propor- 
tion of  profit  or  loss  must  be  credited  or  debited  to  each  one  in  his  personal  account. 

THE  USE  OF  RED  INK. 

All  balances  which  are  to  be  entered  into  another  account  must  be  written  in  red 
ink,  but  when  transferred,  must  be  written  in  black. 

THE  TRIAL  BALANCE. 

For  the  detection  and  prevention  of  errors,  is  the  best  that  has  yet  been  invented, 
although  it  is  not  an  infallible  one.  For  if  the  same,  or  equal  amounts  have  been  omitted 
from  both  sides  of  the  account,  or  if  an  entry  has  been  made  on  the  correct  side  of  the 
Ledger,  but  in  the  wrong  account,  then  although  the  two  sides  of  the  Ledger  will  remain 
undisturbed  still  an  error  exists.  The  Trial  Balance  is  still  important,  and  should  always 
be  made  immediately  after  posting  the  Ledger. 

CORRECTING  OF  ERRORS. 

If  there  is  a mistake  in  the  Day  Book  it  can  be  corrected  only  by  making  a new 
entry.  If  erroneous  accounts  has  been  transferred  to  the  Journal  and  Ledger  then  they 
must  remain  and  new  entries  correcting  the  mistakes  must  be  made. 


THE  SCIENCE  OF  BOOKKEEPING. 


165 


When  a wrong  entry  has  been  posted,  and  no  corresponding  entry  is  found  in  either 
Day  Book  or  Journal,  then  fill  in  the  money  column  with  ciphers,  and  post  the  entry 
correctly. 

Whenever  a transfer  is  made  from  one  book  to  another,  this  mark  should  be 
placed  against  the  account  so  transferred. 

THE  PROOF  OR  TRIAL  SHEET. 

Such  a Trial  Sheet,  or  Proof,  should  contain  all  the  amounts  which  have  been  posted 
since  the  last  balance  was  made.  This  includes  the  open  and  closed  accounts.  We 
obtain  by  means  oi  this  the  correct  proof  which  is  shown  by  equal  credits  and  debits, 
and  also  the  totals  of  the  postings  in  the  Ledger,  which  must  agree  with  the  totals  in  the 
Journal.  This  will  furnish  the  strongest  evidence  that  the  Journal  has  been  correctly 
posted. 

For  if  a single  item  has  been  omitted  there  must  appear  a discrepancy  in  this  trial 
sheet  and  the  same  holds  when  an  item  has  been  entered  twice. 

THE  INVOICE  BOOK. 

This  is  made  up  by  pasting  the  original  invoices  received,  into  a book,  suitable  for 
this  purpose,  made  larger  than  the  invoices  themselves. 

With  a proper  index,  any  invoice  can  be  found  more  readily  than  if  they  were  put  on 
file.  It  should  not  be  often  necessary  to  copy  any  of  these. 

THE  PRIVATE  LEDGER. 

This  book  is  kept  by  the  partners  themselves,  and  only  the  totals  appear  in  the  Pub- 
lic Ledger.  To  avoid  unnecessary  publicity  of  their  financial  condition,  the  opening 
entry  of  business  is  placed  in  this  private  Ledger. 


166 


THE  SCIENCE  OF  BOOKKEEPING. 


T ZEE  ZED  LEDGER. 


Dk.  CASH.  Or. 


18 

I18 

Jan. 

1 

To  Stock, 

50 

5,000 

I Jan. 

1 

By  Store  Fix.  and  Fur., 

50 

595 

it 

2 

“ Mdse., 

50 

447 

22 

u 

2 

u 

Mdse., 

50 

378 

u 

3 

u u 

50 

2,500 

1 u 

3 

u 

J.  Hamilton, 

50 

950 

u 

9 

“ E.  E.  Felton, 

51 

72 

50 

I u 

4 

a 

Eent, 

50 

150 

u 

16 

“ Bill  Eec., 

51 

250 

1 “ 

10 

u 

J.  Hamilton, 

51 

412 

50 

u 

26 

“ L.  S.E.E.  Stock, 

52 

525 

1 u 

10 

u 

Insurance, 

51 

75 

/ 

u 

19 

u 

Amos  Snow? 

51 

908 

50 

/ 

u 

19 

u 

Jas.  Goodwin, 

51 

500 

/ 

u 

25 

a 

Expense, 

51 

175 

/ 

u 

25 

u 

a 

51 

100 

/ 

u 

25 

u 

L.  S.  E.  E.  Stock, 

52 

900 

/ 

u 

26 

u 

Eeal  Estate, 

52 

2,000 

/ 

u 

28 

u 

H.  J.  Central  E.  E., 

52 

560 

it 

30 

u 

Balance, 

1,090 

72 

/ 

8,794 

72 

8,794 

72 

Jan. 

30 

To  Balance, 

1,090 

72 

Dr.  MEECHANDISE.  Cr. 


18 

118 

1 

Jan. 

2 

To  Cash, 

50 

378 

Jan. 

2 By  Cash, 

50 

447 

22 

u 

2 

u J.  Hamilton, 

50 

1,362 

50 

u 

3 

“ Bill  Eec., 

50 

558 

u 

3 

u Amos  Snow, 

50 

2,840 

u 

o 

u 

Cash, 

50 

2,500 

a 

4 

u Bill  Pay., 

50 

350 

u 

5 

u E.  E.  Felton, 

51 

872 

50 

u 

10 

u u 

51 

1,535 

(( 

5 

u J.  Hudson, 

50 

338 

80 

u 

17 

a Jas.  Goodwin, 

51 

881 

50 

u 

11 

u E.  E.  Felton, 

51 

1,131 

50 

u 

30 

u Profit  and  Loss, 

309 

02 

“ 

28 

61  C.  A.  Gates, 

52 

230 

“ 

28 

lC  Inventory, 

51 

1,578 

— ' 

7,656 

02 

7,656 

02 

Jan. 

To  Inventory, 

1,578 

1 

1 

1 

THE  SCIENCE  OF  BOOKKEEPING. 


167 


THE  LEDGER. 


Db.  PERSONAL  PROPERTY.  Cb. 


18 

Jan. 

25 

To  0.  B.  Hall, 

52 

500 

18 

Jan. 

(6 

28 

30 

By  Inventory, 
u Profit  and  Loss, 

425 

75 

500 

500 

Jan. 

30 

To  Inventory, 

425 

Db.  lake  shore  R.  R.  STOCK.  Ce. 


tli 

18 

Jan. 

u 

25 

30 

To  Cash, 

u Profit  and  Loss, 

52 

900 

135 

18 

Jan. 

u 

26 

28 

By  Cash, 
u Inventory, 

26 

525 

510 

1,035 

— 

1,035 

Jan. 

30 

To  Inventory, 

510 

1 

Db.  EXPENSE.  Cb. 


18 

18 

Jan. 

25 

To  Cash, 

51 

175 

Jan. 

30 

By  Profit  and  Loss, 

275 

! 

u 

25 

u u 

51 

100 

275 

J 

— 

' " 

275 

— 

Db.  RENT.  Cb. 


18 

1 

■18 

1 

Jan. 

4 

To  Cash, 

50 

150  _|  Jan. 

30jBy  Profit  and  Loss, 

15°U 

168 


THE  SCIENCE  OF  BOOKKEEPING. 


TEIIE  LEDGER. 

Dr.  INSUBAHCE.  Or. 


18 

Jan. 

10 

To  Cash, 

51 

75 

l18 

I Jan. 

30 

By  Profit  and  Loss. 

75 

“I 

Dr.  BILLS  EECEIYABLE.  Cr. 


18 

118 

Jan. 

3 

To  Mdse., 

50 

558 

I Jan. 

16 

By  Cash, 

51 

250 

u 

9 

u Jas.  Hudson, 

51 

250 

u 

19 

u Amos  Snow, 

51 

1,131 

558 

50 

u 

18 

u E E.  Eel  ton, 

51 

1,131 

50j 

I u 

30 

“ Balance, 

1,939 

50 

1,939 

50 

Jan. 

30 

To  Balance, 

558 

Dr.  BILLS  PAYABLE.  Cr 


18 

Jan. 

(s 

5 

11 

To  Mdse., 
u u 

50 

51 

872 

1,131 

50 

50 

18 

Jan. 

u 

u 

9 

9 

18 

By  Amos  Snow, 
“ Cash, 
u BillEec., 

50 

51 
51 

800 

72 

1,131 

50 

50 

2,004 

2,004 

THE  SCIENCE  OF  BOOKKEEPING. 


169 


THIS  LEDG-EB. 

Dr.  JAS.  GOODWIN.  Or. 


18 

Jan. 

a 

19 

30 

To  Cash, 

“ Balance, 

51 

[ 

500 

381 

50 

18 

Jan. 

17 

By  Mdse., 

51 

881 

50 

881 

50 

881 

50 

Jan. 

30 

By  Balance, 

381 

50 

Dr.  JAS.  HUDSON.  Or. 


18 

Jan. 

5 

i 

, To  Mdse., 

50 

338 

a18 

80|  Jan. 

9 

30 

By  Bill  Bee., 
u Balance, 

51 

250 

88 

80 

338 

80S 

338 

80 

Jan. 

30|To  Balance, 

88 

8o| 

Dr.  C.  B.  HALL.  Or. 


18 

Jan. 

30 

To  Balance, 

500 

B18 

I Jan. 

25 

By  Personal  Prop., 

52 

500 

30 

By  Balance, 

500 

Dr.  0.  A.  GATES.  Or. 


18 

Jan. 

28 

To  Mdse., 

52 

230 

18 

Jan. 

30 

By  Balance, 

230 

u 

30 

To  Balance, 

230 

Dr.  PBOFIT  AND  LOSS.  Or. 


18 

1 

GO 

rH 

Jan. 

30 

To  Store  Fix.  and  Fur., 

85 

Jan. 

30 

By  Mdse., 

309 

02 

u 

30 

u Personal  Prop., 

75 

u 

30 

u Beal  Estate, 

500 

u 

30 

“ Expense, 

275 

u 

30 

u N.  J.  O.  B.  B.  S., 

8 

u 

30 

u Bent, 

150 

a 

30 

“ L.  S.  B.  B.  S., 

135 

u 

30 

u Insurance, 

75 



a 

30 

u Stock, 

292 

02 

952 

02 

952 

02 

M70 


THE  SCIENCE  OF  BOOKKEEPING. 


TBIAL 

January  30,  18 

(This  contains  the  totals  of  Debits  and  Credits.) 


Dr.  Cr. 


Stock, 

5,000 

Cash, 

• 

• 

• 

• 

8,794 

72 

7,704 

6,078 

Merchandise,  • 

- 

7,347 

02 

Store  Fixtures  and  Furniture,  • 

• 

• 

9 

595 

Personal  Property, 

- 

• • 

• 

500 

Eeal  Estate, 

. 

• 

• 

9 

• 

2,000 

New  Jersey  Central  E.  E. 

Stock, 

• 

560 

Lake  Shore  E.  E.  Stock, 

• 

• 

m 

• 

900 

525 

Expense, 

ft 

• • 

• 

275 

Eent, 

• 

• 

• 

m 

• 

150 

Insurance, 

• 

• • 

• 

75 

Bills  Eeceivable, 

. 

• 

• 

m 

• 

1,939 

50 

1,381 

1,885 

50 

Bills  Payable, 

• 

• 4' 

9 

- 

J.  Hamilton, 
Amos  Snow, 

• 

• 

• 

m 

• 

1,362 

50 

1,362 

50 

• 

• • 

9 

2,840 

2,840 

E.  E.  Felton, 

• 

• 

• 

9 

• 

2,004 

2,004 

Jas.  Goodwin, 

• 

• • 

9 

500 

881 

50 

Jas.  Hudson, 

• 

• 

• 

9 

• 

338 

80 

250 

C.  B.  Hall,  . 

. 

• m 

9 

500 

C.  A.  Gates, 

• 

• 

• 

9 

• 

230 

30,411 

52 

30,411 

52 

BALANCE 

SHEET, 

January  30,  18 


Dr.  Cr. 


(This  contains  only  the  balances , on  whichever  side  they  may  exist.) 


Stock,  ...... 

5,292 

02 

Cash,  ....... 

1,090 

72 

Merchandise,  ..... 

1,578 

Store  Fixtures  and  Furniture,  .... 

510 

Personal  Property,  ..... 

425 

Eeal  Estate,  - ... 

2,500 

N.  J.  C.  E.  E.  Stock,  ....  > 

568 

L.  S.  E.  E.  Stock,  ..... 

510 

Bills  Eeceivable,  ..... 

558 

Bills  Payable,  ...... 

1,885 

Jas.  Goodwin,  .....  » 

381 

50 

Jas.  Hudson,  ...... 

88 

80 

0.  B.  Hall,  «•••..  • 

500 

C,.  A.  Gates,  .#•••• 

230 

! 

8,058 

52 

8,058 

52 

THE  SCIENCE  OF  BOOKKEEPING. 


171 


y72 


THE  SCIENCE  OF  BOOKKEEPING. 


THE  SIX  COLUMN  JOURNAL-DAY  BOOK. 


HIS  is  by  far  the  most  compact  and  popular  method  of  recording  accounts, 
and  is  easily  understood  at  a glance,  showing  the  details  of  all  transactions, 
and  their  relation  to  the  business  represented.  We  cannot  too  highly 
recommend  the  student  to  carefully  study  this  form,  and  perfect  himself 
in  the  practical  use  of  it.  It  is  termed  Six  Column,  because  it  is  so  ruled 
that  it  displays  three  columns  on  the  left  hand  or  debit  side,  and  three  on  the  right  hand 
or  credit  side  of  the  account.  It  may  be  ruled  to  show  four,  five,  or  six  columns  on  each 
side.  This  Journal-Day  Book  will  have  to  be  made  to  order,  as  they  are  seldom  found 
with  this  ruling. 

The  more  complicated  and  extensive  the  business  involved  the  more  desirable  it  is 
to  display  it  in  detail. 

The  ADyANTAGE  of  such  a Journal-Day  Book — Cannot  be  too  highly  estima- 
ted since  it  is  in  reality  four  books  combined  in  one,  viz. : Journal,  Day  Book,  Cash  Book 
and  Sales  Book,  avoiding  the  necessity  of  keeping  the  last  three  mentioned.  The  great 
economy  in  time  and  space  recommends  it  to  all  who  would  be  able  to  keep  a complete 
summary,  in  which  the  business  of  a given  period  can  be  compared  with  that  of  a cor- 
responding period. 

The  Merchandise  and  Cash  Columns  can  be  posted  in  totals  as  often  as  desired, 
every  day,  week  or  month,  as  the  proprietor  may  wish,  and  are  carried  forward  from  page 
to  page,  and  a balance  shown  in  the  margin  at  foot  of  each  page. 

The  Merchandise  and  Cash  Accounts  being  the  most  important  ones  are  given  a 
column  on  each  side  of  the  page.  The  sundries  column  contain  all  the  miscellaneous 
accounts  and  are  to  be  posted  in  detail  in  the  Ledger  each  in  its  respective  place.  This 
refers  to  all  accounts  for  which  there  is  not  a special  column. 

If  the  business  has  a large  Expense  Account  or  Rent  Account,  a column  can  be 
assigned  to  this,  and  so  for  any  account  that  may  be  desirable  to  display.  These  can  be 
posted  in  totals  in  the  Ledger. 


THE  PETTY  CASH  BOOK. 

In  connection  with  the  Six  Column  Journal-Day  Book,  it  is  best  to  keep  a petty 
cash  book,  to  avoid  encumbering  the  Journal-Day  Book  with  these  little  items.  The 
totals  of  each  day  or  week  are  then  entered  in  the  Journal-Day  Book  from  this. 


THE  PETTY  SALES  BOOK. 


In  like  manner  a petty  sales  book  can  be  kept  of  all  goods  ordered  or  sold  in 
small  amounts  and  the  totals  entered  in  the  Journal  Day  Book. 


SIX  COLUMN  JOURNAL  AND  DAY  BOOK  COMBINED. 


THE  SCIENCE  OF  BOOKKEEPING. 


173 


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174 


THE  SCIENCE  OF  BOOKKEEPING. 


EXAMPLE  OF  DAY  BOOK  FOR  SINGLE  ENTRY. 

New  York,  January  1st,  1899. 


day  entered  into  partnership 
1254  State  street,  under  the 
put  in  capital  as  follows : 

per  Cash  Book,  $3,000.00 
, 100.00 
100.00 
450.00 

3,650 

100 

2,000.00 

500.00 

2,500 

< 

at  2.50 

250.00 

“ 4.00 

120.00 

375 

at  3.50 

175.00 

* “ 5.00 

500.00 

675 

50.00 

at  25.00 

50.00 

100 

at  14.00 

1,400.00 

“ 3.50 

175.00 

1,575 

at  14.00 

1,400.00 

“ 3.50 

175.00 

1,575 

firm  name  of  Ray  & Gray. 


J.  H.  Brown  owes  him  on  Rote, 
Merchandise  and  Store  Fixtures, 


Geo.  Thompson,  Dr. 

On  the  above  bal.  due  Wm.  Ray, 

u 


Geo.  Gray,  Cr. 

By  Cash  paid  in  per  Cash  Book, 
u Merchandise  per  Inventory, 

2 


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THE  SCIENCE  OF  BOOKKEEPING. 


175 


The  Books  Required  in  Single  Entry  are  the  Day  Book,  Ledger  and  Cash 
Book.  In  some  cases  where  the  business  is  limited  the  cash  account  is  entered  in  the 
Day  Book,  and  posted  from  that  into  the  Ledger,  by  this  means  avoiding  the  use  of  a 
Cash  Book  altogether. 

This  set  of  books  may  be  used  by  a large  class  of  tradesmen,  such  as  carpenters, 
mechanics  and  small  retailers  and  builders,  &c.,  &c.,  where  the  commercial  transactions 
are  limited,  but  it  is  not  suitable  for  manufacturers  and  business  men  who  conduct  exten- 
sive and  complicated  transactions. 

POSTING  THE  DAY  BOOK  TO  THE  LEDGER. 

OMMENCING  with  the  first  entry  charged  to  his  name, write  it  in  on  its 
proper  side.  In  the  column  for  inserting  the  number  of  the  Day  Book 
Folio,  put  the  number  of  page  where  this  entry  is  found,  and  over  against 
the  original  entry  in  Day  Book,  the  number  of  the  Ledger  tolio  to  which 
it  is  transferred.  And  so  proceed  with  all  the  entries  in  his  name  on  the 
And  in  like  manner  with  the  accounts  of  the  several  parties  whose  names 
appear.  It  is  unnecessary  to  encumber  the  Ledger  with  the  details  of  each  transaction 
as  they  may  readily  be  found  by  reference  to  the  Day  Book.  Where  the  cash  is  posted 
directly  from  the  Cash  Book,  this  must  be  indicated  in  the  Ledger  C.  B.,  fol.  4 indi- 
cates that  the  entry  is  transferred  from  Cash  Book,  folio  4.  In  the  set  which  we  present, 
the  cash  account  appears  in  the  Day  Book,  and  will  be  posted  therefrom  to  the  Ledger. 


EXAMPLE  OF  LEDGER  FOR  SINGLE  ENTRY. 

Dr.  WILLIAM  RAY.  Cr. 


Dr.  GEORGE  THOMPSON.  Cr. 


18 

Jan. 

1 

To  Bal.  due  Wm.  Ray, 

I 1 

100  00 

18 

Jan. 

5 

By  Sundries 

1 

100 

00 

u 

2 

u Mdse., 

1 

370  00f 

u 

10 

Balance, 

370 

00 

370  00' 

470 

00 

Dr.  SHELDON  & CO.  Cr. 


5 

To  Mdse., 

1 

675 

00 

18 

Jan. 

2 

By  Sundries, 

1 

1 

650 

00 



u 

10 

Balance, 

25 

00 

• — " 

675 

00 

675 

loo 

NEW  STANDARD  TIME 


In  1873  seventy  different  standards  of  railroad  time  existed  in  the  United  States  and  Canada,  but  prior  to  the 
change  in  1883,  they  had  been  reduced  to  fifty-three.  The  rapid  increase  of  railroads,  which  has  kept  pace  wit 
the  prosperity  and  development  of  the  country,  has  proportionately  increased  the  inconvenience,  delay,  act 
dents  and  loss  of  life  and  limb,  resulting  from  so  many  standards  of  time.  Suggestions  as  to  reform  have  been, 
made  from  time  to  time, — the  first  in  1869,  by  Prof.  Dowd,  of  Saratoga.  To  put  such  suggestions  into  prac- 
tical shape  required  a man  whose  position  and  knowledge  of  the  Railroad  systems  of  the  country  would  com- 
mand the  attention  and  co-operation  of  the  railroad  officials.  Such  a man  is  Mr.  W.  F.  Allen,  Editor  of  The 
Travellers'  Official  Guide , and  Secretary  of  the  Railroad  Conventions.  He  it  was  who  proposed,  and  by  his 
untiring  energy  and  advantageous  position,  brought  to  a successful  issue  the  new  standards,  which  were 
adopted  by  the  Railway  Time  Conventions  of  October  11th  and  17th,  and  ordered  to  take  effect  at  noon,  on 
5unday,  Nov.  18th,  1883. 

The  change  adopted  reduces  the  standards  to  five  in  number.  Each  standard  varies  from  the  adjacent  ones 
exactly  one  hour,  the  simplest  and  most  readily  calculated  difference.  The  official  railroad  maps  designate 
all  railroads  that  are  governed  by  the  same  standard,  by  their  being  printed  in  a separate  color.  This  rule  is 
observed  for  each  of  the  five  standards;  hence  railroad  men  will  know  them  more  particularly  by  their  colors, 
as  indicated  in  the  table  on  following  page.  Neither  of  the  five  standards  extends  over  so  large  an  area  of  ter- 
ritory as  to  cause  a difference  of  more  than  about  thirty  minutes  between  the  new  standard  and  local  time, — a 
difference  between  railroad  and  local  time  that  has  already  stood  the  test  of  experience. 

“ The  eastern  standard  will  extend  from  the  eastern  boundary  of  Maine  to  Detroit,  Mich.,  and  Bristol, 
Tenn.;  but  the  Railroads  in  Ohio,  in  Pennsylvania,  west  of  Pittsburg,  and  all  in  Georgia  will,  for  convenience 
of  operation,  be  included  in  the  western  section.  Also  the  Lake  Shore  and  Michigan  Southern,  the  New  York, 
Chicago  and  St.  Louis,  and  the  New  York,  Pennsylvania  and  Ohio,  may  be  run  to  their  eastern  termini  at 
Buffalo  and  Salamanca  by  the  central  standard,  which  governs  the  rest  of  their  lines.  It  is  a curious  fact  that 
the  central  meridian  for  this  eastern  section  co-incides  with  the  seventy-fifth  meridian  west  from  Greenwich, 
which  varies  but  four  minutes  from  New  York  time.  For  the  next  section  the  standard  will  be  nine  mini.tes 
slower  than  Chicago  time  and  one  minute  faster  than  St.  Louis  time.  The  points  of  change  to  the  next  western 
hour  standard  will  be  at  the  termini  of  divisions  of  the  great  western  and  trans-continental  lines,  and  betv  een 
that  and  the  standard  for  the  Pacific  slope,  at  Heron,  Ogden,  and  at  the  crossings  of  the  Colorado  River,  all 
convenient  points.  These  five  divisions  termed  Inter-Colonial  time,  Eastern  time,  Central  time,  Mountain 
time  and  Pacific  time.  At  the  transfer  points,  where  doubt  exists,  it  is  easier  to  settle  it  by  the  addition  oi 
subtraction  of  one  hour,  than  by  the  irregular  arbitrary  differences  that  now  exist.” 

In  the  following  list  of  cities  governed  by  the  same  meridian  time,  as  affixed  by  the  new  standard,  those 
where  the  local  time  most  nearly  approximates  the  new  standard, are  printed  in  full  face  letters.  Thus  we  may 
say  that  the  Eastern  standard,  (75th  meridian)  is  run  on  Philadelphia  time;  and  the  Central  standard  (90th 
meridian)  is  run  on  New  Orleans  time.  One  railroad  will  maintain  clocks  with  the  dials  numbered  from 
1 to  24.  Under  this  system,  1 p.  m.  (mid-day)  will  be  called  13,  and  12  p.  m.  (mid-night)  24,  in  order  to  avoid 
the  confusion  on  time  tables  incident  to  the  old  method.  The  old  method  of  calculating  the  meridian  from 
Greenwich  has  been  adhered  to,  it  being  in  use  by  all  ships  on  the  high  seas.  The  adoption  of  the  new  stan- 
dard is  a long  step  in  the  right  direction, — that  of  one  standard  for  the  whole  country,  or  possibly  for  the 
globe.  The  rising  and  setting  of  the  sun  will  in  the  future,  as  in  the  past,  govern  each  community  as  to  when 
it  shall  rise,  work,  eat  and  retire;  but  under  a one-standard  system  the  clock  would  not  fail,  as  it  now  does,  to 
indicate  the  fact  that  New  England  has  breakfasted  about  four  hours  earlier  than  the  Pacific  coast. 

The  desirability  of  the  maintenance  of  such  clocks  by  the  railroads,  has  suggested  for  general  use,  clocks 
and  watches  with  both  systems  painted  upon  their  dials.  It  is  also  proposed  to  take  old  time  pieces  and 
paint  13  to  24  directly  under  the  present  figures,  so  that  when  the  clock  passes  12  at  noon,  the  time  can  be 
counted  for  the  remainder  of  the  day  on  either  the  24  hour  system  or  the  old.  It  is  further  proposed  to 
arrange  clocks  and  watches  with  two  sets  of  hands  of  different  colors,  one  set  adjusted  to  keep  local  or  mean 
time,  and  the  other  to  keep  standard;  but  in  many  principal  cities  the  time  has  been  changed  by  legal  enact- 
ment to  conform  to  standard  time. 

How  far  these  changes  will  become  general,  time  will  tell.  The  efforts  of  Mr.  Allen  were  seconded  by  manv 
eminent  scientists,  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  the  Signal  Service  Department  and  other  important  bodies. 


COMPARATIVE  TIME  INDICATORS, 

Local  and  Standard  with  Tables  of  Difference  at  Important  Points. 

Difference  between  old 
and  new  Standards. 


At  points  which  have  been 
established  Standards  un- 
der old  system  for  one  or 
more  roads. 

The  75th  Meridian  Time. 

Eastern  or  Red,  New  St’d. 

Albany,  N.  Y 

Baltimore,  Md. . . 

Bath,  Me 

Boston,  Mass.... 

Charleston,  S.  C. 


Hamilton,  Ont. 


Phi ' adelp  hia,  Pa, 

Port  Hope,  Can 


HH,  Providence,  R. 
Richmond,  Va. 
Savannah,  Ga. 
Toronto,  Can.. 


Dubuque,  Iowa.. 

Hannibal,  Mo.. 


Jefferson  City,  Mo 
Kansas  Citv,  Mo. 


fast. 

..6  “ 

slow. 

.20  “ 

fast. 

. 16  “ 

.15  “ 

slow. 

•32  “ 

.19  “ 

i€ 

. 6 “ 

fast. 

L.12  “ 

\\ 

• 4 “ 

t.  1 “ 

slow. 

• 14  “ 

• 3°  “ 

• 19  “ 

fast. 

.14 

* 

10  “ 

slow. 

.24  “ 

“ 

. 8 ‘ 

** 

dian  Time. 

New  St’d. 

,24  min, 

, slow. 

.22  “ 

fast. 

• 9 “ 

44 

.22 

.26  “ 

44 

“ 

• 3 \\ 

slow. 

“ 

,.16  “ 

fast. 

• 9 V, 

slow. 

19  , 

fast. 

.29  “ 

44 

1.13  “ 

slow. 

. 8 “ 

fast. 

fast. 

slow. 

fast. 

slow. 


Minneapolis,  Minn 

Mobile,  Ala 

Nashville,  Tenn...i3 
New  Orleans,  La.,  the  same. 

» tm;iha,  Neb 24  min.  slow. 

Port  Huron,  Mich. 30  “ fast. 

St.  Louis.  Mo...  1 ■“  slow. 

St  Paul,  Minn.....  12 
Savannah,  Ga.  36 

Selma,  Ala 12 

Sioux  City,  Iowa.  .26 
Terre  Haute,  Ind..io 
Vicksburg,  Miss..  3 
Winona,  Minn 7 

The  105th  Meridian  Time. 

Mountain  or  Gree,  , New  St’d. 
Denver,  Col  ,time  is  the  same. 
Laramie,  V y-  6 m.  si  w, 

Salt  Lake  City,  U ah  Ter.  28  s. 

The  120th  Meridian  Time. 

Pacific  or  Yellow,  New  St’d. 
Kal  tma,  Washington,  10  min. 
slow. 

Portland,  Oregon,  10  min.  slow. 
San  Francisco  to/,,  10  mm. 
slow. 

The  60th  Meridian  Time. 

Inter  Colonial  or  Brown,  New 
Standard, touchingonly  Halifax, 
St.  John  and  Quebec  is  omitted 
in  this  table. 

Standard  Time  when  it  is  12 
Noon  at  Washington,  D.  G. 

6o°  Meridian  Time,  1.08  p m. 
750  Meridian  Time,  12.08  p.m. 
900  Meridian 'l  ime,  n.08  a.  m. 
io5p  Meridian  Time,  10.08  a.  m. 
1200  Meridian  Time,  9.08  a.m. 


DIFFERENCE  IN  TIME. 


HE  illustration  which  is  shown  on  the  preceding  page  is  self-explanatory, 
and  requires  but  a glance  to  understand  it.  Thus,  when  the  sun  crosses 
the  meridian  line  of  Washington  it  is  twelve  o’clock  noon.  The  time  at 
all  places  east  of  the  longitude  of  Washington,  D.  C.,  will  be  P.M.,  and 
all  places  west  of  the  same  will  be  A.M. 

The  reason  for  this,  as  we  say  in  common  language,  is  that  the  sun  travels,  while,  in 
fact,  the  world  revolves,  over  the  whole  circle  of  360°  in  a day,  or  150  in  an  hour,  or  15'  of 
the  circle  in  one  minute  of  time.  It  is,  therefore,  easy  to  indicate  the  difference  in  time 
between  two  or  more  places  when  we  know  the  difference  in  degrees  of  longitude,  east  or 
west,  between  the  points.  For  example,  when  it  is  twelve  o’clock  noon  at  Washing- 
ton, D.  C.,  it  will  be  four  o’clock  and  fifty-five  minutes  P.  M.  in  London,  because  the 
longitude  of  London  is  750  and  5'  east  of  that  of  Washington.  On  the  other  hand,  when 
we  know  the  difference  in  time,  we  can  tell  the  distance  in  longitude  between  the  two 
points. 

Persons  who  cross  the  Atlantic  for  the  first  time  have,  without  thinking  of  this,  sup- 
posed that  their  watches  had  lost  time,  when,  in  fact,  they  were  themselves  gaining  time 
by  traveling  eastward  to  meet  the  sun  at  noon  each  day  earlier  than  the  day  preceding. 
In  this  way,  by  traveling  eastward  around  the  world,  the  traveler  gains  one  whole  day. 
By  traveling  westward  around  the  world,  one  day  in  time  is  lost. 

THE  READY  RECKONER,  CONTAINING  USEFUL  TABLES  FOR  REFER- 
ENCE IN  COMPUTING  WAGES,  INTEREST,  &c. 


DAILY  WAGES  AT  A GIVEN  AMOUNT  PER  WEEK. 

The  time  in  days  is  noted  in  the  left-hand  column,  and  the  amount  of  wages  under 
the  respective  headings,  as  noted  below : 


Per 

week. 

$1 50 

$2  00 

$2  50 

$3  00 

$3  50 

$4  00 

$4  50 

$5  00 

£5  50 

7* 

$6  00 

Days. 

I 

25 

334 

41! 

50 

58^ 

661 

75 

83^ 

911 

1 00 

2 

50 

661 

83i 

1 00 

1 i6f 

1 334 

1 50 

1 66f 

1 834 

2 00 

3 

75 

I 00 

1 25 

1 50 

1 75 

2 00 

2 25 

2 50 

2 75 

3 00 

4 

1 00 

I 333 

1 661 

2 00 

2 33^ 

2 661 

3 00 

3 333 

3 661 

4 00 

5 

1 25 

I 661 

2 o8£ 

2 50 

2 91! 

3 33l 

3 75 

4 i6§ 

4 584 

5 00 

6 

1 50 

2 00 

2 50 

3 00 

3 50 

4 00 

4 50 

5 00 

5 50 

6 00 

Per  ; 
week. 

1 

$7  00 

1 

$7  5° 

$8  00 

$10  00 

$11  00 

$12  OO 

£13  00 

$14  00 

£15  00 

Days. 

I 

1 16§ 

I 25 

1 334 

1 661 

1 834 

2 OO 

2 17 

2 334 

2 50 

2 

2 334 

2 50 

2 661 

3 334 

3 661 

4 OO 

4 34 

4 661 

5 00 

3 

3 50 

3 75 

4 00 

5 00 

5 50 

6 00 

6 51 

7 00 

7 50 

4 

4 661 

5 09 

5 334 

6 66 § 

7 334 

8 00 

8 68 

9 334 

10  50 

5 

5 83I 

6 25 

6 661 

8 333 

9 16I 

10  00 

10  85 

n 661 

12  5a 

6 

7 00 

7 50 

8 00 

10  00 

II  OO 

12  00 

13  00 

14  OO 

15  00 

If  the  desired  number  of  days  or  amount  of  wages  is  not  in  the  table,  double  or 
treble  any  suitable  number  of  days  or  amount  of  money  as  the  case  may  be,  until  you 
obtain  the  desired  number  of  days  and  the  wages  to  correspond. 


INTEREST  TABLES. 

Rules  for  the  Use  of  Tables. 

1.  To  compute  the  interest  at  2$,  take  one-half  the  amount  given  in  Table  I., 
against  the  time  found  in  right  hand  column  and  under  the  amount  given  in  top  line. 

2.  To  compute  the  interest  at  2 y2i,  follow  the  above  direction,  using  Table  II. 

3.  To  compute  the  interest  at  3$,  use  Table  III.,  as  above. 

4.  The  interest  at  4$  is  found  in  Table  I. 

5.  The  interest  at  5$  is  found  in  Table  II. 

6.  The  interest  at  6%  is  found  in  Table  III. 

7.  The  interest  at  7%  is  found  in  Table  IV. 

8.  To  compute  the  interest  at  7%%}  take  amounts  given  in  Table  II.  and  multi, 
ply  that  result  by  three. 

9.  To  compute  the  interest  at  8$,  double  the  amounts  given  in  Table  I. 

10.  To  compute  the  interest  at  9$,  take  one  half  the  amounts  given  in  Table  III. 
and  multiply  that  result  by  three. 

11.  To  compute  the  interest  at  10$,  double  the  amounts  given  in  Table  II. 

12.  To  compute  the  interest  at  12$,  double  the  amounts  given  in  Table  III. 

13.  To  compute  the  interest  at  14$,  double  the  amounts  given  in  Table  IV. 

14.  A SHORT  RULE  for  computing  interest  for  days  at  six  per  cent:  multiply 

sum  by  half  the  number  of  days,  and  divide  result  by  30,  and  you  have  the  interest 
in  cents. 

INTEREST  TABLE  I. 


Time. 

$5 

$10 

$20 

$30 

$40 

$50 

$60 

$70 

$80 

$90 

$100 

$500 

1 

day 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

.01 

.01 

.01 

.01 

.01 

.01 

.06 

2 

days 

0 

0 i 

0 

.01 

.01 

.01 

.01 

.02 

.02 

.02 

.02 

.12 

3 

0 

0 

.01 

.01 

.01 

.02 

.02 

.02 

.03 

.03 

•03 

.15 

4 

“ 

0 

0 1 

.01 

.01 

.02 

.02 

.03 

.03 

.04. 

.04 

•05 

.22 

5 

44  . • • 

0 

.01 

.01 

.02 

.02 

.03 

.03 

.04 

.04 

.05 

.06 

.28 

6 

44  

0 

.01  | 

| .01 

.02 

•03 

•03 

.04 

.05 

.05 

.06 

.07 

• 33 

7 

tl 

0 

.01 

.02 

.02 

.03 

.04 

.04 

.05 

.06 

.07 

.08 

•39 

8 

14 

.00 

.01  | 

.02 

.03 

.04 

.04 

.05 

.ob 

.07 

.08 

.09 

• 44 

9 

44 

.01 

•01  i 

i -°2 

.03 

.04 

• 05 

.06 

.07 

.08 

.09 

.10 

• 50 

10 

“ 

.01 

.01 

.02 

• 03 

.04 

.06 

.07 

.08 

.09 

.10 

.11 

• 55 

11 

4< 

.01 

.01 

.02 

.03 

• 05 

.06 

.07 

.08 

.10 

.11 

. 12 

.61 

12 

Ci 

.01 

.01  ' 

•03 

.04 

•05 

.07 

.08 

.09 

.11 

. 12 

.13 

.67 

13 

4 4 

.01 

.OI 

.03 

.04 

.06 

.07 

.09 

.10 

.12 

• 13 

.14 

.72 

14 

“ 

.01 

.02 

•03 

•05 

.06 

.08 

.09 

.11 

.12 

.14 

.16 

• 73 

15 

.01 

.02 

.03 

.05 

.07 

.08 

.10 

.12 

• 13 

.15 

.17 

.83 

16 

“ 

•OI 

.02 

.04 

• 05 

.07 

.09 

.11 

. 12 

.14 

. 16 

.18 

.89 

17 

41  

.01 

.02 

.04 

.06 

.08 

.09 

.11 

.13 

.15 

.17 

.19 

.94 

18 

“ 

.01 

.02 

.04 

.06 

.08 

. 10 

.12 

.14 

.16 

.18 

.20 

1 .00 

19 

44 

.01 

.02 

.04 

.06 

.08 

.11 

.13 

.15 

.17 

.19 

.21 

1.05 

20 

44 

.01 

.02 

.04 

.07 

.09 

.11 

.13 

. 16 

.18 

.20 

.22 

1. 11 

21 

4 * t t t 

.01 

.02 

.05 

.07 

.09 

. 12 

.14 

. 16 

.19 

.21 

.23 

1. 17 

22 

4 * 

.01 

.02 

.05 

.07 

. 10 

. 12 

.15 

.17 

.19 

.22 

.24 

1.22 

23 

“ 

.01 

•03 

• 05 

.08 

.10 

.13 

•15 

• 17 

.20 

.23 

.26 

1.28 

24 

.01 

03 

.05 

.08 

. 11 

• 13 

. 16 

.19 

.21 

.24 

.27 

1-33 

25 

4 4 

.01 

•03 

.06 

.08 

. n 

.14 

.17 

.19 

.22 

.25 

.28 

i-39 

26 

.01 

1 .03 

.06 

.09 

.12 

.14 

.17 

.20 

.23 

.26 

.29 

1.44 

27 

4 4 

.02 

| -03 

.06 

.09 

.12 

.15 

.18 

.21 

.24 

.27 

.30 

1.50 

28 

.02 

1 .03 

.06 

.09 

.13 

. 16 

.19 

.22 

.25 

.28 

• 31 

1.56 

29 

44 

.02 

•03 

.06 

. 10 

.13 

. 16 

.19 

.23 

.26 

.29 

.32 

1.60 

1 

month 

.02 

•03 

.07 

. 10 

.13 

.17 

.20. 

.23 

.27 

.30 

•33 

1.67 

1 

year 

.20 

.40 

.80 

1 . 20 

1 1.60 

2.00 

2.40 

2.80 

3.20 

3.60 

4.00 

20.00 

INTEREST  TABLE  II, 


Time. 

$5 

$10 

$20 

$30 

$40! 

$5o 

$60 

$70 

$80 

$90  !$100 

1 

$500 

i day 

o 

O 

o 

o 

.01 

.01 

.01 

.01 

.01 

.OI 

.01 

.07 

2 days 

3 “ 

o 

o 

• OI 

.OI 

.01 

.01 

.02 

.02 

.02 

.03 

.03 

.14 

o 

o 

.OI 

.OI 

.01 

.02 

.02 

•03 

.03 

.04 

.04 

.21 

4 “ 

o 

.OI 

.OI 

.02 

.02 

.03 

.03 

.04 

.04 

.05 

.06 

.28 

- < i 

5 

o 

.OI 

.OI 

.02 

.03 

.03 

.04 

.05 

.06 

.06 

.07 

•35 

6 “ 

o 

• OI 

.02 

.03 

.03 

.04 

.05 

.06 

.07 

.08 

.08 

.42 

7 “ 

o 

• OI 

.02 

•03 

.04 

•05 

.06 

.07 

.08 

.09 

. 10 

•49 

8 “ 

• OI 

.OI 

.02 

•03 

.04 

.06 

.0*7 

.08 

.09 

. IO 

. 11 

• 55 

9 “ 

.OI 

.OI 

.02 

.04 

.05 

.06 

,c8 

.->9 

. 10 

.11 

• 13 

.62 

IO  “ 

.OI 

. OT. 

.03 

.04 

.06 

.07 

.08 

.19 

.11 

.13 

.14 

.69 

ii  “ 

,OI 

.02 

.03 

.05 

.06 

.08 

.09 

.11 

. 12 

.13 

.15 

.76 

12  “ 

.OI 

.02 

.03 

■05 

•07 

.08 

. 10 

.12 

.13 

.15 

•17 

.83 

13  “ 

.OI 

.02 

.04 

.05 

.07 

.09 

.11 

.13 

.15 

. 16 

.18 

.90 

14  “ 

• OI 

.02 

' .04 

.06 

.08  | 

1 -IO 

.12 

.14 

. 16 

.17 

.19 

•97 

15  “ 

.OI 

.02 

.04 

.07 

.09  ] 

.10 

• 13 

.15 

.17 

.19 

.22 

1.04 

16  “ 

.OI 

.02 

.04 

.07 

.09 

.11 

.13 

. 16 

.18 

.20 

.22 

1. 11 

r;  “ 

.OI 

.02 

.05 

.07 

.09 

. 12 

.14 

.17 

.19  ; 

.21 

.24 

1. 19 

18  “ 

• OI 

•03 

.05 

.07 

. 10 

'13 

.15 

.18 

.20 

.22 

.25 

1.25 

19  “ 

.OI 

•03 

.05 

.08 

.11 

-13  ' 

I -l6 

.18 

.21 

.24 

.28 

1.32 

20  “ 

.OI 

.03 

.06 

.09 

.11 

.14  < 

! • T7 

.19 

.22 

.25 

.2? 

1-39 

21  “ 

.02 

• 03 

.06 

.09 

.12 

.15 

| .18 

.20 

.23 

. 26 

• 3<f 

1.46 

22  “ 

.02 

.03 

.06 

.09 

.12 

. IvJ 

1 -18 

.21 

.24 

.27 

.31 

1-53 

23  “ 

.02 

•03 

.06 

. 10 

.13 

.l6  1 

.19 

.22 

.26 

.29 

.32 

1. 71 

24  “ 

.02 

.03 

.07 

. 10 

.13 

.17 

.20 

.23 

.27 

.30 

• 33 

1.67 

25  “ 

.02 

.03 

.07 

.10 

.14 

.17 

.21  ’ 

.24 

.28 

•31 

• 35 

i-73 

26  “ 

.02 

.04 

.07 

.11 

.15 

.18 

.21 

.25 

.29 

.32 

•36 

1 .81 

27  “ 

.02 

.04 

.08 

.11 

.15 

.19 

.22 

.26 

.30 

•34 

•37 

1.87 

28  “ 

.02 

.04 

.08 

. 12 

.16 

.19 

.23 

.27 

.31 

•35 

•39 

1.94 

29  “ 

.02 

.04 

.08 

. 12 

. 16 

.20 

.24 

.28 

• 33 

.36 

.40 

2.01 

i month 

.02 

.04 

.08 

.13 

.17 

.21 

.25 

.29 

• 33 

.38 

.41 

2.09 

I year 

•25 

•50 

1.00 

1.50 

2.00 

2.50 

3.00 

3.50 

4.00 

4.50 

5.00 

25.00 

INTEREST  TABLE  IV. 


Time.  j 

$5 

$10 

$20 

$30 

$40 

$50 

$60 

$70 

$80 

$90 

$100 

$500 

1 

day 

0 

0 

0 

.01 

.01 

.01 

.01 

.01 

.02 

.02 

.02 

. 10 

2 

days 

0 

0 

.01 

.01 

.02 

.02 

.02 

• 03 

•03 

•03 

.04 

.19 

3 

“ 

, 0 

.01 

.01 

.02 

.•02 

.03 

.04 

.04 

.04 

•05 

.06 

• 29 

4 

t 4 

0 

.01 

.01 

.02 

.03 

.04 

.05 

.06 

.06 

•07 

.gS 

• 39 

5 

4 4 . . . . T , t 

0 

•OI 

.02 

• 03 

.04 

•05 

.06 

.07 

.08 

.09 

. LO 

•49 

6 

44  

.01 

.01 

.02 

.04 

.05 

.06 

.07 

.08 

.09 

.11 

.12 

•5? 

7 

4 4 

.01 

.01 

.03 

.04 

.05 

.07 

.08 

. 10. 

.11 

. 12 

.14 

M 

8 

44  

.01 

.02 

.03 

.05 

.06 

.08 

.09 

.11 

.12 

.14 

.16 

.78 

9 

< i 

.01 

.02 

.04 

• 05 

.07 

.09 

.11 

.13 

.14 

.16 

.18 

.88 

10 

44  

.01 

.02 

.04 

.06 

.08 

. 10 

.12 

.14 

. 16 

.18 

.19 

•94 

11 

44 

.01 

.02 

.04 

.06 

.09 

.11 

.13 

.15 

.17 

.19 

.21 

I.O) 

12 

44  _ . . t 

.01 

.02 

•05 

.07 

.09 

. 12 

.14 

. 16 

.19 

.21 

.23 

1 . 16 

13 

4 4 ...  . 

.01 

.03 

.05 

.08 

. 10 

.13 

.15 

.18 

.20 

.23 

•25 

1 . 2<f 

14 

44  T . . T t 

.01 

.03 

.05 

.08 

.11 

.14 

. 16 

.19 

.22 

.25 

.27 

I.36 

T5 

4 4 

.01 

•03 

.06 

.09 

.12 

.15 

.18 

.20 

.23 

.26 

.29 

I.46 

16 

44  

.02 

•03 

.06 

.09 

.12 

. 16 

.19 

.2* 

.24 

.28 

.31 

1.56 

17 

< ( 

.02 

•03 

.07 

.10  | 

1 -13 

.17 

.20 

.23 

.25 

•30 

• 33  1 

1.65 

18 

4 4 

.02 

.04 

.07 

.11 

.14 

.18 

.21 

.24 

•27 

.32 

•35 

L75 

19 

44 

.02 

.04 

.07 

.11 

.15 

• T9 

.22 

.26 

•29 

•33 

.36 

1.82 

20 

44  

.02 

.04 

.08 

.12 

. 16 

.20 

.23 

.27 

• 31 

•35 

.38 

1-94 

21 

44 

.02 

.04 

.08 

.12 

. 16 

.21 

.24 

.28 

•33 

•37 

.41 

2.04 

22 

44 

.02 

.04 

.09 

.13 

.17 

.22 

.26 

•30 

•34 

•39 

•43 

2.14 

23 

“ 

.02 

•04 

.09 

• x3 

.18 

.23 

.27 

•31 

.36 

.40 

•45 

2.24 

24 

“ 

.02 

.05 

.09 

.14 

.19 

.24 

.28 

•33 

•37 

•42 

•47 

2-33 

25 

“ 

.02 

.05 

. 10 

.14 

.19 

.25 

.29 

•34 

•39 

•44 

•49 

2-43 

26 

4 ‘ 

.02 

.05 

.10 

.15 

.20 

.26 

.30 

• 35 

.40 

.46 

• 50 

2-53 

27 

44 

•03 

.06 

. 11 

. 16 

.21 

.27 

.32 

•37 

.42 

•47 

•52 

2.63 

2S 

4 4 

.03 

.06 

.11 

. 16 

.22 

.28 

• 33 

.38 

•44 

•49 

• 54 

2.73 

29 

44  

.03 

.06 

. n 

.17 

.23 

•29 

• 34 

.40 

• 45 

• 50 

06 

2.82 

I 

month 

• 03 

.06 

. 12 

.18 

•23 

.29 

•35 

.41 

• 47 

.52 

.58 

2.92 

I 

year 

■35 

.70 

1.40 

2. 10 

2.80 

3-50 

4.20 

4.90 

5.60 

6.30 

7.00 

35.00 

A TABLE, 


Showing  the  number  of  days  from  any  day  in  one  month,  to  the  same  day  in  any  other 
month.  Very  useful  in  Banking  business. 


From 

Jan. 

Feb. 

Mar. 

April. 

May. 

June. 

July. 

Aug. 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

to  January. 

365 

3i 

59 

90 

120 

15 1 

181 

212 

243 

273 

304 

334 

February. 

334 

365 

28 

59 

89 

120 

150 

181 

212 

242 

273 

303 

March. 

306 

337 

365 

3i 

6 1 

92 

122 

153 

184 

214 

245 

275 

April. 

275 

306 

334 

365 

30 

61 

9i 

122 

153 

183 

214 

244 

May. 

245 

276 

304 

335 

365 

31 

6 1 

92 

123 

153 

184 

214 

June. 

214 

245 

273 

304 

334 

365 

30 

61 

92 

122 

153 

183 

July. 

184 

215 

243 

274 

304 

335 

365 

31 

62 

92 

223 

153 

August, 

153 

184 

212 

243 

273 

304 

334 

365 

3i 

6 1 

92 

122 

September. 

122 

153 

181 

212 

242 

273 

303 

334 

365 

30 

6 1 

91 

October. 

92 

123 

I5i 

182 

212 

243 

273 

304 

335 

365 

3i 

6 1 

November. 

61 

92 

120 

151 

181 

212 

242 

273 

304 

334 

365 

30 

December. 

3i 

62 

90 

121 

I5i 

182 

212 

243 

274 

304 

335 

365 

Table  III. 


TIME. 

$5 

$10 

$20 

$30 

$40 

£50 

#60 

#70 

$80 

$90 

$100 

$500 

I 

Day. 

O 

0 

0 

1 

I 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

9 

2 

Days 

0 

0 

1 

1 

I 

2 

2 

2 

3 

3 

3 

17 

3 

<< 

0 

1 

1 

2 

2 

3 

3 

4 

4 

5 

5 

25 

4 

tt 

0 

1 

1 

2 

3 

3 

4 

5 

5 

6 

7 

34 

5 

tt 

0 

1 

2 

3 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

8 

42 

6 

u 

I 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

50 

7 

tt 

I 

1 

2 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

1 1 

12 

59 

8 

tt 

I 

1 

3 

4 

5 

7 

8 

9 

11 

12 

13 

67 

9 

a 

I 

2 

3 

5 

6 

8 

9 

1 1 

12 

14 

15 

75 

10 

tt 

I 

2 

3 

5 

7 

8 

10 

12 

13 

15 

17 

84 

1 1 

u 

I 

2 

4 

6 

7 

9 

1 1 

IS 

15 

17 

J 8 

92 

12 

•I 

2 

4 

6 

8 

10 

12 

14 

1 6 

18 

20 

1 

00 

13 

tt 

I 

2 

4 

7 

9 

1 1 

13 

15 

17 

20 

22 

1 

09 

14 

tt 

I 

2 

5 

7 

9 

12 

14 

1 6 

19 

21 

23 

1 

17 

15 

ft 

I 

3 

5 

8 

10 

i3 

15 

18 

20 

23 

25 

1 

25 

16 

it 

I 

3 

5 

8 

1 1 

13 

1 6 

19 

21 

24 

27 

1 

33 

17 

a 

I 

3 

6 

9 

1 1 

14 

1 7 

20 

23 

26 

28 

1 

42 

18 

u 

2 

3 

6 

9 

12 

15 

18 

21 

24 

27 

30 

1 

50 

19 

« 

2 

3 

6 

10 

13 

1 6 

19 

22 

25 

29 

32 

1 

59 

20 

it 

2 

3 

7 

10 

13 

17 

20 

23 

27 

30 

33 

1 

67 

21 

u 

2 

4 

7 

1 1 

14 

18 

21 

25\ 

28 

32 

35 

1 

75 

22 

tt 

2 

4 

7 

1 1 

15 

18 

22 

26' 

29 

33 

37 

1 

84 

23 

tt 

2 

4 

8 

12 

15 

19 

23 

27 

3i 

35 

38 

1 

92 

24 

tt 

2 

4 

8 

12 

1 6 

20 

24 

28 

32 

36 

40 

2 

00 

25 

u 

2 

4 

8 

13 

17 

21 

25 

29 

33 

38 

42 

2 

09 

26 

tt 

2 

4 

9 

13 

17 

22 

26 

30 

35 

39 

43 

2 

17 

27 

tt 

2 

5 

9 

14 

18 

23 

27 

32 

36 

4i 

45 

2 

25 

28 

it 

2 

5 

9 

14 

19 

23 

28 

33 

37 

42 

47 

2 

34 

29 

tt 

2 

5 

10 

15 

19 

24 

29 

34 

39 

44 

48 

2 

42 

I month 

3 

5 

10 

15 

20 

25 

30 

35 

40 

45 

50 

2 

50 

i year. 

i 30_ 

1 60 

1 20 

T 80 

2 40 

3 00 

3 60 

4 20 

4 80 

5 40 

6 00 

30 

00 

VALUE  OF  FOREIGN  COINS  IN  UNITED  STATES  MONEY. 


(Proclaimed  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  January  1st,  1889.) 


Country. 

Standard. 

Argentine  Rep. . . 

Double 

Austria 

Single  silver. . 

Belgium 

Double 

Bolivia 

Single  silver.  . 

Brazil 

Single  gold . . . 

British  N.  Amer. . 

Single  gold . . . 

Chili 

Double 

Cuba 

Double 

Denmark 

Single  gold . . . 

Ecuador 

Single  silver. . 

Egypt 

Single  gold . . . 

F ranee 

Double 

German  Empire. . 

Single  gold . . . 

Great  Britain  .... 

Single  gold . . . 

Greece 

Double 

Guatemala 

Single  silver. . 

Playti 

Double 

Honduras 

Single  silver.  . 

India 

Single  silver. . 

Italy 

Double 

Tanan  

*Donble 

Liberia 

Single  gold . . . 

Mexico 

Single  silver. . 

Netherlands 

Double 

Nicaragua 

Single  silver.  . 

Norway 

Single  gold. . . 

Peru 

Single  silver. . 

Portugal 

Single  gold. . . 

Russia 

Single  silver. . 

Spain 

Double. . . 

Sweden 

Single  gold. . . . 

Switzerland 

Double 

Tripoli. 

Single  silver. . 

Turkey 

Single  gold . . . 

U.  S.  Colombia. . 

Single  silver. . 

Venezuela 

Single  silver.  . 

Monetary  Unit. 

Value  in 
U.S.  Money 

Coins. 

Peso  

$0.96,5 

Gold:  argentine  ($4.82,4)  and  ]/2  argentine. 
Silver  : peso  and  divisions. 

Florin 

•33,6 

Gold  : 4 florins  ($1.92,9),  8 florins  ($3.85,8), 
ducat  ($2.28,7),  and  4 ducats  ($9.15,8). 
Silver  : 1 and  2 florins. 

Franc 

•19,3 

Gold  : 10  and  20  francs.  Silver  : 5 francs. 

Boliviano 

.68 

Silver  : Boliviano  and  divisions. 

Milreis  of  1,000  reis.. . . 

•54,6 

Gold  : 5,  10,  and  20  milreis.  Silver  : 1, 

and  2 milreis. 

Dollar 

1. 00 

Peso 

.91,2 

Gold:  escudo  ($1.82,4),  doubloon  ($4.56,1), 
and  condor  ($9.12,3).  Silver:  peso  and 
divisions. 

Peso 

.92,6 

Gold:  doubloon  ($5.01,7).  Silver:  peso. 

Crown 

.26,8 

Gold  : 10  and  20  crowns. 

Sucre 

.68 

Gold  : condor  ($9.64,7)  and  double  condor. 
Silver  : sucre  and  divisions. 

Pound  (100  piastres)  . . . 

4-94,3 

Gold  : pound  (100  piastres,  50  piastres,  20 
piastres,  10  piastres,  and  5 piastres. 
Silver  : 1,  2,  5,  10,  and  20  piastres. 

Franc  

•19,3 

Gold  : 5,  10,  20,  50,  and  100  francs.  Silver  : 
5 francs. 

Mark 

.23,8 

Gold  : 5,  10,  and  20  marks. 

Pound  sterling 

4.86,6^ 

Gold  : sovereign  (pound  sterling'*  and  sot. 

Drachma 

•19,3 

Gold  : 5,  10,  20,  50,  and  100  dracilmas0 
Silver  : 5 drachmas. 

Peso 

.68 

Silver  : peso  and  divisions 

Gourde 

• 96,5 

Silver : gourde. 

Peso 

.68 

Silver  : divisions  of  peso. 

Rupee  of  16  annas 

.32,3 

Gold  : mohur  ($7.10,5).  Silver  *.  rupee  and 
divisions. 

Lira 

.19,3 

Gold  : 5,  10,  20,  50,  and  100  liras.  Silver  : 
5 liras. 

Yen1  Silver 

•99,7 

Gold  : 1,  2,  5,  10,  and  20  yen. 

•73,4 

Silver  : yen. 

Dollar 

1. 00 

Dollar 

•73,9 

Gold  : dollar  ($0.98,3),  2j£,  5,  10,  and  20 
dollars.  Silver  : dollar  (or  peso)  and  div. 

Florin 

.40,2 

Gold  : 10  florins.  Silver  : j£,  1,  and  2j£  flor. 

Peso 

.68 

Silver  : peso  and  divisions. 

Crown 

.26.8 

Gold  : 10  and  20  crowns. 

Sol 

.68 

Silver  : sol  and  divisions. 

Milreis  of  1,000  reis 

1.08 

Gold  : 1,  2,  5,  and  10  milreis. 

Rouble  of  100  kopecks. 

• 54-4 

Gold:  imperial  ($7.71,8),  and  % imperialf 
($3.86,0).  Silver:  X,  y2>  and  1 rouble. 

Peseta  of  100  centimes. 

.19,3 

Gold  : 25  pesetas.  Silver  : 5 pesetas. 

Crown  . 

.26,8 

Gold  : 10  and  20  crowns. 

Franc  

.19,3 

Gold  : 5,  10,  20,  50,  and  100  francs.  Silver: 
5 francs. 

Mahbub  of  20  piastres. 

.61,4 

Piastre  

.04,4 

Gold  : 25,  50,  100,  250,  and  500  piastres. 
Gold  : condor  ($9.64,7)  and  double-condor. 
Silver : peso. 

Peso 

.68 

Bolivar 

.13,6 

Gold  : 5,  10,  20,  50,  and  100  bolivars.  Sil. 
ver  : 5 bolivars. 

* Gold  the  nominal  standard.  Silver  practically  the  standard.  The  value  of  the  Shanghai  taels  based  on 
the  price  of  silver  used  in  estimating  the  value  of  foreign  silver  coins,  as  above,  is  $1,005. 
f Coined  since  January  1st,  1886.  Old  half-imperial  = $3.98,6. 

Note. — The  “ Standard  ” of  a given  country  is  indicated  as  follows,  namelv  : Double , where  its  standard 
silver  coins  are  unlimited  legal  tender,  the  same  as  its  gold  coins  ; single  gold  or  single  silver , as  its  standard  coins 
of  one  or  the  other  metal  are  unlimited  legal  tender.  The  par  of  exchange  of  the  monetary  unit  of  a country 
with  a single  gold  standard  is  fixed  at  the  value  of  the  gold  unit  as  compared  with  the  United  States  gold  unit. 


Commercial  and  Legal. 

THE  BUSINESS  MANUAL. 


NEGOTIABLE  PAPER. 

Any  instrument  implying  an  obligation  upon  the  maker  to  pay  a certain  sum  ot 
money  to  a certain  person,  or  order,  or  to  bearer,  at  a certain  time , without  condition,  iot 
value  received,  may  be  transferred,  and  the  holder  will  acquire  the  same  rights  as  the 
original  payee. 

A note  without  the  words  “or  order”  or  bearer  is  not  negotiable.  If  a note  is 
made  payable  to  a certain  person  or  order  the  payee  must  indorse  it  before  it  can 
be  transferred.  A note  without  a specified  time  for  payment  is  payable  on  demand. 
A note  does  not  draw  interest  unless  it  contains  the  words  “ with  interest.”  A note  or 
bill  payable  in  Mdse,  is  not  negotiable.  A note  made  on  Sunday  is  void.  A note  ob- 
tained by  fraud  or  from  a person  in  a state  of  intoxication  cannot  be  collected.  A 
note  containing  a condition  or  contingency  upon  which  the  payment  is  based  is  not 
generally  negotiable. 

The  sum  for  which  notes,  bills  and  checks  are  drawn  is  usually  expressed  in  both 
figures  and  words,  and  when  any  difference  arises  the  words  are  accepted  as  expressing 
the  sum  intended. 

A bill  of  exchange  should  be  presented  for  acceptance  within  a reasonable  time 
after  it  is  received.  Presentment  for  acceptance  should  be  made  to  the  drawee  him- 
self or  his  authorized  agent.  It  should  be  made  during  the  usual  business  hours  of 
the  day.  If  the  drawee  has  removed  his  residence  or  place  of  business  diligent  inquiry 
should  be  made  for  him.  The  drawee  should  be  given  reasonable  time  to  consider 
whether  or  not  he  will  accept  the  bill.  He  should  have  time,  if  desired,  to  look  over 
his  accounts  to  see  whether  he  has  sufficient  funds  belonging  to  the  drawee.  If  he 
decides  to  accept  the  bill  he  should  write  the  word  accepted  across  the  face,  with  his 
name  and  date  of  acceptance.  The  time  for  which  it  was  drawn  is  counted  from  the 
date  of  acceptance.  If  the  bill  is  properly  presented  and  the  drawee  refuses  to  accept 
it,  it  is  said  to  be  dishonored. 

If  a foreign  bill , it  should  then  be  protested  and  notice  immediately  given  to  the 
drawer  and  each  indorser.  A foreign  bill  is  one  drawn  by  a person  in  one  State  Of 
country  on  a .person  in  another  State  or  country. 


184 


COMMERCIAL  LAW  AND  LEGAL  FORMS. 


An  inland  bill  is  one  in  which  the  drawer  and  drawee  are  both  residents  of  thesarm* 
State  or  country. 

The  several  States  of  the  United  States  are  foreign  to  each  other  so  far  as  relates 
to  bills  of  exchange. 

An  inland  bill  need  not  be  protested  unless  so  required  by  statute,  but  notice  of 
dishonor  should  be  given  to  the  drawer  and  indorsers. 


INDORSEMENTS. 

WHEN  the  indorser  simply  writes  his  name  on  the  back  of  a negotiable  instrument 
it  is  said  to  be  indorsed  in  blank.  A negotiable  instrument  thus  indorsed  is  trans- 
ferable by  delivery,  like  a bank  bill. 

When  the  indorser  by  his  indorsement  makes  the  instrument  payable  to  a particu- 
lar person,  it  is  said  to  be  an  indorsement  in  full,  and  demand  of  payment  can  be  made 
only  by  the  indorsee  or  person  to  whom  it  is  ordered  paid. 

When  an  indorsee  intends  to  transfer  the  instrument  without  rendering  himself 
liable,  he  should  write  the  words  “ without  recourse  ” under  his  indorsement. 

In  order  to  hold  the  indorsers  of  a promissory  note,  when  the  maker  fails  to  pay, 
demand  of  payment  should  be  made  on  the  day  when  the  note  becomes  due. 

If  a note  is  lost  the  obligation  of  the  maker  remains  the  same>  if  the  consideration 
for  which  it  was  given  can  be  proved.  Any  unreasonable  delay  in  presenting  a check 
or  draft  for  payment  may  release  the  drawer  from  his  obligation. 

The  law  of  the  place  where  an  indorsement  is  made  controls  the  rights  and  regu- 
lates the  duties  of  the  parties  to  a bill  or  note.  When  a note  given  in  one  place  is 
made  payable  in  another,  the  law  of  the  place  where  payable  will  govern  as  to  the  rate 
of  interest,  if  no  rate  is  expressed  in  the  instrument. 

The  maker  of  an  accommodation  note  is  not  liable  to  the  person  whom  he  accom- 
modates, but  to  all  who  give  credit  on  the  strength  of  his  indorsement. 

A bill  or  note  may  be  written  with  either  ink  or  pencil,  and  upon  paper  or  any 
substitute  for  it. 

If  a note  or  bill  payable  without  grace  falls  on  Sunday  or  a legal  holiday,  it  is  not 
payable  until  the  next  day.  When  the  last  day  of  grace  falls  on  such  a day  it  is  pay- 
able on  the  day  before,  because  the  days  of  grace  are  matters  of  favor  which  should  be 
shortened  instead  of  lengthened  when  Sunday  or  a holiday  intervenes. 

When  the  maker  of  a note  or  bill  fails  to  pay  it  when  due,  immediate  notice  of 
non-payment  should  be  given  to  the  indorsers  and  all  persons  liable  to  pay  it.  The 
reason  of  this  is  that  the  party  receiving  the  notice  may  obtain  security  from  the 
party  liable  to  him  for  the  sum  for  which  he  is  liable  to  the  other  party. 

The  holder  of  the  note  may  give  notice  to  all  the  indorsers  or  only  to  the  last  one; 
in  the  latter  case  the  indorser  so  notified  must  give  notice  to  the  last  one  before  him, 
and  so  on. 

16 


COMMERCIAL,  DEPARTMENT, 


Maxims  of  Business  Law. 


FORM  OF  DEPOSIT  SLIPS. 


2 . 


5- 


10. 


ii, 


2 . 


Ignorance  of  the  law  ex- 
cuses no  one. 

It  is  a fraud  to  conceal  a 
fraud. 

The  law  compels  nq  one 
to  do  impossibilities. 

An  agreement  withoutcon- 
sideration  is  null  and 
void. 

Signatures  made  with  a 
lead  pencil  ate  good  in 
law. 

A receipt  for  money  paid  is 
not  legally  conclusive. 

The  acts  of  one  partner 
legally  bind  all  the 
others. 

Contracts  made  on  Sunday 
cannot  be  enforced. 

A note  of  or  a contract 
made  with  a minor  or 
lunatic  is  void. 

Principals  are  responsible 
far  the  authorized  acts 
of  their  agents. 

Agents  are  responsible  to 
their  principals  for  err- 
ors. 

Each  individual  in  a part- 
nership is  responsible 
for  all  the  debts  of  the 
firm. 


To  be  filled  out  and  delivered  to  bank  with  money  and 
checks  deposited: 


DEPOSITED  IN 


J7ew  York, 

£7  DOLLARS  | CENTS. 


77 

Specie, 

(Bills, 

Checks , J7.  Y.  City ; 


& 


Country  Checks . 


Ji 

ca 

a.* 

/U). 

— > 

gw 

7e.o 

7 

fc  ■ 

TOTAL 
COUNTRY 


TOTAL  FOOTING. 


~OGL 


$7  7 ft 


'3- 

14. 

*5- 

16. 

17- 

18. 


Notes  bear  interest  only  when  so  stated. 

It  is  not  legally  necessary  to  say  on  a note  “ for  value  received.” 

A note  drawn  on  Sunday  is  void. 

A note  obtained  by  fraud,  or  from  a person  intoxicated,  cannot  be  collected. 

If  a note  be  lost  or  stolen,  it  does  not  release  the  maker;  he  must  pay  it. 

An  indorsement  of  a note  is  exempt  from  liability  if  not  served  with  notice  of  its 
dishonor  within  twenty-four  hours  of  its  non-payment. 


BANK  DEMAND  NOTE,  WITH  INTEREST. 


FORM  OF  CHECK. 
Drawn  on  Bank  by  Depositor. 


t 


form  of  draft  accompanying 

BILL  OF  LADING. 

If  to  be  sold  or  discounted  the  words  “ or 
Collection  '9  should  be  omitted. 


FORM  OF  A PROMISSORY  NOTE  PAY- 
ABLE AT  BANK. 

If  note  is  to  be  paid  on  demand  insert 
words  “On  Demand”  in  place  of  “Three 
(3)  months.” 


FORM  OF  NOTE  TO  BE  GIVEN  WITH  COLLATERAL  SECURITY. 
Containing  power  to  sell  at  discretion. 


^ Ifg  u°° 


^ 


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ties  /e\j{Juiy'  d'  "^HE  CHEMICAL  NATIONAL  BANK  OF  N.  Y ” 

7 <ade  ajA  da/ddSanA.  __ 

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.^2 


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due/z  date'  eatl/z  teyaf  a 

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letnz  Aalde  t/dei^AAy' daA'cfiA/Aem  decuic/y  ; andt/ed-AeieAy  ayleed  and  andeid/aad  /Aa/ 
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FORM  OF  BANK  DRAFT— DRAWN  BY  A WESTERN  BANK  ON  A NEW  YORK  BANKING  FIRM. 


B0BSB0BBB0B0B0B9REEI£!H0B9B3  B53ES 
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FORM  OF  PROTEST  UPON  NON-PAYMENT  OF  NOTE. 

If  a note  is  not  paid  at  maturity,  it  is  customary  for  a Notary  Public  to  demand  payment,  and  upon 
neglect  to  pay  he  issues  a notice  of  protest.  One  is  sent  to  each  endorser.  If  this  is  not  done  within 
24  hours  after  note  falls  due,  the  endorser  is  relieved  of  all  liability. 


Initeb  JSlales  of  America As 


STATE  OF  ) 

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4n  /Zc  yueoence  of  fitZn  Office  ant/  ^jZtcZZZ/  {ZZtoe>  hoi/neodeo . 

IN  TESTIMONIUM  VERITATIS. 


' — @AU»V  @U&.  _ 

<s> 


Uniltb  States  of  Jmcrica2ss> 

STATE  or  JWIW.  YORK,  y h 

^ / (QJ/^LS  Z/<^ 

■ <y?7 


■y/y?  /,  SD  / " ®/V‘°*a*y  da/y  attyUtta/^f^wotn. 

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UNITED  STATES  POSTAL  LAWS  AND  REGULATIONS. 


First-Class  Matter. — Matter  which  is  in  writing,  printed  commercial  papers, 
filled  out  in  writing,  having  the  nature  of  a personal  correspondence,  or  being  the 
expression  of  a money  value,  and  all  packages,  the  contents  of  which  cannot  be 
ascertained  without  destroying  the  wrapper.  Postage,  2 cents  an  ounce,  and  for 
each  fraction  above  an  ounce.  On  local  or  drop  letters,  at  free  delivery  offices,  2 
cents.  At  offices  where  no  free  delivery  by  carriers,  1 cent.  Weight  of  packages 
not  limited.  Postage  must  be  prepaid.  Registered  letters,  10  cents  in  addition  to 
postage. 

The  Post-Office  Department  is  not  liable  for  the  loss  of  any  mail  matter,  but 
will  use  its  best  efforts  to  assist  the  owners  in  its  recovery. 

Second-Class  Matter. — Includes  all  newspapers,  periodicals,  or  matter  in 
print  and  issued  at  stated  periods.  Postage,  if  sent  by  publishers,  1 cent  per  lb. 
If  by  others,  1 cent  for  each  4 oz.  Weight  not  limited.  Postage  must  be  prepaid. 

Third-Class  Matter. — Embraces  books  (printed  and  blank),  transient  news- 
papers and  periodicals,  circulars  and  other  matter  in  print,  proof-sheets,  manuscript 
copy  accompanying  the  same,  printed  blanks,  printed  cards ; postage  at  the  rate  of  1 
cent  for  each  2 ounces  or  part  thereof.  Must  be  prepaid. 

All  packages  must  be  wrapped  with  open  sides  or  ends,  and  may  be  registered. 

Printed  matter  is  “ the  reproduction  upon  paper  by  any  process  except  that  of 
hand-writing  of  any  words,  letters,  characters,  figures,  or  images,  or  any  combination 
thereof,  not  having  the  character  of  an  actual  and  personal  correspondence.”  Re- 
productions by  the  electric  pen,  papyrograph,  and  similar  processes,  are  third-class 
matter.  The  limit  of  weight  is  four  pounds.  There  is  no  limit  on  a single  book. 

FOURTH-CLASS  Matter. — Embraces  blank  cards,  card-board,  and  other  flexible 
material,  flexible  patterns,  letter  envelopes  and  letter-paper,  merchandise,  models, 
ornamented  paper,  sample  cards,  samples  of  ores,  metals,  minerals,  drawings,  plans,  de- 
signs, original  paintings  in  oil  or  water-colors,  and  any  other  matter  not  included  in 
the  first,  second,  or  third  classes,  and  which  is  not  in  its  form  or  nature  liable  to 
destroy,  deface,  or  otherwise  damage  the  contents  of  the  mail-bag,  or  harm  the 
person  of  any  one  engaged  in  the  postal  service,  except  obscene  matter,  or  concern- 
ing lotteries.  Postage  rate  thereon,  one  cent  for  each  ounce  or  part  thereof.  The 
limit  of  weight  of  packages  is  four  pounds.  Fourth-class  matter  may  also  be  regis- 
tered, and  must  be  fully  prepaid.  Seeds,  cuttings,  bulbs,  roots,  cions,  and  plants  go 
at  1 cent  for  every  2 ounces. 

Other  articles  of  the  fourth  class,  which  might  destroy  the  mail  bags  or  injure 
the  persons  employed  in  their  delivery,  may  be  transmitted  through  the  mails  by 
being  properly  protected  in  metallic  or  tin  cases.  The  methods  of  packing  these 
articles,  too  numerous  to  mention  here,  will  be  given,  upon  application,  by  any 
postmaster. 

Money  ORDERS,  payable  in  the  United  States,  are  limited  to  $100,  but  three 
money  orders,  each  for  this  amount,  can  be  sent  in  one  day.  The  rates  are:  For 
sums  not  exceeding  $5,  five  cents;  for  $5  to  $10,  eight  cents;  for  $10  to  $15,  ten 
cents;  for  $15  to  $30,  fifteen  cents;  for  $30  to  $40,  twenty  cents ; for  $40  to  $50, 
twenty-five  cents;  for  $50  to  $60,  thirty  cents;  for  $60  to  $70,  thirty-five  cents;  for 
$70  to  $80,  forty  cents;  for  $80  to  $100,  forty-five  cents. 

Postal  Notes  for  sums  less  than  $5  are  issued  for  a fee  of  3 cents. 


STATUTE  AND  COMMON  LAW. 

THERE  are  two  kinds  of  laws  of  binding 
force  recognized  by  the  courts,  viz.  : Statute 
law  and  Common  law. 

Statute  law  is  that  law  enacted  by  the 
Legislative  power  of  a country  in  regular  form 
and  embraces  the  greater  proportion  of  all  the 
laws  in  force. 

Common  law  embraces  all  the  laws  in 
force  in  the  colonies  before  the  separation  from 
England,  which  have  not  been  modified,  or  re- 
pealed by  statute,  whether  statute  or  common,  and  have  been  recognized  by  the  courts. 
Also  all  those  applications,  inferences  from,  or  universal  usages,  which  the  courts  have 
ceded  as  having  among  us  the  force  of  law.  Therefore  there  is  no  authority  for  common 
law,  but  the  decisions  of  the  courts  upon  specified  points,  and  no  one  can  know  what  these 
are  except  by  a reference  to  them.  Hence  the  official  reports  of  decisions  in  all  the  States 
and  of  the  U.  S.  Courts  are  of  the  utmost  importance  for  reference,  to  the  lawyer. 

Common  law  enters  in  an  important  degree  into  commercial  transactions,  and  is  of 
interest  to  all  business  men. 

The  custom  of  merchants  which  can  be  proven  to  have  been  of  long  standing  and 
of  so  numerous  application  as  to  be  well  known  to  the  trade  at  large  has  been  held  by 
the  courts  to  be  the  “law  of  merchants,”  and  a part  of  the  common  law,  having  the  full 
force  of  statute  law. 

One  can  readily  see,  then,  that  it  is  very  important  that  business  men  should  be 
conversant  with  the  general  laws  of  business,  especially  these  affecting  contracts,  part- 
nership, the  conduct  of  sales,  making  notes  and  enforcing  the  collection  of  notes. 

Every  man  should  understand  enough  of  ordinary  law  to  be  able  to  protect  himself 
in  his  own  rights  and  prevent  him  from  unintentionally  infringing  the  rights  of  others 
and  thereby  shun  the  many  mistakes  which  are  made  every  day,  and  which  lead  to  diffi- 
culty, misunderstanding  and  loss. 

The  writer  has  endeavored  to  make  this  digest  of  Commercial  law  so  practical  and 
plain  to  the  ordinary  reader  and  at  the  same  time  so  explicit  and  trustworthy,  that  it  may 
be  safely  consulted  with  confidence  in  any  emergency. 

The  Legal  forms  given  may  not  exactly  cover  all  the  facts  to  be  introduced,  but 
they  will  be  found  accurate, and  the  person  using  them  may  adapt  the  language  express- 
ing the  transaction  to  the  necessities  of  the  case. 

AGREEMENTS  AND  CONTRACTS.' 

ERE  must  be  two  authorized  parties  to  an  agreement  or  contract,  which 
is  an  arrangement  between  them  by  which  each  promises  to  do,  or  binds 
himself  to  perform  certain  acts  which  are  specified  at  or  within  a given 
time. 

A legal  contract  does  not  exist  until  both  parties  entering  into  the 
agreement  have  accepted  the  same  thing  in  the  same  sense. 


COMMERCIAL  LAW  AND  LEGAL  FORMS. 


195 


Then  it  is  imperative  that  an  agreement  or  contract  should  clearly  state  all  that 
either  party  intends  to  do,  and  the  time  of  such  transaction.  Nothing  can  safely  be 
omitted  from  such  a document,  for  it  is  held  in  law  that  no  verbal  testimony  can  have 
force  over  a written  instrument  unless  fraud  is  proved. 

Nothing  can  stand  as  against  fraud.  An  important  guide  to  direct  in  the  under- 
standing of  any  instrument  must  be  the  honest  and  actual  intent  of  the  parties  signing  it. 

If  either  party  can  prove  fraud  as  against  the  other,  he  is  relieved  from  all  obliga- 
tion in  the  contract,  but  if  both  parties  acted  fraudulently  in  the  transaction,  neither  can 
use  the  fraud  of  the  other  for  his  own  benefit. 

A verbal  agreement  must  be  proved  by  testimony  but  if  in  writing  it  proves  itself. 

If  parties  see  fit  to  set  aside  custom  or  usage,  and  so  state  in  their  contract,  then 
neither  can  regard  them  as  a part  of  the  contract. 

A contract  binding  in  the  place  where  it  was  made,  is  of  force  everywhere  unless 
it  is  immoral  and  contrary  to  public  policy. 

When  the  intention  of  the  parties  to  a contract  is  clear,  the  improper  punctuation, 
or  spelling  of  words  are  not  to  be  considered  in  the  interpretation  of  the  document,  nor 
will  they  render  it  void. 

When  a contract  specifies  that  a certain  thing  shall  be  performed  within  a given 
time,  the  day  on  which  the  instrument  is  executed  is  not  counted.  And  a contract  t <y 
complete  a work  by  a specified  time  signifies  that  it  shall  be  done  before  that  date. 

It  requires  the  consent  of  both  parties  to  rescind  a contract. 

A verbal  contract  for  hiring  an  agent,  servant  or  clerk  may  hold  good  for  a year  but 
if  it  extends  beyond  that  time  it  must  be  in  writing. 

But  it  must  be  the  very  intention  which  they  expressed  in  writing. 

If  either  of  them  can  show  that  the  agreement  was  honestly  made,  but  under  a mis- 
taken impression  of  its  intention,  actually  different  from  what  they  had  purposed  to- 
make,  it  will  be  proper  cause  for  holding  that  there  was  no  contract. 

All  contracts  must  show  that  they  are  formed  for  a consideration  of  value,  else  they 
are  not  binding. 

When  there  are  mutual  promises,  and  the  promise  made  is  the  consideration  one  for 
the  other,  then  they  are  valid. 

An  agreement  or  guaranty  for  the  payment  of  a note,  unless  it  states  it  is  for  a con- 
sideration of  value,  unless  the  undertaking  was  made  at  the  same  time  as  the  note,  is  not 
binding  in  law.  The  entire  contract  is  void  when  any  part  of  its  consideration  is  unlaw- 
ful as  against  public  morals  or  policy. 

It  is  preferable  that  all  contracts  should  be  written  or  printed  in  ink,  since  pencil 
marks  may  be  easily  erased,  but  those  made  in  pencil  are  valid. 

Both  parties  to  a contract  are  entitled  to  a copy,  which  should  be  preserved.  If  on 
examination  of  their  copy  with  the  original,  there  appear  to  be  erasures  or  interlinea 
tions,  unless  they  are  specified  on  the  contract  itself,  it  should  be  rejected.  Some  want 
of  formality  in  law  may  invalidate  a contract. 

In  most  of  the  United  States  the  English  “ Statute  of  Frauds”  are  substantially  in 
force.  In  New  York  State  if  the  actual  consideration  is  not  stated  in  the  contract  it  is 
not  binding,  but  in  most  of  the  other  States  any  consideration  may  be  inserted.  A house, 
store,  or  other  building  may  be  rented  verbally  for  one  year,  but  it  requires  a written 


196 


COMMERCIAL  LAW  AND  LEGAL  FORMS. 


agreement  to  hold  for  a longer  time.  So  also,  an  agreement  to  sell  land  or  real  estate, 
the  services  of  a person  commencing  at  a given  date,  a contract  to  sell  goods  above  a 
certain  sum,  as  designated  by  law  in  different  States. 

If  notes  or  contracts  are  written  on  Sunday,  they  are  void,  unless  delivered  on 
another  day  of  the  week. 

When  an  agreement  is  entered  into  by  correspondence,  the  mailing  the  letter  accept- 
ing the  contract  completes  it,  provided  the  acceptor  does  not  receive  a second  letter 
withdrawing  the  proposition  before  replying  to  the  first,  for  the  offer  is  then  practically 
withdrawn. 

The  useless  repetitions  encumbering  legal  documents  and  the  formal  technicalities 
give  no  strength  to  a document,  and  may  safely  be  omitted,  and  a legal  contract  be  made 
without  them. 

If  the  language  be  clearly  understood  and  there  is  no  room  for  doubt  as  to  its  sense, 
then  it  must  be  performed  according  to  it  signification. 

Good  legal  advice  is  often  requisite  for  drawing  up  important  contracts. 

The  following  form  will  be  found  to  be  of  practical  use : 

GENERAL  FORM  OF  AGREEMENT. 

This  agreement,  made  this  day  of  , A.  D.  18  between  George 

Thompson,  of  the  city  and  county  of  New  Haven,  State  of  Connecticut,  party  of  the  first 
part,  and  Richard  Ford,  of  said  city  and  State,  party  of  the  second  part, 

Witnessethy  That  the  said  George  Thompson,  party  of  the  first  part,  hereby  cove- 
nants and  agrees  that  he  will  deliver  to  Richard  Ford,  the  said  party  of  the  second  part, 
during  the  month  of  , A.  D.  18  fifty  bushels  of  potatoes  at  the  store  of  the 

said  party  of  the  first  part,  twenty-five  bushels  to  be  delivered  on  or  before  the  ioth  day 
sf  , and  twenty-five  bushels  more  on  or  before  the  day  of  , A.  D. 

1882. 

And  the  said  party  of  the  second  part,  in  consideration  of  the  prompt  fulfillment  of 
this  agreement  by  the  said  party  of  the  first  part,  or  his  agents,  agrees  and  binds  him- 
self to  pay  to  the  said  party  of  the  first  part  the  sum  of  one  dollar  for  each  and  every 
bushel  so  delivered  to  him,  not  to  exceed  said  fifty  bushels,  and  to  pay  for  each  bushel 
on  delivery. 

In  case  of  the  failure  of  either  party  to  this  contract  to  make  good  his  part  of  the 
agreement,  it  is  hereby  agreed  that  the  party  so  failing  shall  forfeit  and  pay  to  the  other 
party  the  sum  of  seventy-five  dollars. 

In  witness  whereof,  the  parties  to  these  presents  have  hereto  set  their  hands  and 
seals  the  day  and  year  above  written. 

GEORGE  THOMPSON,  [seal.] 
RICHARD  FORD.  [seal.] 

Signed,  sealed  and  delivered  in  ) 
presence  of  j 

John  Howard, 

Peter  Jones. 


COMMERCIAL  LAW  AND  LEGAL  FORMS. 


197 


GENERAL  AGREEMENT  WITH  INDEMNITY  BOND  ATTACHED 

; OR  FAITHFUL  PERFORMANCE  OF  SERVICE  AND  RETURN  OF  PROPERTY  AND  MONEY 

INTRUSTED. 

Agreement  by  and  between  John  Smith , of  , and  Peter  Jones , of 

In  consideration  of  John  Smith  employing  the  said  Peter  Jones  upon  the  terms  hereinaftei 
mentioned,  the  said  Peter  Jones  agrees  as  follows  : 

First — To  work  faithfully  as  directed  as  Agent , for  said  John  Smith , for  the  term  of  one  year, 
and  to  give  his  whole  time,  attention  and  energies  to  said  business  while  in  the  employ 
of  said  John  Smith. 

Second — And  to  report  all  business  transacted  by  said  Peter  Jones. 

Third — To  return  upon  demand  all  moneys,  merchandise,  property,  etc.,  belonging  to  said 
John  Smith , as  it  is  hereby  agreed  and  understood  that  stock  is  entrusted  to  the  said 
Peter  Jones , and  is  strictly  the  property  of  said  John  Smith,  and  should  any  loss  occur  by 
said  Peter  Jones  disregarding  or  violating  the  above  instructions,  said  Peter  Jones  to  be 
held  responsible  for  the  same. 

Fourth — To  never  sell  goods  less  than  the  authorized  price,  unless  by  permission  of 
said  Joh?i  Smith . 

Fifth — To  never  interfere,  either  before  or  after  leaving  his  employ  ,/ith  any  of  his  business. 

Sixth - — Said  Peter  Jones  to  pay  over  at  once  to  John  Smith  all  moneys  collected,  excepting 
such  sums  as  may  be  retained  by  the  written  consent  of  said  firm  as  remuneration. 

Seventh — Said  Peter  Jones  hereby  binds  himself  in  the  penal  sum  of  Five  Hundred  dollars, 
and  agrees  to  forfeit  all  claims  he  may  have  against  John  Smith , if  he  fail  to  keep  his 
part  of  this  agreement. 

In  consideration  of  the  foregoing  agreement  being  faithfully  carried  out,  John  S?nith  agrees 
as  follows  : To  employ  and  retain  in  his  employment  the  said  Peter  Jones  so  long  as  he 
performs  the  foregoing  obligations. 

The  terms  of  payment  for  the  above  services  are  One  Hundred  Dollars  per  month,  payable 
monthly. 

Signed,  John  Smith. 

Date,  (here  give  date). 

Witness,  Signed,  Peter  Jones. 


BOND. 

Know  all  Men  by  these  Presents,  that  I,  Henry  Brown , of  , State  of 

, as  surety,  am  holden  and  stand  firmly  bound  unto  John  Smith,  doing  business 
under  the  firm  name  of  John  Smith  and  Sons,  in  the  sum  of  Five  Hundred  dollars,  to  the  pay- 
ment of  which  to  the  said  John  Smith,  or  their  executors,  administrators  or  assignees,  I do 
hereby  bind  myself,  my  heirs,  executors  and  administrators  firmly  by  these  presents. 

The  Conditions  of  this  obligation  are  such  that  if  one  Peter  Jones  shall  well  and  truly  per- 
form the  foregoing  contract  as  an  agent  for  said  John  Smith,  then  this  obligation  shall  be 
void,  otherwise  it  shall  be  and  remain  in  full  force  and  virtue,  and  the  above  bounden  Henry 
Brown  hereby  agrees  to  pay  said  firm  the  full  value  of  any  deficiency  that  may  occur  in  said 
Peter  Jones ’ accounts,  not  exceeding  the  sum  of  Five  Hundred  dollars. 

In  witness  whereof,  I,  the  said  Heiiry  Brown,  have  hereunto  set  my  hand  and  seal,  this 
(here  give  date). 

Signed  and  sealed  in  presence  of 

Witness 


198 


COMMERCIAL  LAW  AND  LEGAL  FORMS. 


ARBITRATION. 

matters  involving  controversies  or  claims,  to  avoid  litigation  and  settle 
the  matters  amicably,  it  is  often  best  to  leave  the  subject  matter  out  to 
arbitration. 

In  such  cases  generally  each  party  selects  a person  and  the  two  thus 
selected  choose  a third,  and  the  award  of  these  arbitrators  or  a majority 
of  them  is  final  within  certain  restrictions.  Before  the  award  is  made  either  party  may 
withdraw  by  giving  formal  notice  to  all  interested.  Otherwise  he  will  be  bound. 

FORM  OF  SUBMISSION  TO  ARBITRATION. 

Know  all  Men  by  these  Presents,  That  we,  Oscar  Wilde  and  John  Fitz,  both 
of  .,  do  hereby  promise  and  agree  to  and  with  each  other  to  submit  and 

we  hereby  submit  the  question  and  claim  between  us  as  to  the  sale  of  ten  bushels  of  sun- 
flower seed  from  the  said  Oscar  Wilde  to  the  said  John  Fitz,  on  the  first  day  of  April, 
1882,  to  the  arbitration  and  determination  of  John  Smith,  Peter  Jones  and  Samuel  Fry, 
all  of  the  city  of  , State  of  , U.  S.  A.,  whose  award  and  decision 

shall  be  final,  binding,  and  conclusive  to  us,  and  in  case  of  disagreement  of  said  arbitral 
tors,  they,  or  a majority  of  them,  shall  select  an  umpire  whose  award  shall  be  final  and  con- 
clusive ; and  in  case  of  disagreement  the  decision  and  award  of  a majority  shall  be  final 
and  conclusive. 

In  witness  whereof,  we  have  set  our  hands  this  day  of  18 

OSCAR  WILDE. 

Witness,  JOHN  FITZ. 

Peter  Noble,  i 

William  Strong.  ] 

THE  AWARD  MADE  UNDER  THIS  AGREEMENT. 

To  all  whom  these  Presents  shall  Come,  We,  John  Smith,  Peter  Jones  and 
Samuel  Fry,  of  the  city  of  Boston,  State  of  Massachusetts,  to  whom  was  submitted  as 
arbitrators,  the  matter  in  controversy  between  Oscar  Wilde  and  John  Fitz,  as  by  the  con- 
dition of  their  terms  of  submission  executed  by  the  parties  aforesaid,  on  the  day  of 

, A.  D.  , more  fully  appears. 

Now  therefore,  know  ye,  That  we,  John  Smith,  Peter  Jones  and  Samuel  Fry, 
the  arbitrators  mentioned  in  said  terms  of  agreement  having  been  duly  sworn  and  having 
heard  the  proofs  and  declaration  of  the  parties,  do  make  this  award, — That  the  said 
Oscar  Wilde  shall  pay  the  said  John  Fitz  the  sum  of  one  dollar  in  cash  as  damages,  for 
his  failure  to  pick  out  all  the  bad  seeds  in  the  ten  bushels  delivered,  as  he  had  agreed 
to  do. 

In  witness  whereof  we  have  hereunto  set  our  hands,  this  first  day  of  June,  1882. 

JOHN  SMITH. 

PETER  JONES. 

In  presence  of  SAMUEL  FRY. 

Charles  Brown,  ) 

Peter  Snow.  ( 


COMMERCIAL  LAW  AND  LEGAL  FORMS. 


19S 


BREACH  OF  COVENANTS— DAMAGES. 

Respecting  the  amount  of  damages  accruing  where  an  injury  has  been  caused  by  a 
breach  of  the  contract,  for  which  no  provision  has  been  made  by  law,  the  general  rule 
requires  that  the  amount  should  be  equal  to  the  damage  sustained. 

When  a party  to  an  agreement  to  deliver  property  fails  to  fulfill  his  contract,  the 
plaintiff  may  recover  the  value  of  such  property  at  the  time  and  place  specified  in  the 
agreement. 

Failure  of  agreement  without  actual  loss,  the  plaintiff  may  recover  nominal  damages 
and  costs. 

Profits  anticipated  on  speculations  in  real  estates  are  not  recoverable  upon  breach  cf 
contract.  But  the  plaintiff  is  entitled  to  actual  expenditures. 

In  the  absence  of  fraud,  the  amount  of  damages  to  be  determined  is  the  purchase 
money  and  interest,  when  there  is  a breach  of  contract  to  convey  real  estate. 

When  there  is  a failure  to  convey  land  as  agreed,  the  plaintiff  is  entitled  to  the  value 
of  the  land  at  the  time  agreement  was  made. 

If  goods  are  lost  by  common  carriers,  the  loser  is  entitled  to  recover  the  value  of 
the  goods  at  wholesale  in  the  place  where  they  should  have  been  delivered,  minus  the 
freight  on  same. 

A breach  of  contract  to  deliver  goods  on  demand  entitles  the  plaintiff  to  recover  the 
value  of  the  goods  at  the  time  of  making  the  demand. 

A party  contracting  to  work  for  another  for  a given  time  at  an  agreed  price,  who  is 
discharged  without  cause  before  the  expiration  of  the  time,  may  recover  the  full  amount 
of  his  wages  for  the  agreed  time,  provided  he  does  not  enter  any  other  employment.  In 
such  a case  the  claim  of  defendant  for  reduction  of  damages  would  be  allowed. 


AGREEMENT  TO  SELL  SHARES  OF  STOCK. 

This  agreement,  made  this  day  of  , one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  , between 
Charles  Jones,  of  the  of  , in  the  county  of  and  State  of  , of  the  first 
part,  and  Joseph  R.  Gay,  of  the  of  , in  the  county  of  , State  of  , of  the 
second  part,  witnesseth : That,  in  consideration  of  the  agreement  of  Charles  Jones, 

hereinafter  contained,  the  said  Joseph  R.  Gay  agrees  to  sell,  transfer  and  convey  to  the 
said  Charles  Jones,  on  the  day  of  next,  shares  of  the  , now  owned  by  the 
said  Joseph  R.  Gay,  and  standing  in  his  name  on  the  books  of  said  company,  and  to 
execute  and  deliver  to  the  said  Charles  Jones  all  necessary  assignments,  transfers  and 
conveyances,  to  assure  and  convey  the  same  to  the  said  Charles  Jones,  his  executors, 
administrators  and  assigns  forever. 


200 


COMMERCIAL  LAW  AND  LEGAL  FORMS. 


In  consideration  of  which,  the  said  Charles  Jones  agrees  with  the  said  Joseph  R 
Gay  to  pay  him  dollars  for  each  share  of  the  said  capital  stock,  on  the  said 

day  of  next. 

In  witness  whereof  we  have  hereunto  set  our  hands  and  seals,  the  day  and  year  first 
above  written. 

CHARLES  JONES,  [l.  s.] 

JOSEPH  R.  GAY.  [l.  s.] 

Signed,  sealed  and  delivered  in  ) 
presence  of  j 

Note. — Page  held  against  Gray  notes  to  the  amount  of  $984.54,  on  which  he  re- 
ceived judgment.  Gray  then  settled  with  Page,  and  at  the  time  of  satisfying  the  judg- 
ment received  the  following,  which  is  a guaranty  against  liability  for  two  notes  which 
Page  claims  to  have  been  lost.  The  form  for  satisfaction  of  judgment  can  be  obtained 
at  all  stationers. 

This  form  may  be  of  practical  service  as  a guaranty  of  protection  when  valuable 
papers  have  been  lost : 

Know  all  Men  by  these  Presents,  that  I,  John  J.  Page,  of  West  Hoboken,  N. 
J.,  in  consideration  of  the  receipt  by  me  of  the  sum  of  three  hundred  dollars  in  assign- 
ment of  a certain  judgment  entered  for  nine  hundred  and  eighty -four 

dollars  and  fifty-four  cents,  and  the  transfer  or  surrender  of  two  promisory  notes,  which 
said  sum  of  money  is  received  from  Richard  Gray,  of  Johnstown,  La.,  hereby  covenant, 
stipulate  and  agree  with  said  Richard  Gray  that  I will  hold  him  harmless  from  all  action, 
suits,  losses  or  damages  arising  or  founded  upon  two  certain  notes  on  which  the  above 
judgment  was  received  ; which  notes  are  now  lost  or  mislaid  ; and  further,  that  I will  at 
all  times  defend,  at  my  cost  and  without  any  charge  to  him,  any  action  or  proceeding  at 
law  founded  or  brought  on  said  notes. 

In  witness  whereof  I have  hereunto  set  my  hand  and  seal,  this  day  of  , A. 

D.  18 

JOHN  J.  PAGE,  [seal.] 

Witness  : Peter  Cooper. 


A CONTRACT  TO  BUILD  A HOUSE  AND  FURNISH  ALL  MATERIALS. 

An  Agreement  of  two  parts  as  made  this  day  of  , in  the  year  one  thou- 
sand eight  hundred  and  , by  and  between  , party  of  the  first  part,  and  , 

party  of  the  second  part. 

The  said  party  of  the  first  part,  in  consideration  of  the  sum  of  money  to  be  paid  as 
hereinafter  provided,  and  the  covenants  and  agreements  hereinafter  mentioned,  does,  for 
himself  and  his  heirs  and  assigns,  covenant,^ promise  and  agree  to  and  with  the  party  of  the 
second  part,  that  he  will,  in  a good  and  workmanlike  manner,  and  according  to  the  best 
of  his  art  and  ability,  do  and  perform  the  following  work,  and  provide  materials  for 

the  same,  that  is  to  say : 

The  whole  of  said  work  is  to  be  performed,  and  all  the  said  materials  supplied,  ac- 
cording to  the  plans  and  specifications  of  t architect,  hereby  appointed  b/  tha 


CONTRACT  TO  BUILD  AND  FURNISH  MATERIALS. 


201 


party  of  the  second  part,  which  plans  and  specifications  bear  even  date  herewith,  and  are 
signed  by  the  parties  hereto,  and  under  the  superintendence  and  direction  of  , 

hereby  appointed  Superintendent  and  Agent  for  the  said  party  of  the  second  part,  which 
plans  and  specifications  form  a part  of  this  agreement. 

All  said  work  shall  be  completed  on  or  before  the  day  of  , in  the  year 

, and  no  charge  of  any  kind  shall  be  made  by  the  said  party  of  the  first  part  to  the 
said  party  of  the  second  part  beyond  the  sum  of  dollars,  unless  the  said  party  shall 

alter  the  plans  and  specifications,  in  which  case  the  value  of  such  alteration  shall  be 
added  to  the  amount  to  be  paid  by  this  contract,  or  deducted  therefrom,  as  the  case  may 
require- -it  being  expressly  understood  that  no  extra  work  of  any  kind  be  performed,  or 
extra  material  furnished,  by  the  said  party  of  the  first  part,  unless  duly  authorized  by  the 
party  of  the  second  part.  The  said  party  of  the  second  part  may  make  any  alterations 
from  the  said  plans  and  specifications  as  agreed  heretofore. 

The  said  party  of  the  first  part,  for  himself  and  his  legal  representatives,  further 
promises  and  agrees  to  effect  an  insurance  upon  the  building  as  soon  as  the  roof  is  cov- 
ered, and  the  amount  of  insurance  to  be  for  such  sum  as  the  said  party  of  the  second  part 
shall  direct,  to  be  further  increased  from  time  to  time  as  the  said  party  of  the  second  part 
shall  direct,  the  policy  to  be  in  the  name  and  for  the  benefit  of  said  party  of  the  second 
part,  or  his  legal  representatives,  and  to  be  made  payable  in  case  of  loss  to  , for 

whom  it  may  concern,  each  party  paying  one-half  the  cost  of  said  insurance. 

The  said  party  of  the  second  part,  for  himself  and  his  legal  representatives,  in  con- 
sideration of  the  materials  being  furnished  and  the  labor  done  as  herein  required,  and  all 
other  things  herein  stated  being  done  and  performed  by  said  party  of  the  first  part,  cove- 
nants, promises  and  agrees  to  and  with  the  said  party  of  the  first  part  that  he  will  well  and 
truly  pay  or  cause  to  be  paid  unto  the  said  party  of  the  first  part,  or  his  legal  representa- 
tives, the  sum  of  dollars,  in  the  manner  following  : 

It  is  agreed  by  and  between  the  parties  to  this  contract  as  follows  : 

1.  That  for  each  ana  every  day’s  delay  in  the  performance  and  completion  of  this 

contract,  or  any  extra  work  under  it,  after  the  said  day  of  , in  the  year  A.  D. 
1 8 , there  shall  be  allowed  and  paid  by  the  said  party  of  the  first  part  to  the  said  party 

of  the  second  part,  or  his  legal  representatives,  damages  for  such  delay,  if  the  same  shall 
arise  from  any  aft  or  neglect  on  the  part  of  the  said  party  of  the  first  part. 

2.  That  the  said  party  of  the  first  part  shall  not  be  delayed  in  the  continued  ad- 
vancement of  his  work  under  this  contract,  or  any  extra  work  under  the  same,  or  con- 
nected therewith,  by  said  party  of  the  second  part,  or  his  legal  representative,  for  any, 
and  for  each  and  every  day,  if  any,  he  shall  be  so  hindered,  he  shall  be  allowed  an  addi- 
tional day  to  complete  the  work  aforesaid  from  and  after  the  day  appointed  in  this  con- 
tract for  its  entire  completion  unless  a contingency  arise  as  provided  in  the  fifth 
article. 

3.  That  each  and  every  person  employed  by  the  said  party  of  the  first  part  in  the 
fulfillment  and  execution  of  this  contract  shall  be  a suitable,  competent  and  trustworthy 
person. 

4.  That  the  said  party  of  the  first  part  shall  and  will  engage  and  provide,  at  his  own 
expense,  a thoroughly  competent  “ foreman,”  who  shall  attend  to  all  matters  hereby  un- 


202 


CONTRACT  TO  BUILD  AND  FURNISH  MATERIALS. 


dertaken  by  said  party  of  the  first  part ; also  to  the  correct  and  exact  making,  preparing, 
laying  out  and  locating  of  all  patterns,  mould,  models  and  measurements  in,  to,  for  and 
upon  the  works,  according  to  the  aforesaid  plans  and  specifications. 

5.  That  if  at  any  time  the  party  of  the  second  part  shall  find  the  work  is  not  carried 
forward  with  sufficient  rapidity  or  thoroughness,  or  the  material'  furnished,  or  any  of  the 
workmen  employed  by  the  party  of  the  first  part,  are  unsatisfactory  and  insufficient  for 
the  completion  of  the  work  within  the  time  and  in  the  manner  set  forth  in  the  plans  and 
specifications,  he  shall  give  notice  of  such  insufficiency  or  defects  to  the  party  of  the  first 
part,  and  if  within  three  days  thereafter  they  are  not  remedied  to  the  satisfaction  of  the 
party  of  the  second  part,  he  may  enter  upon  the  work  and  discharge  or  suspend  the  said 
party  of  the  first  part  and  all  employed  with  him,  and  carry  on  and  complete  the  work, 
provide  and  substitute  proper  materials  and  workmen,  and  the  expense  thereof  shall  be 
chargeable  to  the  said  party  of  the  first  part,  and  subtracted  from  any  sum  due  him  upon 
final  settlement. 

6.  The  said  party  of  the  first  part  shall  be  responsible  for  all  injury  to  person  or 
persons  upon  the  premises  while  in  his  possession. 

7.  The  said  party  of  the  first  part  will  not  deviate  from  the  plans  and  specifications 

of  , the  architect,  but  may,  from  time  to  time,  apply  to  him  for  all  needful  ex- 

planation at  the  expense  of  the  said  party  of  the  second  part. 

And  whereas,  it  is  the  intention  of  the  parties  hereto  that  the  party  of  the  first  part 
is  to  pay  for  all  material  and  work  furnished,  it  is  hereby  agreed  that  every  and  all  liens 
for  labor  and  material  shall  be  satisfied  before  the  payment  of  the  sum  specified  at  the 
times  herein  mentioned. 

It  is  expressly  understood  that  all  the  specifications  are  to  be  carried  out  to  their 
honest  intent,  even  if  not  illustrated  in  the  drawings,  and  all  the  work  illustrated  in  the 
drawings  is  to  be  executed,  even  if  it  is  not  described  in  the  specifications. 

The  true  intent  of  the  plans,  drawings  and  specifications  shall  be  decided  by  the 
architect  whenever  an  apparent  discrepancy  shall  arise,  and  his  decision  shall  be  final. 

It  is  further  agreed,  that  if  any  misunderstanding  arises,  by  which  either  party  has 
a claim  for  damages  upon  the  other,  or  disagree  in  the  interpretation  of  any  point  in  this 
contract  the  same  shall  be  referred  for  arbitration  to  the  following  named  parties  * 
, and  , whose  award,  or  that  of  a majority*,  shall  be  final  > 

it  being  made  and  determined  within  three  months  from  the  time  submitted. 

In  witness  whereof  the  aforesaid  parties  have  set  their  hands  and  seals,  the  day  and 
year  first  mentioned  above,  to  this  and  all  other  instruments  of  like  date  and  tenor. 

A.  B.,  [seal.] 

C.  D.  [seal]. 

The  above  named  and  personally  appeared  and  acknowledged 

the  above  instrument  by  them  signed  to  be  of  their  own  free  act,  before  me, 

E.  F.,  Justice  of  the  Peace 

Note. — It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  each  specification  be  passed  upon  and 
written  with  care  by  both  parties,  signed  and  sealed  by  them  both,  in  the  presence  of  thJ 
same  witnesses  as  the  contract,  and  acknowledged  as  a part  of  it.  In  some  case*  they 
are  inserted  in  the  second  paragraph  of  the  agreement. 


COMMERCIAL  LAW  AND  LEGAL  FORMS. 


203 


BILLS  OF  SALE. 

WRITTEN  contract  by  which  a person,  for  a valuable  consideration,  con- 
veys to  another  his  right,  title  and  claim  to  personal  property,  is  termed  a 
Bill  of  Sale. 

The  purchaser  must  be  in  possession  of  the  property  to  make  the  Bill 
of  Sale  valid,  but  in  some  of  the  States,  if  the  sale  was  not  fraudulently 
made  to  avoid  the  payment  of  a legal  claim,  it  is  prima  facie  evidence  of  sale,  and  the 
buyer  of  them  can  hold. 


FORM,  WITH  WARRANTY. 

Know  all  Men  by  these  Presents,  that  in  consideration  of  the  sum  of  one 
hundred  dollars  to  me  in  hand  paid,  I do  hereby  sell,  grant  and  deliver  unto  Thomas  H 
Jones,  his  heirs,  assigns  and  administrators,  the  following  goods  and  chattels,  to  wit : 
One  set  of  Parlor  Furniture  ------  $75  00 

One  set  of  Chamber  Furniture 25  00 


$100  00 

To  have  and  to  hold  all  and  singly  the  goods  and  chattels  aforesaid  forever.  And  the 
said  grantor  hereby  covenants  with  the  said  grantee  that  he  is  the  rightful  owner  of  the 
goods  and  chattels,  and  that  he  will  warrant  and  defend  the  same  against  the  lawful 
claims  and  demands  of  all  persons  whatever. 

In  witness  whereof  the  said  grantor  has  hereunto  set  his  hand  and  seal,  this 
day  of  A.  D. 

THOMAS  H.  JONES,  [seal.] 

Witness  : James  Black, 

Charles  Norton. 


BILL  OF  SALE. 

Know  all  Men  by  these  Presents,  that  I,  Henry  Hartwell,  of  Branford,  Con- 
necticut, in  consideration  of  three  hundred  dollars  to  me  paid  by  , have  bar- 
gained and  sold  to  the  said  the  following  goods  and  chattels,  to  wit : One  pair 

oxen,  one  cart  and  two  heifers. 

In  witness  whereof  I have  hereunto  set  my  hand  and  seal,  this  day  of  , 

iff 

Signed,  sealed  and  delivered  in 
presence  of 


HENRY  HARTWELL,  [seal] 


204 


COMMERCIAL  AND  LEGAL  FORMS. 


AGENTS  AND  THEIR  AUTHORITY. 

An  agent  is  a person  empowered  by  another  to  do  certain  things  in  his  stead,  and 
with  his  authority,  and  in  law  such  acts  are  as  valid  as  if  done  by  the  principal. 

One  who  cannot  in  law  transact  certain  things  in  his  own  name,  may  act  for  another 
who  can.  Infants,  married  women  and  foreigners  may  be  legally  qualified  to  act  for 
another. 

For  all  acts  of  the  agent  the  principal  is  held,  if  he  has  delegated  to  him  the  power 
to  represent  and  act  for  him. 

The  two  kinds  of  agencies  are  general  and  special.  A general  agent  is  one  empow- 
ered to  act  for  his  principal  in  all  parts  of  his  business,  or  all  things  pertaining  to  a par- 
ticular branch  of  that  business.  Then  the  principal  is  responsible  for  all  that  he  does, 
even  if  he  go  beyond  the  authority,  provided  the  agent  keeps  within  the  general  scope  of 
that  business. 

If  the  person  with  whom  the  agent  is  transacting  business  is  aware  that  he  is  ex- 
ceeding his  actual  authority,  the  principal  is  not  responsible  for  such  transaction 

A special  agent  is  only  empowered  to  perform  a specified  act,  or  a few  specified 
acts,  and  then  the  principal  is  not  responsible  for  what  he  does  in  excess  of  his  authority. 
The  person  dealing  with  the  agent  is  bound  to  ascertain  by  inquiry  how  far  the  agent 
was  empowered  to  act,  and  unless  he  does  this,  it  is  at  his  own  peril. 

Such  power  may  be  conferred  either  verbally  upon  the  agent,  or  given  in  writing  y 
with  or  without  seal.  Such  a writing  is  called  “ a power  of  attorney.”  When  a power  of 
attorney  is  given  for  use  in  another  country  it  should  be  duly  acknowledged  before  a 
Notary  Public,  and  his  signature  attested  by  a Consul  of  the  Government  in  which  the 
document  is  to  be  used. 

Even  after  the  revocation  of  agency,  the  principal  is  responsible,  if  the  party  dealing 
with  the  former  agent  is  unaware  of  its  revocation. 

If  the  agent  does  not  conform  to  his  instructions  strictly  and  accurately,  then  the 
principal  is  not  held,  and  the  agent  may  be  liable.  But  the  agent  cannot  be  held 
responsible  if  the  person  dealing  with  him  knew  that  he  exceeded  his  power. 

An  agent  has  no  right  to  appoint  a sub-agent,  unless  he  was  so  empowered  to  do. 

An  agent  is  bound  to  the  utmost  good  faith  in  the  business  of  his  principal,  to  do 
carefully  and  skillfully  as  he  would  do  for  himself. 

He  is  responsible  for  any  breach  of  duty  to  the  amount  of  damages  incurred. 

A principal  may  recover  goods  embezzled  by  an  agent  wherever  found,  if  they  can 
be  distinctly  identified. 

If  an  agent  sells  goods  without  authority,  the  principal  may  collect  the  amount  from 
the  purchaser,  or  recover  the  goods,  at  his  own  option. 

An  agent  to  sell  property  cannot  buy  it  himself,  and  if  authorized  to  buy  property 
cannot  purchase  his  own. 

An  agent  ought  to  keep  an  accurate  account  of  all  transactions. 

Authority  is  revoked  by  insanity,  though  if  the  principal  was  sane  when  conferring 
the  power,  and  another  party  believes  in  the  authority  of  the  agent,  it  will  not  accrue  to 
the  injury  of  the  third  party. 


COMMERCIAL  AND  LEGAL  FORMS. 


205 


FORM  FOR  POWER  OF  ATTORNEY. 

Know  all  Men  by  these  Presents,  that  I,  James  Long,  of  the 

county  of  State  of  have  constituted,  ordained  and  made,  and  in 

my  stead  and  place  put,  and  by  these  presents  do  constitute,  ordain  and  make,  and  in  my 
stead  and  place  put  John  H.  Rice,  to  be  my  true,  sufficient  and  lawful  attorney  for  me 
and  in  my  name  (here  state  what  for)  , giving  and  granting  unto  him,  the  said 
attorney,  full  power  and  authority  in  and  about  the  premises  ; and  to  use  all  due  means, 
course  and  process  in  law  for  the  full,  efficient  and  complete  execution  of  the  business 
aforesaid,  and  in  my  name  to  make  and  execute  due  surveillance  and  discharge ; and  for 
the  premises  to  appear,  and  the  person  of  me,  the  constituent,  to  represent  before  any 
governors,  judges,  justices,  officers  and  ministers  of  the  law  whatever,  in  any  court  or 
courts  of  judicature,  and  there,  in  my  behalf,  answer,  defend  and  reply  to  all  actions, 
causes,  matters  and  things  whatever  relating  to  the  premises.  Also,  to  submit  any  mat- 
ter in  dispute  respecting  the  premises  or  otherwise,  with  full  power  to  make  and  substi- 
tute lor  the  purposes  any  attorney  or  attorneys,  to  act  under  him,  my  said  attorney,  and 
the  same  to  revoke  at  his  will  and  pleasure. 

And  generally  to  say,  act,  do,  transact,  determine,  accomplish  and  finish  all  matters 
and  things  whatever  relating  to  the  premises  as  fully,  amply  and  effectually  to  all  intents 
and  purposes,  as  I,  James  Long,  the  said  constituent,  if  present,  ought  or  might  per- 
sonally, although  the  matter  may  require  more  special  authority  than  is  herein  com. 
prised.  I,  James  Long,  the  said  constituent,  ratifying,  allowing  and  holding  firm  and 
valid  whatever  my  attorney  or  his  agent  shall  lawfully  do,  or  cause  to  be  done,  in  and 
about  these  premises,  by  virtue  of  these  presents. 

In  witness  whereof  I have  hereunto  put  my  hand  and  seal,  this  < day  of 

A D.  1 8 


Signed,  sealed  and  delivered  in 
presence  of  t 

Chas.  W.  Brown, 
John  L.  Perkins. 


JAMES  LONG,  [seal.] 


BONDS. 

ONDS  are  written  documents  promising  to  pay  a certain  sum  of  money 
to  another,  or  perform  a specified  act  of  duty  or  obligation  at  a designated 
time,  with  a penalty  attached  for  its  non-fulfillment.  A bond  must  be 
sealed,  otherwise  it  is  simply  a written  promise.  There  must  be  some 
bona  fide  consideration.  The  obligor  is  the  party  giving  the  bond  ; the 
party  receiving  it  is  the  obligee. 

The  conditions  of  the  bond  are  the  acts  specified  to  be  done  in  it,  and  if  they  are 
performed  within  the  time  designated,  the  bond  is  null  and  void. 

The  penalty  is  usually  named  at  twice  the  amount  of  the  sum  actually  due,  and  is  so 
made  to  cover  the  costs  and  interest.  The  courts  come  in  to  mitigate  the  severity  of 
the  contract,  and  the  obligor  is  held  only  to  pay  a full  indemnity  to  the  obligee  for  dam- 
age incurred  by  failure. 


206 


COMMERCIAL  AND  LEGAL  FORMS. 


The  seal  implies  a consideration  ; therefore  none  need  be  alleged  in  the  document. 
The  effect  of  seals  on  a bond  is  : ist.  It  is  prima  facie  evidence  of  a valuable  equiv- 

alent 2d.  By  statutes  of  limitations  it  runs  twenty  years,  instead  of  six,  before  right  of 
action  ceases.  But  the  statutes  of  limitations  vary  in  time  in  the  different  States. 


FORM  OF  BOND. 


BILL  OF  SALE  OF  A HORSE,  WITH  WARRANTY. 


Know  all  Men  by  these  Presents  : In  consideration  of  one  dollar,  and  other 
valuable  considerations,  to  me  in  hand  paid,  I,  Andrew  Brown,  do  hereby  bargain,  sell 
and  convey  to  Henry  Carter,  his  heirs,  assigns  and  executors,  one  gray  horse,  of  the  male 
sex,  fourteen  and  one-half  hands  high,  with  full  mane  and  tail,  known  as  General  Grant, 
to  have  and  to  hold  the  same  unto  the  said  Henry  Carter,  his  heirs,  executors,  adminis- 
trators and  assigns  forever. 

And  I,  for  myself  and  legal  representatives,  will  warrant  and  defend  the  said  horse 
unto  him,  the  said  Henry  Carter,  and  his  legal  representatives,  forever,  against  the  lawful 
claim  of  any  person  whomsoever. 

ANDREW  BROWN. 


Witnesses  : James  Hickox, 
Thomas  Bowen. 


A GENERAL  FORM  OF  INDEMNITY  BOND. 


Know  all  Men  by  these  Presents,  that  I,  William  Thomas,  of  the  city  and 
county  of  State  of  am  held  and  bound  unto  Henry  Smith,  of 

the  city  and  State  aforesaid,  in  the  sum  of  five  hundred  dollars,  to  be  paid  unto  the  said 
Henry  Smith,  or  his  legal  representatives,  for  which  payment  well  and  truly  made  I bind 
myself  and  my  legal  representatives  firmly  by  these  presents. 

Signed  with  my  seal,  this  day  of 

The  conditions  of  the  above  obligation  are  such  that  if  the  said  William  Thomas 
shall  pay  or  cause  to  be  paid  unto  the  said  Henry  Smith  the  just  and  full  amount  of  two 
hundred  and  fifty  dollars,  with  interest,  on  or  before  the  day  of  A. 

D.  with  semi-annual  interest  thereon,  without  fraud  or  delay,  then  this  obligation 

to  be  void,  otherwise  to  remain  in  full  force. 

It  is  furthermore  agreed,  that  should  there  be  default  to  pay  the  interest  semi- 
annually as  it  becomes  due,  within  thirty  days  thereafter,  then  the  aforesaid  principal 
sum  of  five  hundred  dollars,  with  all  arrearages  of  interest,  shall,  at  the  option  of  the  said 
Henry  Smith,  become  due  and  payable,  anything  herein  contained  to  the  contrary  not" 
withstanding. 

WILLIAM  THOMAS,  [seai..] 

Executed  and  delivered  in  presence  of 

Thomas  Jones, 

Oscar  Wilde. 


COMMERCIAL  AND  LEGAL  FORMS. 


207 


FORM  FOR  GUARDIAN’S  BOND. 

District  of  ss.  Probate  Court,  18 — 

Know  all  Men  by  these  Presents,  That  we  (insert  name  of  Guardian)  and 
(insert  the  name  of  surety)  as  principal,  are  holden,  and  stand  firmly  bound  and  obliged, 
'ointly  and  severally,  to  the  State  of  in  the  penal  sum  of  (state  amount), 

dollars,  to  be  paid  to  said  State  or  to  its  certain  attorney,  to  which  payment  well  and 
truly  to  be  made  and  done  we,  the  said  obligors,  do  bind  ourselves,  and  our  heirs, 
executors,  and  administrators,  and  each  and  every  of  them,  for  and  in  the  whole  sum 
aforesaid,  firmly  by  these  presents.  Signed  with  our  hands,  and  sealed  with  our  seals, 
this  day  of  A.  D. 

The  Condition  of  this  obligation  is  such,  that  whereas  the  above  bounden  (insert 
name  of  Guardian)  has  been  by  the  Court  of  Probate  for  the  district  of 
appointed  Guardian  to  (insert  name  of  minor)  a minor  about  years  of  age  ; now, 

therefore,  if  said  (name  of  guardian)  shall  faithfully  discharge,  according  to  law,  the 
aforesaid  trust,  to  which  he  has  been  appointed,  and  shall  render  a true  account  of  his 
guardianship  to  said  ward,  when  he  arrives  at  full  age,  and  to  said  Court  at  such  time  or 
times  as  it  shall  order,  or  shall  be  reouired  by  law,  then  this  Obligation  shall  be  void, 
otherwise  to  remain  in  full  force. 

(Signature.) 


FORM  OF  CONSERVATOR’S  BOND. 

Know  all  Men  by  these  Presents,  That  we  (insert  name  of  conservator)  and 
(insert  name  of  principal)  as  principal,  (here  insert  name  of  surety)  as  surety,  are  holden 
and  stand  firmly  bound  and  obliged,  jointly  and  severally,  unto  the  State  of 
in  the  penal  sum  of  (state  amount)  dollars,  to  be  paid  to  said  State  or  to  its  certain 
Attorney : to  the  which  payment,  well  and  truly  to  be  made  and  done,  we  bind  ourselves 
and  each  of  us,  our  heirs,  executors  and  administrators,  and  each  and  every  of  them,  fof 
and  in  the  whole  sum  aforesaid,  firmly  by  these  presents.  Signed  with  our  hands  and 
sealed  with  our  seals,  at  this  day  of  A.  D. 

The  Condition  of  the  above  Obligation  is  such,  that  whereas  the  said  (insert  here 
the  name  of  conservator)  has  this  day  been  duly  appointed  by  the  Court  of  Probate,  for 
the  District  of  conservator  of  (insert  name  of  person)  of  the  Town  of 

in  said  District,  an  incapable  person  ; now,  therefore,  if  the  said  (insert  name 
of  conservator)  shall  faithfully  discharge  the  duties  of  his  said  appointment  according  to 
law,  then  this  Bond  shall  be  void,  otherwise  to  remain  in  full  force. 

(Signatures.) 

Signed sealed  and  delivered  ) 
in  presence  of  \ 

(Signature  of  witnesses.) 


208 


COMMERCIAL  AND  LEGAL  FORMS. 


FORM  OF  BOND  FOR  SALE  OF  MINOR’S  LAND. 

Know  all  Men  by  these  Presents,  That  we  (here  insert  the  name  of  guardian) 
as  principal,  and  (here  insert  the  name  of  surety)  as  surety,  are  holden  and  stand  firmly 
bound  and  obliged  unto  the  State  of  in  the  penal  sum  of  (state  amount) 

dollars,  the  full  and  just  payment  of  which  sum,  to  be  made  to  said  State,  or  to  its  cer- 
tain Attorney,  we,  the  Obligors  above  named,  do  jointly  and  severally  bind  ourselves  and 
each  of  us,  our  heirs,  executors  and  administrators,  and  each  of  them,  firmly  by  these 
presents.  Signed  with  our  hands,  and  sealed  with  our  seals.  Duted  at  this 

day  of  A.  D. 

The  Condition  of  the  above  Bond  or  Obligation  is  such  that,  whereas  said  (insert 
name  of  guardian)  Guardian  to  (insert  name  of  minor)  Minor,  under  the  age  of  twenty-one 
years,  belonging  to  said  district,  is  this  day  empowered  by  the  Court  of  Probate,  for  the 
district  of  to  sell  certain  real  estate  ol  said  Minor  situate  in  (here  describe 

property.) 

Now  if  said  (name  of  guardian)  shall  vest  the  avails  of  the  estate  sold,  in  other  real 
estate  to  be  conveyed  to  said  Minor  or  place  the  same  at  interest  on  good  security,  by 
mortgage  of  at  least  double  the  value  of  the  estate  sold,  or  deposit  the  same  in  some 
incorporated  Savings  Bank  in  this  State,  or  invest  the  same  in  the  bonds  or  loans  of  this 
State,  the  bonds  or  loans  of  any  town,  city  or  borough  of  this  State  or  in  the  bonds, 
loans,  or  securities  of  the  United  States,  or  lay  out  the  same  in  the  nurture,  educa- 
tion or  advancement  in  marriage  of  said  Minor  as  said  Court  of  Probate  shall  direct  or 
approve,  and  shall  render  his  account  to  such  Court  when  required,  or  to  the  Minor 
when  arrived  at  full  age,  according  to  the  statute  in  such  cases  provided,  then  this  obli- 
gation shall  be  void,  otherwise  to  be  and  remain  absolute  and  in  full  force. 

In  presence  of 

(Names  of  witnesses.)  (Signatures.)  L.  S. 

L.  S. 


FORM  OF  TRUSTEE’S  BOND. 

Know  all  Men  by  these  Presents,  That  we  (here  insert  the  name  of  trustee  or 
trustees)  as  principal,  and  (here  insert  name  of  surety)  as  surety,  are  holden  and  stand 
firmly  bound  and  obliged,  jointly  and  severally,  unto  the  State  of  Connecticut,  in  the 
penal  sum  of  (state  amount)  dollars,  to  be  paid  to  said  State  or  to  its  certain  Attorney  : 
to  the  which  payment,  well  and  truly  to  be  made  and  done,  we  the  said  Obligors,  do  bind 
ourselves  and  each  of  us,  our  heirs,  executors  and  administrators,  and  each  and  every  of 
them,  for  and  in  the  whole  sum  aforesaid,  firmly  by  these  presents.  Signed  with  our 
hands  and  sealed  with  our  seals,  at  this  day  of  A.  D. 

The  Condition  of  this  Obligation  is  such  that,  whereas  the  above  bounden  (insert 
here  the  names  of  trustee,  or  trustees)  has  been  appointed  and  constituted  Trustee  in 


COMMERCIAL  AND  LEGAL  FORMS, 


200 


Insolvency  under  a certain  assignment  in  Insolvency  made  by  (name  ot  party  insolvent) 
of  in  the  Probate  District  of  (name  of  District)  insolvent  Debtor,  dated  on 

the  day  of  A.  D.  , and  duly  lodged  for  record  in  the  Court  of  Pro- 

bate for  said  District,  pursuant  to  the  statute  in  such  case  made  and  provided ; now* 
therefore,  if  the  said  (name  of  trustee)  shall  faithfully  discharge  the  duties  of  his  said 
appointment  according  to  law,  then  this  Bond  shall  be  void,  otherwise  to  remain  in  full 
force. 

(Signatures.) 


ASSIGNMENTS. 

assignment  is  a surrender  for  the  benefit  of  another  party  of  claim  upon 
a third  party  of  any  debt,  obligation,  judgment,  wages  or  bond. 

An  assignment  may  be  written  on  the  instrument  to  be  conveyed,  oi 
upon  a distinct  sheet  of  paper. 


FORM  OF  TRANSFER  OF  PROMISSORY  NOTE. 

To  be  written  across  its  back. 

For  value  received,  I hereby  assign  and  transfer  to  John  Paul  Jones,  all  right  and 
title  I may  have  to  the  within  note. 

ANDREW  JOHNSON. 


ASSIGNMENT  OF  WAGES  WITH  POWER  OF  ATTORNEY. 

Know  all  Men  by  these  Presents,  That  I,  Charles  Nichols  of  the  Town  and 
County  of  , State  of  in  consideration  of  Twenty  Dollars  to  me 

in  hand  paid,  do  hereby  assign  and  transfer  to  Jacob  Strong,  all  claims  and  demands 
which  I now  have  or  may  at  any  time  hereafter  have  between  this  date  and  the  first  day 
of  January,  1883,  against  Paul  Rich,  for  all  sums  of  money  and  demands  due  me  for  ser- 
vices as  clerk,  to  have  and  hold  the  same  to  the  said  Jacob  Strong,  forever. 

And  I do  hereby  appoint  and  constitute  the  said  Jacob  Strong  and  his  assigns  to  be 
my  Attorney  in  the  premises,  to  do  and  perform  all  acts,  matters  and  things  in  the  pre- 
mises in  like  manner  and  intent,  as  I would  if  personally  present. 

In  witness  whereof,  I have  set  my  hand  and  seal,  this  day  of 

CHARLES  NICHOLS,  [L.  S.] 


210 


COMMERCIAL  LAW  AND  LEGAL  FORMS. 


CHATTEL  MORTGAGES. 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGE  is  usually  given  to  secure  a debt  to  a creditor. 
It  Js  one  given  upon  personal  property,  and  should  always  contain  a 
clause  concerning  the  equity  of  redemption. 

Many  of  the  conditions  which  regulate  the  mortgages  of  real  estate 
apply  equally  to  chattel  mortgages,  but  owing  to  the  great  dissimilarity  in 
Vh e character  of  these  two  classes  of  property,  there  has  been  a diversity  in  the  legisla- 
tion of  the  different  States. 

The  legislation  concerning  this  class  of  mortgages  is  c o3  ttantly  changing  in  the 
several  States,  so  that  the  wisest  course  will  be  always  to  apply  to  a lawyer  who  will 
inform  you  of  the  law  of  that  date. 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGE  WITH  POWER  OF  SALE. 

Know  all  Men  by  These  Presents,  That  I,  Charles  Gray,  of  the  city  of 
, State  of  , in  consideration  of  two  hundred  dollars  to  me  paid  by  John 

Jones  of  the  city  and  State  aforesaid,  the  receipt  of  which  is  hereby  acknowledged,  do 
hereby  grant,  bargain,  and  sell  unto  the  said  John  Jones,  and  his  assigns,  forever,  the 
following  goods  and  chattels,  to  wit — 

[Here  insert  an  accurate  list  of  the  articles  mortgaged ’ giving  a full  description  of  tachE\ 

To  Have  and  to  Hold,  All  and  singular,  the  said  goods  and  chattels  unto  the 
tuortgagee  herein,  and  his  assigns,  to  their  sole  use  and  behoof  forever.  And  the  mort- 
gagor herein,  for  himself  and  for  his  heirs,  executors  and  administrators,  does  hereby  cov- 
enant to  and  with  the  said  mortgagee  and  his  assigns,  the  said  mortgagor  is  lawfully  pos- 
sessed of  the  said  goods  and  chattels,  as  of  his  own  property  ; that  the  same  are  free 
from  all  incumbrances,  and  that  he  will  warrant  and  defend  the  same  to  him,  the  said 
mortgagee  and  his  assigns,  against  the  lawful  claims  and  demands  of  all  persons. 

Provided,  Nevertheless,  that  if  the  said  mortgagor  shall  pay  to  the  mortgage,  on 
the  day  of  - , in  the  year  , the  sum  of  two  hundred  dollars,  then  this  mort- 

gage is  to  be  void,  otherwise  to  remain  in  full  force  and  effect  * 

And  Provided  Further,  That  until  default  be  made  by  the  said  mortgagor  in 
the  performance  of  the  condition  aforesaid,  it  shall  and  may  be  lawful  for  him  to  retain 
the  possession  of  the  said  goods  and  chattels,  and  to  use  and  enjoy  the  same ; but  if  the 
same  or  any  part  thereof  shall  be  attached  or  claimed  by  any  person  of  persons  at  any 
time  before  payment,  or  the  said  mortgagor,  or  any  person  or  persons  whatever,  upon  any 
pretence,  shall  attempt  or  carry  off,  conceal,  make  away  with,  sell,  or  in  any  manner  dis 
pose  of  the  same  or  any  part  thereof,  without  the  authority  and  permission  of  the  said 
mortgagee  or  his  executors,  administrators,  or  assigns,  in  writing  expresse  d,  then  it  shall 
and  may  be  lawful  for  the  said  mortgagee,  with  or  without  assistance,  or  his  agent  of 


COMMERCIAL  LAW  AND  LEGAL  FORMS. 


211 


attorney,  or  his  executors,  administrators,  or  assigns,  to  take  possession  of  said  goods  and 
chattels,  by  entering  upon  any  premises  wherever  the  same  may  be,  whether  in  this 
county  or  State,  or  elsewhere,  to  and  for  the  use  of  said  mortgagee  or  his  assigns.  And 
if  the  moneys  hereby  secured,  or  the  matters  to  be  done  or  performed,  as  above  specified 
are  not  duly  paid,  done  or  performed  at  the  time  and  according  to  the  conditions  above 
set  forth,  then  the  said  mortgagee,  or  his  attorney  or  agent,  or  his  executors,  administra- 
tors, or  assigns,  may  by  virtue  hereof  and  without  any  suit  or  process,  immediately  enter 
and  take  possession  of  said  goods  and  chattels,  and  sell  and  dispose  of  the  same  at  pub- 
lic or  private  sa!e,  and  after  satisfying  the  amount  due,  and  all  expenses,  the  surplus,  if 
any  remain,  shall  be  paid  over  to  said  mortgagor  or  his  assigns.  The  exhibition  of  this 
mortgage  shall  be  sufficient  proof  that  any  person  claiming  to  act  for  the  mortgagee  is 
duly  made,  constituted,  and  appointed  agent  and  attorney  to  do  whatever  is  above 
authorized. 

In  witness  whereof,  the  said  mortgagor  has  hereunto  set  his  hand  and  seal,  this 
day  of 

CHARLES  GRAY,  [L.  S.J 

Signed , sealed  and  delivered  in 
presence  of 

Peter  Healy, 

John  Wilson. 

Note. — It  must  be  then  acknowledged  before  a Justice  of  the  Peace,  or  Notary  Public*. 


LIABILITIES  OF  EXPRESS  COMPANIES  AND  CORPORATIONS 
OR  PERSONS  TRANSPORTING  PERSONS  OR  PROPERTY. 

HE  term  applied  in  law  to  persons  or  corporations  employed  in  the  busi- 
ness of  transportation  is  common  carrier. 

The  rights  and  responsibilities  of  a common  carrier  are  summed  up  in 
the  following: 

He  is  obliged  to  receive  all  goods  offered  him,  unless  they  are* 
expressly  exempted  by  announcement  or  in  unfit  condition.  Also  the  person  of  passen- 
gers, if  he  be  a carrier  of  passengers,  to  use  due  care  and  promptness  in  the  transport 
and  delivery  of  them.  If  he  refuse  to  take  goods  in  his  line  when  he  has  room  for  them, 
he  may  be  held  for  damages. 

He  has  lien  upon  chattels  transported  for  the  payment  of  his  rates. 

When  goods  are  lost  or  injured  he  is  liable,  unless  the  loss  or  injury  was  due  to  an 
act  of  Providence,  or  of  a public  enemy. 

In  case  of  money  lost,  the  carrier  is  liable,  if  that  is  in  his  line  of  business. 

Any  article  requiring  care  in  its  transportation  if  legibly  marked,  “ Glass  with  care,” 
“Books,  keep  dry,”  “This  side  up,”  must  be  carried  according  to  direction,  or  the  car- 
rier is  liable 

A carrier  of  passengers  is  obliged  to  receive  and  carry  all  persons  offering  to  pay 
the  established  rates  provided. 


212 


COMMERCIAL  LAW  AND  LEGAL  FORMS. 


1.  If  he  be  a proper  person,  in  proper  condition  to  carry. 

2.  That  the  carrier  have  room  in  his  conveyance. 

3.  That  the  passengers  do  not  intend  to  disturb  or  injure  the  business  of  the  carrier. 

A person  refusing  to  follow  the  announced  rules  ol  the  carrier  may  be  ejected  from 

the  conveyance  at  a proper  place,  and  in  a proper  manner. 

A passenger  carrier  is  bound  to  carry  the  person  over  the  whole  distance  in  suitable 
conveyances,  at  proper  speed  and  for  a just  compensation.  If  there  be  any  special  dan- 
ger to  give  notice  of  it — to  accommodate  his  passengers  equally  unless  they  be  disor- 
derly or  in  an  improper  condition  of  body.  He  should  keep  his  conveyance  in  a good 
and  strong  condition  and  not  crowded,  and  supplied  with  suitable  motive  power,  drivers, 
conductors,  brakemen  and  engineers,  take  the  usual  and  advertised  route,  stop  at  the 
designated  places,  with  proper  intervals  for  rest  and  food,  leave  the  passengers  where  the 
agreement  specifies,  or  at  the  ordinary  stopping  places  or  depot. 

The  passenger  must  use  the  proper  care  for  his  own  person,  or  he  will  not  be  enti- 
tled to  damages  for  injuries. 

A check  calling  for  baggage,  entitles  the  holder  to  receive  it,  and  if  withheld  at  the 
end  of  the  route,  he  may  maintain  an  action  therefor.  If  the  check  has  been  lost,  upon 
giving  satifactory  evidence  of  ownership,  he  may  bring  action  if  still  withheld. 

Printed  rules  and  regulations  which  are  reasonable',  must  be  obeyed,  and  if  any 
injury  or  damage  accrue  to  the  passenger  violating  them  through  his  own  carelessness,  the 
carrier  is  not  liable.  But  any  injury  or  accident  for  which  the  passenger  was  not  respon- 
sible, e.  g.,  a collision,  or  explosion,  the  fact  of  his  violating  the  rules  shall  not  be  a bar 
to  the  recovery  of  damages. 

The  servants,  or  employees  of  a carrying  company,  cannot  maintain  suit  for  injuries 
incurred  by  the  fault  or  carelessness  of  a fellow  servant  or  employe  against  the  carrier ; 
that  is  a part  of  his  risk  in  the  business.  The  same  holds  true  in  the  case  of  accident, 
where  there  was  not  gross  negligence  on  the  part  of  the  company. 


DEEDS. 

LEGAL  instrument  conveying  land  is  termed  a Deed,  as  the  term  is  now 
used.  Formerly  it  embraced  all  instruments  under  seal. 

There  can  be  no  recognized  transfer  of  real  estate  in  this  country 
without  a deed,  signed,  sealed,  acknowledged  and  recorded.  In  some 
States  the  seal  is  immaterial  to  the  validity,  and  in  some  States  great  care 
should  be  used  to  have  the  seal  conform  to  law. 

A grantor  is  the  person  transferring  the  land  ; the  grantee  is  the  one  receiving  the 
conveyance. 

The  grantor  should  write  his  full  name,  with  good  ink,  in  the  proper  place. 

The  grantee’s  full  name  should  also  appear  in  its  proper  place,  written  in  the  best 
ink.  A person  accepting  a deed  signed  with  lead  pencil  runs  a risk.  If  *he  grantor  is 
unable  to  write  he  may  make  his  mark. 


COMMERCIAL  LAW  AND  LEGAL  FORMS. 


213 


The  possession  of  the  deed  by  the  grantee,  with  the  knowledge  and  consent  of  the 
grantor,  is  essential  to  make  it  valid. 

If  the  grantor  should  die  with  a deed  duly  acknowledged  and  signed  in  his  posses- 
sion, not  delivered,  the  instrument  would  be  invalid. 

A deed  to  a married  woman  may  be  delivered  to  her  or  her  husband. 

The  witnesses  to  a deed,  of  whom  there  should  be  two,  and  in  some  States  two  are 
required,  must  actually  see  the  grantor  write  his  name,  or  hear  his  acknowledgment  im- 
mediately after  writing  it.  They  ought  to  be  disinterested  parties,  of  sound  mind  and 
legal  age. 

Acknowledgment  must  be  made  by  the  grantor  before  the  person  legally  author- 
ized for  that  purpose,  and  he  should  state  in  his  certificate  just  how  it  was  made. 

The  record  of  the  deed  must  be  in  the  county  or  town  in  which  made.  A deed  is 
legally  regarded  as  on  record  the  moment  the  recording  officer  receives  and  places  upon 
it  his  endorsement.  The  officer  places  upon  it  the  date  of  the  year,  month,  day,  hour  and 
minute,  so  that  the  title  can  be  traced  with  absolute  certainty. 

There  must  be  a valuable  consideration  expressed,  and  an  accurate  description  of 
the  property  conveyed.  This  latter  may  be  done  by  referring  to  former  records,  if  any, 
describing  the  property  or  a part  of  it. 

The  grantor  must  be  of  lawful  age  and  sound  mind.  In  many  States  the  restrictions 
are  many  and  a reference  to  local  law  is  needful. 

The  deed  shall  convey  to  the  grantee  and  his  heirs,  else  it  limits  his  title  to  his  life- 
time, nor  can  he  dispose  of  it 

A deed  in  fee  simple  conveys  the  absolute  and  entire  ownership. 

A warrantee  deed  makes  the  grantor  answerable  for  any  defect  in  title. 

A quitclaim  deed  conveys  all  the  title,  if  any,  the  grantor  may  perchance  have. 

A trust  deed  conveys  the  property  to  the  grantor  in  trust  for  some  special  purpose 
therein  specified. 

In  States  where  the  wife  is  required  to  sign  jointly  with  her  husband,  or  to  sign 
away  her  right  of  dower,  care  is  taken  that  she  does  so  of  her  own  free  will,  and  a clause 
so  stating  is  provided. 


FORM  FOR  WARRANTEE  DEED. 

To  all  Persons  to  whom  these  Presents  shall  Come,  Greeting:  Know  ye 
that  I,  Henry  P.  Brown,  of  the  city  and  county  of  , State  of  , for 

the  consideration  of  four  hundred  and  fifty  dollars,  received  to  my  full  satisfaction,  of 
John  H.  Bliss,  of  said  city  and  county,  do  give,  grant,  bargain,  sell  and  confirm  unto  the 
said  Bliss,  a certain  piece  of  land  located  in  said  city,  and  bounded  easterly  by  State 
street  thirty  (30)  feet,  southerly  by  land  formerly  of  said  Bliss  one  hundred  and  fifty  (150) 
feet,  westerly  by  land  formerly  of  Bishop  & Brown  twenty-seven  (27)  feet,  northerly  by 
land  now  or  formerly  of  Bishop  & Brown  ; the  southerly  boundaiy  is  220  feet,  and  at  the 
westerly  end  224  feet  northerly  from  land  owned  by  George  A.  Brownson,  and  being  th^ 


214 


COMMERCIAL  LAW  AND  LEGAL  FORMS. 


same  land  formerly  owned  by  the  said  Bliss  and  conveyed  to  Edward  Carter  by  a quit- 
claim deed  this  day. 

To  have  and  to  hold  the  above  granted  and  bargained  premises,  with  the  appurte- 
nances thereof,  unto  him,  the  said  grantee,  his  heirs  and  assigns  forever,  to  his  and  theii 
proper  use  and  behoof.  And  also  I,  the  said  grantor,  do  for  myself  and  my  heirs,  execu- 
tors and  administrators,  covenant  with  the  said  grantee,  his  heirs  and  assigns,  that  at 
and  until  the  ensealing  of  these  presents,  I am  well  seized  of  the  premises  as  a good  in- 
defeasible estate  in  fee  simple ; and  nave  good  right  to  bargain  and  sell  the  same  in 
manner  and  form  as  is  above  written ; and  that  the  same  is  free  from  all  incumbrances 
whatsoever. 


And  furthermore , I,  the  said  grantor,  do  by  these  presents  bind  myself  and  my  heirs 
forever,  to  warrant  and  defend  the  above  granted  and  bargained  premises  to  him,  the  said 
grantee,  his  heirs  and  assigns,  against  aii  claims  and  demands  whatsoever. 

In  witness  whereof  I have  hereuto  set  my  hand  and  seal,  this 


D. 

HENRY  P.  BROWN,  [seal.] 

Signed,  sealed  and  delivered  in  1 
presence  of  \ 


Peter  Smith, 

Peter  Parley, 

County,  ss. — personally  appeared  Henry 

P.  Brown,  signer  and  sealer  of  the  foregoing  instrument-  and  acknowledged  the  same  to 
be  his  free  act  and  deed  before  me. 


Chas.  Brown, 

Commissioner  oi  the  Superior  Court  for 


SAMUEL  P.  SMITH, 
Justice  of  the  Peace. 
County, 

Notary  Public 


FORM  FOR  QUITCLAIM  DEED 

To  all  People  tct  whom  these  Presents  shall  Come,  Greeting  : Know  ye 
that  I,  John  H.  Berry,  of  the  city  and  county  of  State  of  for 

the  consideration  of  one  hundred  dollars,  received  to  my  full  satisiaction  of  James  P. 
Stevens,  of  said  city,  do  remise,  release  and  forever  quitclaim  unto  the  said  James  P. 
Stevens,  his  heirs  and  assigns  forever,  all  the  right,  title,  interest,  claim  and  demand 
whatsoever,  as  he,  the  said  releasor,  have  or  ought  to  have,  in  or  to  (here  describe 

accurately  the  premises) 

To  have  and  to  hold  the  premises,  with  all  the  appurtenances,  unto  the  said  releasee, 
his  heirs  and  assigns  forever,  so  that  neither  he,  the  releasor,  nor  his  heirs,  nor  any 
other  person  under  him  or  them,  shall  hereafter  have  any  claim,  right  or  title  in  or  to  the 
premises,  or  any  part  thereof ; but  therefrom  he  and  they  are  by  these  presents  forever 
barred  and  secluded. 


COMMERCIAL  LAW  AND  LEGAL  FORMS. 


215 


In  witness  whereof  I have  hereunto  set  my  hand  and  seal,  this  day  of 
A.  D. 

JOHN  H.  BERRY. 

Signed,  sealed  and  delivered  in  | 
presence  of  ) 


Peter  Strong, 

James  Brown. 

County,  ss.—  personally  ap- 

peared James  H.  Berry,  signer  and  sealer  of  the  foregoing  instrument,  and  acknowledged 
the  same  to  be  his  free  act  and  deed  before  me. 


Chas.  Brown, 

Commissioner  of  the  Superior  Court  for 


PETER  SIMPLE, 
Justice  of  the  Peace, 
County, 

Notary  Public. 


INSURANCE 


NSURANCE  is  a guarantee  to  make  good  loss  or  injury  to  goods,  property 
or  certain  personal  interest  for  a valuable  consideration. 

The  written  contract  is  termed  a policy  ; the  sum  paid  by  the  in- 
sured is  called  premium. 

The  insured  must  have  interest  in  the  property  at  the- time. 

All  persons  capable  of  conducting  business  may  effect  insurance. 

Insurance  ought  to  be  in  writing. 

If  the  insured  accepts  the  policy  which  is  signed  only  by  the  insurers,  he  is  bound 
by  the  conditions  and  stipulations  which  it  contains  and  under  which  the  risk  is  taken. 

A policy  signifies  and  accurately  describes  the  property  to  be  insured.  But  if  this 
is  left  undetermined,  it  is  called  an  open  policy,  and  the  property  is  afterwards  described 
upon  it.  A claim  for  indemnity  cannot  exceed  the  amount  of  property  designated. 

When  the  premium  is  paid,  the  property  is  regarded  in  law  as  insured,  since  no  de- 
livery of  property  is  required,  as  in  the  case  of  deeds. 

Alterations  may  be  made  by  mutual  consent,  but  not  otherwise.  A policy  may  be 
assigned  and  the  assignee  have  all  the  rights  of  the  insured. 

If  the  property  is  conveyed  without  an  assignment  of  the  policy,  then  the  policy  is 
void,  unless  expressly  stipulated  to  be  for  the  benefit  of  the  owners  of  the  property  at  the 
time  of  loss.  After  loss  the  claim  for  indemnity  may  be  transferred  as  any  othel  debt. 


MARINE  INSURANCE. 

The  insurance  of  sea-going  crafts,  their  cargo,  and  all  maritime  property,  against 
casualty  by  sea  during  a certain  voyage,  or  for  a deferred  time,  is  Marine  Insurance. 

The  insurance  of  a vessel  is  confined  to  that  one  particularly  designated,  but  the 
goods  and  cargo  may  be  changed  from  one  vessel  to  another. 

A cargo  coming  from  abroad  may  be  insured  with  much  less  minuteness  than  would 


210 


COMMERCIAL  LAW  AND  LEGAL  FORMS. 


be  sufficient  in  a fire  insurance  or  even  marine  insurance  of  the  vessel  and  cargo  in  the 
port  from  which  she  sailed. 

It  is  enough  if  the  insured  suffer  pecuniary  loss,  or  is  prevented  from  reaping  profit 
to  which  he  is  entitled  by  the  destruction.  He  may  effect  an  insurance. 


FIRE  INSURANCE. 

The  party  insured  must  have  personal  interest  in  property,  both  at  time  of  insurance 
and  loss.  The  insured  cannot  change  the  property  so  that  it  is  not  recognizable  by  the 
description  in  policy,  but  he  may  make  needed  repairs.  When  material  changes  are  to 
be  made,  notice  should  be  served  and  permission  obtained  from  the  insurers,  and  en- 
dorsed on  policy. 

Goods  are  insured  only  so  long  as  they  continue  in  the  same  premises  as  when 
insured.  Notice  should  be  given  if  moved,  and  then  the  policy  will  be  changed. 

Any  material  misrepresentation  or  concealment  in  the  application,  would  render  the 
policy  void. 

A policy  of  fire  insurance  covers  loss  sustained  by  fire,  use  of  water  to  extinguish 
fire,  or  the  destruction  of  a building  to  prevent  the  progress  of  fire. 

When  there  is  no  fire  occasioned  by  lightning,  the  insurers  are  not  liable  to  any 
damages  thus  sustained.  Explosion  by  gunpowder  is  a loss  by  fire,  but  by  steam  is  not. 

A certificate  of  loss  and  notice  to  insurers  should  be  made  without  delay. 


LIFE  INSURANCE. 

A life  insurance  policy  stipulates  to  a certain  person  a specified  amount  upon  the 
death  of  the  person  so  insured. 

Any  misrepresentation  or  concealment  in  the  answer  to  questions  or  other  state- 
ments in  the  application  for  insurance,  invalidates  the  policy. 

Premiums  must  be  paid  on  the  days  on  which  they  fall  due,  or  the  policy  is  void* 
although  in  some  States  the  Statutes  provide  if  a policy  is  defeated,  the  company  is 
liable  for  a proportionate  value  of  the  policy.  The  exact  hour  of  death  is  sometimes  im- 
portant, when  the  insurance  is  for  a specified  time,  to  show  that  it  occurred  within  that 
time. 

Life  policies  can  be  assigned,  but  if  the  policy  is  not  actually  delivered,  a separate 
deed  should  be  executed.  The  assignee  is  then  entitled,  on  the  death  of  the  assignor,  to 
the  full  amount,  without  reference  to  consideration  paid. 

ASSIGNMENT  OF  A POLICY  TO  BE  INDORSED  THEREON. 

I,  Charles  Jones,  insured  by  the  within  policy,  in  consideration  of  a dollar  paid  to 
me  by  John  Brown,  and  for  other  good  considerations,  do  hereby  assign  and  transfer  to 
the  said  John  Brown  this  policy,  with  all  the  right,  title,  interest  and  claim  which  I pow 
have,  or  hereafter  may  have,  in,  to  or  under  the  same. 

Witness  my  hand,  this  day  of  , A.  D. 


THE  RIGHTS  OF  MARRIED  WOMEN. 


AN  ABSTRACT  OF  THE  LAWS  RELATING  THERETO  IN  EACH 
STATE  AND  TERRITORY  ARRANGED  IN  ALPHABETICAL  ORDER. 

Their  Rights  in  General. 

The  common  law  originally  held  in  the  United  States  that  a married  woman 
could  not  make  contracts  on  her  own  account,  and  the  husband’s  absolute  right  to 
all  her  personal  property  at  marriage  could  not  vest  in  the  wife,  except  by  decree  of 
court  in  divorce  or  by  the  last  will  of  her  husband. 

In  case  of  his  death  intestate  the  property  is  vested  in  his  executors  to  her 
seclusion. 

He  also,  by  common  law,  possessed  all  her  real  estate  during  life,  and  if  a living 
child  be  born,  he  held  this  right  through  all  his  life,  by  what  is  called  “ tenancy  by 
courtesy.” 

On  the  death  of  the  husband  intestate,  she  was  entitled  to  her  right  of  dower — 
one-third  interest  in  the  estate,  of  which  he  could  not  deprive  her  without  her  consent. 

The  husband  may  debar  the  wife  by  will  from  interest  in  his  personal  estate, 
except  her  actual  wearing  paraphernalia  suitable  to  her  state  in  life. 

Such  is  the  unjust  and  unequal  common  law,  but  the  several  States  have  contin- 
ually modified  it  by  statutes. 

The  husband  is  made  responsible  for  the  common  necessities  of  life,  even  if  he 
do  not  supply  them,  or  if  he  turns  her  from  his  house,  or  otherwise  separates  from 
her  without  just  cause.  But  he  is  not  held  liable  if  the  wife  desert  him  without 
cause,  or  he  turns  her  away  for  cause.  But  if  she  leave  him  upon  good  cause,  ill- 
treatment  or  extreme  provocation,  he  is  liable.  The  law  in  this  country  does  not 
compel  the  wife  to  remain  with  the  husband  and  suffer  cruelty  or  indecency. 

If  a man  live  with  a woman,  representing  her  to  be  his  wife,  even  to  one  who 
knows  she  is  not,  he  is  liable  as  if  she  were  his  wife. 

Contracts  made  before  marriage  are  regarded  as  valid  in  many  States,  and 
bestow  more  enlarged  privileges  upon  the  wife  than  are  recognized  by  statute  or 
common  law.  Or  greater  power  and  rights  may  be  preserved  by  conveying  the 
property  held  before  marriage  to  trustees,  in  an  indenture  setting  forth  accurately 
the  trust  imposed  and  the  duties  enjoined. 

Such  a document  should  be  drawn  by  a skilful  and  trusty  lawyer,  as  it  require  } 
the  utmost  exactness  and  care. 


218 


COMMERCIAL  AND  LEGAL — THE  RIGHTS  OF  MARRIED  WOMEN. 


Their  Rights  in  each  State  and  Territory. 

ALABAMA. — A married  woman  may  hold  real  estate  acquired  at  any  time,  but 
she  cannot  dispose  of  it  without  her  husband’s  consent,  if  he  be  of  sound  mind,  a 
resident  of  the  State,  and  has  not  abandoned  her  nor  been  imprisoned  for  a crime 
not  less  than  two  years.  The  husband  is  entitled  to  one-half  of  the  real  and  personal 
estate  of  his  deceased  wife.  The  wife  is  entitled  to  one-third  the  real  and  one-half 
the  personal  estate  of  the  deceased  husband.  The  widow  may  retain  possession  of 
the  homestead  free  of  rent  until  dower  is  assigned. 

ARIZONA. — She  may  hold  separate  property  which  she  can  control  and  dis- 
pose of  as  if  not  married.  She  is  not  liable  for  her  husband’s  debts,  but  may  carry 
on  business  and  sue  and  be  sued  in  her  own  name. 

ARKANSAS. — A married  woman  may  hold  and  acquire  property  of  any  kind 
separate  from  husband  and  not  held  for  his  debts.  She  must  file  a schedule  at- 
tested by  her  to  be  recorded  in  her  name  in  the  county  where  she  resides.  She  may 
sue  and  be  sued,  and  carry  on  business  upon  her  sole  account.  Her  contracts  shall 
not  bind  her  husband.  In  suits  where  other  property  is  in  dispute,  she  must  join 
with  her  husband.  The  widow  is  entitled  to  right  of  dower. 

CALIFORNIA. — A married  woman  is  entitled  to  all  property  held  at  marriage, 
or  afterward  received  by  gift,  inheritance,  or  devise,  and  such  property  cannot  be 
taken  for  her  husband’s  debts.  The  property  of  husband,  thus  acquired,  cannot  be 
held  for  the  wife’s  debts;  all  other  property  is  common  property,  but  controlled  by 
husband.  An  instrument  signed  by  both  must  be  made  to  convey  such  property, 
and  acknowledged  by  her  to  be  her  own  freewill.  The  wife  must  file  a full  and 
complete  inventory  of  her  property,  signed  by  her,  proved  and  recorded,  then  it  is 
exempt  from  seizure  for  husband’s  debts.  Either  survivor  receives  one-half  of  the 
common  property,  while  the  other  half,  less  the  debts  of  deceased,  goes  to  descend- 
ant of  such  deceased.  When  there  is  no  issue,  then  the  survivor  receives  the  whole, 
less  the  debts  of  deceased. 

COLORADO. — The  wife  may  retain  all  property  owned  by  her  at  marriage,  or 
acquired  subsequently  by  gift,  devise,  descent,  or  bequest — including  gifts  from  her 
husband  as  if  unmarried.  She  may  carry  on  business,  sue  and  be  sued,  and  make  a 
will,  but  she  cannot  bequeath  more  than  one-half  her  property  without  the  written 
consent  of  her  husband.  Nor  can  he  deprive  his  wife  of  more  than  one-half  of  his 
property.  The  husband  is  liable  for  the  debts  of  his  wife  previous  to  their  marriage, 
only  to  the  extent  of  the  property  he  has  received  with  and  through  her,  or  from 
rents  received  on  her  estates. 

CONNECTICUT. — By  the  law  of  1877,  neither  wife  nor  husband  acquire  any 
right  in  the  property  of  the  other  on  account  of  a marriage,  except  that  the  survivor 
shall  have  a part  in  the  property  of  the  other.  The  separate  earnings  of  the  wife 
shall  be  her  sole  property,  and  her  whole  property  may  be  taken  to  meet  her  debts. 
The  property  of  the  husband,  when  found,  shall  be  used  to  support  the  family. 
When  one  dies,  the  other  is  entitled  to  the  life  use  of  one-third  of  the  real  and  per- 
sonal estate  left  by  the  deceased ; except  a written  contract  has  been  previously 


COMMERCIAL  AND  LEGAL — THE  RIGHTS  OF  MARRIED  WOMEN. 


219 


made  that  the  survivor  has  received  from  the  other  property  in  lieu  of  the  provision 
of  the  statute.  This  right  to  one-third  cannot  be  destroyed  by  will.  If  there  are  no 
children,  then  the  Survivor  has  one-half.  For  all  marriages  contracted  prior  to  the 
passage  of  the  Act  of  1877,  the  wife  and  husband  may,  by  written  agreement  for  the 
abandonment  of  rights  of  previous  laws,  come  under  the  provision  of  this  law. 

DELAWARE. — A married  woman  holds  and  acquires  real  and  personal  estate 
in  her  own  right  and  for  her  separate  use,  together  with  all  rentals  and  profits,  and 
this  is  not  liable  for  husband’s  debts  nor  under  his  control.  She  may  obtain  pur- 
chase money  in  full  or  in  part  for  real  estate  by  any  legal  instrument,  without  consent 
of,  or  participation  of,  husband,  and  may  give  bonds,  receive  wages,  and  sue  for 
them,  sue  and  be  sued,  and  contract  in  regard  to  property,  and  be  an  administratrix. 

DISTRICT  OF  COLUMBIA. — The  wife  holds  all  property  held  by  her  at 
marriage,  or  received  from  any  one  except  her  husband,  as  if  she  were  not  married. 
She  may  contract,  sue,  and  be  sued  in  her  own  name  in  those  matters  only  which 
pertain  to  her  sole  property.  But  her  husband  shall  not  be  bound  by  any  contract 
made  by  his  wife.  She  is  held  liable  for  furniture  for  her  own  house.  Her  earnings 
while  living  with  her  husband  are  his  property. 

FLORIDA. — All  property  belonging  to  the  wife  at  marriage  remains  hers,  to- 
gether with  all  gifts,  devises,  and  bequests.  She  is  not  liable  for  his  debts,  unless  by 
written  consent  executed  according  to  law.  Husband  must  join  with  wife  in  all 
sales,  conveyances,  and  transfers  of  the  wife’s  property.  Widow  has  one-third  dower 
in  real  estate  and  one-third  absolute  of  all  personal  property;  or  at  her  option  may 
share  equally  with  the  children  of  her  husband.  If  there  be  no  children,  she  inherits 
all. 

GEORGIA. — The  wife  has  possession  of  all  property  held  by  her  at  marriage, 
or  subsequently  acquired  by  her.  Such  property  is  not  liable  for  her  husband’s 
debts,  contracts,  or  defaults.  The  wife,  by  the  published  consent  of  her  husband, 
can  become  a free  trader , and  then  she  is  liable  as  if  unmarried.  Widow  has  one- 
third  of  her  husband’s  land  as  dower. 

IDAHO. — The  wife  holds  all  property,  whether  acquired  before,  or  after  mar- 
riage, by  gift,  bequest,  devise,  or  descent.  Other  property  acquired  after  marriage 
becomes  common.  No  estate  as  tenant  by  courtesy  to  the  husband  nor  dower  to 
the  wife.  Half  the  common  property  goes  to  the  survivor.  If  there  are  no  children, 
one-half  of  common  property  subject  to  will  of  deceased,  or  if  there  is  no  will,  it 
goes  to  heirs  at  law. 

ILLINOIS. — The  wife  holds  all  property  and  earnings;  may  sue  and  be  sued; 
make  contracts,  and  incur  liabilities;  purchase  and  sell  all  property  in  her  possession 
as  if  unmarried.  Her  husband  is  not  liable  for  her  debts  or  torts,  but  she  cannot 
enter  into  a partnership  without  his  consent  as  long  as  they  live  together.  She  may 
make  a will.  Both  are  liable  for  family  expenses.  Neither  can  testify  against  the 
other.  The  survivor  has  one-third  of  the  real  estate  left  by  the  deceased,  unless  re- 
linquished by  due  form  of  law. 

INDIANA. — A married  woman  holds  and  controls  all  her  property  acquired  in 
her  own  name,  by  bequest,  gift,  or  purchase.  Can  sue  and  be  sued  on  its  account 


220 


COMMERCIAL  AND  LEGAL — THE  RIGHTS  OF  MARRIED  WOMEN. 


and  dispose  of  it  by  will.  She  may  sell  her  personal  property,  but  cannot  sell  and 
deed  real  estate  without  husband’s  consent.  No  dower,  but  wife  takes  one-third  in 
fee,  and  free  from  all  demands  when  husband’s  estate  does  not  exceed  $10,000. 

IOWA. — A wife  may  hold  real  and  personal  property,  acquired  by  inheritance, 
gift,  or  purchase,  and  control  it  as  if  femme  sole . She  can  sue  and  be  sued.  Both 
husband  and  wife  are  liable  for  family  expenses,  and  the  education  of  the  children, 
whether  contracted  for  by  one  or  the  other.  The  survivor  receives  one-third  of  all 
legal  and  equitable  estate  left  by  the  other. 

KANSAS. — A married  woman  can  hold  real  or  personal  property  to  her  sepa- 
rate use,  the  same  as  unmarried.  A note  made  by  a married  woman  will  bind  her 
property.  Neither  can  bequeath  more  than  one-half  the  property  from  the  other 
without  written  consent.  If  either  die  intestate  and  without  issue,  all  the  property 
goes  to  the  other. 

KENTUCKY. — A married  woman  may  hold  real  and  personal  estate  acquired 
before  and  after  marriage.  She  is  not  liable  for  her  husband’s  separate  debts,  but  is 
liable  for  joint  debts  contracted  in  writing,  or  for  necessaries  procured  by  her  or  any 
member  of  the  family.  The  husband  is  not  held  for  debts  of  the  wife  before  mar- 
riage. She  may  dispose  of  her  estate  by  will,  and  is  entitled  to  dower. 

LOUISIANA. — A married  woman  can  hold  real  and  personal  property  sepa- 
rate, and  her  husband  cannot  sell  the  same.  Property  acquired  during  marriage, 
from  the  joint  or  separate  earnings  of  husband  and  wife,  is  divided  equally  between 
them.  A married  woman  has  no  power  in  her  husband’s  estate  ; the  husband  must 
join  the  wife  in  any  conveyance  of  her  estate. 

MAINE. — A married  woman  may  hold  real  and  personal  estate  for  her  separate 
use.  Her  estate  is  not  liable  for  her  husband’s  debts.  She  may  make  contracts, 
sue  and  be  sued.  A wife  must  join  in  a deed  from  the  husband  in  selling  his  real 
estate  to  relinquish  dower. 

MARYLAND. — A married  woman  holds  her  real  and  personal  property  for  her 
use.  She  may  convey  the  same  by  a joint  deed  with  the  husband.  If  she  die  intes- 
tate, leaving  children,  her  husband  has  a life  estate  in  her  property;  if  she  leave  no 
children,  her  husband  has  a life  estate  in  her  real  estate,  and  her  personal  property 
vests  in  him. 

MASSACHUSETTS. — A married  woman  may  hold  real  and  personal  property, 
convey,  make  contracts,  sue,  and  be  sued,  as  if  unmarried ; but  her  separate  convey- 
ance is  subject  to  her  husband’s  tenancy.  Conveyances,  contracts,  and  suits  not 
authorized  between  husband  and  wife.  Every  woman  is  entitled  to  dower  in  the 
lands  of  her  husband. 

MICHIGAN. — A married  woman  may  hold  real  and  personal  estate,  dispose  and 
encumber,  as  if  unmarried;  may  sue  and  be  sued  in  relation  to  her  property.  Deal- 
ings directly  between  husband  and  wife  permitted.  The  wife  is  entitled  to  dower  in 
all  lands  owned  by  her  husband  during  marriage. 

MINNESOTA. — A married  woman  may  hold  real  and  personal  property  in  her 
own  name  and  use,  whether  acquired  before  or  after  marriage;  may  make  contracts, 
and  her  property  is  liable  for  her  debts;  but  no  conveyance  of  her  separate  real 
estate  is  valid  unless  her  husband  join  in  the  conveyance. 


COMMERCIAL  AND  LEGAL — THE  RIGHTS  OF  MARRIED  WOMEN. 


22r 


MISSISSIPPI. — A married  woman  may  hold  real  and  personal  property  for  her 
separate  use;  all  revenues  from  same  accrues  solely  to  her  benefit;  she  can  control, 
dispose  of  as  though  unmarried,  but  her  husband  must  join  in  a deed  of  conveyance. 
She  may  dispose  of  it  by  will.  She  may  engage  in  trade,  as  if  unmarried.  She  is 
then  bound  for  contracts  made  in  the  course  of  trade.  The  same  regulations  hold 
both  to  personal  and  real  estate.  If  no  children,  she  inherits  all  her  husband’s 
estate.  The  husband  is  entitled,  in  courtesy,  to  one-half  of  all  his  deceased  wife's 
lands  during  his  life. 

MISSOURI.— A married  woman  may  hold  real  or  personal  property  to  het 
separate  use,  through  a trustee.  Her  separate  property,  whether  acquired  before  or 
after  marriage,  is  not  liable  for  her  husband’s  debts.  She  is  entitled  to  dower  of 
one-third  of  all  the  lands  of  which  her  husband  was  seized  of  an  estate  of  inheritance, 
at  any  time  during  the  marriage;  also,  of  leasehold  estate  for  twenty  years  or  more. 

MONTANA. — Married  women  may  file  declaration  of  intention  to  carry  on 
separate  business,  and  then  trade  apart  from  their  husbands.  Not  liable  for  the 
debts  of  husband,  unless  for  necessary  expenses  of  family.  Her  husband  not  liable 
for  ante-nuptial  debts.  She  maybe  executor,  administrator,  guardian,  or  trustee; 
and  may  sue  in  her  own  name  for  all  injuries  to  person,  property,  character,  or 
reputation. 

NEBRASKA. — A married  woman  may  hold  real  and  personal  property  for  her 
separate  use,  whether  acquired  before  or  during  marriage,  except  through  her  hus- 
band. She  may  control,  dispose  of,  and  enter  into  contract ; she  may  sue  and  be 
sued,  and  carry  on  trade  or  business.  Her  personal  earnings  are  her  sole  property. 
She  must  join  with  her  husband  in  the  conveyance  or  encumbrance  of  the  home. 

NEVADA. — A married  woman  may  hold  real  and  personal  property  for  her 
sole  and  separate  use,  whether  acquired  before  or  during  marriage;  and  may  sell 
without  consent  of  her  husband.  Such  property  must  be  recorded.  All  property 
acquired  by  husband  and  wife  since  the  marriage  contract  is  in  force,  belongs  to 
them  in  common;  and  upon  the  death  of  the  husband,  one-half  goes  to  the  wife; 
but  during  marriage  is  under  control  of  the  husband.  He  may  convey  the  same 
without  his  wife  joining  in  the  deed. 

NEW  HAMPSHIRE. — A married  woman  may  hold  property  whether  ac- 
quired before  or  after  marriage,  except  through  property  of  the  husband,  to  her 
separate  use  as  if  unmarried,  and  may  sell,  convey,  or  encumber  her  separate  estate. 
All  such  acts  are  binding  upon  her  property  independent  of  her  husband.  She  m»ay 
sue  and  be  sued,  is  entitled  to  homestead  and  dower  in  property  of  her  husband, 
unless  she  release  the  same  by  joining  her  husband  in  its  conveyance.  Her  husband 
cannot  convey  real  estate  to  her. 

NEW  JERSEY. — A married  woman  may  hold  to  her  sole  and  separate  use 
real  and  personal  property  owned  or  acquired  during  marriage  by  gift,  grant,  de- 
scent, and  revenues  thereof,  not  subject  to  her  husband,  nor  liable  for  his  debts. 
She  can  be  sued  with  him  for  debts  contracted  for  her,  and  which  cannot  be  en- 
forced against  her  in  equity.  She  is  entitled  to  dower  in  one-third  of  all  the  real 
estate  of  which  he  died  seized,  and  to  the  home  until  dower  is  assigned  her. 


222 


COMMERCIAL  AND  LEGAL — THE  RIGHTS  OF  MARRIED  WOMEN 


NEW  MEXICO. — Married  women  hold  and  control  the  separate  propert> 
which  they  may  inherit.  They  also  can  hold  and  control  property  of  all  kinds  free 
from  any  liability  of  their  husbands. 

NEW  YORK. — A married  woman  may  hold  real  and  personal  property  to  her 
sole  and  separate  use.  Such  property  is  not  liable  for  her  husband’s  debts.  Obliga- 
tions incurred  by  her  can  be  recovered  out  of  her  separate  property.  A wife  may 
insure  her  husband’s  life  for  her  benefit,  provided  the  premium  does  not  exceed  five 
hundred  dollars.  May  be  a guardian,  executrix,  or  administratrix,  and  can  give 
necessary  bonds,  make  a will,  execute  a power  of  attorney  as  if  unmarried.  She  is 
entitled  to  dower  to  one-third  of  the  land  owned  by  her  husband  during  lifetime, 
unless  she  relinquished  the  same. 

NORTH  CAROLINA. — All  property  acquired  by  a married  woman,  either 
before  or  after  marriage,  except  through  her  husband,  is  her  sole  and  separate  prop- 
erty, free  from  the  control  of  her  husband,  and  not  liable  for  his  debts,  and  she  car? 
convey  the  same  with  the  written  consent  of  her  husband.  She  has  dower  in  all  the 
real  estate  of  her  husband. 

NORTH  DAKOTA. — Married  women  have  the  same  rights  in  real  and  per- 
sonal property  as  if  single;  may  sue  and  be  sued:  neither  husband  nor  wife  has  any 
right  in  the  property  of  the  other.  Dower  and  courtesy  have  been  abolished.  The 
wife  retains  all  rights  and  may  defend  them  at  law  the  same  as  the  husband. 

OHIO. — A married  woman  may  own  real  or  personal  property  in  her  own  right, 
but  cannot  dispose  of  it  for  more  than  three  years  without  husband  joining  her. 
She  is  entitled  to  dower  of  one-third  part  of  all  the  realty  owned  by  her  husband 
during  marriage,  unless  she  join  in  conveyances  made  by  him  to  release  same. 

OREGON. — A married  woman  may  hold  real  or  personal  property  in  her  own 
name,  and  free  from  control  of,  or  liability  for,  the  debts  of  her  husband,  but  a 
schedule  of  personal  property  must  be  filed  with  the  county  clerk.  She  may  sue 
and  be  sued.  She  may  make  a will.  The  widow  has  rights  of  dower  and  the 
widower  rights  of  courtesy. 

PENNSYLVANIA. — All  the  personal  or  real  property  belonging  to  a married 
woman  is  not  liable  for  debts  or  engagements  of  her  husband.  She  may  hold  and 
^enjoy  as  her  sole  and  separate  property.  Her  separate  estate  is  liable  for  neces- 
saries purchased  by  herself  for  the  use  of  her  family,  provided  her  husband’s  prop- 
erty does  not  satisfy.  She  may  petition  to  the  court  for  leave  to  have  the  benefit  of 
her  own  earnings,  which  will  be  allowed.  She  cannot  make  a valid  contract,  except 
for  the  improvement  of  her  separate  estate  for  necessaries.  She  may  loan  money  to 
her  husband  and  take  security  for  the  same.  She  may  make  a will  of  her  separate 
estate,  subject  to  her  husband’s  rights  as  tenant  by  courtesy. 

RHODE  ISLAND. — A married  woman  may  hold  real  and  personal  estate  not 
coming  from  the  husband,  free  from  all  interference  of  the  husband’s  creditors,  and 
free  from  the  husband’s  interference,  by  means  of  trustees  appointed  in  the  ordinary 
manner,  or  by  the  supreme  court  on  petition.  She  is  not  authorized  to  do  business 
as  a trader.  She  may  sell  her  personal  estate  in  the  same  manner  as  her  real  estate, 
and  certain  unimportant  kinds,  such  as  clothing,  books,  and  similar  personal  prop- 


COMMERCIAL  AND  LEGAL — THE  RIGHTS  OF  MARRIED  WOMEN. 


223 


erty,  except  jewels,  she  may  sell  as  if  single.  She  may  dispose  of  her  separate  estate 
by  will,  but  cannot  deprive  her  husband  of  his  rights  as  tenant  by  courtesy.  Any 
policy  of  insurance  for  her  benefit,  not  exceeding  ten  thousand  dollars,  is  hers  inde 
pendently  of  her  husband,  or  any  other  party  or  parties. 

SOUTH  CAROLINA. — A married  woman  may  own  real  and  personal  prop- 
erty in  her  own  name  and  separate  use,  and  such  property  is  in  no  case  liable  for  the 
debts  of  her  husband.  She  may  control,  sell,  encumber,  or  bequeath  her  separate 
estate.  When  an  action  concerns  her  separate  estate  she  may  sue  and  be  sued  alone. 
Judgment  may  be  entered  against  her  and  execution  be  levied  upon  her  property. 
If  she  die  intestate  it  will  descend  in  the  same  manner  as  is  provided  for  the  prop- 
erty of  the  husband. 

SOUTH  DAKOTA.— The  law  pertaining  to  married  women  is  the  same  as  in 
North  Dakota. 

TENNESSEE. — A married  woman  may  hold  real  and  personal  property  to  her 
sole  and  separate  use.  She  can  manage  and  convey  the  same  by  her  own  act.  Her 
separate  estate  is  not  liable  for  the  debts  of  her  husband.  A note  or  any  other 
obligation  made  by  a married  woman  will  not  bind  her  separate  estate,  unless  it  was 
executed  with  the  express  intention  to  bind  the  same,  or  unless  it  was  given  for 
necessaries  for  herself  or  her  minor  children.  She  may  dispose  of  her  separate  estate 
by  will. 

TEXAS. — A married  woman  can  hold  real  and  personal  property  to  her  own 
use,  and  the  marriage  of  a female  minor  gives  her  all  the  rights  of  lawful  age.  Her 
note,  draft,  or  indorsement  for  family  necessaries  on  her  own  estate  are  valid.  All 
property  acquired  during  marriage  is  common  property,  and  the  husband  may  dis- 
pose of  it  during  coverture.  If  there  is  no  issue,  at  death  the  whole  goes  to  the 
survivor,  but  otherwise,  one-half.  The  wife  cannot  convey  her  separate  estate  with- 
out her  husband  join,  and  they  must  join  in  conveyance  of  homestead.  A wife  can 
make  a will.  A widow  is  entitled  to  one-third  of  realty  during  life. 

UTAH. — Wives  hold  and  control  all  property  free  from  husbands,  and  not 
liable  for  their  debts.  They  can  contract  on  account  of  separate  property  as  if 
single.  The  widow  is  endowed  to  a third  part  of  the  lands  of  deceased  husband, 
unless  relinquished  in  due  form. 

VERMONT. — A married  woman  may  hold  personal  property  for  her  sole  and 
separate  use.  Her  real  estate  and  its  revenues  are  exempt  from  attachment  for  her 
husband’s  debts  and  the  husband’s  interests  in  the  same  during  coverture — except 
for  debts  for  necessaries  for  herself  and  family,  or  for  work  and  materials  for  their 
benefit.  The  earnings  of  a married  woman  and  savings  in  bank  are  not  subject  to 
trustee  process  by  her  husband.  She  may  insure  her  husband’s  life  for  her  own  use, 
vf  the  premium  does  not  exceed  three  hundred  dollars.  When  abandoned  by  her 
husband  she  may  maintain  action  in  her  own  name.  A married  woman  may  dispose 
of  her  property  by  will.  The  widow  is  entitled  to  dower,  during  her  natural  life,  of 
one-third  of  the  real  estate  of  which  her  husband  died  seized  during  his  natural  life, 
unless  she  has  relinquished  or  barred  the  same. 

VIRGINIA. — A married  woman  may  hold  real  or  personal  property  to  her 


234 


COMMERCIAL  LAW  AND  LEGAL  FORMS. 


separate  use,  and  is  not  liable  for  the  debts  of  the  husband.  She  may  make  con 
tracts  in  relation  thereto.  She  may  sue  and  be  sued,  but  her  husband  must  join  ir\ 
all  contracts  in  relation  thereto,  except  where  she  is  a sole  trader,  and  shall  be 
joined  in  any  suit.  The  widow  is  entitled  to  one-third  part  of  all  the  real  estate 
owned  by  her  husband  during  coverture,  unless  she  has  relinquished  or  barred  the 
same. 

WASHINGTON. — Wives  have  the  same  property  rights  and  liabilities  as  if 
single.  Neither  party  liable  for  debts  of  the  other.  Both  can  control  separate 
property  as  if  unmarried.  Property  acquired  during  coverture  is  common.  Wife 
and  husband  must  join  in  the  conveyance  of  common  property.  Marriage  settle- 
ments must  be  in  writing,  executed,  acknowledged,  etc.,  as  deeds.  Dower  and 
tenancy  by  courtesy  abolished. 

WEST  VIRGINIA. — A married  woman  is  secured  in  real  and  personal  estate 
and  not  liable  for  husband’s  debts.  May  convey  and  will  away  her  property  pro- 
vided husband  joins  in  the  deed  with  her.  If  living  away  from  husband  his  joining 
with  her  is  not  necessary.  Her  estate  is  held  for  her  debts  prior  to  marriage,  but 
husband  is  not  liable  for  them.  May  patent  her  own  inventions,  keep  a bank  deposit, 
and  draw  on  own  check,  hold  stock,  and  vote  on  same,  and  make  a will.  She  must 
join  her  husband  in  the  conveyance  of  real  estate,  and  has  dower  in  all  real  estate  of 
husband. 

WISCONSIN. — A married  woman  may  possess  property  for  her  sole  use,  and 
is  not  held  for  husband’s  debts.  She  has  free  control  of  same,  but  is  held  for  all 
debts  before  marriage  and  those  contracted  after  marriage  on  account  of  said  prop- 
erty. She  is  entitled  to  dower  to  all  real  estate.  Husband  holds  real  estate  for  life 
unless  she  had  issue  from  former  husband,  to  whom  it  might  go. 

WYOMING. — Married  women  may  hold  real  and  personal  property,  sue  and  be 
sued,  carry  on  business,  make  wills,  and  retain  her  earnings. 


PROPERTY  SALES  AMD  THE  LAW  OF  TITLES. 

To  constitute  a valid  contract  for  the  sale  of  land  it  is  essential  that  both  parties 
should  be  capable  to  make  a contract,  that  is,  of  lawful  age  and  sound  mind. 

There  may  be  given  a title  bond,  that  is,  a bond  to  execute  a deed,  but  it  is 
necessary  that  the  wife  of  the  seller  should  sign  it  jointly  with  her  husband.  This  is 
when  a part  of  the  purchase  money  has  been  paid. 


COMMERCIAL  LAW  AND  LEGAL  EORMS. 


225 


When  a deed  is  executed  by  an  attorney  in  fact,  acting  for  the  owner,  it  should  be 
signed  in  the  name  of  the  owner,  by  A.  B.,  his  attorney  in  fact. 

The  seller  is  under  obligation  to  furnish  certificate  of  title  at  his  own  expense 

The  purchaser  is  not  obliged  to  pay  the  purchase  money,  or  any  part  of  it,  until  the 
dtle  has  been  proved  to  be  valid. 

The  words  “sell  and  convey’5  should  appear  in  warranty  deeds,  as  they  give  ground 
for  claiming  back  purchase  money  if  title  is  defective. 

The  words  “ more  or  less  ” covers  only  such  immaterial  errors  as  are  liable  to  arise 
from  irregularities  of  ground  and  variation  of  magnetic  needle. 

Tt  is  customary  for  the  purchaser,  in  places  where  titles  are  new,  to  examine  back  ' ' 
the  United  States  patents. 

In  old  settled  communities  the  records  for  sixty  years  will  establish  title. 

The  purchaser  has  a right  to  submit  papers  and  abstracts  to  counsel  or  attorney, 


LAWS  AND  USAGES  REGARDING  LANDLORDS  AND  TENANTS. 

LANDLORD  is  one  holding  real  estate,  rented  for  occupation  to  an- 
other, who  is  termed  a tenant.  The  lease  is  the  written  agreement  be- 
tween the  landlord  and  tenant. 

The  person  leasing  the  property  is  called  in  law  the  lessor,  and  the  one 

receiving  the  lease  the  lessee.  Leases  must  be  in  writing,  and  state  so 

clearly  the  terms  of  the  agreement  that  there  need  never  arise  a dispute  as  to  their  mean- 
ing. All  the  conditions  should  be  so  stated,  as  no  verbal  contract  can  hold  as  against  the 

lease. 

A landlord  cannot  be  compelled  to  repair  a house  or  other  building  unless  so  ex- 
pressly stipulated  in  the  lease,  whatever  its  condition  may  be.  If,  by  no  fault  of  the  house 
or  its  landlord,  it  should  be  uninhabitable,  still  he  is  not  bound  to  put  it  in  order  unless 
so  agreed  in  writing  ; even  if  burned,  or  destroyed  by  other  means,  the  tenant  must  pay 
rent  till  the  lease  expires.  A well-drawn  lease  should  contain  a clause  abating  the  rent 
whenever  the  house  becomes  uninhabitable.  If  the  fault  be  in  the  house,  the  law 
seems  to  provide  that  the  tenant  may  vacate,  provided  he  was  ignorant  of  the  defect. 

If  a tenant  agrees  to  return  the  house  in  as  good  order  and  condition,  reasonable 
wear  and  tear  excepted,  he  is  bound  so  to  do,  even  if  utterly  destroyed  by  his  own  care- 
lessness or  that  of  a servant,  and  a clause  in  regard  to  the  return  of  a house  should  ex- 
empt the  case  of  destruction  by  fire. 

In  some  States  a married  woman  can  lease  and  hold  full  control  of  her  own  prop- 
erty by  common  law  ; in  the  absence  of  statute,  her  lease  would  be  void.  The  husbandi 
in  such  case,  can  lease,  but  such  a lease  will  not  hold  after  his  death. 

A tenant  is  not  held  for  taxes  unless  so  agreed. 

The  tenant  of  a farm  is  compelled,  even  in  the  absence  of  written  agreement,  to  till 
and  conduct  the  property  in  as  good  manner  as  the  farms  in  that  vicinity. 


226 


COMMERCIAL  LAW  AND  LEGAL  FORMS. 


Such  a tenant  is  entitled  to  the  year’s  crop  which  he  sowed,  if  the  lease  is  termina- 
ted by  any  circumstance  which  he  could  not  anticipate  or  control. 

A lease  specifying  a time  terminates  on  that  date,  and  the  landlord  may  eject  at 
once ; but  in  regard  to  tenants  at  will,  the  laws  in  States  vary  as  to  the  length  of  notice 
to  quit  required  before  the  landlord  can  eject.  The  notice  to  quit  is  usually  equal  to  the 
period  of  payments  ; if  monthly,  then  one  month  ; if  quarterly,  then  three  months,  and 
so  on.  A lease  for  life  extends  through  the  life  of  the  tenant.  A lease  for  years  specifies 
the  time.  A lease  at  will  holds  only  as  long  as  the  will  of  either  party.  A lease  of  suf- 
ferance is  when  a tenant  remains  after  his  lease  has  expired. 

A landlord  is  bound  to  give  the  tenant  possession  with  a full  title. 

When  the  rent  is  in  arrears  the  notice  to  quit  may  be  more  brief,  and  the  statutes  of 
each  State  must  govern. 

A tenant’s  notice  to  quit  is  governed  by  the  same  rules,  and  must  be  served  on  the 
landlord  or  his  legal  representative. 

Leases  should  be  drawn  in  duplicate,  one  for  each  party. 

The  tenant  may  remove  any  fixture  which  he  has  placed  within  or  upon  the  prem- 
ises in  such  a manner  as  to  indicate  that  he  thus  intended,  that  is  by  the  means  of  screws 
or  in  such  a way  as  not  to  injure,  upon  removal,  the  property  where  placed. 


THE  NEW  LANDLORD  AND  TENANT  LAW  IN  NEW  YORK. 

is  calculated  to  prevent  the  injustice  which  was  so  much  complained  of  under  the  old 
law.  The  new  law  compels  landlords  to  give  five  days’  notice  before  turning  out  tenants, 
at  any  time  except  May  i,  which  is  considered  “a  general  moving  day,”  when  tenants 
are  supposed  to  leave,  unless  they  have  made  new  arrangements.  This  seems  fair  to 
both  sides. 


LEASE. 

This  Indenture,  made  by  and  between  John  Brown,  of  the  first  part,  and  Samuel 
Noble,  of  the  second  part,  witnesseth , that  the  said  party  of  the  first  part  has  leased  and 
does  hereby  lease  to  the  said  party  of  the  second  part,  a certain  dwelling-house  known  as 
No.  street,  city  of  to  be  occupied  as  a dwelling-house, 

for  the  term  of  one  year  from  the  day  of  , A.  D.  , for  the  annual  rent  of 
three  hundred  and  sixty  dollars,  payable  in  monthly  payments  of  thirty  dollars  each,  to 
wit : on  the  first  day  of  July  and  the  first  day  in  each  month  thereafter. 

And  the  said  party  of  the  first  part  covenants  with  the  said  party  of. the  second  part 
that  he  has  good  right  to  lease  said  premises  in  manner  aforesaid,  and  that  he  will  suffer 
and  permit  said  party  of  the  second  part  (he  keeping  all  the  covenants  on  his  part,  as 
hereinafter  contained)  to  occupy,  possess  and  enjoy  said  premises  during  the  term  afore- 
said, without  hindrance  or  molestation  from  him  or  any  person  claiming  by,  from  or  un- 
der him. 


COMMERCIAL  LAW  AND  LEGAL  FORMS. 


227 


And  the  said  party  of  the  second  part  covenants  with  the  said  party  of  the  first  part 
to  hire  said  premises  and  to  pay  the  rent  therefor  as  aforesaid.,  also  to  pay  gas  and  water 
rates,  that  he  will  commit  no  waste  nor  suffer  the  same  to  be  committed  thereon,  nor  in- 
jure nor  misuse  the  same ; and  also  that  he  will  not  assign  this  lease,  nor  underlet  a part 
or  the  whole  of  said  leased  premises,  nor  make  alterations  therein,  nor  use  the  same  for 
any  purpose  but  that  herein  before  authorized,  without  written  permission  from  the  said 
party  of  the  first  part ; but  will  deliver  up  the  same  at  the  expiration  or  sooner  determin- 
ation of  his  tenancy,  in  as  good  condition  as  they  now  are  in,  ordinary  wear,  fire  and 
other  unavoidable  casualties  excepted. 

Provided , however , and  it  is  further  agreed,  that  if  the  said  rent  shall  remain  unpaid 
ten  days  after  the  same  shall  become  payable  as  aforesaid,  or  if  the  said  party  of  the  sec- 
ond part  shall  assign  this  lease,  or  underlet  or  otherwise  dispose  of  the  whole  or  any  part 
of  said  demised  premises,  or  use  the  same  for  any  purpose  but  that  herein  before  author- 
ized, or  make  any  alteration  therein  without  the  consent  of  the  party  of  the  first  part  in 
writing,  or  shall  commit  waste  or  suffer  the  same  to  be  committed  on  said  premises,  or 
injure  or  misuse  the  same,  or  shall  not  perform  and  fulfill  each  and  every  one  of  the  cove- 
nants herein  before  contained  to  be  performed  by  said  party  of  the  second  part,  then  this 
lease  shall  thereupon,  by  virtue  of  this  express  stipulation  therein,  expire  and  terminate, 
and  the  party  of  the  first  part  may,  at  any  time  thereafter,  re-enter  said  premises,  and 
the  same  have  and  possess  as  of  his  former  estate,  and,  without  such  re-entry,  may  re- 
cover possession  thereof  in  the  manner  prescribed  by  the  statute  relating  to  the  summary 
process  ; it  being  understood  that  no  demand  for  the  rent,  and  no  re-entry  for  condition 
broken,  as  at  common  law,  shall  be  necessary  to  enable  the  lessor  to  recover  such  posses- 
sion pursuant  to  said  statute  relating  to  summary  process,  but  that  all  right  to  any  such 
demand,  or  any  such  re-entry,  is  hereby  expressly  waived  by  fhe  said  party  of  the  second 
part. 

And  it  is  further  agreed  between  the  parties  hereto,  that  whenever  this  lease  shall 
terminate,  either  by  lapse  of  time  or  by  virtue  of  any  of  the  express  stipulations  therein, 
the  said  lessee  hereby  waives  all  right  to  any  notice  to  quit  possession,  as  prescribed  by 
the  statute  relating  to  summary  process. 

And  it  is  further  agreed,  that  in  case  the  said  party  of  the  second  part  shall,  with 
the  written  consent  of  said  party  of  the  first  part  endorsed  hereon,  or  on  the  duplicate 
hereof,  at  any  time  hold  over  the  said  premises  beyond  the  period  above  specified  as  the 
termination  of  this  lease,  then  said  party  of  the  second  part  shall  hold  said  premises  upon 
the  same  terms,  and  under  the  same  stipulations  and  agreements  as  are  in  this  instrument 
contained,  and  no  holding  over  by  said  party  of  the  second  part  shall  operate  to  renew 
this  lease  without  such  written  consent  of  said  party  of  the  first  part. 

And  it  is  further  agreed  between  the  parties  hereto,  that  the  lessee  is  to  comply  with, 
and  conform  to,  all  the  laws  of  the  State  of  , and  the  by-laws,  rules  and  regu- 

lations of  the  city  and  town  within  which  the  premises  hereby  leased  are  situated-relat- 
ing to  health,  nuisance,  fire,  highways  and  sidewalks — so  far  as  the  premises  hereby 
kased  are,  or  may  be,  concerned ; and  to  save  the  lessor  harmless  from  all  fines,  penal- 
ties and  costs  for  violation  of,  or  non-compliance  with  the  same,  said  premises  shall  be  at 


228 


COMMERCIAL  LAW  AND  LEGAL  FORMS. 


all  times  open  to  the  inspection  of  said  lessor,  his  agents,  to  applicants  for  purchase  oi 
lease,  and  for  necessary  repairs. 

In  witness  whereof  the  parties  have  hereunto  set  their  hands  and  seals,  and  to  a du» 
plicate  of  the  same  tenor  and  date,  this  day  of  , A.  D. 

JOHN  BROWN,  [seal.] 
SAMUEL  NOBLE,  [seal.] 

Signed,  sealed  and  delivered  in  | 

presence  of  ( 

Charles  Jones. 

County,  ss. — , A.  D.  , personally  appeared 

John  Brown  and  Samuel  Noble,  signers  and  sealers  of  the  foregoing  instrument,  and  ac- 
knowledged the  same  to  be  their  free  act  and  deed,  before  me. 

PETER  SIMPLE,  Justice  of  the  Peace. 

surety. 

In  consideration  of  the  letting  of  the  premises  above  described,  and  for  the  sum  of 
one  dollar,  I hereby  become  surety  for  the  punctual  payment  of  the  rent,  and  the  per- 
formance of  the  covenants  in  the  above  written  agreement  mentioned,  to  be  paid  and 
performed  by  Samuel  Noble,  and  if  any  default  shall  be  made  therein,  I hereby  promise 
and  agree  to  pay  unto  J.  Brown,  such  sum  or  sums  of  money  as  will  be  sufficient  to 
make  up  such  deficiency  and  fully  satisfy  the  conditions  of  the  said  agreement  without 
requiring  any  notice  of  non-payment  or  proof  of  demand  being  made. 

Given  under  my  hand  and  seal  the  day  of  , 

HENRY  POWERS. 


LANDLORD’S  NOTICE  TO  QUIT  FOR  NON-PAYMENT  OF  RENT. 


State  of 
City  and  Co.  of 

To  Sargent  Thompson: 


Dec.  ist. 


Sir- — You  are  hereby  notified  to  quit  and  deliver  up  to  me  in  20  days  from  this  date, 
the  following  described  premises,  which  you  now  occupy,  as  my  Tenant,  viz. : that  cer- 
tain Frame  building  and  Lot  of  Ground,  known  as  113  West  Twenty-Fourth  street,  in 
the  city  of  State  of  , according  to  law,  your  Rent  being  due 

and  unpaid.  If  you  fail  to  do  this  I shall  take  a due  course  of  law  to  eject  you  from  the 
same. 


Witness. 


JOHN  BROWN 


Charles  Jones. 


COMMERCIAL  LAW  AND  LEGAL  FORMS. 


'229 


MORTGAGES. 

MORTGAGE  is  a deed  of  real  estate  to  secure  a creditor  in  the  debt  due 
him  in  which  the  mortgagor  has  the  right  of  redemption  within  a given 
time,  otherwise  its  provision  conveys  the  property  absolutely. 

The  debtor  usually  gives  a note,  sometimes  a bond  ; and  the  mort* 
gagee  secures  it. 

The  debtor  has  a right  to  redeem  but  in  all  other  respects  the  conveyance  is  valid. 
Hence  if  th  e mortgage  fails  to  state  clearly  that  the  mortgagee  may  retain  possession 
then  the  one  holding  the  mortgage  may  enter  and  possess. 

The  equity  of  redemption  is  extended  three  years  from  the  time  the  debt  falls  due, 
in  which  time  he  may  pay  debts  with  interest  and  costs. 

The  power  of  sale  mortgage,  an  arrangement  allowed  by  law,  is  a mortgage  with  a 
clause  setting  forth  that  the  mortgagee  has  the  right  after  the  debt  falls  due,  to  sell  at  a 
lair  price  agreed  upon,  paying  the  mortgagor  the  sum  received  over  and  above  enough  to 
liquidate  the  debt  and  lawful  charges.  Otherwise  the  right  of  redemption  always  holds. 
The  three  years  for  the  right  of  redemption  begins  with  the  day  on  which  the  mortgagor 
comes  into  lawful  possession,  or  as  it  is  termed  forecloses  the  mortgage. 

Entry  upon  the  property  must  be  peacefully  made  in  the  presence  of  witness,  or  by 
due  process  of  law.  The  laws  of  the  different  States  govern  this  mode  of  procedure. 

A formal  tender  of  amount  due  with  interest  and  all  expenses,  must  be  made  by  the 
mortgagor,  who  wishes  to  redeem,  but  he  has  a claim  to  all  rents  and  income  actually 
received  on  the  property,  or  which  he  would  have  received  by  using  care  in  collecting 
them.  If  the  mortgagee  insures  the  property  he  cannot  recover  the  cost  of  insurance 
unless  it  was  stated  in  the  mortgage  that  the  mortgagor  should  insure  it.  The  mort- 
gagee, on  coming  into  possession  of  land  on  which  buildings  have  been  erected  since 
date  of  mortgage,  holds  them  also  in  like  manner.  If  the  mortgagee  erects  buildings 
they  revert  to  mortgagor  when  the  land  is  redeemed.  vSuch  matters  should  be  specified 
in  the  mortgage,  or  agreed  upon  by  both  parties. 

A quit  claim  deed  given  by  the  holder  of  the  mortgage  to  the  person  in  possession 
or  holding  the  right  of  redemption,  releases  the  property  ; this  is  done  in  some  Stats'5 
Sometimes  an  acknowledgment  of  satisfaction  is  written  upon  the  margin  of  the  reco1*''' 
in  the  office  of  Register  or  Recorder  of  Deeds,  signed  by  the  holder  of  the  mortgage. 
A valid  release  is  made  by  any  legal  writing  duly  signed,  sealed  and  recorded,  which 
clearly  sets  forth  the  fact  that  due  satisfaction  has  been  made  to  the  mortgagee.  Tne 
release  goes  into  effect  at  the  instant  it  is  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  proper  person  to 
record  deeds,  and  he  at  once  enters  it  into  a book  kept  for  that  purpose. 

FORM  FOR  MORTGAGE  DEED. 

TO  ALL  TO  WHOM  THESE  PRESENTS  SHALL  COME,  GREETING  KnOW  ye,  that  % 
( here  insert  name  of  mortgagor  with  residence ,)  for  the  consideration  of  (here  state  amount, 
received  to  my  full  satisfaction  of  (here  insert  name  of  mortgagee)  do  give,  grant,  bargain 
sell  and  confirm  unto  the  said  ( insert  name  of  mortgagee  with  full  and  accurate  description 

of  property  her  el) 


230 


COMMERCIAL  LAW  AND  LEGAL  FORMS. 


To  have  and  to  hold  the  above  granted  and  bargained  premises  with  the  appurte- 
nances thereof  unto  him  the  said  grantee,  his  heirs  and  assigns  forever,  to  his  proper  use 
and  behoof.  And  also,  I,  the  said  grantor,  do  for  myself  and  my  heirs,  executors  and 
administrators  covenant  with  the  said  grantee,  his  heirs  and  assigns  that  and  until  the 
sealing  of  these  presents  I am  well  seized  of  the  premises  as  a good  indefeasible  estate 
in  Fee  Simple,  and  have  a good  right  to  bargain  and  sell  the  same  in  manner  and  form 
as  is  above  written  ; and  that  the  same  is  free  from  all  incumbrance  whatsoever. 

And  furthermore,  I,  the  said  grantor  do  by  these  presents,  bind  myself  and  my  heirs 
to  warrant  and  defend  the  above  granted  and  bargained  premises  to  him  the  said  grantee, 
his  heirs  and  assigns  against  all  claims  and  demands  whatsoever. 

In  witness  whereof,  I have  hereunto  set  my  hand  and  seal  this  day  of 

A.  D.  1 88—. 

The  condition  of  this  deed  is  such  that  whereas  the  said  grantor  is  justly  indebted 
to  the  said  grantee  in  the  sum  of  ( state  ainount)  as  covered  by  his  promissory  note  of 
even  date  herewith,  payable  to  the  said  grantee  or  order  ( state  the  time  and  conditions ) 
with  interest. 

Now  therefore,  if  said  note  shall  be  paid  well  and  truly  according  to  its  tenor  then 
this  deed  shall  be  void,  otherwise  to  remain  in  full  force  and  effect. 

( Signature  and  seal.) 

Signed,  sealed  and  delivered  in  ) 

presence  of  \ 

( Witness ’ signature .) 

(To  be  acknowledged  before  Justice  of  Peace") 


PARTNERSHIP  AND  THE  DUTIES  AND  RIGHTS  OF  PARTNERS 

PARTNERSHIP  is  a contract  made  by  two  or  more  individuals  to  joiit 
their  interests  in  goods,  money  or  other  property  for  the  transaction  of 
any  lawful  business,  and  to  share  in  the  profits  or  losses  arising  there- 
from. 

The  safer  plan  is  always  to  have  the  terms  oi  agreement  in  writing, 
although  a verbal  one  will  hold. 

Considered  by  itself,  a single  commercial  transaction  by  two  parties,  in  which  loss  or 
profit  does  not  arise,  and  a purchase  of  goods  together  to  be  divided  between  them,  can- 
not be  regarded  as  forming  a partnership. 

The  date  of  the  agreement  is  the  beginning  of  the  partnership,  unless  differently 
expressed  therein. 

The  agreement  must  set  forth  explicitly  what  proportion  of  capital  each  partner  fur- 
nishes, and  the  proportion  of  profits  to  which  he  is  entitled. 

He  may  contribute  money,  skill  or  business  ability,  and  this  contract  is  binding  be- 
tween the  members  of  the  firm,  but  not  as  against  creditors  dealing  with  them,  except  m 
case  where  they  knew  and  transacted  their  business  with  the  firm  on  that  basis. 


COMMERCIAL  LAW  AND  LEGAL  FORMS. 


231 


The  sharing  of  profits  arising  from  a business  is  the  test  of  partnership. 

Partnerships  are  generally  formed  for  a specified  time.  This  is  stated  in  the  agrees 
ment,  and  the  “ limited  ” partnership  terminates  then. 

If  not  stated,  the  partnership  is  regarded  as  general,  and  may  be  terminated  at  the 
will  of  either  party. 

The  firm  is  bound  by  the  acts  of  either  partner.  A creditor  of  a firm  may  recover 
the  full  amount  of  his  debt  from  either  partner,  but  if  the  agreement  with  the  firm  limits 
his  liability,  that  partner  may  take  action  against  them. 

A person  who  lends  his  name,  or  permits  it  to  be  advertised  as  a member  of  a firm, 
is  held  in  law  to  be  a partner,  even  if  he  consents  to  its  being  so  used  after  he  has  with- 
drawn. 

A silent  partner  is  one  who  furnishes  capital  and  shares  in  the  profits  without  per- 
mitting the  use  of  his  name.  A sleeping  or  dormant  partner  furnishes  capital  and  shares 
in  profits,  but  takes  no  active  part  in  the  business.  These  both  are  liable  for  debts  of  the 
firm,  even  if  creditors  did  not  know  they  were  connected  with  it. 

A dormant  partner  is  not  held  liable  after  his  withdrawing  from  the  firm,  nor  need 
he  give  public  notice  of  his  withdrawal. 

In  a general  partnership  broken  by  the  withdrawal  of  one  member  wantonly  and 
arbitrarily,  such  member  is  liable  to  the  other  partners  for  any  loss  they  may  sustain. 

The  dissolution  of  a partnership  may  be  effected  by  the  mutual  consent  of  all  the 
members,  or  by  the  decree  of  a court  of  equity  for  cause. 

The  court  will  regard  dissipation,  reckless  living  calculated  to  injure  the  credit  and 
safety  of  the  partnership,  as  sufficient  grounds  to  dissolve  partnership. 

When  one  member  dies,  the  firm  is  dissolved,  and  its  affairs  are  to  be  settled  as  soon 
as  possible. 

If  the  interest  of  a member  is  attached  for  his  private  indebtedness,  the  firm  is  there- 
by dissolved. 

Notice  of  dissolution  should  be  promptly  published  in  the  papers  of  the  town  or  city 
where  business  was  carried  on,  and  similar  notice  sent  to  all  correspondents.  If  this  is 
not  done,  each  member  continues  liable  for  the  acts  of  the  other  members  in  dealing  with 
persons  ignorant  of  such  dissolution. 

The  company  property  is  held  for  all  debts  of  the  partnership,  and  the  creditors  of 
one  partner  cannot  recover  till  these  debts  are  paid.  Then  such  creditor  may  recover 
from  the  surplus. 

A special  partner  furnishes  a stated  amount  for  a given  period.  Such  a partnership 
is  regarded  valid  in  some  of  the  States,  but  notice  of  such  an  agreement  must  be  published 
according  to  the  law  holding  in  such  States. 


232 


COMMERCIAL  LAW  AND  LEGAL  FORMS. 


FORM  OF  PARTNERSHIP  AGREEMENT. 

Articles  of  Agreement  made  this  day  of  , one  thousand  eight  hundred 
and  , between  Thomas  Smith,  of  the  city  of  , State  of 

and  Charles  Bowen,  of  said  city  and  State. 

Witnessethy  that  the  parties  aforesaid  have  agreed  to  become  copartners  in  the  busi- 
ness of  buying  and  selling  groceries,  and  do  hereby  agree  to  be  copartners  under  and  by 
the  firm  name  of  Smith  & Bowen,  in  the  buying,  selling  and  vending  of  all  sorts  of  goods 
and  merchandise  to  the  business  aforesaid  appertaining,  their  partnership  to  commence 
upon  the  day  of  , , and  to  continue  for  three  years  from  that  date  ; and 

to  that  end  and  purpose  the  said  Thomas  Smith  and  Charles  Bowen  have  each  contributed 
the  sum  of  five  thousand  dollars  as  capital  stock,  to  be  employed  in  common  between 
them  in  the  management  and  support  of  the  business  aforesaid  for  their  mutual  benefit 
and  interest.  It  is  agreed  by  and  between  the  parties  aforesaid,  that  they  and  each  of 
them  will  give  attendance  upon,  and  their  best  endeavor  to  the  fullest  extent  of  their  skill 
and  ability  to  promote  the  joint  interest,  advantage  and  profit  in  the  buying,  selling  and 
employing  with  their  joint  stock,  and  the  profit  arising  therefrom,  in  the  said  business 
during  the  continuance  of  their  copartnership.  And  also  that  they  will  at  all  times  dur- 
ing their  partnership  bear,  pay  and  discharge  all  obligations  and  debts,  rents  and  other 
expenses  pertaining  to  the  business  equally  between  them,  and  all  gains,  profits  and  in- 
crease that  shall  come,  grow  and  arise  therefrom,  they  will  divide  equally  between  them  ; 
and  all  loss  that  shall  occur  from  said  joint  business  by  bad  debts  or  otherwise  shall  be 
shared  equally. 

And  it  is  agreed  by  and  between  the  said  parties,  that  there  shall  be  had  and  kept 
at  all  times  during  their  copartnership  perfect,  just  and  true  books  of  account,  wherein 
each  of  the  said  copartners  shall  enter  and  set  down  all  money  by  them  or  either  of  them 
received,  paid  and  expended  in  and  about  the  said  business,  also  all  goods,  wares,  commo- 
dities and  merchandise  by  them  or  either  of  them  bought  or  sold  on  account  of  the  said 
business,  and  all  other  matters  and  things  whatsoever  to  the  said  business  and  the  man- 
agement thereof  in  anywise  belonging  ; which  said  books  shall  be  used  in  common  be- 
tween the  said  copartners,  so  that  either  of  them  may  have  access  thereto,  without  any 
interruption  or  hindrance  of  the  other.  And  also  the  said  copartners,  once  in  each  and 
every  year,  or  oftener  if  necessary,  shall  render  each  to  the  other  a true,  just  and  perfect 
inventory  and  account  of  all  profits  and  losses  by  them,  or  either  of  them,  made  or 
sustained  ; and  all  other  things  by  them  done  or  suffered  in  this  said  copartnership  and 
business,  and  shall  pay  and  deliver,  each  to  the  other,  at  the  time,  their  share  of  said  profits. 

And  the  said  parties  hereby  mutually  covenant  and  agree  to  and  with  each  other* 
that  during  said  copartnership  neither  of  them  shall  nor  will  indorse  any  note,  or  other- 
wise become  surety  for  any  person  or  persons  whomsoever,  without  the  consent  of  the 
other  of  the  said  copartners.  And  at  the  end,  or  other  sooner  determination  of  their  co- 
partnership, the  said  copartners,  each  to  the  other,  shall  and  will  make  a true,  just  and 
final  account  of  all  things  relating  to  their  said  business,  and  in  all  things  truly  adjust  the 
same ; and  what  shall  remain,  either  in  money,  or  otherwise,  shall  be  divided  between 
them,  share  and  share  alike. 


COMMERCIAL  LAW  AND  LEGAL  FORMS. 


233 


In  witness  whereof  the  said  parties  have  hereunto  set  their  hands,  the  day  and  year 
first  above  written. 

THOMAS  SMITH. 

Witness  : CHARLES  BOWEN. 

James  Brown, 

Joseph  Thomas. 


DISSOLUTION  OF  PARTNERSHIP. 

We,  the  undersigned ",  do  mutually  agree,  that  the  partnership  formed  between  us  by 
the  within  articles,  be  and  the  same  is  hereby  dissolved,  except  for  the  purpose  of  the  final 
liquidation  and  settlement  of  the  business  -thereof ; and  upon  such  settlement  wholly  to 
cease  and  determine. 

In  witness  whereof  we  have  hereunto  set  our  hands  and  seals,  this  day  of 

> 1 8 — . 

PETER  BROWN,  [seal.] 

JAMES  NOBLE.  [seal.] 

Sealed,  signed  and  delivered  in  ) 
presence  of  ) 

Charles  Jones, 

Henry  Tuttle. 

The  above  to  be  indorsed  upon  the  back  of  the  original  agreement 


NOTICE  OF  DISSOLUTION. 

Notice  is  hereby  given , that  the  partnership  lately  subsisting  between  (Insert 
here  the  names  and  residence  of  partners.)  under  the  firm  name  of  , 

was  dissolved  by  mutual  consent  on  the  thirty-first  day  of  May  last. 

All  debts  owing  to  the  said  partnership  are  to  be  received  by  the  said  , and 

all  demands  on  the  said  partnership  are  to  be  presented  to  him  for  payment.  (Or  either 
partner  is  allowed  to  use  the  name  of  the  firm  in  liquidation  of  all  debts  due  to  and  from 
the  partnership.) 

(Signatures.) 

(Place  and  date.) 


PATENTS. 

PERSON  is  entitled  to  the  exclusive  manufacture,  use,  and  sale  of  an  in- 
vention made  by  him,  and  is  protected  in  his  right  for  a term  of  years  by 
Government.  Such  a document  is  termed  a Patent,  the  inventor  holding 
it  as  patentee. 

Any  person  may  Patent  any  invention,  improvement,  or  discovery 
unknown  before  and  not  used  by  others  in  this  country,  nor  patented  or  set  forth  in  any 
printed  publication  in  this  or  other  countries. 


234 


COMMERCIAL  LAW  AND  LEGAL  FORMS. 


A person  having  territorial  right  may  sell  the  article  patented  within  the  limits  spe- 
cified and  sometimes  may  manufacture  the  same,  but  the  owner  generally  supplies  the 
article  at  an  agreed  price. 

A shop  right  restricts  the  use  or  manufacture  of  the  article  to  the  establishment 
designated,  and  to  no  other  place. 

The  sum  paid  the  inventor  by  the  manufacturer  on  each  article  made  or  sold  is  the 
Royalty. 

A Royalty  agreement  should  be  drawn  up  by  the  patentee’s  own  lawyer,  and  be 
clearly  stated. 

An  assignment  of  Patent  should  contain  provision  that  assignee  agrees  to  manufac- 
ture and  pay  on  a specified  minimum  number  each  year,  and  to  defend  patent  at  his  own 
costs  if  infringed. 

The  patentee  only  can  receive  a reissue  of  patent  and  the  assignee  will  have  diffi- 
culty in  obtaining  extensions  if  it  is  not  stated  in  the  assignment. 

There  must  be  a model  machine  or  drawing  from  which  a mechanic  could  make  the 
invention  to  secure  a subsequent  inventor  from  getting  a patent. 

Conceiving  a theory  of  an  invention,  does  not  render  it  patentable. 

A Patent  formerly  granted  here  is  not  prejudiced  by  a subsequent  foreign  Patent  on 
the  same.  Every  invention  of  a foreigner  must  have  in  use  and  for  sale  in  the  United 
States  a copy  of  their  patentable  article  within  eighteen  months  of  its  date  of  patent. 

A Patent  extends  seventeen  years.  No  Patents  granted  since  1861,  can  be  extended 

Application  must  be  made  in  the  name  of  the  inventor,  who  only  can  sign  the 
paper. 

Heirs  can  obtain  a Patent  on  application  of  executor  or  administrator  of  inventor. 

A joint  Patent  is  issued  to  joint  inventors. 

The  filing  of  a caveat  precludes  the  patenting  of  a similar  article  with  the  knowl- 
edge of  the  caveator.  He  is  entitled  to  official  notice  for  one  year  and  if  so  notified  must 
file  his  application  within  three  months. 

A caveat  extends  for  one  year,  and  by  paying  $10  may  run  another.  Citizens  of  the 
United  States  and  aliens  residing  in  the  United  States  one  year  and  declaring  intention 
of  naturalization  only,  can  file  caveat. 


UNITED  STATES  PATENT  FEES. 


On  filing  each  caveat,  - $10.00 

On  filing  each  original  application  for  a patent,  except  for  a design,  - - 15.00 

On  issuing  each  original  patent,  -------  20.00 

On  every  appeal  from  Examiners-in-Chief,  -----  20.00 

On  application  for  a reissue,  -------  30.00 

On  application  for  extension,  -------  50.00 

Granting  an  extension,  - --  --  --  - 50.00 

Filing  each  disclaimer,  -------  - 10.00 

Certified  copies  of  patents  and  other  papers,  10  cents  per  100  words. 


236 


COMMERCIAL  LAW  AND  LEGAL  FORMS. 


Recording  every  assignment,  agreement,  power  of  attorney,  and  other  papers,  of 
300  words  or  under,  ------- 

If  over  300  and  under  1,000  words,  - - - - - 

If  over  1,000  words,  -------- 

Drawings,  cost  of  making  same, 

Patents  for  designs — for  three  and  one-half  years,  - 

“ “ for  seven  years,  ------ 

“ “ for  fourteen  years,  ------ 


1. 00 

2.00 
3-oo 

10.00 

15.00 

30.00 


PETITIONS  FOR  PATENTS. 

BY  A SOLE  INVENTOR. 

To  the  Commissioner  of  Patents : 

Your  petitioner,  a resident  of  , prays  that  letters  patent  be  granted  to 

him  for  the  invention  set  forth  in  the  annexed  specification. 


BY  JOINT  INVENTORS. 

To  the  Commissioner  of  Patents : 

Your  petitioners,  residing  respectively  in  and  , pray  that  letters 

patent  may  be  granted  to  them,  as  joint  inventors,  for  the  invention  set  forth  in  the 
annexed  specification. 


BY  AN  INVENTOR  FOR  HIMSELF  AND  AN  ASSIGNEE. 

T.0  the  Commissioner  of  Patents : 

Y our  petitioner,  a resident  of  , prays  that  letters  patent  may  be  granted  to 

himself  and  of  , as  his  assignee,  for  the  invention  set  forth  in  the 

annexed  specification,  the  assignment  to  the  said  having  been  fully  recorded  in 

the  Patent  Office,  in  liber  page 


FORM  OF  A CAVEAT. 

To  the  Commissioner  of  Patents : 

The  petition  of  of  in  the  County  of  and  State  of 

Respectfully  represents : 

That  he  has  made  certain  improvements  in  and  that  he  is  now 

engaged  in  making  experiments  for  the  purpose  of  perfecting  the  same,  preparatory  to 
his  applying  for  letters  patent  therefor.  He  therefore  prays  that  the  subjoined  descrip- 
tion of  his  invention  may  be  filed  as  a caveat  in  the  confidential  archives  of  the  Patent 
Office,  agreeably  to  the  provisions  of  the  act  of  Congress  in  that  case  made  and  provided; 
he  having  paid  ten  dollars  into  the  treasury  of  the  United  States,  and  otherwise  complied 
with  the  requirements  of  the  said  act. 

(. Signature . 

(Date.) 

( Here  describe  the  inventio7i  so  far  as  completed .) 


COMMERCIAL  LAW  AND  LEGAL  FORMS. 


237 


TRADE  MARKS. 

They  remain  in  force  thirty  years  on  articles  of  home  manufacture,  but  of  foreign 
expire  at  the  same  limit  as  in  any  foreign  country. 

All  necessary  forms  with  needed  information,  will  be  furnished  upon  application  at 
the  Patent  Office.  The  right  to  use  them  may  be  assigned. 

Any  infringement  subjects  the  person  offending  to  an  action  for  damages  in  any 
court  of  competent  jurisdiction  in  the  United  States. 


THE  LAW  OF  COPYRIGHT. 

OPYRIGHTS  are  granted  for  twenty-eight  years,  and  may  be  extended 
fourteen  years,  if  application  is  made  within  six  months  of  expiration  of 
the  original.  They  may  be  assigned  but  record  must  be  entered  with 
Librarian  of  Congress. 

Before  the  publication  of  the  book  or  article,  a printed  copy  of  the 
title,  description  or  model  of  the  same  must  be  sent  to 

“ LIBRARIAN  OF  CONGRESS,  WASHINGTON,  D.  C.,” 

for  which  a fee  of  fifty  cents  for  record  and  fifty  cents  for  certificate,  must  be  sent.  Then  a 
certificate  will  be  forwarded  by  return  mail. 

For  assignment  of  copyright  the  fee  is  one  dollar,  and  for  every  copy,  the  same. 
Two  full  copies  of  the  best  edition  of  the  work  must  be  mailed  to  the  address  above, 
within  ten  days  after  issue,  to  perfect  copyright.  A failure  subjects  to  a fine  of  $25. 

The  following  words  must  be  inserted  on  the  title  page  or  pages  following : 

“ Entered  according  to  act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  , by  in  the 

office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington,”  or,  “Copyright,  18 — , by 

Any  person  inserting  the  above  or  words  having  the  same  import,  who  has  not 
received  a copyright,  is  subject  to  a fine  of  $100. 

The  right  to  translate  or  dramatize  a work  may  be  reserved  but  notice  must  be 
given  by  the  words,  “All  rights  reserved,”  appended  to  copyright  entry,  and  by  informa- 
tion to  the  Librarian  of  Congress. 

The  application  must  explicitly  state  in  whose  name  copyright  is  to  be  entered,  and 
whether  he  be  the  author,  publisher,  or  proprietor  of  the  work. 


THE  LAWS  REGARDING  SUFFRAGE  AND  NATURALIZATION. 

ATURALIZATION  is  the  right  of  citizenship  conferred  upon  aliens  by 
the  United  States,  but  it  does  not  confer  the  right  of  suffrage,  for  that  is 
regulated  by  each  State  for  itself. 

The  Constitution  has  the  following  provision  : 

Aliens  may  become  citizens  of  the  United  States  after  five  years  con- 
tinuous, well-behaved  residence,  one  year  of  which  must  be  in  the  State  in  which  they 


288 


COMMERCIAL  LAW  AND  LEGAL  FORMS. 


are  admitted.  At  least  two  years  prior  to  admission,  a declaration  of  intention  to  become 
a citizen  must  be  filed,  when  the  applicant  must  renounce  allegiance  to  all  foreign  pow- 
ers and  potentates,  and  take  an  oath  to  support  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States. 

If  the  applicant  shall  have  resided  in  the  United  States  three  years  prior  to  his  be- 
coming twenty-one  years  of  age,  he  may  be  admitted  without  the  requirement  of  a pre- 
liminary declaration,  provided  he  has  resided  continuously,  altogether,  five  years  in  the 
United  States. 

Residence  in  the  United  States  for  five  years,  and  good  moral  character,  must  be  sub- 
stantiated by  the  oath  of  at  least  one  witness. 

If  a party  who  has  made  declaration  of  his  intention  to  become  a citizen  of  the  United 
States,  shall  die  before  he  is  finally  admitted,  his  wife  and  family  may  be  admitted  to  cit- 
izenship on  his  declaration  papers,  by  passing  through  the  same  formula  that  would  have 
been  required  of  the  deceased  husband  and  father.  Naturalization  of  a husband  and 
father  carries  with  it  the  naturalization  of  his  wife  and  minor  children. 

The  power  to  grant  naturalization  papers  is  allowed  only  to  courts  of  record  having 
common  law  jurisdiction,  a seal  and  a clerk. 

Aliens  of  countries  at  war  with  the  United  States  are  forbidden  by  law  to  become 
citizens. 

The  exclusive  rights  of  naturalization  is  vested  in  the  United  States.  The  qualifica- 
tion for  voters  is  given  in  the  State  Constitutions,  and  differs  in  the  different  States. 

Residence  in  the  United  States  one  year  and  in  the  State  six  months,  and  legal  de. 
claration  of  intention,  are  required  in  Florida  and  Oregon. 

A residence  of  one  year  in  the  State  and  legal  declaration  of  intention  must  be  made 
in  Florida,  Kansas,  Wisconsin  and  other  States. 

In  Massachusetts  he  must  have  residence  two  years  after  naturalization,  and  be  able 
to  read  in  English  and  write  his  own  name.  In  Rhode  Island  he  must  possess  real  es- 
tate. In  Connecticut  full  citizenship  is  required,  and  that  he  be  of  good  moral  character 
and  able  to  read.  In  Vermont  the  law  is  similar  to  the  last. 

The  first  clause  of  the  first  section  of  the  Fourteenth  Amendment  to  the  Constitu- 
tion reads  as  follows : 

“All  persons  born  or  naturalized  in  the  United  States,  and  subject  to  the  jurisdiction 
thereof,  are  citizens  of  the  United  States,  and  of  the  State  wherein  they  reside.” 

The  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States  has  decided  that : 

“ The  phrase,  ‘subject  to  its  jurisdiction/  was  intended  to  exclude  from  its  operation 
children  of  Ministers,  Consuls  and  citizens  or  subjects  of  foreign  States,  born  within  the 
United  States.” 

To  vote  for  Representatives  in  Congress  the  same  qualifications  must  be  had  as  to 
vote  for  State  Representatives  in  the  State  where  voter  resides. 


COMMERCIAL  LAW  AND  LEGAL  FORMS. 


239 


LAST  WILLS  AND  TESTAMENTS. 

WILL  is  a written  expression  of  desire  as  to  the  disposition  of  property 
after  death,  according  to  law. 

The  proper  preparation  of  a will  is  difficult,  and  there  is  nothing  in 
which  trustworthy  advice  is  more  needed.  It  is  the  solemn  duty  of  every 
man  of  property  to  execute  a will. 

The  testator,  or  one  making  the  will,  must  be  of  sound  mind  and  in  legal  possession 
of  the  property  willed.  A married  woman,  in  States  where  she  can  hold  property  in  her 
right,  can  make  a will,  otherwise  not. 

The  legal  age  for  making  a will  in  regard  to  real  estate  is  twenty-one  years,  but  in 
most  States  personal  property  can  be  devised  by  a male  of  eighteen  or  a female  of  six- 
teen. 

The  last  will  annuls  all  previously  made,  and  care  should  be  taken  to  distinctly 
state  in  the  very  beginning,  “ This,  my  last  will  and  testament,”  and  if  a previous  one  has 
been  made,  to  insert  a clause  revoking  all  other  wills. 

The  will  must  be  the  deliberate  act  of  the  testator,  and  should  so  state,  and  that  it 
is  sealed  and  signed  by  him  according  to  law. 

There  must  be  a witness  to  a will,  and  in  most  States  two  witnesses,  to  make  it 
valid.  Some  States  require  three.  They  and  each  of  them  should  see  the  writing  of 
signature.  If  unable  to  write,  he  may  make  his  mark  in  the  presence  of  witnesses. 

The  will  should  read,  “ I give,  bequeath  and  devise  my  estate  and  property,”  for  be- 
queath  refers  to  personal  property,  and  devise  to  real  estate. 

Then  the  exact  desire  of  the  testator  should  be  clearly  and  tersely  expressed,  so  as 
to  leave  no  chance  for  misconstruction. 

When  the  intention  is  that  the  interest  shall  not  be  limited  to  the  lifetime  of  an 
heir,  his  name  should  be  followed  by  “ and  his  heirs? 

If  a will  contains  no  provision  for  the  child  of  the  testator,  then  it  is  regarded  as  an 
oversight,  and  such  child  is  made  by  law  an  equal  heir  with  other  children.  If  a parent 
wishes  to  exclude  a child  from  any  share  in  his  property,  he  must  so  state  explicitly.  A 
will  ought  always  to  designate  the  executors,  but  if  this  is  omitted,  the  will  is  still  valid, 
and  an  administrator  will  be  appointed  by  the  courts.  A witness  to  a will  ought  never 
to  be  a legatee,  as  he  cannot  inherit  it ; but  if  this  should  happen,  the  will  is  still  valid. 

Where  property  is  sold  or  otherwise  disposed  of,  the  will  is  invalidated  to  that 
extent. 

Where  a will  is  made,  and  testator  afterwards  marries  and  has  issue,  the  will  is  re- 
voked, unless  he  makes  another  affirming  the  original  one. 

An  executor  appointed  cannot  act  if,  at  the  time  of  probate,  he  be  a minor,  a drunk- 
ard, convict,  or  of  unsound  mind. 

The  contents  of  a will  need  not  be  known  to  the  witnesses  ; it  is  enough  that  the 
testator  acknowledges  it  to  be  his  will,  and  see  him  sign  it. 

A will  made  by  a single  woman  is  void  if  she  marry,  but  she  may  provide  against 
this  in  her  marriage  settlement. 


240 


COMMERCIAL  LAW  AND  LEGAL  FORMS. 


A husband  cannot  debar  his  wife  of  her  right  of  dower  by  will,  but  he  may  bequeath 
a specified  sum  in  lieu  of  dower,  which  she  is  at  liberty  to  accept  or  not,  at  her 
pleasure. 

The  laws  in  regard  to  wills  are  the  same  in  Canada  as  in  the  United  States,  except 
that  in  the  Province  of  Quebec  a will  in  the  handwriting  of  the  testator  does  not  require 
to  be  attested  by  witnesses. 

A codicil  is  an  addition  or  modification  to  a previously  made  will,  which  it  does  not 
invalidate.  i 

A man’s  property  is  held  for  all  his  legal  debts,  and  they  must  be  first  paid. 

Claims  upon  the  estate  have  precedence  in  the  following  order  : i.  Funeral  expenses, 
charges  of  last  sickness  and  for  probate.  2.  Debts  due  to  the  United  States.  3.  Debts 
due  the  State  in  which  the  testator  died.  4.  Any  liens  on  property.  5.  General  debts. 


FORM  OF  WILL  SUITABLE  FOR  GENERAL  USE. 

I,  William  Strong,  of  the  city  of  , State  of  , being  of  sound  mind 

and  memory,  do  declare  this  to  be  my  last  will  and  testament : 

1.  I give  and  bequeath  to  my  wife,  Mary  Strong,  all  the  fixtures,  books, 
paintings,  china,  silverware,  household  goods,  chattels,  furniture  and  effects  other  than 
money  and  securities  for  money  which  at  the  time  of  my  decease  shall  be  contained  in 
and  about  my  house,  No.  20  Main  street,  in  the  city  of 

2.  I give  and  devise  to  my  wife  aforesaid  the  dwelling-house  and  lot  of  ground  known 

as  No.  20  Main  street,  city  of  , with  all  the  appurtenances  thereunto  belonging, 

to  have  and  to  hold  unto  her,  the  said  Mary  Strong,  her  heirs  and  assigns  forever. 

3.  I also  give  and  bequeath  to  my  wife  aforesaid  the  sum  of  five  thousand  dollars,  to 
be  paid  to  her  within  one  month  of  my  death,  without  interest. 

4.  I also  give  and  bequeath  to  my  said  wife  the  sum  of  twenty  thousand  dollars  in 
the  stock  of  the  Connecticut  Valley  Railroad,  now  held  by  me. 

5.  I give  and  devise  to  my  son,  James  Strong,  that  certain  brick  store  and  lot  of 

ground  known  as  No.  49  Center  street,  city  of  , with  all  the  appurtenances  there- 

unto belonging,  to  have  and  to  hold  unto  the  said  James  Strong,  his  heirs  and  assigns 
forever. 

6.  I give  and  devise  to  my  daughter,  Jane  Ann  Strong,  that  certain  dwelling-house 

and  lot  of  land  known  as  No.  144  High  street,  city  of  , with  all  appurtenances 

thereunto  belonging,  to  have  and  to  hold  unto  her  the  said  Jane  Ann  Strong,  her  heirs 
and  assigns  forever. 

7.  I also  give  and  bequeath  the  following  legacies  to  the  several  persons  herein 

named  : To  my  beloved  pastor,  Benjamin  M.  Adams,  the  sum  of  three  thousand  dollars. 
To  rny  nephew,  Thomas  Henry  Strong,  the  sum  of  two  thousand  dollars.  To  my  niece, 
Henrietta  M.  Jones,  wife  of  Charles  Jones,  the  sum  of  two  thousand  dollars  ; and  to  my 
old  and  confidential  secretary  and  friend,  William  Monroe,  of  the  city  of  , State 

of  , the  sum  of  five  thousand  dollars. 


COMMERCIAL  LAW  AND  LEGAL  FORMS. 


241 


8.  I also  give  and  bequeath  to  each  of  my  household  servants,  who  shall  be  living  in 
my  employ  at  the  time  of  my  death,  the  sum  of  three  hundred  dollars. 

9.  All  the  rest,  residue  and  remainder  of  my  real  estate  and  personal  property,  I 
give,  devise  and  bequeath  to  my  said  wife,  Mary  Strong,  my  said  daughter,  Jane  Ann 
Strong,  and  my  said  son,  James  Strong,  their  heirs  and  assigns  forever. 

10.  I appoint  my  said  son,  James  Strong,  and  my  trusted  friend,  Henry  Martin 
Wilcox,  my  executors  of  this  will  and  devise,  nor  shall  they  be  required  to  give  any  secu- 
rity for  the  performance  of  their  duties. 

In  witness  whereof,  I,  William  Strong,  have  hereunto  set  my  hand  and  seal,  this  fif- 
day  of  , in  the  year  of  our  Lord  one  thousand  and 

WILLIAM  STRONG,  [seal.] 

Subscribed  b}  the  testator  in  the  presence  of  each  of  us,  and  at  that  time  declared  by 

him  to  us  as  his  last  will  and  testament. 

George  J.  Jones, 

Peter  I.  Brown, 
Thomas  H.  Smith. 

FORM  OF  NONCUPARTIVE  WILL. 

Noncupartive  Will  of  Henry  Bliss. 

On  the  tenth  day  of  , A.  D.  18  , Henry  Bliss,  being  in  the  extremity  of  his 

last  sickness,  in  his  own  habitation,  situate  on  Pine  street,  in 

where  he  had  resided  for  more  than  ten  years  next  before  making  this  will,  in  the  pres- 
ence of  us  the  subscribers,  did  declare  this  to  be  his  last  will  and  testament. 

He  said  that  he  was  the  owner  of  the  house  occupied  by  him,  and  also  of  a certain 
house  and  lot  of  land  known  as  No.  25  Broad  street,  city  of  , aforesaid,  and 

the  sum  of  ten  thousand  dollars  in  preferred  stock  of  the  ALtna  Life  Insurance  Company, 
doing  business  in  Hartford  aforesaid,  together  with  five  thousand  dollars  more  or  less, 
deposited  in  the  First  National  Bank,  Hartford,  Connecticut,  to  his  credit. 

He  then  said,  “I  want  my  wife  Jane  Bliss  to  have  the  house  and  lot  of  land  on 
which  it  stands,  in  which  we  live,  all  the  furniture  and  personal  property  which  it  con- 
tains, except  monies  and  other  securities  for  money,  and  I wish  her  to  hold  undisputed 
possession  of  them,  as  she  may  see  fit. 

“ I want  my  son,  John  Henry  Bliss,  to  have  my  house  and  the  lot  on  which  it  stands, 
known  as  No.  25  Broad  street,  Hartford,  and  to  hold  undisputed  possession  as  he  may  see  fit. 

“ All  other  properties  I want  to  be  equally  divided  between  my  son,  the  said  John 
Henry  Bliss,  and  my  wife,  the  said  Jane  Bliss,  to  be  used  each  and  severally  for  the  ben- 
efit of  each,  as  he  and  she  may  see  fit,  first  paying  all  my  just  debts.” 

At  the  time  he,  the  said  Henry  Bliss  pronounced  the  foregoing  will,  he  was  of  sound 
and  disposing  mind,  memory  and  understanding,  and  did  bid  us  who  were  present,  to 
bear  witness  that  this  was  his  will. 

Reduced  to  writing  this  day  of  , 18  . 

NOAH  H.  PETERS, 
WILLIAM  W.  RICE. 

Note. — A noncupartive  will,  is  a verbal  expression  of  desire  as  to  the  disposition  of 
property  after  death,  made  before  witnesses,  when  in  immediate  fear  of  death. 


COMMERCIAL  LAW  AND  LEGAL  FORMS. 


242 


FORM  FOR  ADMINISTRATOR’S  BOND. 

Know  all  Men  by  these  Presents,  That  we  (here  insert  name  of  administra- 
tor,) as  principal,  and  (here  insert  name  of  surety)  as  surety  are  holden  and  stand  firmly 
bound  and  obliged,  jointly  and  severally,  unto  the  State  of  , in  the  penal  sum 

of  (state  amount)  dollars,  to  be  paid  to  said  State  or  to  its  certain  Attorney  : to  the  which 
payment,  well  and  truly  to  be  made  and  done,  we  the  said  Obligors,  do  bind  ourselves 
and  each  of  us,  our  heirs,  executors  and  administrators,  and  each  and  every  of  them,  for 
and  in  the  whole  sum  aforesaid,  firmly  by  these  presents.  Signed  with  our  hands  and 
sealed  with  our  seals,  at  this  day  of  A.  D.  18 

The  Conditions  of  this  Obligation  is  such,  that  whereas  the  above  Bounden  (here 
insert  name  of  administrator)  has  been  appointed  Administrator  of  the  Estate  of  (name 
of  deceased)  late  of  (residence  of  deceased)  in  the  Probate  District  of 
deceased  ; now,  therefore,  if  the  said  (name  of  administrator)  shall  faithfully  discharge 
the  duties  of  his  said  appointment  according  to  law,  then  this  Bond  shall  be  valid  ; other* 
wise  to  remain  in  full  force. 

( Witnesses.)  {Signatures .) 

FORM  FOR  EXECUTOR’S  BOND. 

Know  all  Men  by  these  Presents,  That  we  (here  insert  names  of  executors) 
as  principal,  and  (here  insert  name  of  surety)  as  surety,  are  holden  and  stand  firmly 
bound  and  obliged,  jointly  and  severally,  unto  the  State  of  Connecticut  in  the  penal  sum 
of  (state  amount)  dollars,  to  be  paid  to  said  State  or  to  its  certain  attorney:  To  the 
which  payment,  well  and  truly  to  be  made  and  done,  we,  the  said  Obligors,  do  bind  our- 
selves, and  each  of  us,  our  heirs,  executors  and  administrators,  and  each  and  every  one  of 
them,  for  and  in  the  whole  sum  aforesaid,  firmly  by  these  presents.  Signed  with  our 
hands  and  sealed  with  our  seals,  at  this  day  of  A.  D.  188— = 

The  Condition  of  this  Obligation  is  such,  that  whereas  the  above  bounden  (insert 
name  of  executor)  has  been  appointed  executor  of  the  will  of  (name  of  testator)  in  the 
Probate  District  of  , deceased ; now,  therefore,  if  the  said  (insert  name  of 

executor)  shall  faithfully  discharge  the  duties  of  his  appointment,  according  to  law,  then 
this  bond  shall  be  void,  otherwise  to  remain  in  full  force. 

( Witnesses.)  {Signatures) 


ABSTRACT  OF  STATE  LAWS  REGARDING  WILLS. 


ALABAMA. — Two  witnesses.  Recorded 
in  office  of  Judge  of  Probate  Court.  No 
nuncupative  will  can  dispose  of  more 
than  $500  worth  of  property.  Wills  are 
to  be  executed  out  of  the  State  in  the 
same  way  as  if  within  the  State.  All  per- 
sons over  twenty-one  years  of  age  can 
dispose  of  real  estate ; all  over  eighteen, 
of  personal  property. 

Arizona.  — Two  or  more  witnesses. 
Nuncupative  wills  cannot  dispose  of  more 
than  $300  worth  of  property.  Soldiers 
and  sailors  in  active  service  may  dispose 
of  personal  property  by  unwritten  wills. 
The  statute  provides  in  great  detail  the 
manner  in  which  wills  shall  be  executed. 

Arkansas. — All  over  twenty-one  years 
may  devise  realty  and  personalty ; all 
over  eighteen,  personalty.  Two  wit- 
nesses. Nuncupative  wills  not  to  exceed 
$500.  A will,  the  body  of  which  was 
written  by  the  testator  as  well  as  the  sig- 
nature, may  be  established  by  three  dis- 
interested witnesses  as  to  handwriting, 
when  there  are  no  attesting  witnesses. 

California. — All  persons  over  eigh- 
teen years  of  age  may  dispose  by  will  of 
either  real  or  personal  property.  Two 
or  more  witnesses  required.  Nuncupa- 
tive wills,  not  to  exceed  $2,000,  are  valid, 
but  must  be  reduced  to  writing  within 
thirty  days. 

Colorado. — Real  estate  may  be  de- 
vised by  all  over  twenty-one ; personal 
estate  by  all  over  seventeen.  Two  or 
more  witnesses.  A married  man  may  not 
leave  more  than  half  of  his  property 
away  from  his  wife,  nor  can  a wife  leave 
more  than  half  away  from  her  husband 
without  his  written  consent  thereto. 

CONNECTICUT.  — Three  witnesses  re- 


quired. All  persons  over  eighteen  years 
of  age  can  dispose  of  real  or  personal 
property.  Subsequent  marriage  revokes 
a will,  and  so  also  the  birth  of  a child, 
unless  provision  is  made  in  the  will  for 
the  contingency.  Wills  must  be  offered 
for  probate  within  ten  years. 

Delaware. — Two  or  more  witnesses. 
Any  person  of  sound  mind,  and  above 
the  age  of  twenty-one  years,  may  dispose 
of  real  or  personal  property.  A married 
woman  must  obtain  the  written  consent 
of  her  husband,  signed,  sealed,  and  at- 
tested by  two  witnesses,  to  enable  her  to 
dispose  by  will  of  her  property. 

District  of  Columbia.  — Males  of 
twenty-one  and  females  of  eighteen  years 
of  age  may  dispose  of  real  estate  or  in- 
terest therein.  Three  or  more  witnesses 
are  required.  The  person  making  the 
will  must  be  of  sound  mind  and  capable 
of  making  a deed  or  contract. 

Florida. — Persons  above  twenty-one 
years  of  age  may  dispose  of  real  or  per- 
sonal property.  Three  or  more  witnesses 
are  required.  Nuncupative  wills  must  be 
proved  by  the  oath  of  at  least  three  wit- 
nesses who  were  present  when  it  was 
made.  Such  a will  must  be  reduced  to 
writing  and  sworn  to  within  six  days. 
Foreign  wills  must  be  executed  according 
to  the  law  of  the  State. 

Georgia.  — Three  or  more  witnesses 
are  necessary.  Persons  of  fourteen  years 
of  age  may  make  a will.  Wills  are  re- 
corded in  the  Ordinary’s  Court.  Mar- 
ried women  may  dispose  by  will  of  their 
separate  estate. 

Idaho.  — Persons  over  twenty-one 
years  of  age  may  dispose  of  real  or  per- 
sonal estate;  persons  over  eighteen,  of 


244 


ABSTRACT  OF  STATE  LAWS  REGARDING  WILLS. 


personal  estate.  Married  women  may 
dispose  by  will  of  all  separate  estate,  real 
or  personal.  Two  witnesses  are  required. 
Copies  of  the  will  must  be  recorded  in 
every  county  where  there  is  any  real  es- 
tate conveyed  by  the  will. 

Illinois.  — All  males  above  twenty- 
one,  and  all  females  above  eighteen  years 
of  age,  may  dispose  of  real  or  personal 
property.  Two  or  more  witnesses  are 
required.  Wills  made  out  of  the  State 
must  be  probated  within  the  State. 

Indiana.  — All  persons  twenty-one 
years  of  age  or  more  may  will  real  or 
personal  property.  Married  women  may 
dispose  by  will  of  their  separate  prop- 
erty. Nuncupative  wills  must  not  ex- 
ceed $100.  Two  witnesses.  Record 
must  be  made  in  the  office  of  the  County 
Clerk  where  probated. 

IOWA. — Testator  must  be  twenty-one 
years  of  age.  Nuncupative  wills  cannot 
exceed  $300  worth  of  property,  and  must 
be  sworn  to  by  at  least  two  disinterested 
witnesses.  Wills  valid  where  made  are 
valid  in  the  State.  All  foreign  wills  must 
be  probated  in  the  State. 

Kansas.  — Two  or  more  witnesses. 
Persons  must  be  of  age  to  make  a valid 
will.  Wills  made  in  other  States  must 
be  probated  in  the  county  where  the 
property  lies,  and  are  then  valid.  Wills 
are  recorded  in  the  Probate  Office. 

Kentucky. — Persons  must  be  twenty- 
one  years  of  age  and  of  sound  mind  to 
make  a valid  will.  Married  women  may 
dispose  by  will  of  their  separate  property. 
Two  witnesses  are  required.  Wills  must 
be  proved  in  the  County  Court  of  the 
county  where  testator  resided.  Personal 
property  owned  by  persons  living  outside 
the  State  may  be  disposed  of  by  a will 
made  in  accordance  with  the  requirements 
of  the  place  where  made.  In  case  of  de- 


vise of  real  estate,  the  will  must  be  proved 
where  made,  and  an  authenticated  copy 
of  the  certificate  of  probate  offered  for 
probate  in  this  State. 

Louisiana. — Four  kinds  of  wills  are 
recognized:  nuncupative  by  public  act; 
nuncupative  by  private  act;  mystic  or 
sealed  wills,  and  olographic  wills.  The 
first  must  be  dictated  by  testator  to  a 
notary  public  and  read  in  the  presence 
of  three  resident  or  five  non-resident  wit- 
nesses, and  must  be  signed  by  the  testa- 
tor and  witnesses.  The  second  must  be 
written  in  the  presence  of  five  resident  or 
seven  non-resident  witnesses,  read  to 
them,  and  signed  by  the  testator  and  the 
witnesses,  or  at  least  two  of  them.  In 
the  country  three  resident  or  five  non- 
resident witnesses  will  suffice,  if  more 
cannot  be  obtained.  The  third  form,  or 
mystic  will,  is  first  signed  by  the  testator, 
then  inclosed  in  an  envelope  and  sealed 
up.  The  testator  then  declares  in  the 
presence  of  a notary  and  seven  witnesses 
that  that  paper  contains  his  will,  signed 
by  himself,  the  notary  indorses  the  act 
of  superscription  on  the  will  or  envelope, 
and  that  act  is  signed  by  the  notary,  the 
testator,  and  the  witnesses.  Olographic 
testaments  are  written  entirely  by  the  tes- 
tator himself,  and  dated  and  signed  by 
him.  No  attestation  or  other  form  is  re- 
quired. The  following  cannot  act  as  wit- 
nesses: women  of  any  age;  males  under 
sixteen;  the  deaf,  dumb,  blind,  or  insane; 
those  debarred  by  the  criminal  law  from 
exercising  civil  functions;  those  who 
stand  as  heirs  or  legatees  under  the  will, 
except  in  case  of  mystic  testaments. 

Maine.  — Three  witnesses  not  inter- 
ested as  heirs  or  legatees.  Real  estate 
acquired  afterward  may  pass.  A post- 
humous child  or  other  child  not  provided 
for  by  will  takes  the  same  share  as  if  the 


ABSTRACT  OF  STATE  LAWS  REGARDING  WILLS. 


245 


deceased  had  died  intestate,  unless  it  is 
shown  that  the  omission  of  mention  in 
the  will  was  intentional.  Nuncupative 
wills  made  in  the  last  sickness  and  at  the 
testator’s  residence,  or  made  by  sailors 
and  soldiers,  are  valid,  but  must  be  re- 
duced to  writing  within  six  days,  and,  if 
they  dispose  of  more  than  $100  worth  of 
property,  must  be  sworn  to  by  at  least 
three  witnesses. 

Maryland. — Wills  of  personal  prop- 
erty are  valid  without  witnesses;  wills  of 
real  estate  must  be  attested  by  three  or 
four  witnesses.  Real  estate  may  be  dis- 
posed of  by  males  above  twenty-one  and 
females  above  eighteen  years  of  age,  of 
sound  mind  and  capable  of  making  a deed 
or  contract.  Wills  are  probated  before 
the  “Orphan’s  Court,”  and  recorded  with 
the  Registrar  of  Wills.  A married  wo- 
man can  will  her  property  to  her  husband 
or  to  others,  only  with  his  written  consent 
subscribed  to  the  will.  She  must  also  be 
examined  apart  from  her  husband,  as  in 
case  of  deeds;  and  such  will  must  be 
made  sixty  days  before  the  death  of  the 
testatrix. 

Massachusetts.— Persons  of  legal  age 
may  dispose  by  will  of  real  or  personal 
property.  Three  or  more  witnesses  are 
required,  but  they  need  not  sign  in  the 
presence  of  each  other.  A bequest  to  a 
subscribing  witness  is  void.  A married 
woman  may  devise  as  though  single,  but 
she  cannot  leave  morex  than  half  of  her 
personal  property  away  from  her  hus- 
band, nor  deprive  him  of  his  courtesy  in 
her  real  estate  without  his  written  con- 
sent. Wills  must  be  offered  for  probate 
within  thirty  days  after  the  executor 
knows  of  the  death  of  the  testator. 

Michigan. — Two  or  more  competent 
witnesses  are  required.  Nuncupative  wills 
must  not  dispose  of  more  than  $300  worth 


of  property.  Devisees  and  legatees  are 
incompetent  witnesses.  Wills  must  be 
recorded  in  the  Probate  Court,  and  a 
copy  of  the  probate  thereof  registered 
with  the  Registrar  of  every  county  in 
which  there  may  be  land  conveyed  by  the 
will. 

Minnesota. — Two  or  more  witnesses. 
Nuncupative  wills  can  be  made  only  by 
soldiers  in  active  service  or  sailors  at  sea. 
All  persons  of  legal  age  and  sound  mind 
may  devise.  Married  women  may  make 
wills  as  if  they  were  single.  Legatees 
and  devisees  are  not  competent  witnesses. 
Probate  as  in  Michigan. 

Mississippi. — Any  person  of  legal  age 
may  devise  real  or  personal  property. 
Two  witnesses  are  required  in  case  of  all 
wills  made  after  November  1,  1880.  Nun- 
cupative wills  can  be  made  by  soldiers 
or  sailors  in  actual  service,  or  by  others 
only  in  the  last  sickness  and  at  the  resi- 
dence of  the  testator.  If  for  more  than 
$100  such  a will  must  be  sworn  to  by  at 
least  two  witnesses. 

MISSOURI. — Real  estate  may  be  dis- 
posed of  by  males  above  the  age  of  twenty- 
one  and  females  above  that  of  eighteen 
years.  Personal  property  may  be  devised 
by  all  above  eighteen  years  of  age.  Two 
witnesses  are  necessary.  Married  women 
may  make  wills  as  though  single.  Wills 
should  be  recorded  with  the  Recorder  of 
Deeds  for  the  county  where  probate  is 
made,  and  a copy  registered  in  every  coun- 
ty where  land  is  disposed  of  in  the  will. 

Montana.  — All  persons  more  than 
eighteen  years  of  age  may  dispose  by  will 
of  either  real  or  personal  property.  Two 
witnesses  are  required.  Married  women 
may  dispose  of  their  separate  estate. 
Nuncupative  wills  must  not  exceed  $1,000 
in  amount,  must  be  made  by  soldiers  or 
sailors  in  actual  service,  and  must  be 


246 


ABSTRACT  OF  STATE  LAWS  REGARDING  WILLS. 


sworn  to  by  two  competent  witnesses. 
The  law  of  descent  for  real  and  personal 
property  is  provided  for  by  the  Probate 
Practice  Act. 

Nebraska. — Wills  must  be  attested  by 
two  or  more  witnesses.  Nuncupative 
wills  are  allowed  under  stringent  statu- 
tory limitations.  Married  women  may 
dispose  of  their  property  as  if  single.  All 
foreign  wills  which  have  been  probated 
in  accordance  with  the  law  of  the  State 
or  country  where  made,  will  be  admitted 
to  probate  in  this  State. 

Nevada. — All  persons  over  eighteen 
may  make  wills  as  to  realty  or  personalty. 
Two  witnesses  required.  A child  unpro- 
vided for  shall  take  the  share  he  would 
have  had  if  testator  had  died  intestate, 
unless  the  omission  is  shown  to  be  inten- 
tional. Married  women  may  dispose  of 
separate  estate,  and,  with  the  husband’s 
consent,  of  their  interest  in  common 
property. 

New  Hampshire. — The  testator  must 
be  twenty-one  years  of  age.  Three  or 
more  witnesses  are  called  for.  Married 
women  may  dispose  of  separate  estate. 
Nuncupative  wills  must  be  attested  by 
three  witnesses,  reduced  to  writing  within 
six  days  and  offered  for  probate  within 
six  months. 

New  Jersey.  — Testator  must  be 
twenty-one  years  old.  A married  woman 
may  dispose  of  personal  or  real  estate, 
but  cannot  defeat  the  husband’s  right  of 
courtesy  in  the  realty.  Two  witnesses  are 
required.  A legacy  or  devise  to  a wit- 
ness is  void. 

New  MEXICO. — Males  over  fourteen 
and  females  over  twelve  may  make  wills. 
Wills  may  be  written  or  verbal.  Verbal 
wills  must  be  attested  by  five  witnesses, 
two  of  whom  must  swear  that  the  testator 
was  of  sound  mind;  written  wills  must 


be  attested  by  three  witnesses.  The  pro- 
bate judge  may  disapprove  a will  after 
hearing  the  witnesses,  and  return  it  to 
the  party  applying.  It  may  be  then 
brought  before  the  District  Court,  and 
finally  approved  or  disapproved. 

New  York. — Personal  property  may 
be  disposed  of  by  males  of  eighteen  and 
females  of  sixteen.  Two  witnesses.  Wills 
properly  proved  in  the  State  or  country 
where  made  will  be  admitted  to  probate 
in  this  State. 

North  Carolina. — Two  witnesses  are 
required.  Wills,  written,  dated,  and  sign- 
ed in  testator’s  handwriting  throughout, 
will  be  admitted  on  proof  of  handwriting 
by  at  least  three  witnesses.  Nuncupative 
wills  are  strictly  limited.  Wills  made  out 
of  this  State  and  conveying  real  estate 
within  this  State  must  be  executed  accord- 
ing to  the  laws  of  this  State ; i.e.,  the  lex 
rei  sites  prevails. 

North  and  South  Dakota. — Both 
real  and  personal  property  may  be  dis- 
posed of  by  all  persons  above  eighteen 
years  of  age.  Wills  of  which  the  body  is 
in  the  testator’s  handwriting,  and  which 
are  signed  and  dated  by  him,  need  not 
be  attested.  Two  or  more  witnesses  are 
necessary  for  other  wills.  Wills  made 
out  of  the  State  are  proved  in  the 
same  way  as  those  made  within  it.  A 
will  made  by  an  unmarried  woman  is  re- 
voked by  her  marriage  Married  women 
may  dispose  by  will  of  all  their  property 
as  though  single. 

Ohio. — Two  witnesses.  Verbal  wills 
may  be  made  in  the  last  sickness  as  re- 
gards personal  estate  They  must  be  re- 
duced to  writing  and  subscribed  by  two 
disinterested  witnesses  within  ten  days. 
A devisee  or  legatee  cannot  be  a witness. 
Bequests  for  religious,  benevolent,  educa- 
tional, or  charitable  purposes  are  void  as 


ABSTRACT  OF  STATE  LAWS  REGARDING  WILLS. 


247 


against  children,  unless  the  will  is  exe- 
cuted at  least  one  year  before  the  decease 
of  the  testator.  Wills  executed  and  al- 
lowed in  other  States  will  be  admitted  to 
probate  in  this  State. 

OREGON. — All  persons  over  twenty-one 
may  dispose  of  real  or  personal  estate  by 
will.  Personal  estate  may  be  bequeathed 
by  all  above  eighteen.  Married  women 
may  make  wills  as  if  single,  but  cannot 
destroy  the  right  of  courtesy  in  real  estate. 
Two  or  more  witnesses.  Children  not 
provided  for  in  a will  may  take  as  if  the 
parent  had  died  intestate.  Real  estate 
owned  in  this  State  may  be  disposed  of 
by  will  made  in  another  State  and  ad- 
mitted to  probate  in  this  State. 

Pennsylvania.  — All  persons  of  legal 
age  may  make  wills.  Unless  the  testator 
is  on  his  deathbed,  the  will  must  be  in 
writing.  Two  witnesses  must  be  present, 
but  they  need  not  subscribe  the  instru- 
ment; no  acknowledgment  before  wit- 
nesses by  the  testator  is  necessary,  except 
in  case  of  a married  woman,  or  of  a be- 
quest for  religious  or  charitable  purposes. 

RHODE  Island. — Two  witnesses  are 
required.  Both  must  be  produced  when 
the  will  is  probated,  if  alive  and  within 
the  State.  Real  estate  may  be  disposed 
of  by  will  by  all  persons  above  twenty- 
one  years  of  age.  Personal  property  by 
all  above  eighteen  years  of  age.  Married 
women  may  dispose  of  separate  estate, 
but  cannot  impair  the  right  of  courtesy  in 
real  estate. 

South  Carolina.  — Three  or  more 
witnesses  are  called  for.  Wills  are  re- 
corded in  the  Probate  Court  of  the  county 
where  testator  had  his  domicile.  Com- 
mon law  principles  generally  prevail. 

Tennessee. — Two  witnesses.  A will 
written  throughout  and  signed  and  dated 
in  the  testator’s  handwriting,  and  found 


among  his  papers,  or  lodged  by  him  with 
another  for  safe  keeping,  will  be  admitted, 
though  unattested,  on  the  evidence  of  at 
least  three  witnesses  as  to  the  handwrit- 
ing. Nuncupative  wills  must  not  exceed 
$250,  and  are  further  limited  in  various 
ways  by  the  statutes.  No  subscribing 
witnesses  are  necessary  to  wills  of  per- 
sonal property,  except  in  case  of  married 
women. 

Texas. — Testator  must  be  of  full  age. 
Unless  the  will  is  olographic,  there  must 
be  at  least  two  competent  witnesses.  A 
will  properly  executed  and  probated  in 
another  State  will  be  admitted  to  probate 
here  upon  application.  Nuncupative  wills 
exceeding  $30  must  be  sworn  to  by  three 
credible  persons,  made  in  the  last  sick- 
ness, and  offered  for  probate  within  six 
months. 

Utah. — Real  and  personal  property 
may  be  disposed  of  by  will  by  all  persons 
of  sound  mind  and  of  the  age  of  eighteen 
years.  Married  women  may  make  wills 
as  if  single.  Two  witnesses  are  necessary. 

Vermont.  — Three  witnesses  are  re- 
quired. Wills  made  and  executed  legally 
in  another  State  or  country  may  be 
proved,  allowed,  and  recorded  in  this 
State.  Wills  must  be  recorded  in  the 
Probate  Office  and  also  in  the  Town 
Clerk’s  Office  in  every  town  where  real 
estate  disposed  of  may  lie. 

Virginia. — All  persons  over  twenty- 
one  may  dispose  of  real  property;  all 
over  eighteen  of  personal  property.  Two 
witnesses.  Married  women  may  dispose 
of  separate  property,  but  cannot  impair 
the  husband’s  right  of  courtesy.  The  cir- 
cuit, county,  and  corporation  courts  have 
probate  jurisdiction. 

Washington. — Males  above  twenty- 
one  and  females  above  eighteen  years  of 
age  may  dispose  by  will  of  realty  or 


248 


ABSTRACT  OF  STATE  LAWS  REGARDING  WILLS. 


personal  property.  Two  or  more  sub- 
scribing witnesses.  Nuncupative  wills  for 
above  $200  must  be  sworn  to  by  two  wit- 
nesses, except  in  case  of  sailors  or  soldiers 
in  actual  service. 

West  Virginia. — Testator  must  be  of 
legal  age.  Two  subscribing  witnesses, 
except  in  case  of  an  olographic  will.  A 
will  executed  outside  of  the  State  must 
still  be  executed  according  to  the  laws  of 
the  State,  in  order  to  convey  real  estate 
therein. 


WISCONSIN.  — Two  subscribing  wit- 
nesses are  necessary.  Probate  is  had  in 
the  County  Court.  Wills  duly  executed, 
proved,  and  allowed  in  other  States  will 
be  admitted  to  probate  here. 

Wyoming. — There  are  no  statutes  in 
regard  to  the  execution  of  proof  of  wills. 
The  common  law  principles  must  be  fol- 
lowed. Probate  must  be  had  in  the 
County  Probate  Court. 


MECHANICS’  LIENS  IN  ALL  THE  STATES. 

The  law  in  most  of  the  States  recognizes  the  right  of  the  creditor,  who  has 
labored  or  furnished  material  upon  the  property  of  another,  to  retain  a claim  upon 
that  property  until  he  has  recovered  his  wages  or  the  price  of  the  material  which  he 
has  furnished.  Such  a claim  is  known  as  a lien.  In  some  of  the  States  a mechanic 
who  has  been  employed  upon  a house,  and  in  some,  if  he  has  been  employed  upon 
any  property,  may  levy  upon  the  same  for  the  amount  of  wages  due.  If  the  lien  is 
placed  upon  the  property  thus  improved  within  a specified  time,  the  mechanic,  when 
the  owner  fails  to  satisfy  the  debt,  may  cause  the  same  to  be  sold  by  due  process  of 
law.  Sailors  have  a lien  on  the  vessel  in  which  they  have  shipped  for  the  amount  of 
their  wages.  Following  are  laws  pertaining  to  Mechanics’  Liens  in  all  the  States: 


Alabama. — Liens  are  extended  to  rail- 
road laborers,  as  well  as  to  the  usual 
claisses,  mechanics,  contractors,  etc.  Pro- 
ceedings must  commence  within  six 
months  after  the  work  is  finished.  The 
process  is  by  attachment. 

Arizona. — Besides  liens  of  the  usual 
descr  iption,  any  mechanic  or  artisan  who 
makes,  alters,  or  repairs  any  article  of 
personal  property,  has  a lien  thereon  to 
secure  his  just  charges,  and  may  retain 
possesion  until  he  is  paid. 

Arkansas. — Account  of  the  claim  must 
be  filed  with  the  clerk  of  the  circuit  court 
of  the  County  where  the  land  lies  within 
ninety  days  after  the  work  is  done.  Suit 
must  begin  within  nine  months. 

California. — Liens  have  precedence 
over  subsequent  or  previous  unrecorded 
incumbrances.  An  original  contractor 
may  file  his  claim  within  sixty  days; 
others  must  do  so  in  thirty  days.  Suit 
must  be  brought  within  ninety  days  from 
the  date  of  filing  the  claim. 

COLORADO. — There  is  a lien  for  work 
and  materials  over  $25  in  value.  Claim 
must  be  filed  within  forty  days  and  suit 
brought  within  six  months. 

CONNECTICUT. — Liens  exist  for  amounts 
over  $25.  Claims  must  be  verified  by 
oath  and  filed  within  sixty  days  from  the 


time  when  claimant  began  to  furnish  ma- 
terials or  work. 

Delaware.  — Liens  are  allowed  for 
amounts  above  $25.  Original  contractors 
must  file  claims  not  sooner  than  sixty  or 
later  than  ninety  days  after  the  building 
is  finished ; others,  within  sixty  days. 

District  of  Columbia.— Claims  must 
be  filed  with  the  clerk  of  the  supreme 
court  of  the  District  within  sixty  days 
after  the  work  is  completed.  The  amount 
claimed  must  be  above  $20. 

Florida. — Contracts  under  which  the 
lien  is  claimed  must  be  in  writing,  the 
amount  liquidated  or  certain,  and  a net 
balance  struck.  Such  contracts  must  be 
recorded  within  thirty  days.  Claims 
must  be  filed  within  six  months  after  the 
work  is  done  or  materials  furnished,  and 
suit  brought  within  a year. 

Georgia. — Claims  must  be  recorded 
within  thirty  days  with  the  clerk  of  the 
superior  court  of  the  county  where  the 
property  lies.  Suit  must  be  brought 
within  a year.  Mechanics  and  laborers 
have  also  a lien  on  personal  property 
given  them  to  repair  or  alter,  but  lose  it 
on  giving  up  possession  of  the  goods. 

Idaho. — Claims  must  be  not  less  than 
$25.  The  improvement  and  development 
of  mines,  claims,  flumes,  ditches,  and 


250 


MECHANICS’  LIENS  IN  ALL  THE  STATES. 


bridges  come  under  the  law  of  mechanics’ 
liens.  Accounts  must  be  filed  with  the 
county  recorder  within  sixty  days  by  an 
original  contractor;  within  thirty,  by 
others.  Suit  must  be  brought  within  six 
months.  Mechanics  have  a lien  on  arti- 
cles left  with  them  to  repair  or  alter,  and 
may  sell  them,  if  the  charges  are  not  paid 
within  two  months,  after  advertising  the 
sale  for  three  weeks. 

ILLINOIS. — Suit  must  be  brought  within 
six  months.  Liens  for  labor  and  mate- 
rials take  precedence  to  the  extent  to 
which  they  have  increased  the  value  of 
the  property.  If  the  time  for  completion 
of  the  work  is  fixed  by  contract  at  more 
than  three  years  from  the  beginning,  or 
the  time  of  payment  at  more  than  one 
year  from  the  time  stipulated  for  the 
completion  of  the  work,  there  is  no  lien. 

Indiana. — Notice  must  be  filed  within 
sixty  days  after  the  completion  of  the 
work.  Suit  must  be  brought  within  a 
year.  Tradesmen  and  mechanics  have  a 
lien  for  work  done  on  personal  property 
and  may  sell  the  same  if  not  paid  for 
within  six  months. 

IOWA. — Claims  must  be  filed  within 
ninety  days  after  the  work  is  done  or 
materials  furnished.  Suit  must  be  brought 
within  two  years.  Liens  hold  against  rail- 
roads. Taking  collateral  security  will 
destroy  the  lien. 

Kansas. — Claims  may  be  filed  by  sub- 
contractors within  sixty  days  ; by  others, 
within  four  months.  Suit  must  be  begun 
within  the  year.  Tradesmen  and  me- 
chanics may  hold  articles  ordered  to  be 
repaired  or  constructed,  if  their  charges 
are  not  paid,  and  after  three  months  may 
sell  the  same. 

Kentucky.— Claims  must  be  filed  with- 
in sixty  days.  Suit  must  begin  within  six 
months  after  filing  the  account. 


Louisiana. — Liens  are  known  as  u priv- 
ileges.” Privileges  are  given  to  archi- 
tects, contractors,  and  material  men  on 
the  buildings  and  lot  of  land  not  to  exceed 
one  acre.  The  privilege  must  be  recorded 
with  the  register  of  privileges  in  the  par- 
ish where  the  property  lies. 

Maine. — Statements  of  accounts  must 
be  filed  within  thirty  days  after  ceasing 
to  labor,  in  the  office  of  the  clerk  of  town 
or  city  where  the  building  is.  Attach- 
ments may  issue  against  buildings  ninety 
days  after  the  work  is  finished  or  mate- 
rials furnished;  against  vessels  four  days 
after  they  are  launched. 

Maryland. — Liens  lie  on  buildings, 
machines,  wharves,  and  bridges  erected  or 
repaired  to  the  extent  of  one-fourth  the 
value.  Notice  must  be  given  to  owner 
within  sixty  days  and  claim  recorded  with- 
in six  months.  Kent,  Charles,  Calvert, 
and  St.  Mary’s  counties  are  not  included 
in  list  of  those  in  which  lien  laws  apply. 

Massachusetts. — Claims  must  be  filed 
with  town  or  city  clerk  thirty  days  after 
the  service  is  rendered.  Suit  must  be 
commenced  within  ninety  days  after  the 
work  has  ceased.  In  case  of  materials 
furnished  written  notice  must  be  given  to 
the  owner  (in  case  he  is  not  the  pur- 
chaser), that  it  is  intended  to  claim  a lien. 

Michigan. — Liens  lie  for  constructing, 
repairing,  or  furnishing  materials  for 
buildings,  wharves,  machinery,  or  appur- 
tenances. A contractor  must  file  a copy  of 
his  contract  with  the  register  of  deeds,  no- 
tify the  owner  of  his  claim,  and  begin  suit 
within  six  months  after  work  has  ceased, 

Minnesota. — Liens  lie  on  buildings, 
appurtenances,  boats,  vessels,  and  land  on 
which  the  buildings  stand,  not  to  exceed 
forty  acres,  or,  if  in  a city,  one  acre. 
The  account  must  be  filed  within  a year 
and  action  brought  within  a year  after 


MECHANICS'  LIENS  IN  ALL  THE  STATES. 


251 


the  date  of  filing.  There  is  a lien  on  per- 
sonal property  for  work  done  thereon, 
and  it  may  be  sold  after  three  months,  if 
proper  charges  are  not  paid. 

Mississippi. — Liens  lie  on  buildings, 
bridges,  fixed  machinery  or  gearing,  boats 
and  vessels.  Claims  must  be  filed  in  office 
of  chancery  clerk  of  the  county  where  land 
lies.  Suit  must  be  brought  within  six 
months  after  money  claimed  is  due. 

Missouri. — Claims  must  be  filed  within 
six  months  by  original  contractors,  thirty 
days  by  journeymen  and  day  laborers, 
and  four  months  by  other  persons.  Ac- 
tions must  begin  within  ninety  days  after 
filing  claims.  Liens  lie  on  buildings,  land, 
fixtures,  engines,  and  boilers. 

Montana. — Original  contractors  must 
file  accounts  within  ninety  days  from  the 
timework  ceases;  sub-contractors  within 
thirty  days.  All  liens  filed  within  thirty 
days  of  the  time  the  first  lien  is  filed  are 
entitled  to  share  alike.  Suit  must  be 
begun  within  ninety  days  by  sub-contrac- 
tors ; within  a year  by  original  contractors. 

Nebraska. — Accounts  should  be  filed 
within  four  months  of  the  time  the  work  is 
done  or  materials  furnished,  with  the  clerk 
of  the  county  where  the  property  lies. 
Suit  must  be  brought  within  two  years. 
The  account  filed  must  be  sworn  to. 

Nevada. — Liens  lie  in  case  of  railroads, 
canals,  mines,  tunnels,  and  ditches,  as  well 
as  buildings.  The  amount  due  must  be  as 
much  as  $25.  Claims  must  be  recorded 
by  original  contractors  within  sixty  days, 
by  other  persons  within  thirty  days,  after 
work  has  ceased.  Suit  must  be  brought 
within  six  months  after  filing  claim. 

New  Hampshire.  — Liens  lie  for 
amounts  of  $15  or  more.  Suit  must  be 
brought  within  ninety  days.  Railroad 
contractors  and  lumberers  have  a like  lien 
for  sixty  days  only. 


New  Jersey. — Liens  lie  on  buildings, 
materials,  fixtures,  and  machinery.  Orig- 
inal contractors,  by  filing  a copy  of  con- 
tract before  any  work  has  been  done  or  ma- 
terial furnished,  may  confine  the  liability 
for  liens  to  themselves  alone.  Claims  must 
be  filed  and  suit  brought  within  a year. 

New  Mexico. — Liens  lie  on  land  as 
well  as  buildings.  Claims  must  be  filed 
within  sixty  days  after  the  work  is  done, 
and  must  be  sworn  to.  Suit  must  be 
brought  within  a year.  Tradesmen  and 
mechanics  have  a lien  upon  articles  given 
them  for  repair.  Landlords  and  innkeep- 
ers have  a lien  on  property  and  baggage 
of  tenants  and  guests. 

New  York. — Claims,  with  specifica- 
tions, and  a copy  of  the  contract,  if  any 
exist,  must  be  filed  from  two  to  three 
months  after  the  work  ceases.  Suit  must 
be  brought  within  a year.  The  law  differs 
in  some  respects  in  the  different  counties. 

North  Carolina. — Liens  lie  upon  any 
kinds  of  property.  Claims  under  $200 
may  be  filed  with  a justice  of  the  peace. 
Over  that  amount  they  must  be  filed  with 
the  clerk  of  the  superior  court  for  the 
county  where  the  work  was  done.  No- 
tice must  be  filed  within  thirty  days. 
Personal  property  held  for  charges  by 
mechanics  and  tradesmen  may  be  sold 
after  thirty  days  if  not  above  $50  in  value, 
after  ninety  days  if  worth  more  than  that. 

North  and  South  Dakota.— The 
lien  lies  upon  land  as  well  as  buildings. 
Machinery  is  included  in  materials  fur- 
nished. The  taking  of  collateral  security 
will  destroy  the  lien. 

Ohio. — Liens  lie  on  buildings,  bridges, 
or  vessels.  Claims,  with  copy  of  the  orig- 
inal contract,  if  in  writing,  must  be  filed 
within  four  months.  Suit  must  begin 
within  the  year. 

OREGON. — Liens  lie  for  any  amount 


252 


MECHANICS’  LIENS  IN  ALL  THE  STATES. 


over  $20.  Claims  must  be  filed  within 
three  months.  Suit  must  be  brought 
within  a year.  Personal  property  held 
for  charges  by  artisans  or  mechanics  may 
be  sold  after  three  months. 

Pennsylvania. — Claims  must  be  re- 
corded within  six  months  in  the  office  of 
the  prothonotary  of  the  court  of  common 
pleas.  The  lien  extends  to  wharves,  en- 
gines, fixtures,  machinery,  and  the  land 
on  which  the  structure  stands.  Suit  may 
be  begun  any  time  within  five  years. 

Rhode  Island. — Liens  extend  to  rail- 
roads, canals,  turnpikes,  and  other  im- 
provements. The  account  must  be  filed 
with  the  town  or  city  clerk,  and  suit 
brought  within  sixty  days  by  original 
contractors,  thirty  days  by  others. 

South  Carolina.  — Claims  must  be 
filed  within  ninety  days  and  suit  brought 
within  the  year.  If  the  owner  is  not  the 
contracting  party,  he  may  prevent  the 
lien  from  attaching  by  giving  written  no- 
tice that  he  will  not  be  responsible  for  the 
contractor’s  debts. 

Tennessee. — Notice  must  be  given  of 
intention  to  claim  a lien  when  the  work 
is  begun  or  materials  furnished  by  sub- 
contractors and  workmen.  Suit  must  be 
brought  within  a year.  In  case  of  vessels 
and  steamboats,  suit  must  be  brought  with- 
in three  months  after  the  money  is  due. 

Texas. — Claims  must  be  recorded  with- 
in thirty  days.  The  owner,  when  served 
with  notice  by  sub-contractors  or  work- 
men, may  retain  enough  to  pay  them  out 
of  the  sum  due  the  original  contractor. 

Utah. — Liens  extend  to  mining  prop- 
erty as  well  as  to  buildings  and  improve- 
ments. Claims  must  be  filed  in  the  re- 
corder’s office  within  three  months.  Suit 
must  be  brought  within  a year  of  the 
completion  of  the  work,  unless  the  amount 
is  not  due  within  that  time,  when  suit 


may  be  brought  at  any  time  within  three 
months  after  it  is  due. 

VERMONT. — In  case  of  work  and  mate- 
rials for  building,  suit  must  be  brought 
within  three  months.  When  the  lien  is 
on  a vessel  or  steamboat,  suit  must  be 
brought  within  eight  months  after  the 
completion  of  the  same.  Claims  must  be 
filed  with  the  town  or  city  clerk  of  the 
place  where  the  building  is. 

Virginia. — General  contractors  must 
file  claims  within  thirty  days  after  the 
completion  of  the  work;  sub-contractors 
and  workmen  must  give  notice  to  the 
owner  within  ten  days  of  the  amount  due. 

Washington.  — Liens  for  wages  ex- 
tend to  lumber  and  timber.  Such  claims 
must  be  recorded  with  the  county  audi- 
tor within  sixty  days  from  the  time  the 
work  ceased.  Suit  must  begin  within 
four  months.  Wages  of  servants,  me- 
chanics, laborers,  and  others  are  preferred 
claims  to  the  extent  of  $100  each,  in  cases 
of  insolvency.  Also  all  sums  earned  for 
sixty  days  previous  thereto. 

West  Virginia. — Claims  must  be  filed 
with  the  county  clerk  within  thirty  days. 
The  owner,  upon  notice  by  sub-contract- 
ors or  workmen  of  sums  due  them,  may 
reserve  their  pay  from  the  amount  due 
the  general  contractor.  Suit  must  be 
brought  within  six  months. 

WISCONSIN. — Liens  extend  to  land  on 
which  buildings  stand,  but  not  to  exceed 
forty  acres  or  a city  lot.  Sub-contractors 
and  workmen  must  give  notice  to  the 
owner  within  thirty  days  after  completing 
their  services.  Suit  must  be  brought 
within  a year.  Personal  property  held 
for  charges  may  be  sold  after  six  months. 

WYOMING. — Claims  must  be  filed  with- 
in sixty  days.  Suit  must  be  brought  with- 
in a year.  Artisans  and  mechanics  may 
hold  personal  property  for  charges  due. 


EXEMPTION  LAWS  IN  ALL  THE  STATES. 

COMPILED  FROM  THE  LATEST  SOURCES. 


In  most  of  the  States  there  are  laws  to  protect  the  homestead  of  a debtor  from 
forced  sale.  There  are  also  laws  exempting  articles  of  household  goods,  tools  of 
trade,  libraries  and  instruments  of  professional  men,  domestic  animals,  food,  and  fuel. 
When  a person  removes  from  one  State  to  another  he  should  acquaint  himself  with 
the  provisions  of  the  law  in  this  respect.  And  all  persons  selling  goods  on  credit  to 
the  citizens  of  another  State  ought  to  be  well  informed  on  this  subject.  In  some  of 
the  States  a certain  amount  of  land,  without  respect  to  value,  is  exempt;  in  others  a 
certain  amount  of  a specified  value.  So  we  have  compiled  an  abstract  of  the  law  in 
each  State,  for  the  benefit  of  debtor  and  creditor,  showing  just  what  amount  of 
property  is  exempt  from  attachment  and  from  forced  sale  on  judgment  obtained 
under  action  for  debt. 

Alabama. — A homestead  of  160  acres,  or  if  in  a city  or  town,  the  lot  with  dwelling, 
etc.,  not  exceeding  $2,000  in  value,  and  owned  or  occupied  by  any  resident.  If  the  ex- 
emption is  waived,  the  wife  must  join  in  same.  One  thousand  dollars’  worth  of  personal 
property,  which  he  may  select,  and  wages  due  the  debtor  to  $25  per  month.  Widows 
are  exempted  to  the  extent  of  wearing  apparel,  family  books  and  pictures,  and  pro- 
visions to  last  for  twelve  months. 

Arizona. — The  head  of  a family  may  be  exempted  to  the  extent  of  a homestead 
not  exceeding  $4,000,  and  to  $1,000  personal  property  selected  by  himself. 

Arkansas. — A married  person  or  the  head  of  a family  is  entitled  to  homestead  of 
not  more  than  160  acres,  with  improvements,  not  above  $2,500  in  value.  In  town  or 
city,  to  the  same  amount,  with  one  acre  of  land.  Personal  property  for  married  person 
or  head  of  a family  to  the  value  of  $500  and  wearing  apparel.  To  the  unmarried,  or 
one  not  the  head  of  a family,  to  the  value  of  $200.  No  conveyance  of  homestead  of 
a married  man,  except  in  case  of  taxes,  laborers’  and  mechanics’  liens  is  valid  unless 
wife  joins  in.  Debtor  has  the  right  to  select  homestead,  and  if  he  neglects  then  the 
wife  may  do  so. 

California. — When  the  husband,  or  wife,  or  other  head  of  a family,  properly  files 
a declaration  of  homestead  in  the  Recorder’s  office,  then  such  homestead  is  exempt  to 
the  value  of  $5,000,  with  certain  exceptions  including  debts  and  mortgages  before  the 
declaration  and  liens  for  labor  and  material.  A single  person  is  exempt  of  a homestead 
to  the  value  of  $1,000.  Tables,  chairs,  books,  and  desks,  to  $200;  necessary  household 
and  kitchen  furniture,  sewing-machine,  stove,  beds,  etc.,  provisions  for  family  for 
three  months,  three  cows,  four  hogs,  two  horses,  oxen,  or  mules,  and  seed  corn,  to 
$200;  the  tools  of  a mechanic  or  artisan,  the  instruments  of  a physician;  professional 
library  of  an  attorney,  minister,  editor,  or  school  teacher;  a miner’s  cabin  not  to 
exceed  $500;  also  all  tools,  pipes,  and  sluices  needed  in  his  business,  to  $500;  two 
horses,  or  mules  with  harness,  and  the  claim  worked  by  the  miner,  to  $1,000,  are 
exempt.  A drayman  may  retain  two  horses,  oxen,  or  mules  with  harness  to  the  value 


254 


EXEMPTION  LAWS  IN  ALL  THE  STATES. 


of  $500.  Also  the  nets,  boats,  and  fishing  tackle  used  to  gain  a lawful  livelihood,  to 
the  same  amount.  Shares  of  homestead  association,  to  $1,000.  When  the  shareholder 
has  no  homestead,  declared  earnings  for  thirty  days,  when  the  debt  was  not  con- 
tracted for  necessaries  of  life.  Insurance  policies  and  benefits  accruing  therefrom, 
when  the  premium  paid  did  not  exceed  $500  per  year.  In  all  the  above,  the  per- 
sons are  liable  for  the  debts  contracted  in  procuring  the  property  otherwise  exempt. 

COLORADO. — Homestead  of  house  and  lot  in  city  or  town,  or  a farm  of  any  number 
of  acres,  so  that  the  value  does  not  exceed  $2,000 ; but  the  homestead  must  be  recorded 
as  such  and  occupied  by  the  head  of  the  family.  Exempted  personal  property  includes 
all  wearing  apparel  of  debtor  and  his  family,  pictures,  school  books,  and  library, 
beds  and  bedding,  stoves,  cooking  untensils,  and  household  furniture  to  the  value  of 
$100;  provisions  for  six  months’  use,  tools,  implements,  or  stock  in  trade,  to  the  value 
of  $200;  one  cow  and  calf,  ten  sheep,  and  necessary  food  for  them  to  last  six  months; 
working  animals  to  the  value  of  $200.  The  library  and  implements  of  a professional 
man  up  to  $300.  Persons  not  having  a dependent  family  are  exempt  on  tools, 
working  animals,  and  stock  in  trade  to  the  value  of  $300.  The  earnings  of  any 
debtor,  or  the  wife  who  is  the  head  of  a family,  dependent  in  whole  or  in  part  upon 
such  earnings,  not  exceeding  $100,  earned  during  the  thirty  days  preceeding  any 
action  at  law.  All  moneys  received  as  pension,  when  the  pensioner  is  the  head  of 
a family.  In  the  above  cases,  if  the  debtor  dies,  or  absconds,  the  exemption  applies 
as  to  his  wife  and  children. 

Connecticut. — When  declaration  to  hold  a homestead  is  made,  it  is  exempt  to 
the  value  of  $1,000.  The  necessary  wearing  apparel,  household  furniture,  and  bedding, 
sufficient  to  support  life  for  any  one  person.  For  any  member  of  the  militia,  his  arms, 
military  uniforms,  or  musical  instruments  owned  by  him.  United  States  pension 
money  in  hands  of  pensioner,  implements  of  the  debtor’s  trade,  library  not  above  $500, 
one  cow  not  exceeding  $150  in  value,  sheep  up  to  ten,  not  exceeding  all  told  $150; 
two  swine  and  the  pork  from  them,  or  two  swine  and  two  hundred  pounds  of  pork; 
poultry  up  to  $25 ; a physician’s  horse  up  to  $200,  his  saddle,  bridle,  harness,  and 
buggy;  an  oysterman  or  fisherman’s  boat  and  sails,  tackle,  and  implements  up  to 
$200  in  value;  one  sewing-machine  in  use;  one  pew  in  church  in  use ; lot  in  bury- 
ing ground;  $50  due  the  debtor  for  his  personal  services  or  that  of  minor  children; 
all  sick  and  other  benefits  accruing  to  a member  shall  be  exempt  from  foreign  attach- 
ment. A minor  child’s  wages  when  living  apart  from  his  parents  cannot  be  taken, 
except  for  debts  contracted  for  the  necessary  support  of  such  minor. 

DELAWARE. — No  homestead  law.  Family  pictures,  bible,  and  library  are  exempt ; 
also  lot  in  cemetery;  pew  in  church,  all  wearing  apparel,  sewing-machine  in  private 
family;  tools  of  the  value  of  $75.  If  debtor  is  head  of  a family  he  may  claim  $ 200 
personal  property  additional. 

District  OF  Columbia. — No  homestead  law.  Personal  property  is  exempt,  ex- 
cept for  servants’  or  laborers’  hire.  This  includes  wearing  apparel,  household  furniture 
to  $300;  provision  and  fuel  for  three  months;  tools  and  implements  of  trade  to  $200, 
and  stock  to  the  same  amount;  library  or  implements  of  a professional  man  or  artist 
to  $300 ; a farmer’s  team  and  other  utensils  to  $100 ; family  pictures  and  library  to  the 


EXEMPTION  LAWS  IN  ALL  THE  STATES. 


255 


value  of  $400.  By  an  act  of  1878,  the  wages  of  any  actual  resident  of  the  Distirct 
having  a family  to  support  in  the  said  District,  not  above  $100  per  month. 

Florida. — Head  of  a family  resident  in  the  State  as  follows:  Homestead  of  160 

acres  and  improvements  in  the  country;  if  in  the  city  or  town  one-half  acre  and  $1,000 
worth  of  personal  property.  The  improvements  on  residence  and  business  house  of 
owner.  All  property  liable  for  taxes  and  assessments,  or  for  debts  contracted  for 
purchase,  or  improvements,  or  for  the  labor  expended  thereon.  The  wages  of  any 
laborer,  the  head  of  a family,  are  exempt. 

GEORGIA. — The  Constitution  of  1877  provides  that  there  “ shall  be  exempt  from 
levy  and  sale  by  virtue  of  any  process  whatever,  under  the  laws  of  this  State,  except  as 
hereinafter  excepted,  of  the  property  of  every  head  of  a family,  or  guardian,  or  trustee 
of  a family  of  minor  children  ; or  every  aged  or  infirm  person,  or  person  having  the  sup- 
port of  dependent  females  of  any  age,  who  is  not  the  head  of  a family,  realty  or  person- 
alty, or  both,  to  the  value  in  the  aggregate  of  $1,600.”  The  exceptions  are  for  taxes, 
purchase  money  of  homestead,  labor  or  material  on  same,  or  for  the  removal  of  incum- 
brances. The  debtor  may  waive  or  renounce  in  writing  his  right  thus  to  provide, 
except  wearing  apparel  and  $300  worth  of  household  furniture,  to  be  selected  by  him- 
self and  wife,  if  any;  he  shall  not,  after  such  exempted  property  has  been  set  apart, 
encumber  it  in  any  way,  but  he  and  his  wife,  if  any,  with  the  sanction  of  the  Judge 
of  the  Superior  Court,  may  sell  it,  that  the  proceeds  may  be  reinvested  for  the 
same  uses. 

Idaho. — If  duly  acknowledged  and  recorded,  the  homestead  to  the  value  of  $5,000; 
office  furniture  and  library  to  $100;  necessary  household  furniture  and  provisions  for 
the  family  for  three  months;  certain  farm  animals  and  their  food  for  three  months; 
tools  and  implements  of  husbandry  to  $200.  Libraries  of  professional  men  and  team 
used  by  laborer  are  exempt. 

ILLINOIS. — A homestead  to  every  householder  having  a family,  to  $1,000;  contin- 
uing to  the  surviving  head  of  the  family  as  long  as  occupied  as  such,  and  to  the  children 
until  the  youngest  is  twenty-one.  To  every  one  necessary  wearing  apparel,  bibles, 
school  books,  family  pictures  and  $100  of  other  property  selected  by  debtor.  If  the 
debtor  is  head  of  a family  and  resides  with  them,  $300  additional,  fifty  dollars  of 
wages  to  the  head  of  a family  except  the  debt  is  due  for  wages  of  servant  or  laborer. 
Wages  to  the  amount  of  fifty  dollars  earned  within  six  months  last  past,  are  preferred 
debts  in  case  of  debtor  owning  the  same. 

Indiana. — There  is  no  homestead  law.  When  the  debtor  is  a resident  house- 
holder, real  and  personal  property  to  $600,  or  when  the  same  is  in  transit,  is  exempt. 
Chattel  mortgage  precludes  exemption.  Pension  money  in  transit  to  pensioner,  but 
after  receipt  of  same  and  it  has  been  invested,  it  is  the  same  as  any  other  property. 

Iowa. — Homestead,  40  acres  in  country,  and  one-half  acre  in  city  or  town,  with 
buildings  thereon,  exempt.  Homestead  exempt  to  any  widow  of  a soldier  or  sailor 
who  died  of  wounds  or  disease  received  in  the  army,  or  from  effect  of  same.  Pension 
money  or  homestead  purchased  with  same.  Pension  money  in  possession,  loaned, 
or  invested.  Personal  property  exempt,  includes  tools,  library,  implements,  neces- 
sary team  of  mechanic,  farmer,  teacher,  or  professional  man;  wearing  apparel,  and 


256 


EXEMPTION  LAWS  IN  ALL  THE  STATES. 


household  and  kitchen  furniture  to  $200;  certain  farm  animals,  and  provisions  for 
family  for  six  months.  The  above  applies  to  resident  heads  of  family.  The  unmar 
ried  and  non-residents  are  exempt  on  wearing  apparel  and  trunks,  except  pensioners. 
Printers  are  exempt  on  press,  type,  and  furniture  to  the  value  of  $1,200.  One  sew- 
ing-machine to  seamstress.  Wages  earned  within  90  days  of  levy  are  exempt.  Ex- 
emptions are  not  waived  by  failure  to,  except  to  levy,  or  to  select  property. 

Kansas. — The  exemptions  are  homestead  of  160  acres  in  the  country  or  one  acre 
in  city  or  town,  with  all  buildings.  Resident  heads  of  families  have  exemption  on  fol- 
lowing: family  bible,  school  books  and  family  library;  family  pictures,  and  musical 
instruments  used  by  family ; wearing  apparel,  beds  and  bedding,  cooking  stove,  and  all 
utensils;  all  other  stoves  necessary  for  use;  one  sewing  machine,  spinning  wheel  and 
all  other  instruments  of  industry;  other  furniture  to  the  value  of  $500;  certain  ani- 
mals and  their  food  for  one  year ; one  wagon,  two  ploughs,  one  dray,  and  other  farming 
utensils  to  $300;  food  for  family  for  one  year;  tools,  implements,  and  instruments 
necessary  for  carrying  on  trade,  or  profession,  and  in  addition  $400  worth  of  stock 
for  same;  three  months’ wages  or  pension  accruing  before  levy,  when  the  same  is 
needed  for  support  of  family.  Husband  and  wife  jointly  may  create  a lien  on  the 
homestead;  material  for  improvement  not  exempt.  Non-residents  not  heads  of 
families  are  exempt  on  tools,  implements,  and  stock-in-trade,  to  $400. 

Kentucky. — Bona-fide  householder  with  family  may  hold  homestead  to  the  value 
of  $1,000  free  from  attachment;  specified  articles  of  domestic  furniture;  livestock, 
provision  and  provender,  agricultural  and  domestic  implements,  libraries  and  instru- 
ments of  professional  men  not  to  exceed  to  $500;  the  wages  of  a laboring  man,  $50 
house  rent  and  family  supplies;  $100  in  tools  to  mechanics;  and  for  all  others  from 
$100  to  $800,  according  to  size  of  family.  Widow  and  minor  children  receive  benefit 
of  exemption  after  the  death  of  debtor. 

LOUISIANA. — Real  estate  if  owned  and  occupied  by  the  head  of  a family,  and 
certain  furniture,  stock,  implements,  provisions,  etc.,  the  property  not  to  exceed 
$2,000.  If  wife  has  separate  property  above  $2,000,  no  exemption  ; widow  is  entitled 
to  $1,000  out  of  deceased  husband’s  estate  if  in  necessitous  circumstances,  by  prefer- 
ence over  first-mortgage  creditor. 

Maine.. — Homestead  when  properly  registered,  usual  wearing  apparel,  furniture 
to  $150,  bedding,  pictures,  etc.,  library  to  $150,  fuel  and  lumber,  provision  and  seed, 
sewing-machine,  certain  working  animals,  a team  not  above  $300  in  value,  a boat 
grain,  of  two  tons  burden,  domestic  fowl  to  $50.  Material  and  stock  necessary  for 
trade  or  business,  not  exceeding  $50  in  value. 

Maryland. — No  homestead  law.  Wearing  apparel,  books  and  tools  (not  kept 
for  sale),  and  other  personal  property  to  the  value  of  $100  are  exempt,  except  in  cases 
of  breach  of  promise  to  marry,  and  seduction,  for  bona  fide  residents  of  the  State  only. 
Equitable  interest  in  property  cannot  be  sold  under  execution,  but  may  be  levied 
upon,  and  this  lien  may  be  inforced  in  equity.  Choses  in  action  may  be  attached. 

Massachusetts. — Homesteads,  when  recorded  to  the  value  of  $800,  are  exempt. 
Necessary  wearing  apparel  for  family;  certain  specified  articles  of  domestic  furniture 
and  $300  worth  of  property  additional;  library,  $50;  tools  and  implements,  $100; 


EXEMPTION  LAWS  IN  ALL  THE  STATES. 


25? 


boats  and  fishing-tackle,  $100;  one  cow,  six  sheep,  one  swine,  and  two  tons  of  hay; 
sewing-machine,  pew  in  church,  etc. 

MICHIGAN. — Homestead  of  any  householder,  40  acres  in  the  country,  or  house 
and  lot  in  town,  city  or  village,  in  either  case  not  to  exceed  $1,500  in  value.  Wife,  if 
any,  must  consent  to  sale  or  mortgage ; cannot  be  sold  by  probate  license  to  pay  debts 
unless  appraised  above  $1,500,  and  that  amount  is  paid  for  it.  Personal  property  ex- 
empt includes  household  furniture  to  $250;  stock-in-trade,  a team  or  other  things  nec- 
essary to  carry  on  a particular  business,  to  $250;  partners  of  a firm  are  each  entitled 
to  same  exemption,  unless  the  debt  be  for  purchase;  library  and  school  books  not 
above  $150;  to  a householder,  ten  sheep,  two  cows,  five  swine,  provisions,  fuel,  stoves 
put  up  for  use  in  dwelling,  tombs  and  rights  of  burial,  library  and  school  books  for 
each  individual  in  family;  provisions  and  fuel  for  one  month;  household  goods,  fur- 
niture and  utensils  to  $500,  under  any  execution  issued  for  work  and  labor,  other 
than  professional  services. 

MINNESOTA. — Surviving  wife  or  husband  holds  homestead  free  from  debts  of  de- 
ceased for  life.  Homestead  of  80  acres  in  country,  half  an  acre  in  city,  town,  or  vil- 
lage not  incorporated,  and  of  less  than  5,000  inhabitants ; one  lot  in  larger  places,  with 
buildings  thereon.  Wearing  apparel,  books,  and  pictures  to  the  value  of  $500;  three 
cows,  ten  swine,  twenty  sheep  and  their  wool,  a yo*ke  of  oxen,  and  a horse,  or  in  lieu 
thereof  a span  of  horses  or  mule;  necessary  food  for  stock  for  one  year;  one  wagon, 
ploughs  and  farming  utensils  up  to  $300;  necessary  seed,  grain  for  actual  use  in  one 
season;  tools  and  implements  used  to  procure  livelihood,  and  stock  in  trade  to  $400; 
library  and  instruments  of  a professional  man  ; $20  wages  for  laboring  man  or  woman, 
for  work  within  90  days;  for  a printer:  presses,  type,  furniture,  and  implements  of 
the  craft,  up  to  $2,000,  and  stock  to  $400. 

MISSISSIPPI. — Homestead  of  160  acres  in  country,  house  and  lot  in  city  to  actual 
head  of  family,  in  no  case  to  exceed  $2,000  in  value,  is  exempt.  Tools,  farming  imple- 
ments, wearing  apparel,  libraries  of  professional  men,  instruments  of  physician,  or  sur- 
geon, or  dentist,  to  $250;  sewing-machine,  two  horses,  oxen  or  mules,  two  cows  and 
calves,  five  swine,  five  sheep,  with  certain  food  and  provisions;  fifty  bushels  of  cotton 
seed,  forty  gallons  of  molasses,  1,000  stalks  of  Louisiana  cane,  one  bridle  and  saddle, 
wagon  or  cart,  $100;  household  furniture,  $100,  and  wages  of  laborer,  $100.  A house- 
holder is  entitled  to  $250  worth  of  personal  property  exempt  from  attachment,  if  he 
reside  in  a city,  town,  or  village.  No  property  exempt  against  purchase  money,  but  the 
same  liable  to  seizure  at  the  suit  of  the  vendee,  while  the  first  vendor  holds  possession. 

MISSOURI. — The  following  are  exempt  to  heads  of  families:  personal  property, 
various  articles  and  stock  named,  for  use,  if  chosen  by  debtor,  to  the  value  of  $300; 
and  laborers’  wages  earned  in  last  30  days.  Homestead  of  160  acres  in  country,  or  30 
square  rods  in  cities  of  40,000  inhabitants,  not  above  $1,500;  in  cities  of  more  than 
40,000  inhabitants,  to  the  value  of  $3,000.  But  homesteads  are  liable  to  attachment 
on  actions  instituted  when  property  was  acquired. 

Montana. — Homestead  not  exceeding  160  acres  in  country,  or  one-fourth  of  an 
acre  in  city  or  town,  and  not  above  $2,500  in  any  case.  Usual  personal  schedule; 
farmers’  implements,  tools,  stock,  and  seed,  to  $800;  tools,  teams  and  libraries  of  pro 


258 


EXEMPTION  LAWS  IN  ALL  THE  STATES. 


fessional  men;  mechanic’s  tools  and  implements  necessary  to  carry  on  his  trade; 
dwelling  of  miner,  $500 ; his  tools  and  machinery,  $500 ; wages  of  laborer  for  30  days ; 
for  a teamster,  horse,  mule,  or  two  oxen  and  carts.  Only  married  persons  or  heads 
of  families  can  claim  exemption  of  any  kind.  No  personal  property  above  mentioned 
shall  be  exempt  for  the  wages  of  any  clerk,  mechanic,  laborer,  or  servant. 

Nebraska. — None  but  heads  of  families  are  exempt.  Homestead  to  the  value 
of  $2,000  consisting  of  the  house  and  appurtenances  where  claimant  resides  and  the 
land  on  which  the  same  is  situated;  160  acres  in  country,  or  two  contiguous  lots  in 
city  or  town,  are  exempt,  except  on  mortgage  sale  by  husband  and  wife  jointly,  or 
mechanics’  or  laborers’  liens.  When  debtor  has  no  land  he  may  claim  $500  worth  of 
personal  property,  clothing,  necessary  furniture,  and  food  for  family  for  six  months; 
certain  domestic  animals  and  tools,  also  wages  for  sixty  days  of  any  laboring  man  or 
clerk. 

Nevada. — Homestead,  $5,000,  is  exempt,  if  the  same  is  necessary  to  the  support 
of  his  family;  the  debtor’s  wages  for  thirty  days.  Exemptions  on  personal  property 
follow  the  law  of  California,  which  see. 

New  Hampshire.— The  following  are  exempt : Homestead  to  the  value  of  $500 ; 
necessary  apparel,  bedding,  and  household  furniture  to  $100;  Bibles  and  school  books 
for  use  in  family;  library  to  $200;  one  cow,  one  hog  and  one  pig,  and  pork  of  the 
same  when  slaughtered;  tools  of  occupation  of  debtor,  to  $100;  six  sheep  and  their 
fleeces,  one  cooking  stove  and  its  furniture,  provision  and  fuel  to  the  value  of  $50, 
and  one  sewing-machine;  beasts  of  the  plough  not  exceeding  one  yoke  of  oxen  or  a 
horse,  and  hay  up  to  four  tons. 

New  Jersey. — Lot  and  building  thereon  owned  by  debtor  who  is  head  of  a fam- 
ily, to  $1,000,  are  exempt.  But  the  deed  must  specify  that  it  is  intended  for  home- 
stead, or  he  must  file  notice  to  such  effect  in  the  County  Clerk’s  office.  Personal 
property  to  the  amount  of  $200,  besides  wearing  apparel,  to  be  appraised  by  three 
persons  appointed  by  the  sheriff.  The  widow,  or  administrator  of  a deceased  person 
may  claim  exemption  to  the  same  amount. 

New  MEXICO. — When  the  debtor  is  head  of  a family,  real  estate  to  the  value  of 
$1,000.  Bedstead  and  all  belonging  thereto;  one  stove  and  pipe  for  warming  house; 
one  cook-stove  and  pipe,  and  sixty  days’  fuel;  one  cow  or  household  furniture,  $40 
in  value;  two  swine  or  pork  thereof,  or  in  lieu  $15  in  household  furniture;  six  sheep, 
or  the  wool,  or  cloth  therefrom,  or  in  lieu  $20  worth  of  household  furniture  and  sixty 
days’  food  for  animals.  Books  and  family  pictures;  certain  other  kinds  of  furniture 
specified.  Homestead  is  not  exempt  for  purchase  money  or  mortgage  thereon.  Ben- 
evolent societies  and  property  for  extinguishing  fires,  exempt. 

New  York. — Homestead  to  the  value  of  $1,000  is  exempt,  but  the  deed  specify- 
ing the  homestead,  or  a notice  describing  the  property  must  be  properly  recorded. 
Necessary  furniture,  teams,  tools,  and  instruments  of  trade,  to  the  value  of  $250. 
Even  in  supplementary  proceedings  the  judgment  debtor  cannot  be  ordered  to  apply 
upon  the  judgment  his  personal  earnings  for  sixty  days  prior  to  order,  if  they  be 
necessary  for  support  of  family  dependent  in  whole  or  in  part  upon  his  labor. 

North  Carolina. — Every  homestead  and  dwelling  thereon,  not  exceeding 


EXEMPTION  LAWS  IN  ALL  THE  STATES. 


259 


$1,000  in  value,  to  be  selected  by  the  owner  thereof.  Personal  property  to  the  value 
of  $500.  This  law  does  not  apply  to  debts  contracted  before  August  20th,  1868, 
but  those  debts  are  governed  by  the  laws  in  force  at  time  contracted. 

North  and  South  Dakota. — Homestead  of  16  acres  if  in  country;  one  acre 
in  city  or  town.  Personal  property  to  the  value  of  $1,500,  besides  wearing  apparel; 
books  to  $100;  provisions  for  one  year  are  exempt.  Exemption  is  absolute,  except 
as  to  taxes,  mechanics’  or  laborers’  wages,  or  professional  services,  purchase  money  or 
property  obtained  under  false  pretences. 

Ohio. — Homestead  to  value  of  $1,000  to  head  of  family  subject  to  liens  for  labor 
and  improvement;  wearing  apparel,  beds  and  their  furnishng;  cook  stove  and  one 
other  stove  for  use;  one  cow,  two  swine,  six  sheep,  and  food  for  animals  for  sixty 
days;  religious  and  school  books;  $50  worth  of  provisions;  all  tools  and  instruments 
used  in  trade  or  occupation  of  debtor;  personal  earnings  for  three  months  if  needed 
for  support  of  family;  private  cabinets  of  natural  history  or  science.  In  addition  to 
the  above,  a drayman’s  horse,  harness  and  dray;  a farmer’s  horse,  or  yoke  of  oxen, 
with  gearing  for  same ; a physician’s  horse,  saddle,  and  bridle ; books,  instruments,  and 
medicine  to  the  value  of  $100.  These  are  exempt  to  heads  of  families.  Unmarried 
women  may  hold  free  from  exemption  $100  worth  clothing,  one  sewing-machine, 
one  bible,  hymn  book,  and  other  books  to  $25  ; one  knitting-machine;  $5,000  or  less 
appropriated  by  any  benevolent  society  and  set  aside  to  be  paid  to  the  family  of  a 
deceased  member.  The  religious  books,  private  works,  insignia  of  office,  and  other 
documents  of  books  belonging  to  a benevolent  society;  all  property  for  extinguish- 
ing fires.  All  claims  for  labor  less  than  $100  are  exempt. 

OREGON. — No  homestead  law.  Personal  property  exempt  includes  books,  pic- 
tures, and  musical  instruments  to  the  value  of  $75;  wearing  apparel  to  $100,  and  if  a 
householder,  $50  for  each  one  in  the  family;  tools,  implements,  apparatus,  team,  vehi- 
cle, harness,  or  library  necessary  to  trade  or  profession  ; pew  in  church.  All  property 
of  the  State.  Execution  can  be  had  on  any  property  for  the  purchase  money  there- 
of. Debtor  must  select  and  reserve  the  property  he  claims  for  exemption. 

Pennsylvania. — No  homestead  law.  Real  and  personal  property  to  the  value  of 
$300  in  addition  to  wearing  apparel,  bibles,  school  books,  and  a sewing-machine 
are  exempt ; but  this  privilege  can  be  waived  at  any  time. 

Rhode  Island. — No  homestead  law.  Necessary  wearing  apparel  of  debtor  and 
family;  working  tools,  not  over  $200;  household  furniture  and  family  stores  up  to 
$300  are  exempt  when  the  debtor  is  a householder. 

South  Carolina. — A homestead  to  the  value  of  $1,000;  the  right  cannot  be 
waived  or  alienated.  Personal  property  exempt  includes  household  furniture,  carts, 
wagons,  farming  implements,  and  domestic  animals,  to  $500  in  value,  and  in  addition 
thereto  all  necessary  wearing  apparel.  But  no  right  of  homestead  shall  exist  or  be 
claimed  in  any  property,  real  or  personal,  alienated  or  mortgaged  by  any  person 
or  persons  against  the  alienee  or  mortgagee,  or  his,  her,  or  their  heirs  or  assigns. 

TENNESSEE. — The  exemptions  are  homestead,  $1,000;  personal  property,  consist- 
ing of  household  goods,  tools,  stock,  supplies,  etc.,  amounting  in  all  to  about  $1,000. 

Texas. — By  the  Constitution  adopted  in  1876,  the  homestead  in  the  country  is 


260 


EXEMPTION  LAWS  IN  ALL  THE  STATES. 


two  hundred  acres,  and  in  the  city  or  town,  lot  or  lots  to  the  value  of  $5,000,  if  the  same 
be  used  as  a home  or  place  of  business  for  the  head  of  the  family.  The  homestead 
is  exempt  from  forced  sale,  except  for  taxes,  purchase  money,  improvements,  and  in 
the  latter  case  the  improvements  must  have  been  ordered  in  writing;  the  wife,  if 
any,  joining  with  her  husband,  as  in  the  sale  of  homestead.  When  husband  dies,  the 
widow  and  children  have  one  year’s  support,  not  to  exceed  $1,000.  All  personal 
property,  such  as  household  and  kitchen  furniture;  all  implements  of  husbandry;  all 
tools  and  apparatus  belonging  to  any  trade  or  profession ; all  books,  five  milch  cows 
and  two  calves,  two  yoke  of  oxen,  two  horses  and  one  wagon,  one  carriage  or 
buggy,  twenty  hogs,  twenty  sheep ; all  provision  and  forage  on  hand  for  home  con- 
sumption ; and  certain  other  articles  are  also  exempt. 

Utah. — Homesteads  not  exceeding  $1,000,  to  head  of  family,  and  the  further  sum 
of  $500  for  his  wife  and  $250  for  each  other  member  of  the  family;  also  necessary 
household  furniture,  tools  of  trade,  farming  implements,  certain  domestic  animals 
and  provisions  for  sixty  days;  one  sewing-machine,  and  the  instruments  and  libraries 
of  professional  men. 

Vermont. — Homestead,  $500;  necessary  wearing  apparel;  household  furniture 
and  tools;  certain  domestic  animals;  certain  amount  of  fuel,  and  farm  products;  arms 
used  by  a soldier  in  the  army;  sewing-machine;  instruments  and  libraries  of  pro- 
fessional men,  to  $200;  certain  farm  implements  and  growing  crops  are  exempt. 

Virginia. — Householder  the  head  of  a family  has  exemption  on  homestead  to 
the  value  of  $2,000,  either  real  or  personal  property.  Also  books  to  $100,  wearing 
apparel,  beds,  stoves,  and  household  utensils,  sewing-machine,  certain  domestic  ani- 
mals, and  mechanic’s  tools  not  exceeding  $100  in  value. 

Washington. — If  selected  before  sale,  the  homestead  to  the  value  of  $1,000; 
also  to  each  householder  goods  to  $500;  provisions  and  fuel  for  six  months;  certain 
domestic  animals,  and  six  months’  food  for  same.  To  a mechanic,  tools  and  instru- 
ments of  trade  and  material,  to  $500;  to  a farmer,  certain  amounts  of  cereal  grains, 
and  other  produce;  his  teams  and  farming  tools,  to  $500;  to  a physician,  his  horse 
and  buggy ; library  not  above  $500  in  value,  and  medicines  up  to  $200;  to  other  pro- 
fessional men,  libraries  to  $1,000;  office  furniture,  fuel,  etc.,  to  $200;  to  teamsters  and 
loggers,  cattle,  horses  and  wagons  to  $300,  and  provisions  for  six  weeks.  Also  all  fire- 
arms for  family  use,  boats  with  rigging,  etc.,  not  above  $250.  No  property  is  exempt 
from  the  purchase  money  thereof  nor  for  taxes  assessed  on  same. 

West  Virginia. — homestead,  when  deeded  as  such,  or  previous  declaration  to 
use  for  the  purpose  has  been  recorded  to  $1,000  is  exempt.  Also  to  a resident  and 
parent,  $200,  personal  property.  To  any  artisan,  mechanic,  or  laborer,  tools  to  the 
value  of  $50;  but  in  no  case  shall  the  exemption  for  personal  property  be  more  than 
$200  to  any  one  person. 

Wyoming.— Homestead  actually  occupied  as  such,  160  acres;  in  city  and  town 
property  to  $1,500  is  exempt.  Also  household  furniture,  provisions,  etc.,  to  $500; 
tools,  team,  implements,  stock  in  trade,  $300;  libraries  and  instruments  of  professional 
men,  $300;  personal  wearing  apparel  to  every  person  to  the  value  of  $150;  earnings 
of  a judgment  debtor  to  the  amount  of  $iqo,  if  needed  for  the  support  of  a family- 


MARRIAGE  IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  LAW. 


Marriage  is  a civil  contract  between  a man  over  14  and  a woman  over  12  joined 
on  the  one  side,  and  the  State  on  the  other.  To  make  it  valid,  it  must  have  the 
consent  both  of  the  State  and  the  persons.  It  has,  necessarily,  the  consent  of  the 
State,  for  that  is  given  in  advance  to  everybody  not  idiots  or  of  near  kin,  of  the  ages 
mentioned — 14  and  12.  The  consent  of  the  parties  is  taken  for  granted,  unless  proof 
to  the  contrary  is  shown.  It  never  needs  the  consent  of  the  parent . But  the  contract 
— -valid  while  it  lasts — if  challenged,  may  be  terminated  by  the  State  formally  with- 
drawing its  consent,  if  the  consent  of  either  of  the  parties  to  enter  into  such  a con- 
tract with  it,  having  been  temporarily  entrusted  to  the  parent,  cannot  be  given  or 
obtained  by  them.  It  is  their  own  consent  that  is  lacking,  not  the  parents’.  No  rule 
or  regulation  of  the  State  law  concerning  marriage  applies  to  a civil  contract,  which 
any  two  citizens  may  freely  enter  into  with  the  State  at  any  time  and  under  any 
circumstances.  All  rules  and  regulations  affect  the  personal  conduct  of  the  parties 
during  ceremonies  outside  of  the  contract.  No  possible  violation  of  any  State  law, 
rule,  or  regulation  concerning  marriage  can,  of  itself,  make  void  a contract  once 
entered  into  between  a State  and  two  citizens,  and  no  punishment  inflicted  for  such 
violation  of  the  law  can  affect  the  validity  of  the  marriage.  These  are  questions 
between  the  State  and  single  individuals.  The  State  cannot  punish  one  person  for  a 
crime  committed  by  another. 

Marriage  is  a double,  not  a single  contract:  1.  A private  contract  between  the 
two  persons;  2.  A public  contract  between  the  State  and  the  two  persons  joined. 
With  the  private  contract  between  the  two  persons  the  State  cannot  interfere. 
They  may  make  any  changes  or  modifications  they  like  at  any  time;  this  is  none  of 
its  business.  But  no  private  contract  they  may  enter  into,  and  no  modification  of  the 
private  contract  they  entered  into,  can  affect  their  joint  public  contract  with  the 
State;  and  no  public  contract  (which  is  the  marriage)  once  made  between  two  per- 
sons and  the  State  can  be  changed,  altered,  or  amended  by  them  without  the  consent 
of  the  State  through  its  courts;  nor  can  it  be  changed,  altered,  or  amended  by  the 
State  without  the  consent  of  at  least  one  of  the  parties  to  the  marriage.  No  mar- 
riage is  illegal  until  so  declared  by  a court ; and  no  person  can  be  legally  freed  from 
a marriage  contract  except  by  a court  or  by  death.  Ceremonies  and  sacraments 
are  parts  of  the  private  contract  between  the  persons,  and  all  rules  and  regulations 
concerning  licenses,  banns,  age,  and  the  like,  are  a part  of  them ; but  they  form  no 
part  of  the  public  contract  between  the  parties  and  the  State,  which  is  the  only 
marriage  the  law  recognizes,  although  the  public  contract  must  be  made  a part  of 
the  ceremony.  No  sacrament  or  ceremony  alone  can  marry  a man  and  woman.  It 
is  their  contract  with  the  State  which  alone  marries  them.  In  other  words,  the 
mutual  consent  of  the  parties,  if  legally  marriageable,  to  be  married,  constitutes 
marriage  in  the  eyes  of  the  law,  though  the  statutory  requirements  as  to  licenses, 


262 


MARRIAGE  IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  LAW. 


banns,  ceremonies,  and  age  are  not  complied  with  by  them.  The  neglect  to  comply 
may  be  punishable,  but  it  does  not  invalidate  the  marriage. 

MARRIAGE  LAWS  IN  ALL  THE  STATES  AND  TERRITORIES. 

The  prohibited  degree  of  consanguinity  embraces,  ancestors,  descendants, 
brothers,  sisters,  uncles,  aunts,  nieces,  nephews,  and  step-relatives  in  Alabama,  Con- 
necticut, Delaware,  Iowa,  Kentucky,  Maine,  Maryland,  Massachusetts,  Michigan, 
Mississippi,  New  Hampshire,  Pennsylvania,  Rhode  Island,  South  Carolina,  Vermont, 
Virginia,  Washington. 

The  marriage  of  ancestors,  descendants,  brothers,  sisters,  uncles,  aunts,  nephews, 
nieces,  first  cousins,  is  prohibited  in  Arizona,  Arkansas,  Illinois,  Indiana,  Kansas, 
Montana,  Nevada,  Ohio,  Oregon,  Wyoming. 

The  marriage  of  ancestors,  descendants,  brothers,  sisters,  uncles,  aunts,  nieces, 
and  nephews,  is  prohibited  in  California,  Colorado,  Idaho,  Louisiana,  Minnesota,  Mis- 
souri, Nebraska,  New  Jersey,  New  Mexico,  North  Carolina,  Utah,  and  Wisconsin. 

The  law  of  North  and  South  Dakota  has  the  same  prohibitions  as  Alabama,  but 
also  includes  all  cousins. 

The  law  of  Florida  specifies  as  prohibited  marriages  those  within  the  “ Levitical 
degrees,”  and  that  of  Georgia,  “ the  Levitical  degrees  ” and  step-relatives. 

The  law  of  New  Hampshire  is  the  same  as  Alabama,  and  also  first  cousins,  as  also 
that  of  Washington.  A license  previous  to  marriage  is  required  in  all  the  States 
except  New  York,  New  Jersey,  New  Mexico,  South  Carolina,  and  Wisconsin.  The 
following  require  both  parties  to  be  twenty-one  years  of  age  in  order  to  marry  with- 
out consent  of  parents,  viz.,  Connecticut,  Florida,  Kentucky,  Louisiana,  Pennsyl- 
vania, Virginia,  West  Virginia.  In  the  following  States  the  male  must  be  twenty- 
one  and  the  female  eighteen  or  over,  viz.,  Alabama,  Arkansas,  California,  Colorado, 
Delaware,  Illinois,  Indiana,  Iowa,  Maine,  Massachusetts,  Minnesota,  Mississippi,  Mon- 
tana, Nebraska,  Nevada,  New  Jersey,  New  Mexico,  Ohio,  Oregon,  Rhode  Island, 
Texas,  Utah,  Vermont,  Washington,  Wisconsin,  and  Wyoming.  In  North  and  South 
Dakota  and  in  North  Carolina,  both  parties  must  be  at  least  eighteen  years  of  age, 
while  in  Arizona  the  male  must  be  eighteen  and  the  female  sixteen  years  old. 

The  marriage  of  whites  and  negroes  is  prohibited  in  Alabama,  Arizona,  Arkansas, 
California,  Colorado,  Delaware,  Florida,  Georgia,  Idaho,  Indiana,  Kentucky,  Missis- 
sippi, Missouri,  Nebraska,  Nevada,  North  Carolina,  Ohio,  Oregon,  South  Carolina, 
Tennessee,  Texas,  Utah,  Virginia. 

The  intermarriage  of  the  white  and  Mongolian  races  is  prohibited  in  Arizona, 
Nevada,  Oregon ; of  white  and  Indian,  in  Nevada,  North  Carolina,  Oregon,  South 
Carolina;  of  negro  and  Indian,  in  North  Carolina,  and  of  mixed  blood,  in  Utah. 

Bigamous  marriages  are  declared  void  by  the  law  in  Arizona,  Arkansas,  Califor- 
nia, Colorado,  North  and  South  Dakota,  Delaware,  Florida,  Georgia,  Idaho,  Indiana, 
Iowa,  Kentucky,  Louisiana,  Maine,  Maryland,  Massachusetts,  Michigan,  Mississippi, 
Missouri,  Montana,  Nebraska,  Nevada,  New  Hampshire,  New  Jersey,  New  York, 
North  Carolina,  Ohio,  Oregon,  Pennsylvania,  Rhode  Island,  South  Carolina,  Ten- 


MARRIAGE  IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  LAW. 


263 


nessee,  Utah,  Wisconsin,  and  Wyoming.  When  one  of  the  parties  is  insane  at  mar- 
riage it  is  void  in  Georgia,  Illinois,  Indiana,  Maine,  Massachusetts,  North  Carolina, 
Rhode  Island,  South  Carolina,  Virginia,  Wisconsin,  and  Wyoming. 

DIVORCE  LAWS. 

Previous  Residence  Required. — Dakota,  ninety  days;  Arizona,  California, 
Indiana,  Idaho,  Nebraska,  Nevada,  New  Mexico,  Texas,  and  Wyoming,  six  months; 
Alabama,  Arkansas,  Colorado,  Illinois,  Iowa,  Kansas,  Kentucky,  Maine,  Mississippi, 
Minnesota,  Missouri,  Montana,  New  Hampshire,  Ohio,  Oregon,  Pennsylvania,  Rhode 
Island,  Utah,  Vermont  (both  parties  as  husband  and  wife),  West  Virginia,  Washing- 
ton, and  Wisconsin,  one  year;  Florida,  Maryland,  Michigan,  North  Carolina,  and 
Tennessee,  two  years;  Connecticut  and  Massachusetts,  three  years  (if,  when  married, 
both  parties  were  residents ; otherwise,  five  years). 

CAUSES  for  Divorce. — The  violation  of  the  marriage  vow  is  cause  for  absolute 
divorce  in  all  the  States  and  Territories,  excepting  South  Carolina,  which  has  no 
divorce  laws. 

Physical  inability  is  a cause  in  all  the  States  except  California,  Connecticut, 
Dakota,  Idaho,  Iowa,  Louisiana,  New  Mexico,  New  York,  South  Carolina,  Texas, 
and  Vermont.  In  most  of  these  States  it  renders  marriage  voidable. 

Wilful  desertion,  six  months,  in  Arizona. 

Wilful  desertion,  one  year,  in  Arkansas,  California,  Colorado,  Dakota,  Florida, 
Idaho,  Kansas,  Kentucky,  Missouri,  Montana,  Nevada,  Oregon,  Utah,  Wisconsin, 
Washington,  and  Wyoming. 

Wilful  desertion,  two  years,  in  Alabama,  District  of  Columbia,  Illinois,  Indiana, 
Iowa,  Michigan,  Mississippi,  Nebraska,  Pennsylvania,  and  Tennessee. 

Wilful  desertion,  three  years,  in  Connecticut,  Delaware,  Georgia,  Maine,  Mary- 
land, Massachusetts,  Minnesota,  New  Hampshire,  New  Jersey,  Ohio,  Texas,  Vermont, 
and  West  Virginia. 

Wilful  desertion,  five  years,  in  Virginia  and  Rhode  Island,  though  the  court  may 
in  the  latter  State  decree  a divorce  for  a shorter  period. 

Habitual  drunkenness,  in  all  the  States  and  Territories  except  Maryland,  New 
Jersey,  New  York,  North  Carolina,  Pennsylvania,  South  Carolina,  Texas,  Vermont, 
Virginia,  and  West  Virginia. 

“ Imprisonment  for  felony”  or  “ conviction  of  felony”  in  all  the  States  and  Ter- 
ritories (with  limitations),  except  Florida,  Maine,  Maryland,  New  Jersey,  New  Mexico, 
New  York,  and  South  Carolina. 

“Cruel  and  abusive  treatment,”  “intolerable  cruelty,”  “extreme  cruelty,”  “re- 
peated cruelty,”  or  “inhuman  treatment,”  in  all  the  States  and  Territories , except 
New  Jersey,  New  York,  North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  Virginia,  and  West  Virginia. 

Failure  by  the  husband  to  provide:  six  months  in  Arizona;  one  year  in  Cali- 
fornia, Colorado,  Dakota,  Nevada,  and  Wyoming;  two  years  in  Indiana  and  Idaho; 
no  time  specified  in  Idaho,  Massachusetts,  Michigan,  Maine,  Nebraska,  New  Mexico, 
Rhode  Island,  Vermont,  and  Wisconsin;  wilful  neglect  for  three  years,  in  Delaware. 


264 


MARRIAGE  IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  LAW 


Fraud  and  fraudulent  contract,  in  Arizona,  Connecticut,  Georgia,  Idaho,  Kan- 
sas, Kentucky,  Ohio,  Pennsylvania,  and  Washington. 

Absence  without  being  heard  from:  three  years  in  New  Hampshire:  seven 
years  in  Connecticut  and  Vermont,  separation,  five  years,  in  Kentucky;  voluntary 
separation,  five  years,  in  Wisconsin  and  Kentucky.  When  reasonably  presumed 
dead  by  the  court,  in  Rhode  Island. 

“Ungovernable  temper,”  in  Kentucky;  “habitual  indulgence  in  violent  and  un- 
governable temper,”  in  Florida;  “cruel  treatment,  outrages  or  excesses  as  to  render 
their  living  together  insupportable,”  in  Arkansas,  Kentucky,  Louisiana,  Missouri, 
Tennessee,  and  Texas;  “ indignities  as  render  life  burdensome,”  in  Missouri,  Oregon, 
Pennsylvania,  Tennessee,  Washington,  and  Wyoming.  Attempt  to  murder  the 
other  party,  in  Illinois  and  Tennessee. 

Other  causes  in  different  States  are  as  follows:  “ Husband  notoriously  immoral 
before  marriage,  unknown  to  wife,”  in  West  Virginia;  “fugitive  from  justice,”  in 
Virginia;  “gross  misbehavior  or  wickedness,”  in  Rhode  Island;  “any  gross  neglect 
of  duty,”  in  Kansas  and  Ohio;  “attempt  on  life,”  in  Illinois;  “refusal  of  wife  to 
remove  into  the  State,”  in  Tennessee;  “mental  incapacity  at  time  of  marrriage,”  in 
Georgia;  “ three  years  with  any  religious  society  that  believes  the  marriage  relation 
unlawful,”  in  Massachusetts;  “joining  any  religious  sect  that  believes  marriage  un- 
lawful, and  refusing  to  cohabit  six  months,”  in  New  Hampshire;  “parties  cannot 
live  in  peace  and  union,”  in  Utah;  “settled  aversion,  which  tends  to  permanently 
destroy  all  peace  and  happiness,”  in  Kentucky;  “ insanity  for  five  years,”  in  Wiscon- 
sin, and  for  ten  in  Washington ; vagrancy  of  husband,  in  Missouri  and  Wyoming. 

In  Georgia  an  absolute  divorce  is  granted  only  after  the  concurrent  verdict  of 
two  juries,  at  different  terms  of  the  court.  In  New  York  absolute  divorce  is  granted 
for  but  one  cause,  adultery.  In  South  Carolina  there  are  no  divorce  laws. 

The  granting  of  divorce  for  any  cause  is  left  to  the  discretion  of  the  court  in 
Washington.  The  discretion  of  court  is  practically  allowed  by  law  in  Wisconsin. 

All  of  the  causes  above  enumerated  are  for  absolute  or  full  divorce,  and  collu- 
sion and  connivance  are  especially  barred,  and  also  condonation  of  violation  of  the 
marriage  vow. 

Remarriage. — There  are  no  restrictions  upon  remarriage  by  divorced  persons 
in  Arizona,  Connecticut,  Kentucky,  Illinois,  and  Minnesota.  Either  party  may  re- 
marry, but  defendant  must  wait  two  years  and  obtain  permission  from  the  court  in 
Massachusetts.  The  decree  of  the  court  may  restrain  the  guilty  party  from  remarry- 
ing in  Virginia.  Parties  cannot  remarry,  except  by  permission  of  the  court,  in  Maine. 
In  the  State  of  New  York  the  plaintiff  may  remarry,  but  the  defendant  cannot  do  so 
during  the  plaintiff’s  lifetime,  unless  the  decree  be  modified  or  proof  that  five  years 
have  elapsed  and  that  complainant  has  married  again  and  defendant’s  conduct  has 
been  uniformly  good.  Any  violation  of  this  is  punished  as  bigamy,  even  though  the 
other  party  has  been  married.  In  Delaware,  Pennsylvania,  and  Tennessee,  no  wife 
or  husband  divorced  for  violation  of  the  marriage  vow  can  marry  the  particcps  crim - 
inis  during  the  life  of  the  former  hubsand  or  wife,  nor  in  Louisiana  at  any  time; 
such  marriage  in  Louisiana  renders  the  person  divorced  guilty  of  bigamy. 


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WITH  ILLUSTRATIONS  AND  INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  MORSE  ALPHABET 

E fact  that  a complete  knowledge  of  this  important  and  useful  branch  can 
be  acquired  in  a school  of  telegraphy  equally  as  well  as  in  an  office,  has 
been  fully  demonstrated,  the  Western  Union  Company  having  maintained 
such  a school  for  several  years  past  in  New  York. 

The  instruction  and  practice  given  in  such  schools  will  enable  a per- 
son to  learn  practically  the  art  of  writing  the  Morse  system,  reading  by  sound,  the  adjust- 
ment and  use  of  instruments,  care  of  batteries,  details  of  office  management,  &c.,  by  the 
same  methods  as  are  now  in  use  on  all  the  principal  telegraphic  lines.  The  demand  for 
good  sound  operators  is  constantly  increasing,  and  those  who  are  well  qualified  can  usu- 
ally command  remunerative  positions.  One  of  the  most  important  of  an  operator’s  duties 
consists  in  what  is  termed  “ adjusting”  the  instrument.  This  sometimes  requires  much 
skill  and  judgment  during  unfavorable  weather,  and,  of  course,  can  only  be  acquired  by 
operating  on  a regular  established  line. 

The  time  required  depends  greatly  upon  the  natural  ability  of  the  pupil.  Any  lady 
or  gentleman  can  acquire,  in  a few  months  and  at  a trifling  expense,  a knowledge  which 
may  prove  very  valuable. 

MORSE  ALPHABET. 

ABCDEFGHIJKL 
MNOPQ  RSTUV  WX 
Y Z & 

NUMERALS. 

234  567 

i O 

PUNCTUATION  MARKS. 

Period  Comma  Semicolon  Quotation  Parenthesis  Interrogation  Italics 
Paragraph  Exclamation. 

Pleasant  and  Profitable  Employment  for  Young  Ladies. — There  is  at  pres- 
ent, perhaps,  no  branch  of  business  where  a lady  can  so  readily  qualify  herself  for  a per- 
manent paying  situation  as  by  becoming  a practical  telegraph  operator.  A great  many 


266 


THE  ART  OF  TELEGRAPHY. 


offices  on  all  the  leading  lines  in  this  country  are  already  filled  by  lady  operators  ; and  it 
has  been  practically  demonstrated  that  in  this  department  they  can  discharge  the  duties 
of  the  position  with  perfect  acceptability. 


No.  1 Sounder. 


Single  Plug  Cut-Out: 


Progress  of  the  Art. — The  word  telegraph  is  composed  of  two  Greek  words — 
tele,  signifying  at  a distance,  and  grapho , to  write,  that  is,  to  signify  or  to  write  at  a 
distance. 

The  first  attempt  which  was  made  to  render  electricity  available  for  the  transmis- 
sion of  signals  was  that  by  Le  Sage,  a Frenchman,  in  1774 ; but  it  is  to  American  in- 
genuity that  we  owe  the  practical  application  of  the  magnetic  telegraph. 

In  1844  Congress  built  the  first  experimental  line,  from  Baltimore  to  Washington,  a 
distance  of  forty  miles,  and  in  1880  there  were  telegraph  lines  in  the  United  States  open 
for  public  business  120,000  miles,  besides  Railway,  Government,  private  and  telephone 
lines,  length  not  ascertainable. 

To  Samuel  F.  B.  Morse  and  Prof.  Henry  belong  the  credit  of  successfully  introduc- 
ing an  art  which  practically  annihi- 
lates both  space  and  time,  and  has 
done  more  for  civilization  and  advance- 
ment than  any  discovery  of  the  age. 

The  introduction  and  use  of  the 
Postal  Telegraph  system  cannot  long 
ik  be  delayed,  and  with  that  in  operation 
a channel  of  employment  will  be 
opened  second  to  none  in  this  coun 
try. 

Hill’s  Patent  Galvanic  Battery 


Hill’s  patent  three-cell  battery. — This  is  represented  in  the  preceding 
cut,  showing  the  three  cells  in  their  connection  with  each  other.  The  outer  and 
larger  jar  is  of  glass  or  earthenware  and  partly  filled  with  diluted  acid,  while  the 
smaller  or  inner  one  is  also  filled  with  diluted  acid  and  immersed  into  the  other.  Zinc 
is  used  in  the  outer  jar,  and  copper,  platinum,  or  carbon  in  the  inner.  They  are  ar- 
ranged as  seen  in  the  cut ; that  is,  the  copper  bar  runs  down  the  side  of  the  large  jar 
and  is  connected  with  a thumb-screw  to  the  copper  hook  by  which  the  inner  jar  is  sus- 
pended. A battery  is  thus  produced  of  sufficient  strength  to  insulate  a wire  of  consid 
erable  length*  This  is  the  battery  used  in  the  United  States  telegraph  offices. 


THE  ART  OF  TELEGRAPHY. 


267 


The  WIRES. — These  are  carried  by  means  of  poles  from  one  city  and  town  to 
another,  and  connected  with  the  batteries,  sounders,  and  keys  in  each  office.  They 
are  suspended  to  the  poles  by  some  non-conductor — glass,  or  other  substance — to  pre- 
vent the  current  from  being  transmitted  to  the  earth.  At  each  station  there  is  a 
ground  wire  to  carry  off  the  electric  current  to  the  earth  and  complete  the  circuit.  By 
the  recent  duplex  and  quadruple  invention  several  messages  can  be  transmitted  on  the 
same  wire  at  the  same  time.  An  apparatus  having  two  needles  is  employed  at  all 
principal  stations,  but  this  requires  a double  wire. 

The  INSTRUMENTS  USED. — The  sounder  is  used  by  an  operator  who  reads  by  ear, 
and  does  not  require  a register.  It  consists  of  an  electro-magnet,  which,  when  a cuu 
rent  passes  through  its  coils,  draws  down  an  armature  for  a short  or  a long  time,  indicat- 
ing by  a combination  of  dots  and  dashes  the  different  letters  of  the  alphabet,  as  seen 
on  page  266. 

The  REGISTER. — This  instrument  is  designed  to  record  upon  the  strip  of  paper 
that  passes  over  the  large  wheel,  and  is  touched  by  the  metallic  pointer,  the  several 
dots  and  dashes  made  by  the  electric  current.  It  runs  by  clock-work,  and  is  set  in 
motion  by  the  operator  when  a message  is  being  sent.  Its  arrangement  of  wheels  ex- 
plain themselves  and  is  connected  with  the  sounder,  Fig . 1,  as  seen  in  the  above  cut. 

The  relay. — In  working  over  long  lines,  or  where  there  are  a number  of  instru- 
ments on  one  line,  the  currents  are  often  not  strong  enough  to  work  the  registers  or 
sounders  directly.  In  such  a case  there  is  introduced  a relay , or  repeater . This  instru- 
ment consists  of  an  electro-magnet,  around  which  the  line  current  flows,  and  whose 
delicately-poised  armature,  when  attracted,  makes  contact  for  a local  circuit,  in  which 
a local  battery  and  the  Morse  receiving  instrument  are  included.  The  principle  of  the 
relay  is  this,  that  a current  too  weak  to  do  the  work  itself  may  set  a strong  current  to 
do  its  work  for  it. 

Duplex  telegraphy. — There  are  two  distinct  methods  of  arranging  telegraphic 
apparatus  so  as  to  transmit  two  messages  from  the  same  wire,  one  from  either  end  at 
the  same  time.  The  one  known  as  the  Wheatstone-bridge  method  is  capable  of  more 
general  application  than  the  other.  The  first  requirement  is  that  the  instrument  at 
each  end  shall  move  only  in  response  to  signals  from  the  other,  so  that  one  operator 
can  signal  to  the  other  without  his  own  instrument  being  affected.  To  accomplish 
this  the  circuit  must  be  divided  into  two  at  each  end. 

The  DIPLEX  method  of  working  consists  in  sending  two  messages  at  once  in  the 
same  direction  at  the  same  time.  To  do  this  it  is  necessary  to  employ  instruments 
which  work  only  with  currents  in  one  given  direction.  The  method  involves  the  use 
of  relays,  in  which  the  armatures  are  permanently  magnetized  (or  polarized),  and 
which  therefore  respond  only  to  currents  in  one  direction. 

The  quadruplex  method  of  working  combines  the  duplex  and  the  diplex  meth- 
ods. On  one  and  the  same  line  are  two  sets  of  instruments,  one  of  which  works  only 
when  the  direction  of  the  current  is  changed,  and  the  other  only  when  the  strength  of 
the  current  is  changed,  and  independent  of  the  direction. 

The  patent  of  the  telegraphic  system. — The  world  has  made  rapid  strides 
in  the  matter  of  rapid  intercommunication  since  the  first  telegraph  was  put  into  suc- 
cessful operation  in  this  country  in  1844.  The  nations  of  the  world,  widely  separated 
by  oceans,  mountains,  and  inhospitable  plains,  have  been  brought  so  closely  together 
that  time  has  been  practically  annihilated,  and  we  read  at  the  table  each  morning  of 
transactions  that  occurred  in  the  antipodes  but  a few  hours  before.  Great  improve- 
ments have  been  made  in  the  methods  of  telegraphy  within  a few  years,  and  the  end  is 
not  yet.  No  one  can  tell  what  electricity  itself  is,  and  the  longer  the  subject  is  studied 
the  more  perplexing  the  problem  becomes,  baffling  the  wisest  and  most  patient  inves- 
tigation. 


GREAT  LIBRARIES  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES, 

OF  50,000  VOLUMES  AND  OVER. 


3- 

4- 

5- 
6. 

7- 

8. 

9- 

•to. 

11. 

12. 

13. 

14. 

*5- 

<6. 

17. 

18. 

t9- 

20. 

*1. 

22. 

23- 

24. 

25- 

26. 

27. 

28. 

29. 
3°- 

31- 

32- 

33- 

34- 

35- 

36- 

37- 
38. 

39- 

40. 

41. 

42. 

43- 

44. 

45- 

46. 

47- 

48. 

49- 

50- 


Library  of  Congress Washington,  D.  C. . 

Public  Library Boston,  Mass 

Harvard  College Cambridge,  Mass. . 

Astor  Library New  York  City. . . . 

Mercantile  Library  Association New  York  City 

Mercantile  Library  Company Philadelphia,  Pa . . . 

Athenaeum Boston,  Mass 

Library  Company  of  Philadelphia Philadelphia,  Pa. . . 

Public  Library Cincinnati,  O 

State  Library Albany,  N.  Y 

Yale  College New  Haven,  Conn. 

House  of  Representatives  Library Washington,  D.  C.. 

Public  Library Chicago,  111 

State  Historical  Society Madison,  Wis 

Sutro  Library San  Francisco,  Cal. 

Brooklyn  Library Brooklyn,  N.  Y. . . . 

Peabody  Institute Baltimore,  Md 

American  Antiquarian  Society Worcester,  Mass... 

New  York  Society  Library New  York  City. . . . 

Surgeon  General’s  Library Washington,  D.  C.  . 

State  Library Annapolis,  Md 

New  York  Historical  Society New  York  City 

Apprentices’  Library New  York  City. 

Columbia  College New  York  City 

Woodstock  College Woodstock,  Md. . . . 

Mercantile  Library St.  Louis,  Mo 

Free  Public  Library San  Francisco,  Cal. 

Dartmouth  College Hanover,  N.  H.  . . . 

College  of  New  Jersey Princeton,  N.  J. . . . 

Free  Public  Library Worcester,  Mass. . . 

Brown  University Providence,  R.  I. . . 

State  Library Sacramento,  Cal 

Lehigh  University S.  Bethlehem,  Pa. . . 

State  Library Boston,  Mass 

Public  Library St.  Louis,  Mo 

State  Library Harrisburg,  Pa 

Public  Library Detroit,  Mich 

Mercantile  Library San  Francisco,  Cal. 

City  Library  Association Springfield,  Mass . . 

Cornell  University Ithaca,  N.  Y 

Ohio  State  University Columbus,  O 

Buffalo  Library . Buffalo,  N.  Y 

Patent  Office  Library Washington,  D.  C. . 

Free  Public  Library New  Bedford,  Mass 

Union  Theological  Library New  York  City. . . . 

Young  Men’s  Mercantile  Library Cincinnati,  O 

American  Phil.  Society Philadelphia,  Pa. . . 

Tulane  University New  Orleans,  La... 

University  of  Virginia Charlottesville,  Va. 

University  of  Pennsylvania Philadelphia,  Pa. . . 


565,134 

434,837 

232,800 

223,284 

210,431 

152.000 

15°, 261 

1 150.000 
i42,i53 
128,871 

125.000 

125.000 
ii9,57° 
116,750 

1 10.000 

90.000 

88.000 

80.000 

80.000 

76,733 

75.000 

715.000 

69,537 

69,378 

67.000 

65,657 

65.000 
65,000 

65.000 
63,941 
62,800 
61,612 

61.000 

60.000 
60,000 

60.000 
59,653 

55. 000 

55. 000 
54,84° 
53,5°° 
53,°°° 
5°,°°° 

50.000 

5°,°°° 

5°,°°° 

5°,o°° 

5°,°°° 

50,000 

50,000 


PITMAN’S 

Phonetic  Shorthand, 

OR 

LESSONS  IN  PHONOGRAPHY. 


When  Phonography  was  first  published,  in  1887,  the  practice  of  Shorthand  was  almost  confined  to  the 
reporting  of  speeches  and  sermons  by  professional  shorthand  writers.  The  art  is  now  in  daily  use,  like  long- 
hand,  by  thousands  of  persons  in  all  parts  of  the  world  where  the  English  language  is  spoken.  This  extended 
practice  of  shorthand  has  been  effected  by  the  ever-increasing  activity  of  the  age,  and  by  the  simplicity  and 
efficiency  of  the  system  which  has  thus  commended  itself  to  public  favor.  As  the  causes  which  have  produced 
this  result  continue  in  full  force,  the  effects  must  increase  until  shorthand  shall  become  the  general  medium  of 
communication  by  writing. 

The  great  and  desirable  object  which  the  Author  believes  he  has  accomplished  in  the  construction  of 
Phonography,  is  briefly  this: — The  representation  of  every  sound  and  articulation  that  occurs  in  the  English 
language,  by  a simple  and  easy-formed  sign,  which  will  readily  enter  into  every  combination  required,  and 
which  is  never  used  to  represent  more  than  that  one  sound  or  articulation.  (The  consonant  forms  of  w , y,  h — 
intermediates  between  vowels  and  consonants — are  exceptions,  the  characters  for  which  are  not  simple  strokes.) 
These  signs  being  of  the  briefest  description,  (dots,  right-lines  and  curves,)  Phonography  is  necessarily  a 
system  of  Shorthand;  but  it  must  be  seen,  from  what  has  been  stated,  that  it  is  radically  distinct  from  all  sys- 
tems of  mere  Stenography.  In  Phonography  it  may  be  almost  said  that  that  the  very  sound  of  the  word  is  made 
visible;  whereas,  in  deciphering  any  of  the  common  systems  of  Shorthand,  the  context,  the  memory,  the  judg- 
ment— all  must  be  called  in  to  assist  the  eye.  This  is  the  great  obstacle  which  has  hitherto  prevented  Short- 
hand from  coming  into  general  use.  Its  illegibility  when  written  makes  us  fear  to  trust  our  thoughts  to  its 
faithless  keeping,  and  renders  it  quite  insufficient  to  supersede  common  writing,  as  a means  of  general  com. 
munication. 

Phonography  combines  the  legibility  of  longhand,  with  more  than  the  brevity  of  ordinary  Shorthand. 
The  system  is  capable  of  answering  every  requirement  of  the  man  of  science  or  business,  as  well  as  the  pro- 
fessional reporter;  yet  it  is  so  simple,  that  its  principles  may  be  mastered  in  a few  hours,  and  an  hour’s  daily 
practice  for  a month,  in  reading  and  writing,  will  enable  the  student  to  use  it  with  safety  and  some  degree  of 
freedom;  while  the  same  amount  of  practice,  continued  for  six  or  eight  months,  will  enable  anyone  who  has 
acquired  fact  ty  in  using  the  pen  in  common  writing,  to  report  speeches,  sermons,  lectures,  etc.,  delivered  at 
the  rate  of  a hundred  words  per  minute.  By  continued  practice,  the  writer  will  be  able  to  report  a rapid 
speaker  verbatim. 

The  student  of  Phonography  will  find  no  difficulty  in  acquiring  a knowlege  of  this  most  useful  art,  if  he 
will  practice  according  to  the  following  directions: — He  should  first  obtain  a knowledge  of  the  letters  of  the 
Phonographic  Alphabet,  and  their  names,  (as  displayed  on  the  succeeding  pages)  by  pronouncing  them  aloud; 
and  he  should  then  learn  the  signs  by  which  these  sounds  are  represented.  The  following  Exercises  should  be 
first  read  and  then  copied  into  a book  made  of  ruled  paper.  The  pupil  is  not  to  read  the  whole  before  he 
commences  writing,  but  to  read  one  lesson  and  then  write  out  the  Exercises  in  it,  several  times  if  necessary, 
until  he  can  form  the  characters  neatly  and  accurately. 

The  Phonographic  letters  should  not  be  written  smaller  than  they  are  here,  and  care  must  be  taken  at 
the  outset  to  trace  them  slowly  and  accurately.  Rapidity  and  accuracy  combined  can  be  attained  only  by 
practice.  Though  it  is  not  absolutely  necessary  to  use  ruled  paper  when  writing  Phonography,  it  will  be  a 
great  advantage  to  the  learner.  Either  a pen  or  a pencil  may  be  employed.  A pencil  is  the  most  convenient 
instrument  at  the  commencement  of  the  pupil’s  exercises,  but  for  his  usual  writing  he  will  find  a pen  more 
suitable.  It  shonld  be  a fine-pointed  one,  and  should  be  so  held  that  the  pen-holder  and  the  elbow  point  away 
from  the  body. 


THE  PHONOGRAPHIC  ALPHABET.  ' vowels  and  diphthongs. 


W 

£ 

C 

£ 

o 

in 

£ 

O 

o 


in 


in 

X) 

w 

£ 

o 

> 


....._ 

Sign 

XI 

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bJO 

8 

fb 

i 

<3 

X 

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<3 

CL 

ts 

s 

£ 

X 

O 

s 

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o 

o 

1C 

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c/5 

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£ 

o 

ffi 

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E 

Oh 


Q 


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£ 

3 

CL 

X 

«1 

6 

s 

X 

X 

W 

e 

< 

w 

> 

tH 

« 

CO 

IS 


?1 


§ ^ 


>v> 


f? 


J J 

> 


N 


^ M 


X x 

in  N 


c/5  fc  O 
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<5 

C/5  

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c/5  P4 
A 


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c/>  cq 

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<u 


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m 

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w 

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trf 

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V 


►vi 

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W 

PQ 

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P?  Ei  g (4  61 


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THE  METRIC  SYSTEM 


OF  WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES  RAPIDLY  BEING  ADOPTED  BY 
THE  PRINCIPAL  GOVERNMENTS  OF  THE  WORLD. 

Tables  and  Explanations. 

The  Metric  System  derives  its  name  from  the  standard  unit  of  measure,  the 
METRE.  This  represents  one  ten-millionth  part  of  the  quadrant  of  a meridian  circle 
on  the  earth’s  surface,  that  is  to  say,  of  the  distance  from  the  equator  to  the  pole. 
The  standard  metre  is  a bar  of  platinum  kept  in  Paris  with  great  care,  to  prevent  devi- 
ation in  length  by  change  of  temperature.  Copies  are  also  deposited  in  the  capitals- 
of  all  countries  where  the  metric  system  of  weights  and  measures  has  been  adopted. 

It  is  a decimal  system  having  for  its  multiples  and  subdivisions  some  power  of 
ten.  Hence,  all  operations  by  this  system  are  the  same  as  in  simple  numbers,  the 
decimal  fraction  alone  being  used. 

The  Greek  numerals  furnish  the  prefixes  for  the  multiples  and  the  Latin  those 
for  the  subdivisions.  They  are  for  the  multiples: 

DEKA=ten,  as  dekametre,  or  ten  metres. 

HEKTO=one  hundred,  as  hektometre,  or  one  hundred  metres. 

KlLO  = one  thousand,  as  kilometre,  or  one  thousand  metres. 

MYRIA=ten  thousand,  as  myriametre  or  ten  thousand  metres. 

They  are  for  the  subdivisions: 

DECI  = one-tenth,  as  decimetre,  or  one-tenth  of  a metre. 

CENTI  = one-hundredth,  as  centimetre,  or  one-hundredth  of  a metre. 

MlLLI  = one-thousandth,  as  millimetre,  or  one-thousandth  of  a metre. 

This  system  of  weights  and  measures  is  used  quite  generally  on  the  continent 
of  Europe  and  the  United  States.  Congress  has  adopted  it  as  the  standard,  but  it 
has  not  yet  come  into  general  use.  It  is,  however,  being  used  by  scientists,  druggists, 
and  in  the  custom-houses  of  the  United  States. 

The  unit  of  capacity  is  the  LITRE,  and  is  equivalent  in  volume  to  one  cubic  deci- 
metre. 

The  unit  of  weight  is  the  GRAMME,  and  is  equivalent  to  the  weight  of  one  cubi«. 
decimetre  of  distilled  Yater  at  a temperatue  of  40  centigrade— 39.20  Fahrenheit. 


270 


THE  METRIC  SYSTEM. 


Measure  of  Length. 


io  millimetres  make 
io  centimetres  “ 

io  decimetres  “ 

io  metres 
io  dekametres  “ 

io  hetometres  “ 

io  kilometres 


i centimetre  = 
i decimetre  — 
I METRE  = 
I dekametre  = 
i hektometre  = 
i kilometre  = 
i myriametre= 


.01  metre. 


10  metres. 
100 

1,000 

10,000 


ll 

Cl 

1C 


Surface  Measure. 


100  sq.  millimetres  make 

i sq.  centimetre  = 

.0001  sq.  metre. 

100  sq.  centimetres 

a 

1 sq.  decimetre  = 

.01  “ “ 

100  sq.  decimetres 

Cl 

I SQ.  METRE  = 

j a it 

I centar. 

100  sq.  metres 

cc 

I sq.  dekametre  = 

100  sq.  m.  = 

1 ar. 

100  sq.  dekametres 

Cl 

1 sq.  hektometre  = 

10,000  sq.  m.  = 

1 hektar. 

100  sq.  hekometres 

ll 

1 sq.  kilometre  = 

1,000,000  sq.  m. 

In  the  measure  of  land  the  square  dekametre  is  called  an  AR  and  has  one 
multiple,  the  hektar  = 100  ars,  and  one  subdivision,  the  centar  = .01  of  an  ar. 


Measure  of  Volume. 

1,000  cubic  millimetres  make  1 cubic  centimetre. 

1,000  “ centimetres  “ 1 “ decimetre. 

1,000  “ decimetres  “ I “ CUBIC  METRE. 

The  STER  is  used  in  the  measure  of  wood  and  stone,  and  is  equivalent  to  one 
cubic  metre. 

10  decisters  make  1 STER. 

10  sters  “ 1 dekaster. 


For  the  purpose  of  abbreviation,  in  the  subdivisions  use  the  small  letter,  and  in 
the  multiples  the  large,  e.g.,  7 dm.  signifies  seven  decimetres,  but  7 DM.  signifies 
seven  dekametres. 


Measure  of  Capacity. 

10  millilitres  make  1 centilitre  = 1 cu.  cm. 


10  centilitres 

it 

I decilitre  = 

10  “ 

a 

10  decilitres 

cc 

I LITRE  = 

100  “ 

cc 

10  litres 

cc 

1 dekalitre  = 

1,000  “ 

cc 

10  dekaliters 

cc 

1 hektolitre= 

10,000  “ 

cc 

10  hektolitres 

1C 

1 kilolitre  = : 

1,000,000  “ 

ll 

THE  METRIC  SYSTEM. 


277 


Measure  of  Weight. 


io  milligrammes  make  i centigramme. 


io  centigrammes 
io  decigrammes 
io  grammes 
io  dekagrammes 
io  hektogrammes 
io  kilogrammes 
io  myriagrammes 
IO  quintals 


i decigramme. 

“ I GRAMME. 

“ i dekagramme. 

“ i hektogramme. 

“ i kilogramme. 

“ i myriagramme. 

“ i quintal. 

“ i metric  ton. 


American  Equivalents. 

TABLE  FOR  THE  CONVERSION  OF  METRIC  WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES  INTO  AMERICAN. 


Metres  into  Yards. 

Kilometres  to  Miles 
and  Yards. 

Litres  into  Gallons 
and  Quarts. 

Hektolitres  into 
Quarts  and  Bushels. 

Kilogrammes  into 
Cwts.  Qrs.  Lbs.  Oz. 

Hektars  into 
Acres.  R.  P. 

I 

1.094 

I 

0 

1094 

I 

0 

0.880 

I 

0 

2.751 

I 

0 

0 

2 

3X 

I 

2 

1 

35 

2 

2.187 

2 

1 

427 

2 

0 

1.761 

2 

0 

5.502 

2 

0 

0 

4 

6 K 

2 

4 

3 

3i 

3 

3.281 

3 

1 

1521 

3 

0 

2.641 

3 

1 

0.254 

3 

0 

0 

6 

9 X 

3 

7 

1 

26 

4 

4.374 

4 

2 

855 

4 

0 

3-521 

4 

1 

3-005 

4 

0 

0 

8 

13  , 

4 

9 

3 

22 

5 

5.468 

5 

3 

188 

5 

1 

0.402 

5 

1 

5-756 

5 

0 

0 

11 

0 % 

5 

12 

1 

17 

6 

6.562 

6 

3 

1282 

6 

1 

1.282 

6 

2 

0.507 

6 

0 

0 

13 

3 K 

6 

14 

3 

12 

7 

7.655 

7 

4 

615 

7 

1 

2.163 

7 

2 

3.258 

7 

0 

0 

15 

7 

7 

17 

1 

8 

8 

8.749 

8 

4 

1709 

8 

1 

3.043 

8 

2 

6.010 

8 

0 

0 

17 

10^ 

8 

19 

3 

3 

9 

9.843 

9 

5 

1043 

9 

1 

3.923 

9 

3 

0.761 

9 

0 

0 

19 

*3 

9 

22 

0 

38 

10 

10.936 

10 

6 

376 

10 

2 

0. 804 

10 

3 

3-512 

10 

0 

0 

22 

0^ 

10 

24 

2 

34 

20 

21.873 

20 

12 

753 

20 

4 

1.608 

20 

6 

7.024 

20 

0 

1 

16 

iK 

20 

49 

1 

28 

30 

32.809 

30 

18 

1129 

30 

6 

2.412 

30 

10 

2.536 

30 

0 

2 

10 

2^ 

30 

74 

0 

21 

40 

43-745 

40 

24 

1805 

40 

8 

3.215 

40 

13 

6.048 

40 

0 

3 

4 

3 

40 

98 

3 

15 

50 

54-682 

50 

3i 

122 

50 

11 

0.019 

50 

17 

1.560 

50 

0 

3 

26 

3^ 

50 

123 

2 

9 

60 

65.618 

60 

37 

498 

60 

13 

0.823 

60 

20 

5.072 

60 

1 

0 

20 

4^ 

60 

148 

1 

3 

70 

76.554 

70 

43 

874 

70 

15 

1.627 

70 

24 

0.585 

70 

1 

1 

14 

s'A 

70 

172 

3 

37 

80 

87.491 

80 

49 

1251 

80 

17 

2.431 

80 

27 

4.097 

80 

1 

2 

8 

6 

80 

197 

2 

38 

90 

98.427 

90 

55 

1627 

90 

19 

3.235 

90 

30 

7.609 

90 

1 

3 

2 

6^ 

90 

222 

1 

24 

100 

109.363 

100 

62 

243 

100 

22 

0.039 

100 

34 

3.121 

100 

1 

3 

24 

7 

100 

247 

0 

18 

200 

218.727 

200 

124 

487 

200 

44 

0.077 

200 

68 

6.242 

200 

3 

3 

20 

15 

200 

494 

0 

37 

300 

328.090 

300 

186 

730 

300 

66 

0. 1 16 

300 

103 

1.362 

300 

5 

3 

17 

6 

300 

74i 

1 

15 

400 

437-453 

400 

248 

973 

400 

88 

o.i55 

400 

137 

4.483 

400 

7 

3 

13 

14 

400 

988 

1 

33 

500 

546.816 

500 

310 

1217 

500 

no 

0.193 

500 

171 

7.604 

500 

9 

3 

IO 

5 

500 

1235 

2 

11 

Note. — The  United  States  unit  of  length  is  the  same  as  the  English  unit ; so  also  are  our  lb.  avoirdupois 
and  lb.  Troy  identical  with  the  English,  but  our  gallon  is  different.  It  contains  231  cubic  inches,  while  the  im- 
perial gallon  of  England  contains  277.274  cubic  inches.  To  reduce  English  gallons,  quarts,  or  pints  to  the 
United  States  standards,  multiply  by  1.20024,  and  to  reduce  English  bushels  to  United  States  bushels,  multiply 
by  1.0313644. 

The  United  States  ton  contains  2,000  lbs.  avoirdupois,  while  the  English  ton  contains  2,240  lbs.;  hence  to  re- 
duce the  latter  to  the  former,  multiply  by  25  and  divide  by  28. 


OUR  COMMERCE  WITH  THE  WORLD 


EXPORTS. 

Domestic  Merchandise  and  Specie  Exported  From  the  United  States  During  the  Fiscal  Year 

Ended  June  30TH,  1889. 


Articles. 


Quantities. 


Values. 


Merchandise. 

Agricultural  Implements 

Animals 

Books,  Maps,  Engravings,  and  other 


Printed  Matter 

Breadstuffs:  Corn bush. 

“ Wheat bush. 

“ Wheat  Flour bbls. 

“ All  other 


Carriages,  Horse  and  R,  R.  cars 

Chemicals,  Drugs,  Dyes,  and  Medicines 


Clocks  and  Watches 

Coal:  Anthracite tons 

“ Bituminous tons 

Copper  Ore,  Manufactures  of .tons 


Cotton,  and  Manufactures  of,  Unmanu- 
factured   lbs. 

Cotton,  Manufactures  of  

Fancy  Articles 

Fish 


Flax,  Hemp,  and  Jute,  Manufactures  of 
F ruits,  N uts,  Apples,  green  or  ripe . . bbls 

Fruits,  all  other 

Furs  and  Fur  Skins 

Hops lbs 

Instruments  for  Scientific  Purposes 

Iron  and  Steel,  Manufactures  of 

Leather,  and  Manufactures  of 


Musical  Instruments 

Naval  Stores bbls 

Oil  Cake,  Oil  Cake  Meal lbs 


69,592,929 

46,414,129 

9,374,803 


943,304 

841,798 

38,062 


2,364,816,669 


942,406 


12,589,262 


1,456,601 

588,167,880 


$3,623,769 

18,374,805 

1,712,079 

32,982,277 

41,652,701 

45,296,485 

3,945,198 

3,090,521 

5,542,753 

i,355,3i9 

4,217,003 

2,473,476 

7,518,258 

2,348,954 

237,775,270 

10,212,644 

1,142,703 

5,969,235 

1,644,485 

2,249,375 

2,822,209 
5,034,435 
2,823,832 
1,' 033, 388 
21,156,109 
10,747,706 
998,072 
2,188,326 
6,927,912 


Articles. 


Quantities. 


Values. 


Merchandise. 


Oils  : Animal. . galls. 

“ Mineral,  crude galls. 

“ Mineral,  refined  or  man- 
ufactured  galls. 

Oils,  Vegetable 

Paper  and  Manufactures 

Paraffine,  Paraffine  Wax. ...  lbs. 


Provisions:  Beef  Products 

“ Hog  Products 

“ Oleomargarine 

Other  Meat  Products 


Provisions,  Dairy  Products 

Seeds:  Clover lbs. 

“ Allother 

Spirits proof  galls. 

“ Turpentine galls. 

Sugar.  Molasses,  Syrup galls. 

“ Refined 

Tobacco,  Unmanufactured lbs. 

“ Manufactures  of 

Vegetables 

Wood,  and  Manufactures  of 

All  other  articles 


Total  Exports,  Domestic  Merchandise. 

Specie : Gold 

“ Silver 

Total  Domestic  Exports 


2,001,423  $1,117,856 

72,987,383  5,083,132 


543,208,176 


33,826,575 


34,253,137 

2,693,430 

9,681,759 

5,347,960 

14,167,216 

223,759,232 


44,830,545 

1,585,783 

r, 191,035 
2,029,602 
22,860,241 
66,716,097 


2,915,097 

911,983 

10,719,026 

3,110,583' 

763,921 

2,218,101 

3,777,525 

889,438 

1,070,236 

18,901,068 

3,708,600 


1,449,952 

26,910,672 

20,662,817 


$730,282,609 


$54,930,332 

25,284,662 


$810,497,603 


IMPORTS. 


Merchandise  and  Specie  Imported  Into  the  United  States  During  the  Fiscal  Year  Ended 

June  30TH,  1889. 


Articles. 

Quantities. 

Values. 

Merchandise. 

Animals 

$7,224,043 

1,646,774 

A .07  C.TOO 

Art  Works  

Ronlr«  Mans  etc  

Bristles 

Breadstuffs 

. lbs. 

*>330,787 

1,284,724 

8.071.722 

Chemicals,  Drugs,  Dyes,  and  Medicines. 
Clocks  and  Watches 

'■My/  A ? / 
39,654,671 
2,082,940 

3,929,245 

74,724,882 
26,805,942 
6,4/6,299 
6,661,532 
4,809,357 
46,174,028 
18, 746,417 
7,416.223 

7 719  02 1 

Coal,  Bituminous  

Coffee  

Cotton,  Manufactures  of 

Earthenware  and  China 

.tons 
. lbs. 

1,155,829 
1 578,397,454 

Fancy  Articles 

Fish 

Flax,  Hemp,  Jute,  and  Textiles 

Fruits  and  Nuts 

Furs,  and  Manufactures  of 

Glass  and  Glassware 

Hats  and  Bonnets 

4, *97,877 
25,127,750 

1,155,472: 

*2.723,358; 

43,885,45*1 

1,228,393 

CAQ.2^7 

Hides  and  Skins 

Hops 

Indiarubber,  and  Manufactures  of . . . 
Iron  and  Steel,  and  Manufactures  of 

Jewelry 

Lead,  and  Manufactures  of 

. lbs. 

4,176,158 

Leather,  and  Manufactures  of 

11,296,322 

3,290,077 

Liquors,  Spirituous  and  Malt  

Articles. 


Merchandise. 

Molasses 

Musical  Instruments 

Paints  and  Colors 

Paper  and  Manufactures 

Paper  Stock 

Precious  Stones,  including  Dia- 
monds, rough  or  uncut 

Salt 

Seeds  

Silk,  Manufactures  of 

“ Unmanufactured 

Sugar 

Tea 

Tin 

Tobacco,  and  Manufactures  of . . . . 

Wines 

Wood,  and  Manufactures  of 

Wool,  and  Manufactures  of 

All  other  Articles 

Total  Imports  of  Merchandise. . 

Specie:  Gold 

“ Silver 

Total  Imports 


Quantities. 

Values. 

27,024,551 

$4,753,897 

1,721,428 

1,294,811 

2,542,38  3 
5,925,047 

582,377,147 

2,762,202,967 

79,575,984 

11,029,138 

943,i3i 

5,097,223 

35,122,766 

19,333,229 

88,580,614 

12,654,640 

7,014,495 

14,610,990 

7,706,772 

15,674,602 

7o,539>457 

68,735,15? 

$745,*3i,655 

$10,284,858 

18,678,215 

$774,094,725 

280 


OUR  COMMERCE  WITH  THE  WORLD. 


VALUE  OF  UNITED  STATES  EXPORTS* 


TO  AND  IMPORTS  FROM  PRINCIPAL  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES,  YEAR  ENDING  JUNE  30,  1889 


Countries. 


Domestic.  Foreign 


Argentine  Republic  

Australasia,  British 

Austria 

Belgium 

Brazil 

British  East  Indies 

British  West  Indies 

Canada,  Dominion  of 

Central  American  States. . 

Chili 

China 

Colombia,  United  States  of 

Cuba 

Danish  West  Indies 

Denmark 

Dutch  East  Indies 

England 

France 

French  West  Indies 

Germany 


Exports. 


8,376)°77 

12,252,147 

720,825 

22,603,406 

9.276.511 
4, 33°, 4*3 
8,197,693 

38,279,044 

4.146.511 
2,967,254 
2,790,621 
3,728,961 

11,297,198 

673*942 

3,213,248 
2,249,066 
327,4I8,923 
45,110,922 
1 ,852, 
66,568,695 


9*7*779 

69,833 

5,227 

74i,8i3 

74,57° 

190,413 

2*328,517 

179*412 

5,54°! 

5°7 

92,056 

394,1*3 

12,370 

4-377 

538 

2,831,549 

1,009,119 

31,909 

*,433,899 


Imports. 


5,454,618 

5,998,211 

7,642,297 

9,816,435 

60,403,804 

20,029,601 

15,985,562 

42,738,074 

8,414,019 

2,622,625 

17,028,412 

4,263,510 

52,130,625 

602,931 

238,973 

5,207,254 
150,533,695 
69,566,618 
1 *0*053 

81,742,546 


Countries. 


Greece 

Hawaiian  Islands 

Hayti 

Hong  Kong 

Ireland 

Italy 

Japan 

Mexico 

Netherlands 

Peru 

Porto  Rico 

Portugal  

Russia  and  Possessions. 

San  Domingo 

Scotland 

Spain 

Sweden  and  Norway... 

Switzerland  

Uruguay 

Venezuela 


Exports. 


Domestic.  Foreign. 


165,079 

3,336,040 

3,975,46i 

3,675,594 

25,299**73 

12,543,928 

4,615,7*2 

10,886,288 

14,800,780 

773,244 

2,175,458 

2,872,507 

8,363,949 

1,150,65 

27,275,035 

11,932,614 

2,612,526 

20,354 

2,027,383 

3,703,705 


39,621 

184,790 

10,790 

1,000 

60,920 

4,273 

600,608 

262,159 

7,59* 

49,473 

562 

596 

29,368 

158,994 

*3,734 

3,043 


165,465 

35,256 


Imports. 


988,923 

12,847,740 

3,757*443 

1,480,266 

8,998,612 

17,992,149 

16,687,992 

21,253,601 

*0,950,843 

3*4,032 

3,707,373 

1,239,291 

2,985,631 

1,454,261 

18,736,760 

4,636,661 

2,983,319 

*3,343,704 

2,986,964 

10,392,569 


^Domestic  and  Foreign. 


INTEREST  LAWS  AND  STATUTES  OF  LIMITATIONS. 


States  and 
Territories. 

Interest  Laws. 

Statutes  of  Limitations. 

States  and 
Territories. 

Interest  Laws. 

Statutes  of  Limitations. 

Legal 

Rate. 

Rate  Allowed 
by  Contract, 

Judg- 

ments, 

Years. 

Notes, 

Years. 

Open  Ac- 
counts, 
Years. 

Legal 

Rate. 

Rate  Allowed 
by  Contract. 

Judg- 

ments, 

Years. 

Notes, 

Yesp-s. 

Open  Ac- 
counts, 
Years. 

per  et. 

per  ct. 

per  ct. 

per  ct. 

Alabama 

8 

8 

20 

6 

Missouri 

6 

IO 

20 

IO 

c 

Arkansas 

6 

IO 

IO 

c 

3 

Montana  . 

10 

Any  rate. 

6 

6 

D 

2 

Arizona 

7 

Any  rate. 

C 

J 

'X 

j 

2 

Nebraska 

7 

10 

4 

California 

7 

Any  rate. 

J 

5 

J 

4 

2 

Nevada  

7 

Any  rate. 

D 

6 

6 

4 

Colorado 

8 

Any  rate. 

6 

6 

6 

New  Hampshire. 

6 

6 

20 

6 

6 

Connecticut 

6 

+ 

6 

6 

New  Jersey 

6 

6 

20 

6 

6 

Dakota * . . . 

7 

1 

Any  rate. 

20 

6 

6 

New  Mexico.  . . . 

6 

12 

15 

6 

4 

Delaware 

6 

6 

20 

6 

'X 

New  York 

6 

6* 

20 

6 

6 

Dist.of  Columbia 

6 

10 

12 

3 

j 

3 

North  Carolina. . 

6 

8 

10 

3 

3 

Florida 

8 

Any  rate. 

20 

5 

2 

Ohio 

6 

8 

5 

15 

6 

Georgia 

7 

8 

7 

7 

4 

Oregon 

8 

10 

10 

6 

1 

Idaho 

10 

18 

6 

6 

3 

Pennsylvania. . . . 

6 

6 

5 

6 

6 

Illinois 

6 

8 

7 

10 

5 

Rhode  Island  . . . 

6 

Any  rate. 

20 

6 

6 

Indiana 

6 

8 

10 

10 

6 

South  Carolina . . 

7 

10 

10 

6 

6 

T owa 

6 

10 

10 

IO 

5 

Tennessee 

6 

6 

10 

6 

6 

Kansas 

6 

10 

5 

5 

2 

T exas 

8 

12 

15 

4 

2 

Kentucky 

6 

8 

15 

15 

5 

Utah 

10 

Any  rate. 

5 

4 

2 

Louisiana 

5 

8 

IO 

5 

3 

Vermont. . - 

6 

6 

6 

6 

6 

Maine 

6 

Any  rate. 

20 

6 

6 

Virginia 

6 

8 

10 

5 

2 

Maryland 

6 

6 

12 

3 

3 

Washington 

10 

Any  rate. 

6 

6 

3 

Massachusetts. . . 

6 

Any  rate. 

20 

6 

6 

West  Virginia. . . 

6 

t 

10 

10 

5 

Michigan 

7 

10 

6 

6 

6 

Wisconsin 

7 

10 

20 

6 

6 

Minnesota 

7 

IO 

IO 

6 

6 

Wyoming 

12 

Anv  rate. 

5 

5 

4 

Mississippi  . . . 

6 

10 

7 

6 

3 

1 

* New  York  has  by  a recent  law  legalized  any  rate  of  interest  on  call  loans  of  $5,000  or  upward,  on  collateral 
security,  f No  usury;  but  over  6 per  cent,  cannot  be  collected  by  law. 


The  True  Home 


AND 


THE  MATERIAL  HOUSE. 


The  True  Home 


7 


AND 


THE  MATERIAL  HOUSE. 

OLLAND  lies  below  the  level  of  the  sea.  It  would  be  submerged  at  every 
flood  tide,  or  heavy  storm,  but  for  her  dikes,  which  stretch  along  her  coast 
saying  to  the  proud  waves  “ thus  far  and  no  farther/’  What  these  walls 
do  to  secure  the  safety  and  perpetuity  of  Holland,  the  house  does  to 
secure  and  perpetuate  society.  It  has  always  been  necessary  to  dike 
tides  and  storms  of  lawless  and  base  passions.  It  reflects,  I know,  upon 
human  nature  that  such  a necessity  exists  ; but,  as  far  back  as  any  history  goes,  we  find 
fragments  of  these  dikes  in  legislation,  education  and  religion ; in  various  attempts  to 
secure  society  against  the  irruption  of  mischievous  and  destructive  passions.  There  has 
been  a gradual  progress  in  the  means  of  protecting  the  social  well-being  of  men.  The 
dikes  of  Holland,  crude  at  first,  have  been  steadily  perfected,  until  a breach  in  her  long, 
magnificent  sea-wall  is  a rare  occurrence.  So  have  the  dikes  protecting  society  been 
Improved  until  a magnificent  wall  of  legal,  educational,  moral,  domestic  and  religious 
restraints  sweep  about  her. 

Common  and  civil  law  imposes  a check  upon  the  tide  of  human  selfishness  and 
passions.  This  has  slowly  risen  under  such  master  builders  as  Solon,  the  framers  of 
Roman  Jurisprudence,  under  Blackstone,  Burke,  Sir  Matthew  Hale,  Jay,  Jeremiah 
Mason,  Webster,  Story,  under  wise  and  careful  legislation,  into  massive  walls  of  common 
and  international  law,  which  stretches  its  hammered  granite  defence  about  society,  pro- 
tecting persons  and  property  against  all  that  endangers  their  peace,  or  perpetuity. 

Our  Educational  Institutions,  public  and  corporate,  stand  between  society  and 
the  ignorance  and  vice  which  continually  rage  and  beat  against  it.  More  especially  is 
this  true  of  moral  culture.  Morality  and  religion  are  the  cement  which  holds  the  other 
materials  in  their  places.  To  educate  the  intellect  and  neglect  conscience  and  the  moral 
faculties  is  to  put  decayed  and  dangerous  stone  and  loose  sand  into  your  dike.  The 
great  sea-wall  that  encloses  the  harbor  of  Port  Said,  the  western  entrance  to  the  Suez 
Canal,  is  of  manufactured  stone.  Its  strength  and  ability  to  resist  the  impact  of  the  sea 
and  waves  lies  in  the  proper  combination  ot  tne  materials  out  ot  which  it  is  made.  So 
^there  must  be  the  right  adjustment  of  material  and  moral  training  to  secure  the  best  results 
of  an  education.  There  is  a decided  tendency,  in  modern  education,  to  use  too  much 
sand  of  intellect  for  the  small  amount  of  moral  and  religious  cement.  The  result  is  our 
social  defences  wash  and  crumble  badly,  letting  in  business,  political,  social,  moral  un- 
faithfulness and  corruption,  to  devastate  and  plow  up  the  foundations  of  truth  and  right- 
eousness. Willows  are  planted  along  the  Holland  dikes,  whose  long  lithe  roots  weave 
and  mat  themselves-  about  the  stones,  binding  them  in  their  places.  So  religion  and 


282 


THE  TRUE  HOME. 


morality  send  down  their  fine,  strong  roots,  to  bind  the  living  stones  of  character  and 
manhood,  of  law  and  education  into  one  massive  whole  and  rebind  the  soul  of  man  to 
his  God. 

There  is  another  dike,  the  theme  of  this  chapter,  of  immense  and  vital  importance 
to  the  weal  of  society — HOME.  This  is  the  structural  institution  around  which  state 
and  church,  all  social  and  religious  life,  character,  manhood,  and  womanhood,  nucleate 
and  crystallize.  Let  the  delicate  masonry  of  home  be  breached,  as  some  would  like  to 
have  it,  men  and  women  become  as  the  beasts  of  the  field,  the  occupants  of  the  farm-yard 
and  kennel,  and  all  that  is  best  and  brightest  in  human  life,  all  security  of  business,  all 
that  makes  this  world  tolerable  and  beautiful,  would  be  devastated,  as  the  fair  fields  and 
lovely  villages  and  populous  cities  of  Holland  with  all  their  struggling  inhabitants  would 
be  swept  away  by  the  surging  sea  breaking  through  their  dikes.  No  institution  among 
men  is  more  closely  linked  with  his  happiness  and  destiny  than  home.  No  one  needs  to 
be  guarded  with  greater  jealousy  and  care,  nor  protected  by  wiser  and  more  stringent 
legislation.  I am  grateful  for  the  opportunity  given  me  to  record  my  sense  of  its  im- 
portance and  speak  on  its  behalf,  and  contribute  what  I can  towards  its  greater  useful- 
ness and  glory. 

Home,  a Divine  Institution. — The  roots  of  home  run  back  to  Eden.  It  is  & 
divine  institution,  brought  to  us  like  some  rare  and  costly  casket  from  a wrecked  shipj 
from  out  the  ruins  of  Paradise.  Jehovah  created  and  married  the  first  man  and  woman 
and  placed  them  in  their  Eden  home.  The  institution  of  marriage  and  home  have  had 
his  peculiar  sanction  and  benediction  from  the  very  beginning  of  the  race.  A fine  illus* 
tration  of  the  divine  estimate  of  the  home  is  found  in  Jehovah’s  message,  sent  through 
the  prophet  Jeremiah  to  the  captive  Jews  at  Babylon  and  scattered  throughout  the  Syr- 
ian Empire.  “ Build  ye  houses  and  dwell  in  them,  and  plant  gardens  and  eat  the  fruit  of 
them.  Take  ye  wives  and  beget  sons  and  daughters  and  take  wives  for  your  sons,  and 
give  your  daughters  to  husbands,  that  they  may  bear  sons  and  daughters,  that  ye  may 
increase  there  and  not  be  diminished.” 

The  Family  and  State  Rise  and  Fall  Together. — The  best  interests  of  man- 
kind ebb  and  flood  with  the  outgoing,  or  incoming  tide  of  home  life.  The  family  was 
all  that  could  save  the  Jews  from  disintegrating  before  those  influences  which  come  from 
a conquering  upon  a conquered  and  enslaved  people.  It  has  not  lost  one  whit  of  its 
importance  as  a conserving  force  in  state  and  church,  securing  the  personal  chastity  and 
happiness  of  all  the  members  of  society. 

The  advice  given  to  the  captive  Jews  is  the  organic  law  oi  society  and  is  hence  of 
universal  application.  He  who  made  us  sets  the  solitary  in  families  as  the  best  possible 
arrangement  He  is  certainly  the  best  judge  of  what  is  fittest,  as  an  artist  is  the  best 
Judge  of  the  light  in  which  to  place  his  own  picture.  If,  therefore,  Jehovah  declares 
that  homes,  flanked  with  gardens,  shaded  by  trees,  enlivened  by  children,  presided  over 
by  a virtuous  and  sensible  woman,  is  an  indissoluble  bond  of  union  and  nationality,  a 
charmed  amulet  against  social  vice  and  physical  and  moral  depravement  for  the  Jews, 
can  it  be  of  less  importance  to  us,  or  any  people,  to  create  and  maintain  good  home*? 
No  one  conversant  with  prevailing  tendencies  towards  disintegration  and  communistic 


THE  TRUE  HOME. 


283 


ideas  can  fail  to  feel  the  fitness  of  the  counsel  given  by  Jehovah  to  the  captive  Jews, 
to  the  times  in  which  we  live. 

We  have  not  only  the  Divine  estimate  of  the  importance  of  home,  but  his  sugges- 
tions as  to  the  kind  of  home  we  should  form.  A man  to  have  a home  must  have  a 
wife.  A boarding  place,  club-room,  or  hotel,  can  never  take  the  place  of  a home.  This 
is  to  go  through  life  hanging  upon  the  skirts  of  a joyless,  selfish  existence.  A bachelor, 
save  for  good  and  sufficient  reasons,  is  a pervert.  God  created  the  home  as  a primal 
institute.  It  cannot  be  set  aside  without  the  most  serious  consequences. 

Young  Men  and  Women  are  Appointed  to  Marry  and  Build  them  Houses 
and  rear  families,  plant  gardens  and  eat  the  fruit  of  them.  They  are  to  join  hands  and 
climb  the  hill  together.  They  will  reach  the  summit  much  sooner  than  either  alone. 
Little  John  Flaxman,  England’s  greatest  artist,  married  Ann  Denham.  They  were  poor 
but  hopeful  and  plucky.  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  a bachelor,  met  Flaxman  soon  after  his 
marriage  and  said  to  him  : “ So,  Flaxman,  I am  told  you  are  married  ; if  so,  you  are  ruined 
as  an  artist."  Flaxman  went  home,  sat  down  by  his  wife,  took  her  hand  in  his,  and  said 
“Ann,  I am  ruined  for  an  artist.”  “ How  so,  John  ? How  did  it  happen  ?”  He  repeated 
to  her  Sir  Joshua’s  unkind  remark,  saying  at  the  same  time,  “ I want  to  be  a great  artist” 
“And  a great  artist  you  shall  be,  and  visit  Rome,  too,  if  that  is  necessary  to  make  you 
great.”  “ How  ? asked  Flaxman  . “ Work,  and  economise,”  replied  the  brave  woman.  “ I 
will  never  have  it  said  that  Ann  Denham  ruined  John  Flaxman  as  an  artist.”  So  it 
proved.  They  worked  and  economised,  until  they  not  only  went  to  Rome  but  stood  hand 
in  hand  on  the  gilded  summit  of  fame,  where  the  crusty  old  bachelor.  Sir  Joshua,  was 
compelled  to  look  up  to  them  and  do  them  reverence.  So  have  thousands  of  young  men 
and  women  risen  together  to  wealth  and  consideration.  Marriage  is  often  the  first  step 
towards  an  honorable  and  successful  career.  Therefore  take  ye  wives. 

To  Dwell  in  Families  There  Must  be  a Material  House. — This  house,  ere 
long  to  be  hallowed  by  the  memories  of  birth  and  death,  should  be  owned,  if  possible, 
free  from  debt,  or  mortgage.  I reverence  the  English  love  of  land -holding.  One  who 
lives  in  a hired  house  and  moves  every  few  years  loses  all  home  feeling  and  love  of  local- 
ity. Build  a house, moreover,  when  able,  not  buy,  or  rent  one.  A house  one  plans  and 
builds  he  loves  as  a creation  of  his  own  and  cherishes  it  as  a child.  In  building  use 
taste.  Let  there  be  a care  for  the  beautiful  and  comely.  Nor  does  this  involve  extrav- 
agance. A chean  house  can  just  as  economically  be  made  pleasing  to  the  eye  as  an 
offence.  Given  so  much  lumber,  bricks,  lime  and  paint,  they  can  just  as  prudently  be 
put  into  a house  that  shall  please  and  minister  to  the  finer  sensibilities  of  its  inmates,  as 
to  be  built  into  an  ugly,  ungainly  box,  to  leave  its  angular  impress  upon  every  child  born 
and  raised  in  it  Taste  is  as  cheap  as  deformity, and  much  more  valuable.  How  much 
it  adds  to  that  dear  spot  we  christen  “ our  home”  which  is  to  imprint  itself,  with  all  its  sur- 
roundings, upon  the  plastic  spirits  of  children,  suggesting  ideas  of  order  and  beauty  and 
ministering  to  their  mental,  moral  and  eternal  grace  and  strength. 

If  a rural  home,  flank  it  with  grass  plat  and  flowers,  with  a vegetable  and  fruit  gar- 
den in  the  rear.  To  own  and  beautify  a parcel  of  one’s  mothet  earth  makes  him  twice  a 
man,  and  Antaeus-like  restores  his  vigor  and  manhood.  In  the  city  there  is,  certainly. 


284 


THE  TRUE  HOME. 


no  reason,  but  the  doubtful  one  of  economy,  for  pushing  our  houses  close  up  to  the 
street  line.  Leave  a spot  of  green  to  rest  and  refresh  the  eye  and  break  the  everlasting 
monotony  of  bricks.  With  all  the  variety  of  trees  and  shrubs  and  flowers,  annual  and 
hardy,  which  our  Father  has  given  us,  with  which  to  adorn  our  homes,  to  breathe  their  per- 
fume and  beautify  into  our  souls,  and  preach  us  sermons  and  keep  us  pure,  there  can 
be  found  no  excuse  for  nakedness  and  deformity.  Every  man  and  woman,  with  the 
smallest  modicum  of  means  and  brains,  can  adorn  their  homes  with  these  sweet  smiles 
and  messengers  of  God.  A man  can  hardly  be  coarse  and  bad  in  such  a spot,  and  while 
seated  on  the  white  throne  of  such  a home  he  reigns,  nature’s  lord,  over  such  halcyon 
dominions. 

It  is  both  sensible  and  safe  for  a man  to  effect  such  a home  and  attempt  its  earliest 
realization.  There  would  be  more  empty  cells  in  our  jails  and  prisons,  fewer  thriftless 
beings  roaming  country  and  city,  if  instead  of  hoarding  or  squandering  his  money, 
puffing  away  his  brains  and  purse  in  smoke,  dissolving  manhood  and  means,  as  Cleo- 
patra her  pearls,  in  the  wine  cup,  each  man  married  some  suitable  woman,  built  him  a 
house,  planted  a garden  and  eat  of  the  fruit  of  it,  he  and  his. 

Woman’s  Eminent  Domain. — A house  must  have  an  interior  as  well  as  an  exterior. 
Like  the  daughter  of  a king,  our  houses  should  be  all  glorious  within.  This  is  woman’s 
eminent  domain.  There  are  houses  all  of  whose  arrangements  are  so  uncomely,  or  so 
precise  and  cheerless,  as  to  repel,  and  drive  one  to  seek  comfort  elsewhere;  while  there 
are  others  so  comely  and  natural,  that  every  article  of  furniture  in  the  rooms,  chair,  sofa, 
iounge,  table,  nay  the  very  folds  of  the  curtains  and  drapery,  welcome  you  and  invite 
repose.  In  England  home  is  both  a science  and  an  art.  In  all  the  wide  world,  I am  sure 
from  personal  observation,  there  are  no  more  sensible,  restful  homes  than  in  mother  Eng- 
land. The  open  grate,  the  sunny  room,  the  pleasant  outlook,  the  sensible,  substantial 
furniture,  the  general  air  of  comfort  are  nowhere  surpassed,  seldom  equaled.  This 
accounts  for  the  fact  that  the  English  people  are  so  good  natured,  and  in  such  fine,  phys- 
ical condition,  and  so  self-complaisant.  England’s  homes  are  her  strength  and  glory. 

These  matters  may  seem  trifles.  But  life  is  made  and  marred  by  trifles.  Our 
homes  have  a decided  influence  upon  our  mental,  moral  and  even  religious  character  and 
tastes.  Children  reared  in  such  a home  have  a certain  refinement,  a love  of  order  and 
thrift,  that  tell  powerfully  on  their  future,  in  both  worlds.  The  seen  and  temporal  may 
pass  away  ; but  their  influence  passes  over  into  the  unseen  and  eternal  It  is  absorbed 
into  character,  as  the  tree  absorbs  the  carbon  from  the  air,  and  enters  into  its  whole 
growth  and  completeness.  The  most  unpretending  home  can  be  made  so  inviting  and 
winsome,  can  be  invested  with  such  an  air  of  ease  and  comfort,  can  be  so  cunningly 
arranged,  so  restful  to  the  eye,  so  grateful  to  weary  brain  and  body,  that  its  occupants 
shall  turn  to  it  with  unfailing  delight,  and  realize  in  it  all  our  best  poets  have  sung,  or 
artists  attempted,  in  their  loftiest  delineations  of  the  ideal  home. 

Love  is  the  Main  Constituent  of  Home,  but  other  and  finer  elements  enter 
into  the  structure  of  a home.  There  must  be  that  indefinable,  but  real,  something, 
called  the  atmosphere  of  home,  its  spirit,  its  “esprit  du  corps.”  Love  is  the  main 
constituent  of  this  atmosphere,  as  oxygen  is  the  major  part  and  vital  principle  in  com- 
mon air.  A home  that  is  to  realize  the  best  results  must  be  pervaded  by  and  enswathed 


THE  TRUE  HOME. 


285 


in  a considerate,  abiding  love,  a family  enthusiasm,  like  the  old  clans  of  Scotland. 
Then  it  becomes  the  cradle  and  nursery  of  the  noblest  loves  and  aspirations  the  human 
heart  ever  feels. 

A GOOD  HOME  IS  BUILT  ON  COMPROMISES. 

IS  principle,  so  odious  in  politics,  so  cowardly  in  religion,  is  the  sap- 
phire arch  underneath  a home.  Tastes,  preferences,  dispositions,  temper- 
aments, must  be  consulted,  and  each  must  yield  something  to  the  gen- 
eral good.  Then  the  stream  of  home  life  flows  smoothly  on  down  the 
vale  of  time  towards  the  home  beyond.  There  must  be  eyes  that  beam 
lighted  up  with  its  aurora,  lips  that  voice  it,  and  seal  the  utterance  with  a 
kiss;  deeds  of  kindness  that  authenticate  its  depth  and  tenderness.  Such  Spikenard 
fills  the  home  with  perpetual  perfume. 

A True  Family  is  a Chain  of  Gold. — Each  member  has  his  or  her  individu- 
ality, yet  all  are  wedded  into  one  cohesive  whole.  If  one  rises,  all  rise.  If  one  falls,  all 
feel  the  shock.  The  success,  or  misfortune,  of  one  touches  all.  This  mutual  concern 
and  affection  are  the  very  essence  of  home,  something  which  no  external  grace,  or 
cleverness  of  internal  arrangement,  can  supply,  and  yet  without  which,  as  too  many 
know  by  a hard  experience,  home  is  but  a mockery.  How  body,  mind  and  soul  luxu- 
riate and  ripen  in  such  a domestic  atmosphere.  Jehovah  loves  the  true  home.  Angels 
in  celestial  armor  pace  about  it,  keeping  ward  and  watch.  Jesus  visits  it,  as  the  home 
of  Martha  and  Mary.  Men  love  it  and  turn  to  it  as  to  a shrine. 

It  must  be  as  well  an  industrious  home.  Labor  is  the  relish,  the  Halford-sauce,  of 
the  family ; it  gives  it  its  true  zest  and  restfulness.  It  becomes  then  an  asylum  from 
the  competitions  of  business  and  the  raspings  of  universal  selfishness.  One’s  weary  feet 
and  brain  turn  to  it  and  his  soul  exults  in  it.  If,  however,  he  meets  a company  of  idle 
complainers,  who  do  little  but  eat,  sleep  and  dress  and  find  fault,  he  turns  to  the  club- 
room,  or  saloon.  This  has  been  the  secret  of  many  a man’s  undoing.  To  a listless 
man  or  woman  home  becomes  wearisome.  A hotel,  or  boarding  house,  is  preferable. 
Indolent,  unemployed  men  and  women  are  the  poorest  possible  timber  out  of  which 
to  construct  a home.  It  is  all  worm-eaten  and  specked  with  dry  rot. 

One  of  the  Most  Serious  Evils  of  Society. — The  modern  notion  that  a 
young  woman  at  marriage  must  be  placed  in  a home  as  well  appointed  as  the  one  she 
leaves  and  be  free  from  care,  is  one  of  the  most  serious  evils  of  society.  The  home  we 
love  and  prize  is  the  home  we  create,  and  labor  to  maintain,  as  the  bread  we  earn  is 
the  sweetest  bread  we  ever  eat.  In  the  absence  of  energy  and  industry  are  found  the 
cause  of  the  decadence  of  most  rich  and  renowned  families.  Children  reared  in  luxury 
and  indolence  never  bear  their  ancestral  name  or  fortune  to  a second  or  third  gene' 
ration.  For  a home  to  thrive  there  must  be  culture,  fireside  reading  and  amusements, 
conversation,  music,  merriment,  employment.  These  crown  the  toilsome  day  and  bring 
it  to  a delightful  cadence.  How  it  transcends  that  modern  cancer,  the  club-room,  or 
place  of  amusement,  or  any  substitute  for  it.  There  is  not  a finer  picture  in  all  the 
realm  of  poetry  than  Burns’  Cotter’s  Saturday  Night. 


286 


THE  TRUE  HOME. 


Economy  must  be  married  to  industry.  It  is  much  easier  to  make  than  to  save  a 
fortune*  No  student  of  sociology  but  is  aware,  that  home  life  and  happiness  decline  as 
men  become  rich.  Money  easily  and  rapidly  made  is  a measureless  social  curse.  It  saps 
the  foundations  of  that  wise  frugality  on  which,  as  on  bars  of  iron,  the  peace  and  per- 
petuity of  a home  rests.  To  spend  less  than  one  earns  is  the  secret  of  domestic  thrift, 
as  well  as  of  substantial  riches.  The  balance  is  on  the  right  side.  But  let  it  be  reversed, 
out  goes  overlapping  income,  and  the  family  is  on  the  road  to  dissolution.  How  many 
homes  have  been  broken  up  by  this  one  course.  How  many  are  upon  the  verge  of  dis- 
solution by  careless  and  criminal  extravagance.  Love  dies  where  thrift  and  economy  are 
wanting.  The  first  lesson  we  have  to  learn  is  to  clip  and  pare  and  contract,  until 
expenses  fall  below  income.  Then  we  have  the  Alchemist’s  stone  that  turns  all  it  touches 
to  gold  ; the  Houri’s  secret,  that  converts  our  homes,  however  humble,  into  bowers  of 
bliss. 


AMUSEMENTS  OUGHT  TO  FIND  A PLACE  IN  THE  HOME. 

R they  will  be  sought  outside  of  it.  Gather  up  music  and  mirth,  all  inno- 
cent games,  merry  making  and  dancing,  and  bind  them,  as  a wreath  of 
immortelles,  about  the  brow  of  home.  Make  it  such  a charming  spot 
that  there  shall  be  no  occasion  to  seek  recreation  at  the  hands  of  profes- 
sional and  mostly  unworthy  caterers.  It  may  be  made  so  many  sided,  so 
variously  complete  and  satisfying  as  to  meet  all  the  demands  of  our  complex  natures  and 
chain  the  feet  of  its  occupants,  husbands  and  sons,  within  its  cheery  precincts  and  rise, 
like  a wall  of  Jasper,  between  them  and  the  vices  which  threaten  their  ruin.  No  gVeater 
danger  impends  over  our  land  at  this  hour  than  the  decline  in  the  number  of  land-hold- 
ers and  homes.  We  are  weakening  our  own  dikes  and  letting  in  the  surging  waters  of 
immorality.  We  need,  for  our  own  sakes  and  for  the  public  weal,  to  increase  the 
number  and  improve  the  quality  of  our  homes. 

The  Strength  of  England  is  her  Homes. — The  weakness  and  curse  of  France 
are  the  absence  of  homes.  We  are  gravitating  towards  the  French.  That  misnamed 
life  called  “ single  blessedness,”  which  is  rather  the  exact  opposite,  a life  of  meager,  solid, 
soiled  selfishness,  is  on  the  increase.  Marriage  is  on  the  decline.  Hotels  and  boarding 
houses  are  displacing  the  modest  home.  As  a consequence  court  dockets  are  longer, 
divorces  multiply,  jails  are  crowded,  while  the  bloom  on  cheek,  and  the  more  delicate 
bloom  on  character,  fade  away  in  the  close,  hot  air  of  dissipation.  How  much  more 
sensible,  as  well  as  enjoyable,  for  one  to  have  a home  and  center  all  his  regards  upon  it. 

The  influences  of  such  a home  radiate  in  every  direction,  and  reach  not  only  through 
time  but  beyond  it,  touches  and  enswathes  the  individual,  as  he  opens  his  eyes  upon  the 
light  of  this  life.  It  weaves  with  deft,  artistic  fingers,  the  web  of  his  future,  either  in 
cloth  of  gold  and  raiment  of  needlework,  or  snarls  and  spoils  the  whole  fabric.  The 
general  trend  of  life  is  taken  before  a child  leaves  home.  The  elements  and  germs  of 
character  are  found  in  the  domestic  conservatory.  Says  a shrewd  observer:  “ It  is  not 
for  ourselves,  but  for  our  children , that  we  should  build  our  homes,  whether  villas,  cot 


THE  TREE  HOME, 


28: 


cages,  or  log  huts,  beautifully  and  well.  It  is  frequently  the  case  that  an  impulsive, 
high-spirited,  light-hearted  boy  dwindles  by  degrees  into  a sharp,  shrewd,  narrow-minded 
youth  ; from  thence  into  a hard  and  horny  manhood,  and,  at  last,  into  a covetous,  unlov- 
ing and  unloved  old  age.  The  single  explanation  is  all  sufficient — he  never  had  a 
pleasant  home.”  The  fact  is,  too  many  boys  are  orphans  in  their  father’s  house.  They 
are  awkward  and  shy,  not  knowing  what  to  do  with  either  hands  or  feet,  wishing  devoutly 
they  had  neither.  They  are  not  wanted  in  drawing-room  or  kitchen,  and  so  take  to  the 
streets,  and  are  soon  running  the  curriculum  of  petty  vices  and  ere  long  graduate  as 
criminals.  Their  social  instincts  are  just  waking  into  life.  If  they  are  not  met  in  the  home 
and  in  a rational  way  they  will  seek  food  and  stimulus  elsewhere.  If,  however,  they  find 
sympathy,  love  and  society  in  the  house,  their  future  becomes  honorable  and  often  illus- 
trious, and  manhood  is  secured.  However  widely  one  may  roam,  the  influence  of  a good 
home  will  follow  him,  as  the  water  from  the  smitten  rock  followed  the  roaming  camp  of 
Israel.  However  useful  and  successful  he  may  become,  he  will  be  able  to  trace  each  and 
every  rivulet  that  feeds  the  volume  of  his  fame  and  goodness  to  his  home.  “A  kiss  from 
my  mother,”  says  West,  ‘‘made  me  a painter.”  Fowell  Buxton  wrote  his  mother  when 
at  the  summit  of  his  splendid  fame : “ I constantly  feel  the  effects  of  principles  early 
implanted  in  my  mind  by  you.”  An  army  of  earth’s  noblest  men  could  subscribe  such 
a sentiment.  Mrs.  Schimmelpennick  says  of  her  mother:  “In  her  presence  I became 
transformed  into  another  person.”  The  seed  corn  of  how  much  that  is  great  and  noble, 
ixalted  in  character,  splendid  in  achievement  and  of  world  wide  beneficence  and  renown, 
tas  been  planted  in  the  silence  and  gentleness  of  home.  The  character  of  future  gene- 
t ations  lies  in  germ  in  the  home,  as  die  future  bird  lies  in  germ  in  the  egg. 

The  memory  and  thought  of  such  a cherished  home  are  a perpetual  benison  and 
blessing  to  those  reared  in  it,  when  they  go  out  into  the  actualities  and  struggles  of  life. 
It  rises  like  the  Holland  dikes  between  them  and  the  sea  of  temptation.  The  memory  of 
home  has  saved  many  a young  man  and  woman,  when  assailed  and  pressed  by  powers  of 
darkness.  For  the  sake  of  those  born  and  reared  in  our  homes,  they  should  be  as  attract- 
ive as  possible,  as  full  of  sunshine  and  cheer  as  a summer  day,  orderly,  industrious,  eco- 
nomical, full  ot  high  purpose  and  noble  sentiments,  as  pure  as  the  breath  of  heaven,  and 
invigorating  as  the  mountain  air. 

But  home  influences  and  discipline  and  culture  reach  beyond  the  individual.  It 
ramifies,  and  poisons  or  purifies,  the  whole  body  politic  and  social.  “ It  is  the  crystal  of 
society,  the  nucleus  of  national  character,  and  from  that  source,  be  it  pure  or  tainted, 
issue  the  habits,  principles  and  maxims,  which  govern  public,  as  well  as  private  life.  The 
nation  comes  from  the  nursery  and  public  opinion  is,  for  the  most  part,  the  outgrowth  of 
home.”  The  rudiments  of  law  and  order,  the  habit  of  submission  and  obedience,  patri- 
otism and  magnanimity,  and  all  those  traits  which  make  good  citizens  and  worthy  mem- 
bers of  society,  are  learned  and  practiced  in  the  home,  if  learned  at  all.  Napoleon  was 
once  asked  “what  would  place  France  in  the  front  rank  of  nations  ?”  His  prompt  reply 
was — “ good  mothers'.'  A thing  France  has  never  had.  It  is  good  mothers,  and  not  a 
score  of  declaiming  women,  vexed  because  they  are  not  men,  and  a similar  number  of 
men,  that  ought  to  have  been  born  women,  that  exalt  a nation,  or  elevate  morals  and 
society  ; but  gentle,  true,  womanly  mothers,  ruling  their  own  households  by  their  sweet 


288 


THE  TRUE  HOME. 


grace  and  love.  Such  homes  as  these  are  the  salt  of  society,  a leaven  of  strength  and 
glory  to  any  nation.  Much  more  so  if  they  are  Christian  homes,  the  type  of  heaven,  the 
prelude  and  opening  symphony  of  our  final  home. 

The  Duty  of  the  State  Towards  our  Homes  is  clear  and  imperative.  It 
should  throw  around  them  the  utmost  protection  and  fostering  care.  It  should  jealously 
guard  their  sanctity,  and  visit  their  violation  with  swift  and  condign  punishment.  All 
divorce  legislation  should  be  carefully  framed  and  sparingly  used.  Once  formed,  the 
home  should  be  held  sacred,  and  rarely,  if  ever,  broken  up.  The  peace  and  perpetuity 
of  all  our  institutions,  our  social  and  national  life,  hinge  upon  our  homes.  Every  true 
man  and  woman  should  deeply  feel  their  importance  and  do  their  utmost  to  create  and 
preserve  them  pure  and  intact. 

On  the  uplift  of  home  life  we  rise  to  national,  social  and  individual  triumph  and 
acceptance,  or  on  its  decline  we  sink  to  the  mire  of  shame  and  disintegration.  God  bless 
*nd  preserve  our  homes  I 


EVERY  MAN  HIS  OWN  LANDLORD; 


OR  HOW  ANY  MAN  MAY  GAIN  A HOUSE  BY  MEMBERSHIP  IN 
CO-OPERATIVE,  LOAN,  AND  BUILDING  ASSOCIATIONS. 

Their  Organization,  Methods,  and  Advantages. 

SOCIETIES  having  for  their  avowed  object  to  assist  their  members  to  build  homes 
for  themselves  and  develop  the  industry  and  thrift  of  the  town  in  which  they  live, 
have  been  formed  in  very  many  towns  and  cities  during  the  last  twenty-five  years. 
While  the  details  of  method  and  management  may  differ,  they  are  mostly  based  upon 
the  same  general  commercial  and  social  principles. 

In  most  cases  they  are  started  by  a few  friends  or  business  acquaintances,  who 
subscribe  for  a certain  number  of  shares,  and  then  induce  others  to  join  them.  The 
amount  of  shares  that  can  be  held  is  fixed.  Then  by  a system  of  monthly  dues  and 
assessments,  the  amount  of  stock  subscribed  for  is  paid.  The  money  remaining  in 
the  hands  of  the  treasurer  after  a monthly  meeting  may  be  loaned  to  a person,  or 
persons,  for  the  purpose  of  erecting  a dwelling-house,  upon  certain  conditions  which 
secures  the  society  and  the  borrower  from  loss.  Usually  the  borrower  gives  a mort- 
gage upon  real  estate  for  the  payment  of  his  dues,  as  well  as  the  stipulated  interest 
on  his  loan.  The  methods  may  vary  somewhat  in  the  different  societies.  Usually 
the  money  is  loaned  to  the  stockholder  who  will  pay  the  highest  rate  therefor. 
The  interest  of  the  money  loaned  and  the  double  interest  on  premiums  paid,  and 
fines  or  assessments,  are  really  all  the  sources  of  income  the  society  has.  At  the 
end,  all  the  money  which  a society  has  at  the  end  of  its  specified  term  is  divided ; it 
has  been  paid  in  by  its  stockholders  and  may  be  divided  among  them. 

It  appears  that  the  stockholder  who  has  not  borrowed  any  money  has  the  ad- 
vantage of  the  one  who  has  borrowed  from  the  funds,  but  the  borrower  has  had  the 
use  of  the  money,  and  if  he  has  invested  it  wisely  and  has  not  paid  too  high  a rate, 
it  has  been  much  to  his  advantage.  If  he  has  been  enabled  to  provide  himself  a 
home  for  the  length  of  time  and  pay  for  it  in  moderate  monthly  instalments,  he  has 
had  the  additional  incentive  to  thrift  and  industry  that  stimulates  him  to  diligence 
in  business.  This  is  the  method  of  a society  issuing  only  one  series  of  stock. 

In  other  societies  new  series  of  stock  are  issued  at  regular  intervals,  and  new 
subscribers  come  in.  In  such  an  organization  the  premiums  are  usually  higher,  and 
as  a consequence,  the  final  payment  is  made  so  much  shorter.  The  fundamental 
principle  is  the  same  in  both.  There  is  this  cardinal  advantage  that  a member,  once 


390 


EVERY  MAN  HIS  OWN  LANDLORD, 


having  commenced  to  invest  a few  dollars  per  month,  will  feel  the  necessity  of  con- 
tinuing to  do  so,  otherwise  he  may  lose  a portion  of  the  benefits  accruing  to  mem- 
bers. But  if  through  misfortune  or  even  carelessness  he  is  obliged  to  surrender  his 
membership,  he  nevertheless  gets  a fair  interest  for  the  use  of  his  money,  and  in 
some  cases  also  a share  in  the  profits.  It  would  be  a wise  and  prudential  organiza- 
tion to  perfect  in  every  manufacturing  town  and  city  as  an  encouragement  to  indus- 
trious men  to  make  an  effort  to  secure  homes  for  themselves  and  become  permanent 
residents  of  the  place.  Men  of  means  could  thus  aid  such  persons,  and  at  the  same 
time  benefit  their  immediate  locality  by  building  up  the  town  with  neat  and  attract- 


ive homes  for  good  citizens. 

The  following  model  of  a Constitution 
tion  of  an  Association  of  this  kind. 

ARTICLE  I. 

Name. — The  corporate  name  of  this  Company  shall 

be  The  Building,  Loan,  and 

Savings  Association. 

ARTICLE  II. 

Objects. — The  object  of  this  Association  shall  be  to 
accumulate,  by  co-operation,  a fund  to  be  loaned  to  its 
members  for  the  purchase  of  real  estate,  the  erection  of 
buildings,  paying  incumbrances  therefrom,  making  im- 
provements thereon,  and  for  the  further  purpose  of 
accumulating  a fund  to  be  returned  to  its  members  who 
do  not  obtain  advances  as  above  mentioned. 

ARTICLE  III. 

Capital  Stock. — The  capital  stock  of  this  Associa- 
tion shall  consist  of  the  number  of  shares  subscribed 
for,  and  shall  be  issued  in  series,  under  the  supervision 
of  the  Board  of  Management.  The  nominal  value  of 
each  share  shall  be  two  hundred  dollars,  to  be  paid  in 
instalments  of  one  dollar  each  per  month. 

ARTICLE  IV. 

Meetings. — The  stockholders  of  this  Association 
shall  meet  annually  (here  specify  time  and  place). 
Fifteen  members  shall  constitute  a quorum.  Special 
meetings  may  be  called  by  the  Secretary,  when  re- 
quested in  writing  by  ten  members,  but  the  object  of 
such  meeting  must  be  stated  in  the  notice. 

ARTICLE  V. 

Members. — All  members  of  this  Association  shall 
be  persons  of  the  age  of  twenty-one  years  and  up- 
ward. Each  member  shall  sign  a copy  of  the  Charter 
of  this  Association  to  be  entitled  to  the  rights  of  mem- 
bership, and  on  signing  the  same  shall  be  bound  there- 
by to  conform  to  and  abide  by  the  same,  and  all  laws 
that  may  be  made  by  virtue  thereof. 

ARTICLE  VI. 

Officers. — Sec.  i.  The  officers  of  this  Association 
shall  be  a President,  Vice-President,  Secretary,  Trea- 
surer, nine  Directors,  an  Attorney,  and  three  Auditors, 
all  of  whom,  except  the  Auditors,  shall  be  elected  by 
ballot  on  the  third  Wednesday  in  June  in  each  year, 


and  By-laws  is  given  to  aid  in  the  forma- 


and  shall  be  Trustees  under  the  provisions  of  the  stat- 
ute of  the  State  of 

Sec.  2.  Each  stockholder  present  at  an  election  shall 
be  entitled  to  one  vote  in  his  own  right,  and  no  more. 
Only  women  shall  be  entitled  to  vote  by  proxy. 

Sec.  3.  A plurality  of  votes  cast  shall  constitute  a 
choice. 

Sec.  4.  The  Auditors  shall  be  nominated  and  elected 
at  the  regular  annual  meeting. 

Sec.  5.  In  case  of  a failure  to  elect  officers  at  the 
annual  meeting,  the  Secretary  shall  call  a meeting  for 
the  purpose  within  thirty  days  thereafter. 

ARTICLE  VII. 

President  and  Vice-President. — It  shall  be  the 
duty  of  the  President,  and  in  his  absence  of  the  Vice- 
President,  to  preside  at  all  meetings  of  the  Association 
and  of  the  Board  of  Management,  and  he  shall  perform 
all  other  duties  usually  appertaining  to  the  office  of 
President. 

ARTICLE  VIII. 

(The  duties  of  the  Secretary  should  be  minutely  specL 
fied  in  this  Article.) 

ARTICLE  IX. 

(The  duties  and  securities  of  the  Treasurer  should  be 
minutely  specified  in  this  Article.) 

ARTICLE  X. 

Duties  of  the  Attorney. — It  shall  be  the  duty  of 
the  Attorney  to  make  necessary  searches  to  ascertain 
the  title  to  all  property  offered  to  the  Association  as 
mortgage  security  ; to  prepare  all  deeds,  bonds,  mort- 
gages, agreements,  and  all  other  writings  to  be  taken  or 
given  by  the  Association  in  the  course  of  its  business, 
and  conduct  transfers  of  property  and  all  legal  matters, 
and  give  information  and  advice  to  the  Board  of  Man- 
agement when  required. 

ARTICLE  XI. 

Board  of  Management. — Sec.  1.  The  President, 
Vice-President,  Secretary,  Treasurer,  and  Directors  shall 
constitute  a Board  of  Management.  The  Board  shall 
meet  on  the  third  Wednesday  of  each  month,  at  such 


EVERY  MAN  HIS  OWN  LANDLORD. 


291 


time  and  place  as  the  By-laws  shall  determine,  for  the 
purpose  of  attending  to  the  financial  concerns,  and  per- 
sonally superintending  the  interests  of  the  Association. 
Five  members  shall  constitute  a quorum,  and  they  shall 
continue  in  session  for  the  purpose  of  receiving  the 
dues,  interest,  redemption  fees,  etc.,  from  8 to  io  p.m. 

Sec.  2.  The  Board  of  Management  shall  at  any  time 
have  access  to  the  books  of  the  Treasurer  and  Secre- 
tary. 

Sec.  3.  The  Board  of  Management  are  authorized 
to  empower  any  person  or  persons  to  purchase  at  any 
judicial  sale,  in  the  name  of  the  Association,  any  real 
estate  upon  which  the  Association  may  have  a mort- 
gage or  judgment,  if,  in  their  opinion,  the  interests  of 
the  Association  should  require  it.  They  shall  also  have 
full  power  and  authority  to  sell,  dispose  of,  and  author- 
ize the  conveyance  of  any  property  thus  purchased. 

Sec.  4.  They  shall  have  power,  in  their  discretion,  to 
pay  interest  on  dues  paid  in  advance  (not  to  exceed  5 
per  cent,  per  annum). 

ARTICLE  XII. 

Auditors. — It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  Auditors  to 
settle  and  adjust  the  accounts  of  the  Association  prior 
to  the  annual  meeting,  and  to  report  to  the  stockholders, 
with  a faithful  and  ample  exhibit  of  the  state  of  the 
treasury  and  the  value  of  each  share.  They  shall  ex- 
amine the  securities  of  the  Association  in  June  and 
December  of  each  year,  and  report  the  result  to  the 
Board  of  Management  on  the  third  Wednesday  of  said 
months, 

ARTICLE  XIII. 

(This  article  provides  for  the  removal  of  any  officer 
who  neglects,  or  is  incapacitated  from  the  performance 
of  his  duties  ; and  for  filling  vacancies.) 

ARTICLE  XIV. 

Payments. — Sec.  1.  Each  member  subscribing  to 
the  capital  stock  of  this  Association  shall  pay  for  each 
share  in  his  or  her  name  one  dollar  and  twenty-five 
cents  on  the  first  subscription  night,  and  the  further 
sum  of  one  dollar  on  each  share  of  stock  in  his  or  her 
name  on  the  third  Wednesday  in  each  month  thereafter, 
until  the  payments,  interest  on  loans,  and  other  receipts 
shall  be  sufficient  to  divide  into  each  share  of  stock  in 
that  issue  two  hundred  dollars. 

Sec.  2.  When  the  stock  of  any  issue  shall  have< 
reached  a value  of  two  hundred  dollars,  loans  upon  the 
same  shall  be  cancelled  by  transfer  of  same  to  the 
Association,  and  all  shares  on  which  no  loans  have  been 
advanced  shall  be  paid  in  full  and  cancelled. 

Sec.  3.  All  payments  by  the  Association  shall  be 
made  by  check,  to  be  signed  by  the  President,  or  Vice- 
President,  and  Treasurer,  and  countersigned  by  the 
Secretary. 

ARTICLE  XV. 

Loans. — Sec.  1.  Every  member,  for  each  share  of 
stock  in  his  or  her  name,  shall  be  entitled  to  a loan  of 
two  hundred  dollars  from  the  funds  of  the  Association, 
on  giving  to  the  Association  such  security  as  the  Board 
of  Management  deem  satisfactory  and  sufficient. 

Bids,  Premium. — Sec.  2.  Whenever  unappropriated 
money  is  in  the  treasury,  a loan  shall  be  made  to  the 
member  who  offers  to  pay  the  Association  the  highest 


premium  on  each  share  of  stock  regularly  on  the  third 
Wednesday  in  each  and  every  month  during  the  contin- 
uance of  the  loan,  provided  that  no  bid  of  less  than  five 
cents  or  its  multiple  shall  be  received.  No  member 
shall  be  entitled  to  a loan  on  more  than  twenty  shares 
at  one  meeting. 

Security  for  Loans. — Sec.  3.  When  a member 
shall  be  entitled  to  a loan,  before  receiving  the  amount 
due,  he  shall  secure  the  payment  thereof  to  the  Asso- 
ciation by  bond  and  mortgage  on  real  estate  and  policy 
of  fire  insurance,  or  such  other  security  as  the  Board  of 
Management  may  approve,  and  transfer  at  least  one 
share  of  stock  as  collateral  security  for  each  loan  of  two 
hundred  dollars  ; provided,  that  no  loan  shall  be  made 
upon  property  upon  which  there  is  a prior  mortgage. 

Repayment. — Sec.  4.  Borrowers  may  repay  loans  at 
any  monthly  meeting,  and  shall  pay  all  expenses  inci- 
dent thereto  and  attending  the  cancellation  of  the 
mortgage.  One  share  of  stock  shall  be  cancelled  for 
each  two  hundred  dollars,  or  portion  of  two  hundred 
dollars  repaid.  The  Association  shall  allow  for  said 
cancelled  stock  the  same  amount  that  is  being  paid  to 
withdrawing  stockholders  of  the  same  series  having  no 
loan. 

Forced  Loans. — Sec.  5.  In  case  the  money  of  the 
Association  remain  idle  and  unproductive  at  any  time, 
the  Board  of  Management  may  by  lot  require  members 
in  the  eldest  current  series  to  either  withdraw  their 
stock  or  receive  advances  thereon. 

ARTICLE  XVI. 

Transfer  of  Property. — Should  any  member  who 
has  executed  a mortgage  to  the  Association  be  desirous 
of  selling  the  mortgaged  property,  subject  to  the  mort- 
gage, he  shall  be  at  liberty  to  do  so  upon  the  payment 
of  all  monthly  dues  and  transfer  of  the  shares  secured 
by  such  mortgage  to  the  purchaser,  such  purchaser 
thenceforth  becoming  a member  and  liable  for  pay- 
ment of  the  monthly  dues  payable  on  such  shares  ; 
provided,  always,  that  no  expense  be  incurred  by  the 
Association,  and  the  transfer  is  approved  by  the  Board 
of  Management. 

ARTICLE  XVII. 

Penalty  for  Non-payment,  Settlement.  — In 
case  any  member  not  having  a loan  from  the  Associa- 
tion shall  fail  to  pay  dues  and  fines  for  four  months, 
then,  upon  compliance  with  the  statute  by  the  Associa- 
tion, the  right  of  delinquent  to  membership  shall  there- 
upon and  thereby  cease,  and  the  stock  revert  to  the 
Association.  The  member  so  failing  to  pay  shall  be 
entitled  to  receive,  out  of  the  first  unappropriated 
money  in  the  treasury,  the  amount  paid  into  the  Asso- 
ciation, after  first  deducting  all  fines  and  a proportion 
of  all  incidental  expenses  and  losses,  and  thence  shall 
cease  to  be  a member  of  the  Association. 

ARTICLE  XVIII. 

(This  article  provides  for  fines  against  members  and 
officers  for  non-performance  of  duty.) 

ARTICLE  XIX. 

Certificates  of  Stock,  Transfer  of  Stock,  Fees 
for  Transfer. — Each  member  shall  be  entitled  to  a 
Certificate  of  Stock,  to  be  issued  in  the  name  and  under 
the  seal  of  the  Association,  and  attested  by  the  Presi- 


292 


EVERY  MAN  HIS  OWN  LANDLORD. 


dent  and  Secretary,  which  Certificate  may  be  transferred 
in  person  or  by  attorney,  in  presence  of  the  Secretary, 
and  shall  be  recorded  on  the  books  and  indorsed  on  the 

Certificate.  The  Secretary  shall  charge for 

each  share  of  stock  so  transferred,  which  amount  shall 
be  paid  into  the  Treasury  ; but  no  share  shall  be  trans- 
ferred while  any  fines  or  dues  remain  charged  against 
the  same,  nor  until  the  transferee  shall  have  assumed 
all  the  obligations  of  the  original  stockholder. 

ARTICLE  XX. 

Withdrawals. — Any  stockholder  may  withdraw 
from  the  Association  on  giving  thirty  days’  notice  of 
his  intention  to  do  so,  and  with  such  proportion  of  the 
profits  as  the  By-laws  may  determine,  less  all  fines  and 
charges  ; provided,  that  at  no  time  shall  more  than  one- 
half  the  funds  in  the  treasury  be  applicable  to  the  de- 
mand of  withdrawing  stockholders,  without  consent  of 
the  Board  of  Management,  and  that  no  stockholder 
shall  be  entitled  to  withdraw  whose  stock  is  held  in 
pledge  or  security. 

ARTICLE  XXL 

(This  article  provides  for  the  rights  of  deceased 
members.) 

ARTICLE  XXII. 

(Officers  to  serve  until  successors  elected.) 

ARTICLE  XXIII. 

(This  article  provides  for  the  adoption  and  amend- 
ment or  suspension  of  By-laws.) 

ARTICLE  XXIV. 

(This  article  provides  for  the  amendment  of  the 
Charter.) 

ARTICLE  XXV. 

Questions  Unprovided  For. — Any  questions  that 
may  arise  which  are  not  covered  by  these  articles  shall 
be  submitted  to  the  Board  of  Management,  whose  de- 
cision shall  be  final,  unless  reversed  by  a two-third  vote 
of  the  Association  at  a regular  meeting  of  the  same. 


BY-LAWS. 

Sec.  i.  The  Board  of  Management  shall  meet  as 
provided  by  Article  XI.  of  the  Constitution. 

Sec.  2.  Unappropriated  money  shall  be  loaned  at 
regular  monthly  meetings  only.  The  Board  of  Man- 
agement shall  determine  the  total  amount  that  may  be 
loaned  from  the  treasury. 


Sec.  3.  Polls  for  the  election  of  officers  shall  be 
opened  for  a period  of  two  hours  after  the  calling  of 
the  annual  meeting  to  order. 

Sec.  4.  The  blank  form  of  assignment  on  the  back 
of  certificates  of  stock,  deposited  with  the  Treasurer  as 
collateral  security  for  loans,  shall  be  filled  in  to  corre- 
spond with  the  transfer  made  on  the  books  of  the  Asso- 
ciation. 

Sec.  5.  Stockholders  who  may  withdraw  during  the 
first  year  of  the  series  shall  be  entitled  to  receive  only 
such  sums  as  they  have  paid  in  as  dues. 

Sec.  6.  Stockholders  who  may  withdraw  during  the 
second  and  third  years  of  a series,  shall  be  entitled  to 
receive  50  per  cent,  of  the  profits. 

During  the  4th  year,  60  per  cent. 

“ “ 5th  “ 60  “ “ 

“ “ 6th  “ 70  “ “ 

“ “ 7th  “ 75  “ “ 

“ “ 8th  “ 80  “ “ 

“ “ 9th  “ and  thereafter,  100  per  cent. 

RULES  COVERING  LOANS. 

Property  Committee. — Sec.  7.  A Committee  of 
three,  to  be  known  as  the  Property  Committee,  shall  be 
appointed  by  the  President  as  often  as  occasions  require. 

Sec.  8.  The  Property  Committee  shall  render  a state- 
ment of  account  against  the  borrowers  of  all  disburse- 
ments made  by  the  Committee  in  ascertaining  the  value 
of  property,  and  shall  charge  in  addition  thereto,  not 
to  exceed  $2.50  each  for  their  services  ; said  bills  shall 
be  paid  as  audited  by  the  Board  of  Management,  and 
the  amounts  charged  to  the  accounts  of  the  borrowers. 

Building  Estimates. — Sec.  9.  Members  whose  ap- 
plications for  loans  for  the  purpose  of  erecting  build- 
ings have  been  accepted  shall,  before  such  loans  are 
authorized,  file  with  the  Secretary  of  the  Association  a 
copy  of  their  plans  and  specifications,  together  with 
estimates  thereon  from  two  reputable  builders. 

Building  Loans. — Sec.  10.  Whenever  advances  are 
required  as  a building  progresses,  the  contract  of  the 
owner  with  the  builder,  or  a duly  authenticated  copy 
thereof,  shall  be  filed  with  the  Association,  and  shall 
provide  that  the  last  payments  shall  not  become  due 
until  ten  days  after  the  architect,  or  party  acting  in  that 
capacity,  shall  have  certified  that  the  building  is  com- 
plete and  built  in  accordance  with  the  contract,  plans, 
and  specifications  ; such  contract  shall  be  passed  upon 
by  the  Board. 

Advances  shall  at  no  time  exceed  the  payments  named 
in  the  contract,  nor  shall  they  be  made  until  said  pay- 
ments become  due,  nor  until  the  terms  of  the  contract 
shall  be  fulfilled,  and  the  attorney  certifies  in  writing 
that  there  are  no  liens  of  record  against  the  owner  or 
contractor. 

The  contract  shall  be  filed  in  the  office  of  the  Clerk 
of  the  County  wherein  the  building  is  situated,  before 
work  has  begun  thereon. 


Home  Adornment, 

ARCHITECTURAL  AND  ORNAMENTAL. 


THE  ARCHITECTURE  OF  THE  HOME. 

HOW  TO  BUILD  HOUSES  WITH  ECONOMY  AND  TASTE  COMBINED- 
DESIGNS,  PLANS,  AND  COST  OF  BUILDING. 


BY  R.  G.  RUSSELL,  ARCHITECT,  NEW  HAVEN,  CONN.,  AND  OTHER  PRACTICAL  ARCHITECTS. 


THERE  has 
been  of  late  years  a 
display  of  originality 
In  the  designs  and 
plans  of  houses  never 
before  equaled  in  this 
country.  The  indi- 
viduality of  the  owner 
has  been  brought  out 
in  any  style  which  he 
may  prefer,  and  his 
personal  tastes  re- 
specting the  details  of 
adornment  must  thus 
be  regarded.  There 
is  no  reason  in  the 
fitness  of  things  why 


all  the  houses  of  a 
particular  street  or 
section  of  a village 
should  follow  the 
same  design,  “Like 
four  and  twenty 
blackbirds  all  in  a 
row.”  There  should 
be  a proper  regard 
paid  to  the  natural 
surroundings  and 
the  effect  which 
they  produce. 

This  design,  with 
its  plans,  is  intend- 
ed to  show  a neat 
village  or  country 


NO.  I. — A DESIRABLE  HOME  FOR  PROFESSIONAL  OR  BUSINESS  MEN. 


residence  of  wood,  which,  with  all  the  modern  improvements,  would  cost  about  $5,000.  The 
front  elevation  shows  the  side  to  the  street,  two  stories  high,  with  bay  window  and  piazza' 


' 294 


THE  ARCHITECTURE  OF  THE  HOME. 


and  dormer  window  in  the  roof.  There  is  a bay  window  on  the  end.  This  plan  was? 
originally  designed  for  the  residence  of  a clergyman  in  a Connecticut  town,  and  is  espe 
cially  well  arranged,  upon  an  economical  basis,  for  that  purpose. 

It  is  our  design  to  present  plans  which  will  enable  any  of  our  readers,  who  are  de- 
siring to  select  such  a home  as  comes  within  their  means  and  taste,  to  erect  a dwelling 
for  themselves. 

There  has  been  the  same  wonderful  advancement  in  the  Art  of  Architecture  in  this 
country  as  in  all  other  branches  of  art.  The  marked  improvement  in  the  condition,  cul- 
ture and  refinement  of  our  people  have  demanded  this.  Not  only  is  this  advancement 
marked  as  in  the  case  of  our  churches,  halls  and  public  buildings  generally,  but  in  the 
dwellings  of  the  people  as  well.  In  the  present  time  it  is  comparatively  easy 
for  a frugal,  industrious  and  healthful  family  to  build  itself  a house,  and  surround 
that  house  with  all  the  comforts  and  many  of  the  luxuries  of  life.  The  advice  of  Rev. 
Dr.  Dennen,  in  the  early  part  of  this  volume,  upon  this  subject  is  well  worth  the  candid 
perusal  of  all  our  readers.  The  designs  and  plans  which  we  present  will  be  found  ele- 
gant, tasteful  and  at  the  same  time  economical,  coming  within  the  pecuniary  ability  of 
all  classes. 

NO.  2.' — THE  PLAN  OF  THE  FIRST  FLOOR  shows  the  hall,  with  stair-casvd 
into  the  parlor  P 14x18,  and  the  sitting  room  S.  R.  18x14.  These 

two  rooms  are  connected  with  sliding  doors. 
Back  of  the  sitting  room  is  the  library,  L.,  with 
closet,  C,  and  a window.  The  dining  room,  D. 
R.,  opens  into  the  hall  in  front,  and  the  kitchen, 
in  the  rear,  of  the  dining  room,  is  16x14  and 
contains  a closet,  C.  The  kitchen,  K.,  is  in  the 
L which  extends  to  the  rear  of  the  building* 
The  external  appearance  of  the  house  speaks  of 
the  refinement  and  culture  of  those  who  dwell 
therein,  or  the  want  of  these  qualities.  If  it 
is  tasteful  and  artistic,  though  humble,  the  be- 
holder concludes  that  the  man  who  erected  that 
dwelling  was  cultivated  in  his  tastes,  and  pos- 
sessed refinement  of  a high  order.  If  the 
dwelling  is  massive  and  devoid  of  architectural 
beauty,  it  will  tell  of  a mind  without  the  grace 
of  culture,  and  only  intent  upon  sordid  things. 
The  picturesque  homes  of  Switzerland  and  Ger- 
many are  indicators  of  a national  type,  far  ele- 
vated above  those  who  dwell  in  the  hovels  ol 
some  countries.  The  old  style  ideas  that  have 
too  long  been  prevalent  in  our  country, 
to  the  exclusion  of  the  aesthetic  and  orna- 
mental, are  yielding  ground.  There  is  happily  “ a golden  mean  ” between  two  opposite 
extremes,  in  which  the  ornamental  and  useful  harmoniously  blend  together,  to  produce 


No.  4.  A Private  Residence  for  a Family  of  Means.  Cost  $9,000. 


No.  11.  Suburban  Residence,  to  cost  $2,500.  (See  Page  QQ7.) 


ARCHITECTURE  OF  EVERY  AGE: 

A History  of  Human  Habitations,  as  Illustrated  by  Charles  Gamier  at  tlie  Paris  Eipositi 


Ho.  14.  Country  Clergyman's  Cottage,  to  cost  $1,000  to  $1,200. 


Ho.  18.  An  American  Cottage,  to  cost  $7,000. 


No.  26.  Rural  Gothic  Farm  House,  to  cost  $1,100. 


No.  21,  Suburban  Cottage. 


ARCHITECTURE  OF  EVERY  AGE: 

A History  of  Human  Habitations,  as  Illustrated  by  Charles  Gamier  at  the  Paris  Exposition. 


No.  5.  Design  for  a City  Block  of  Six  Houses. 


THE  ARCHITECTURE  OF  THE  HOME. 


303 


the  best  effect  upon  the  mind,  and  furnish  to  the  family  the  means  of  enjoyment  and  re- 
finement, as  well  as  the  shelter  of  a roof.  And  this  is  as  it  should  be.  There  are  oppor- 
tunities enough  for  a display  of  every  variety  of  taste  and  peculiar  personal  inclination 
without  shocking  the  sense  of  architectural  beauty  and  propriety,  or  offending  the  eye  of 
the  beholder.  If  there  has  yet  arisen  a distinctive  school  of  American  architecture,  it 
has  not  attained  the  dignity  of  recognition  ; but  instead,  the  styles  of  former  countries 
have  prevailed,  modified  and  adapted  by  the  requirements  of  the  case  to  the  demands  of 
the  new  country  to  which  they  have  been  transplanted. 

THE  PLAN  OF  NO.  3,  SECOND  STORY, 
exhibits  bed-rooms  marked  B.  R.,  situated  re- 
spectively over  the  parlor,  sitting  room  and 
dining  room,  and  corresponding  in  style  with 
them.  Over  the  vestibule  and  doorway  there  is 
a bedroom,  B.  R.,  with  closets.  Above  the 
library  is  situated  the  bath  room,  B.  R.,  and  a 
closet  opening  into  the  chamber  over  the  sitting 
room.  The  arrangement  of  the  second  floor  of 
the  L is  shown  in  the  plan.  These  plans  dis- 
play a convenient  and  economical  disposition 
of  all  the  space.  We  recommend  a careful 
study  of  this  design  and  plans  to  any  person 
who  desires  to  erect  a substantial  artistic  resi- 
dence at  moderate  expense,  or  to  ecclesiastical 
societies  who  intend  to  build  a parsonage  that 
will  be  ornamental,  durable  and  economical. 

NO.  4.— A PRIVATE  DWELLING  (SEE 
ELEVATION)  SUITABLE  FOR  A FAM- 
ILY OF  SOME  MEANS,  in  a city  or  town. 

It  was  intended  to  be  set  back  from  the  street 
upon  a lot  sloping  somewhat  to  the  rear.  The 
front  elevation  facing  the  street  is  shown 
in  the  engraving.  It  is  neat  and  artistic  in  design  and  at  the  same  time  rich  in 
appearance.  The  size  of  the  entire  first  floor  is  40x48,  and  is  divided  into  a sitting-room 
on  the  right  of  hall  15x21,  in  the  rear  there  is  the  dining-room,  15x16,  from  whose  rear  a 
conservatory  extends  to  the  right,  7x9,  and  a pantry  to  the  left,  7^x9.  The  hall  running 
through  the  building,  feet  wide,  has  a back  entry,  7x10,  separated  from  the  front  with 
a door  between,  the  staircase  leading  to  the  second  story  being  in  the  front  hall,  a closet, 
two  feet  wide  in  the  back  entry.  On  the  left  there  is  a piazza  in  front.  The  parlor,  14* 

xi8,  opening  from  the  hall.  Back  of  this  is  the  kitchen,  14x15,  with  a pantry,  6x11, 
in  the  rear. 

THE  SECOND  STORY  has  a dressing-room,  8x10,  over  the  front  hall.  A front 
chamber,  15x22,  over  the  sitting-room,  back  chamber,  12x16,  over  the  dining-room.  On 
the  left  hall  a front  chamber  over  the  parlor,  14x15;  a back  chamber,  14^x15.  These 
chambers  have  closets  from  each  between  the  hall.  In  the  rear  of  these  chambers  is  the 
bath-room,  6x1 1.  The  roof  which  covers  the  piazzas  in  front  and  rear,  of  course,  do  not 


304 


THE  ARCHITECTURE  OF  THE  HOME. 


come  into  this  estimate.  A hall  eight  feet  wide  extends  from  the  dressing-room  over  the 
front  lower  hall  to  stairway.  The  platform  at  head  of  stairs  is  21  inches  lower  than  the 
floor  of  the  chambers  and  hall,  with  three  steps  leading  up.  From  this  the  bath-room 
extends  to  the  left  and  the  store-room,  6x7,  to  the  right. 

The  first  floor  of  this  house  is  designed  to  be  finished  in  ash  and  walnut ; the  second 
plain.  The  estimated  cost  of  this  house  with  all  the  modern  improvements,  furnace,  gas 
and  water  pipes,  & c.,  is  $9,000.  A house  erected  upon  a hill  and  one  upon  an  extended 
plain  should  be  different  in  design  and  adornment  to  produce  a pleasant  effect  upon  the 
beholder.  The  house  is  not  only  a habitation  for  the  inmates,  but  an  educator  and  re- 
finer of  taste.  Proper  regard  then  should  be  had  to  the  outward  appearance  and  adorn- 
ment of  the  house,  no  less  than  to  its  interior  arrangement  and  furnishing.  The  plain 
unadorned  buildings  which  one  finds  in  our  country  towns  and  our  villages  are  an  offense 
to  the  sense  of  taste  and  propriety.  There  is  no  reason  why  the  homes  of  our  American 
people  should  not  be  erected  in  a style  as  artistic  and  picturesque  as  the  homes  of  other 
nationalities.  The  increase  in  expense  between  an  unsightly  house  with  four  plain  walls 
and  an  awkward  roof,  and  one  of  pleasing  style  of  architecture  and  design  is  much  less 
than  at  first  sight  would  appear. 

DESIGN  FOR  A CITY  BLOCK  OF  SIX  HOUSES.—, 
This  design  is  for  the  purpose  of  showing  how  a group  of  houses 
may  be  built  in  the  same  block,  in  a small  city  or  large  town,  and 
present  at  the  same  time  a tasty  and  inexpensive  style  of  variety. 
This  is  much  more  preferable  than  the  ordinary  method  of  erect- 
ing the  separate  houses  of  a block  without  any  reference  to  a 
general  plan,  or  the  appearance  of  the  whole.  This  front 
elevation  displays  six  dwellings  combined,  each  having  a front 
of  eighteen  feet  and  built  three  stories  high,  surmounted  by  a 
mansard  roof  of  another  story.  The  sky  line  is  agreeably 
broken  by  the  different  breaks  in  the  elevation  producing 
a pleasing  and  artistic  effect.  The  face  line  of  the  front  has  no  pro- 
jecting parts  more  than  twelve  inches  from  the  part  receding.  This 
divides  the  block  into  six  compartments,  which  afford  opportunity 
for  introducing  tasteful  adornments,  thus  giving  breadth  of  light 
and  depth  of  shadow.  Each  house  has  a bay  window  and  porch 
for  front  door.  These  may  be  uniform  in  shape  or  varied  to  suit 
the  individual  taste  of  the  different  owners.  This  design  presents 
the  conception  of  a block,  which  at  moderate  expense  will  meet 
the  needs  of  a large  class  of  business  men  of  ordinary  circum- 
stances. This  block  may  be  built  of  pressed  brick,  relieved  with 
stone  or  marble  trimmings,  and  grains  on  the  four  corners,  as  seen 
in  cut  No.  5. 

NO.  6 — THE  GROUND  FLOOR. — A is  the  parlor,  12x28, 
with  bay  window  ; b,  the  main  hall,  containing  stairway  and  ves- 
tibule ; c the  pantry  ; D,  the  dining-room,  12x16;  E,  the  kitchen, 
12x14,  and  f,  the  private  staircase  to  the  story  above.  The  ar- 
rangement of  rooms  in  the  other  stories  may  be  left  to  the 
taste  of  the  occupants  and  the  requirements  of  the  family. 


No.  6. 


THE  ARCHITECTURE  OF  THE  HOME. 


305 


NO.  7— A GOTHIC  COTTAGE  VILLA  TO  COST  $4,000.— We  present  in 
this  design  a cottage  of  domestic  Tudor  style  of  architecture,  suited  to  a person  of 
moderate  financial  ability,  and  at  the  same  time  characterized  by  convenience,  propriety 
and  the  utmost  simplicity  consistent  with  the  requirements  of  architectural  effect,  united 
with  economy  of  expense. 

We  notice  first  the  exterior  decorations  and  proportions  of  the  building.  There  are 
the  simple  gable  of  two  lines,  following  the  slope  of  the  roof  and  the  steeped  gable.  The 
apex  of  the  gable  is  usually  surmounted  by  a shaft,  octagonal  in  shape,  and  a pinnacle 
enriched  with  ornamental  mouldings.  The  roof  is  high  and  does  not  permit  many  or- 
naments, but  the  sameness  may  be  relieved  by  using  tiles,  shingles  or  slating  of 
different  designs.  The  windows  are  not  pointed  but  square-headed,  having  a mould- 
ing in  wood  comparing  with  the  head  and  ending  in  an  elbow,  as  seen  in  the  cut.  The 
doors  of  this  cottage  are  made  to  correspond  with  the  windows. 

This  villa  is  to  be  constructed  of  brick  of  fair  quality,  laid  to  an  even,  smooth  wall 
line,  and  having  the  joints  flat.  It  will  be  two  stories  high,  with  attic  above  the  eave„ 
It  will  look  well,  painted  in  French  gray  or  some  other  neutral  tint. 

NO.  8 — THE  GROUND  FLOOR — Is  an  explanation  of  the  ground  floor  of  this 
dwelling.  A,  the  vestibule,  opening  into  B,  the  hall,  from  which  there  is  a return,  con- 
taining a staircase  leading  to  second  story.  This  return  is  semi-circular  in  front  and 
forms  the  base  of  the  tower  extending  above  the  roof,  as  shown  in  the  cut  of  the  front 
elevation.  This  produces  a most  pleasing  and  striking  effect  in  the  architectural  design. 
Passing  through  the  hall,  we  enter  the  parlor,  A,  19x14,  and  contains  two  bay  windows 
The  one  in  front  is  square,  with  double  or  twin  windows,  and  projects  two  and  a half 
feet,  extending  to  second  story.  The  one  on  the  side  forms  the  three  sides  of  an  octa- 
gon. To  the  rear  of  the  parlor  is  a dining-room,  A,  not  connected  with  it.  This  is 
20x15.  The  kitchen,  A,  is  15x16.  There  is  a private  passage,  C,  connecting  the  kitchen 
and  dining-room,  which  opens  into  the  front  hall,  B,  the  private  stairway  and  the  back 
hall,  D.  This  plan  may  be  modified  by  introducing  a china  chest  in  the  dining-room,  A, 
and  a door  from  the  front  hall  to  the  kitchen  ; or  other  simple  changes  to  suit  the  taste. 

The  second  story  may  be  finished  to  suit  the  taste  of  the  owner,  and  he  may  modify 
ihe  ground  floor  to  suit  his  personal  requirements. 

THE  ADORNMENT  AND  FURNISHING  OF  THE  HOUSE 

WITH  TASTE,  SIMPLICITY  AND  ECONOMY,  ADDING  TO  ITS  BEAUTY  AND  COMFORT 

ARMONY  OF  COLORS  FOR  CEILINGS,  WALLS,  CARPETS 
AND  FURNITURE. — In  connection  with  the  designs  and  plans  for 
homes  which  we  furnish  our  patrons  in  this  work,  it  is  pertinent  to  give 
some  general  hints  in  regard  to  furnishing  and  decorating  the  interior  of 
those  homes.  There  never  was  a time  when  the  opportunities  to  furnish 
t^e  homes  of  our  American  people  with  taste  and  beauty  were  more  ample  than  the 
present  or  came  so  completely  within  the  ability  of  the  most  humble  citizen. 

The  surroundings  of  a well-appointed  home  have  much  to  do  with  the  happiness 
and  comfort  of  the  inmates  who  gather  beneath  its  shelter.  It  is  the  bounden  duty  of 
every  man  who  would  maintain  a respectable  position  among  his  fellows  to  provide  for 


306 


THE  ARCHITECTURE  OF  THE  HOME. 


those  whom  he  loves  and  for  whose  comfort  he  is  responsible  a home  whose  beauty  and 
refinement  blend  with  simplicity  and  convenience. 


THE  DESIGN 
OF  THE  HOME. — 
The  lamented  Emer- 
son has  very  wisely 
and  beautifully  said  in 
his  Chapter  on  Do- 
oestic  Life  : “ Let 

us  understand  that  a 
home  should  bear 
witness  in  all  its  econ- 
omy that  human  cul- 
ture is  the  end  to 
which  it  is  built  and 
garnished.  It  stands 
there  under  the  sun 
and  moon  to  ends 
analagous  to  theirs— 
and  not  less  noble 
than  theirs.  It  is  not 
for  festivity  ; it  is  not 
for  sleep ; but  the  pine 


NO.  9— GARDEN  COTTAGE  TO  COST  $2,200.— The  upper  story  (plan  not 
given)  consists  of  four  bed-rooms  and  a bath-room.  See  No.  10. 


NO.  10 — GROUND  FLOOR. — 1,  Entrance  Porch. 
2,  Lobby.  3,  Drawing-room.  4,  Library  or  Bou- 
doir. 5,  Outside  Porch.  6,  Diningrooms.  7, 
Kitchen.  8,  Scullery.  No.  5 might  be  a Conserva- 
tory 


and  the  oak  shall  gladly  descend  from  the 
mountain  to  uphold  the  roof  of  man  as 
faithful  and  as  necessary  as  themselves,  to 
be  the  shelter — open  always  to  good  and 
true  persons — of  all  which  shines  with  sin- 
cerity, brows  ever  tranquil  and  a demeanor 
impossible  to  disconcert ; where  inmates 
know  what  they  want ; who  do  not  ask 
your  house  how  theirs  should  be  kept.’* 

That  sentiment  is  the  keynote  of  the 
whole  scope  and  design  of  a home.  It  is 
not  merely  a place  to  eat  and  drink,  sleep 
and  hang  up  one’s  garments,  but'  a place 
where  love  and  culture  unite  in  building  up 
the  highest  type  of  social  life  and  moulding 
human  character  after  the  best  models. 

Too  many  homes  lack  a distinct  in- 
dividuality of  their  own  and  are  copied 
after  the  same  pattern  as  others  have 
followed.  They  are  furnished  and  ar- 
ranged in  such  a manner,  because  the 
house  of  .some  other  person  thus  fur- 


THE  ARCHITECTURE  OF  THE  HOME. 


307 


nished  and  arranged.  The  sense  of  propriety  and  the  fitness  of  the  surroundings 
are  lost  sight  of  in  this  desire  to  follow  the  leadership  of  those  who  have  the  prestige 
of  wealth  and  social  position.  This  is  often  done  at  the  expense  of  taste  and  comfort 

NO.  ii— DESIGN  FOR  $2,500  SUBURBAN 
RESIDENCE.  In  selection  of  this  plan  the  architect 
has  avoided  all  useless  and  unsuitable  ornaments,  and 
chosen  cheap  but  at  the  same  time  substantial  ma- 
terial, so  that  not  a dollar  more  will  be  expended  in 
the  execution  of  this  design  than  the  same  accommo- 
dation would  cost  in  the  usual  plain  modes  of  build- 
ing. The  rooms  are  all  large  and  airy,  being  in  size 
as  follows^  (See  page  295.) 


Second  Floor  j No.  13. 

No.  13,  second  floor,  chamber,  15x17  ; 2 cham- 
bers, 15x14  ; bath  room,  5^x8.  The  porches  on 
the  front  side  and  the  neat  bay  window  in  the  draw- 
ing room  preserve  the  symmetrical  form  of  the 
building. 

The  building  is  intended  to  be  built  of  wood, 
but  brick  could  be  used  with  some  additional  ex- 
pense, and  if  finished  in  good  style  with  cellar  NO.  12 — FIRST  FLOOR. — Parlor,  15x17;  Dining' 
throughout  would  cost  about  $3,000,  perhaps  a little  room,  15x14,  exclusive  of  bay  window;  Kitchenv 
less  in  some  localities,  and  in  others  a few  hundred  15X.I4;  Pantry,  3x11;  Hall,  8 feet  wide;  Front  Porch, 
dollars  more.  6 feet  6 inches  wide;  Back  Porch,  11  feet  wide. 

and  without  due  regard  to  the  purpose  for  which  they  were  designed.  Culture, 
taste  and  a regard  to  the  effect  upon  the  whole  design  should  lead  every  one  to 
avoid  the  gaudy  display  and  common  decorations  which  cheapen  that  effect  and 
offend  the  critical  sensibilities.  Judgment  and  a nice  discrimination  of  “ the  eternal 
fitness  of  things”  should  govern  in  all  the  appointments  of  the  home,  so  that  the 
pleasure,  convenience  and  education  of  every  member  of  the  family  may  result  there- 
from. 

An  originality  and  distinct  individuality  of  character  should  distinguish  all  the 
arrangements  of  the  home  and  bespeak  the  character  of  its  inmates,  and  breathe  an  air 
of  comfort  which  delights  all  the  senses. 

WHAT  IS  TASTE. — Scott,  in  his  work  Decorative  Art,  has  defined  taste  to  be 
“ that  faculty  by  which  we  distinguish  whatever  is  graceful,  noble,  just  and  lovable,  in 
the  infinitely  varied  appearances  about  us,  and  in  the  works  of  the  decorative  and  im* 
itative  arts.  Immediate  impulse  in  the  presence  of  beauty  is  to  feel  and  admire; 
when  the  emotion  and  sentiment  are  strong,  we  are  compelled  to  imitate.”  An  ap- 
pearance of  taste  and  refinement  may  be  given  to  the  home  of  moderate  means  by 


308 


THE  ARCHITECTURE  OF  THE  HOME. 


a thousand  ana  one  little  adornments,  which  are  inexpensive  in  themselves,  but  which 
add  much  to  the  tasty  and  elegant  appearance  of  the  whole.  A cozy  chair  in  a recess, 
a bracket  against  the  wall,  a gauzy  curtain  artistically  draped,  a tiny  cabinet  with  its 
simple  treasures,  a divan,  a bit  of  embroidery,  a gracefully  arranged  stand  of  flowers, 
and  many  such  things  easily  procured,  distil  an  atmosphere  of  sweetness  about  the 
home  and  affect  every  member  of  the  family  for  good. 

The  correctness  of  taste  has  more  to  do  with  this  than  an  abundance  of  money. 
Costly  furniture,  rich  tapestry,  luxuriant  carpets,  and  expensive  works  of  art  do  not 
always  make  an  elegant  home.  Even  these  surroundings  of  wealth  may  have  their  effect 
NO.  14.  COUNTRY  CLERGYMAN’S  destroyed  by  an  utter  want  of  propriety  in  de- 


COTTAGE. — To  cost  $1,000  or  $1,200,  and  to 
contain  upon  the  first  floor  No.  15  parlor,  study, 
bed  rooms,  sitting  room,  kitchen  and  pantries. 


First  Floor  ; No.  15. 

The  external  appearance  of  this  house  is  neat 
and  proper  without  showing  pretension.  A door 
at  D opens  on  the  veranda.  In  the  study  are 
book-cases  with  closets  for  paper  atBB.  The 
parlor  is  13x16  feet  on  one  side  of  the  hall  and  a 
corresponding  dining  room  on  the  other  side, 
the  latter  having  two  convenient  closets  so 
placed  at  the  end  of  the  room  as  to  form  a kind 
of  bay  window  effect.  There  is  also  a kitchen,  a 
bed  room  for  the  clergyman  and  his  wife,  and  a 
child’s  bed  room  all  in  connection.  The  door  A 
should  be  glazed  in  order  to  light  the  back  en 
try  more  completely.  If  a communication  be- 
tween the  bed  room  and  the  entry  is  thought 
more  desirable  than  the  closets,  a door  may  be 
placed  there  instead  of  the  closets. 


sign,  color  or  arrangement.  The  eye  is  bur- 
dened with  a profuse  display  and  the  sensibili- 
ties shocked  by  disregard  of  artistic  taste. 
Some  thing  must  have  been  dragged  into  the 
room  which  destroys  all  the  beauty  and  ele- 
gance of  the  whole.  The  quiet  refinement  of 
a simple  home,  where  the  intuitive  taste  and 
judgment  of  a woman  of  culture  has  directed 
with  delicate  hands  the  decoration,  is  far  better 
than  the  gorgeous  display  devoid  of  these.  The 
combination  of  simplicity  and  taste  should  be 
carried  out  in  all  the  departments  of  a home. 
Each  room  should  be  furnished  and  adorned 
with  relation  to  the  design  for  which  it  was  in- 
tended. This  may  be  accomplished  at  a tri- 
fling outlay,  and  yet  to  the  artistic  eye  be  in 
proper  harmony  and  correct  contrast.  A taste- 
ful home  so  far  from  being,  as  many  think 
“ an  expensive  luxury,”  is  within  the  moderate 
ability  of  any  lady  in  the  possession  of  ordi- 
nary strength  and  average  health.  By  the 
proper  management  of  the  little  details  and  a 
judicious  expenditure  of  time  and  skill  she  may 
make  for  herself  and  family  a beautiful  home* 
adorned  with  comparative  luxury. 


FURNITURE  AND  DECORATION. — 
Here  are  certain  essential  points  to  be  ob- 
served in  th~  furniture  and  decoration* 
They  are  these : A regard  for  beauty  in  form; 
a harmonious  combination  of  colors  and  the 
appropriate  fitness  of  each  article  fo;  the  par- 
ticular purpose  for  which  it  is  designed. 


THE  ARCHITECTURE  OF  THE  HOME. 


309 


Utility  and  ornament  ought  to  be  blended,  but  in  the  past,  especially  in  the  houses 
of  our  American  families,  the  practical  has  held  the  chief  place  in  all  its  appointments. 
While  the  useful  should  reign  as  king  in  the  household  domain,  the  ornamental  at  least 
should  bear  sway  as  queen  and  both  reign  over  a united  kingdom  of  peace  and  beauty 
With  this  thought  in  view,  let  us  furnish  our  homes  and  make  them  attractive  to  child 
and  parent  alike. 


No.  16  ; Rear  of  Country  Clergyman’s  Cottage. 

No.  16  is  a small  sketch  showing  the  rear  of 
the  cottage.  The  first  story  being  eleven  feet  in 
the  dear,  the  posts  for  the  frame  of  this  cottage 
•*rould  be  seventeen  feet  long.  The  outside  is 
designed  to  be  covered  with  vertical  sidings  and 


No.  17  ; Second  Floor. 

The  Second  Floor  plan,  No.  17,  shows  five  bed  rooms 
with  a closet,  a , a , a , a , a , to  each.  The  dotted  lines 


battens. 

No  18.— AN  AMERICAN  COT- 
TAGE.— (See  elevation). — This  cottage 
is  intended  to  be  of  stone.  It  is  design- 
ed so  as  to  be  adapted  particularly  as  a 
summer  residence,  although  it  will 
make  an  admirable  and  comfortable 
home  at  any  season.  The  rooms  are 
large.  The  roof  may  be  of  shingles  or 
slate,  and  the  superstructure  of  rubble 
masonry  painted.  The  estimate  for  this 
house  is  $7,000. 


GROUND  PLAN,  NO.  19. 

A,  parlor,  16x30  feet  ; B,  porch,  C, 
main  hall  16x16  feet  J D,  sitting  room, 
16x16  ; E,  dining-room,  13x16  feet}  F, 
kitchen,  16x18  feet. 


shows  the  roof  of  the  veranda. 


WALL  PAPER  AND  CARPETS. — The 
paper  on  the  wall  is  designed  to  act  as  a background 
for  whatever  the  room  may  contain  in  the  way  of 
decoration  and  furniture,  and  the  carpet  as  the 
groundwork  for  the  same.  There  should  be  a happy 
blending  of  harmonious  colors  and  design,  always 
bearing  in  mind  the  natural  arrangements  of  each 
While  the  back- 
ground of  a pic- 
ture is  the  part 
that  is  least  no- 
ticed in  the  general 
effect,  it  is  often 
that  part  which 
causes  the  artist 
the  most  trouble, 
and  requires  the 
most  painstaking 
care  and  delicate 
taste.  Regard  must 
be  had  to  the  size 
of  the  room  and  ment  of  the  rooms  can  be  modified  to  suit 
the  height  of  its taste  or  necessity.  The  elevation  shows  a 
. beautiful  and  not  too  ornate  exterior  and 

walls.  Dead  white ..  , , . , . , 

if  made  of  stone  or  brick  it  will  prove  a 
Walls  are  always  most  satisfactory  and  substantial  home. 


SECOND  FLOOR,  NO  20* 

The  second  floor  contains  four  fine  cham- 
bers, as  shown  in  the  plan.  The  third  floor 
two  attic  rooms.  Of  course  the  arrange- 


310 


THE  ARCHITECTURE  OF  THE  HOME. 


parlor  or  a living  room. 


objectionable,  and  no  pictures  or  decorations  can  relieve  them  and  prevent  the  bare, 
blank  spaces  from  standing  out  in  hideous  and  painful  contrast.  If  the  general  plan 
corresponds  therewith  a light  tint  may  be  allowed  but  rarely.  A carpet  whose 
ground  work  is  light,  is  also  objectionable  unless  the  whole  plan  for  the 
color  of  the  room  is  also  light,  and  even  then  the  carpet  should  be  darker  than  the 
No.  21— suburban  COTTAGE  wall,  and  the  wall 

paPer  always  dark- 

over  ornamented,  a great  fault  with  many  er  than  the  tinted 
modern  houses.  The  rooms  are  large  and  .■>.  p.  , 

conveniently  arranged.  Every  room  of  ceiling.  Un  tne 
the  ground  floor  is  pleasant  enough  for  a other  hand,  Very 

dark  walls  and  car- 
pet will  cause  a 
gloomy  aspect  by 
absorbing  the  light. 

A tint  of  medium 
color,  which  will 
serve  to  make  the 
objects  against  it 
stand  out  in  relief* 
is  preferable  to 
either  extreme. 

Beautiful  tints  for 
parlor  walls  are 
found  in  French 


SECOND  STORY,  NO.  23. 

A,  Bed  Room  14  ft.  5 in.xn  ft.  9 in.; 
B,  chamber,  18-9x15  ; C C,  Halls  ; D, 
Bed  Room,  9-6x11  ; E,  Bed  Room,  14- 
6x11  ; F,  servant’s  Bed  Room,  12-6x14- 
6 ; G,  passge  3 ft.  6 in.  in  width. 


pearl  gray,  a pale  buff,  delicate  green,  or  warm  stone 
color.  There  is  a slight  tint  of  pink  like  the  lining 

ground  plan,  no.  22.  0f  sea_shells  which  looks  very  lovely  and  combines 

No.  22.— GROUND  PLAN.— D.  R.,  „ . , . y J f . 

Rining  Room,  18  ft.  9 in.xis  feet ; Parlor  well  with  almost  every  variety  of  furnishing. 
180x146:  Library,  15x14  6;  Kitchen,  ,T71  c A A,  , r . 

12  6x13  6 ; Wash-Room,  12x8  ; Hall  6 When  we  refer  to  the  colors  of  a room,  we  do 

feet  5 inches  m width.  not  signify  that  the  walls  are  to  be  of  one  uniform 

color,  but  the  predominant  color  is  mentioned  which  may  exist  with  an  endless 
variety  of  patterns,  and  mingling  of  appropriate  colors.  A shade  of  dark  almost  in- 
visible green,  broken  by  narrow,  gilt  panels,  would  harmonize  well  with  furniture 
upholstered  in  light  green.  With  dark  woodwork  a pleasing  effect  is  produced  by  a pale 
lemon  or  apricot.  We  insert  the  following  statement  of 

COLORS  WHICH  HARMONIZE  AND  CONTRAST.— Brown  contrasts  witfe 


white,  and  blue  harmonizes  with  yellow  and  black. 

White  contrasts  with  black,  but  brown  harmonizes. 

Yellow  contrasts  purple,  and  white  harmonizes  with  orange  and  pale  shades. 
Red  contrasts  with  green,  but  harmonizes  with  crimson. 

Orange  contrasts  with  blue,  but  harmonizes  with  rose  pink. 

Black  contrasts  with  pale  colors  and  harmonizes  with  deep  shades. 

Green  contrasts  with  red,  and  harmonizes  with  yellow. 

Purple  contrasts  with  yellow,  and  white  harmonizes  with  crimson. 


THE  ARCHITECTURE  OF  THE  HOME. 


S13 


To  form  ground  colors.  Red  with  pale  blue,  yellow,  green  and  pearl. 

Good  effects  are  produced  by  white,  with  shades  of  red,  green,  violet,  purple,  blue 
and  brown. 

Black  with  drab,  salmon,  purple,  light  blue,  gold,  pink  and  lemon. 

Green  with  gray,  yellow,  pearl,  stone,  flesh,  dove,  lemon,  purple,  pink  and  lighter 
green. 

Blue,  with  light  drabs,  with  yellows,  salmon,  pink,  lighter  blue  and  buff. 

CONTRASTS  IN  COLORS  REQUIRED. — There  is  danger  that  certain  colors 
of  the  same  depth  of  tone,  without  a neutralizing  tint  between  them,  will  produce  a mud- 
dled or  dirty  appearance  if  placed  side  by  side  ; such  as  blue,  green  and  red.  But  light 
blue  with  dark  green  will  look  well  if  a line  of  mutual  contrast  comes  between  them. 
Pale  shades  of  yellow  and  blue  on  black  ground,  wrought  in  flowing  arabesque  patterns  pro- 
duce a pleasing  effect,  and  also  brown  grounds  with  mosaic  designs  and  shades  of  dull  red 
and  tawny  yellow  on  different  ground.  Sometimes  the  most  flagrant  violation  of  cor- 
rect taste  are  found  in  the  combination  of  colors  even  in  the  rich  designs  of  carpets,  and 
we  trust  that  no  one  who  reads  these  pages  will  allow  these  to  be  urged  upon  them  be- 
cause they  are  beautiful  in  design  or  rich  in  material.  The  point  of  observation  for  a 
carpet  is  from  above, 
and  when  selecting  one 
this  should  be  remem- 


bered, and  the  person 
should  judge  the  de- 
sign and  colors  with 
this  thought  in  mind. 
The  design  should  be 
perfectly  flat,  with  no 
attempt  to  perspective, 
such  as  would  be  suita- 
ble for  wall  decoration, 
and  such  effect  as  would 
look  well  in  a picture 


connection  that  good 
taste  ought  to  govern. 

THE  CEILING.— 
Two  difficult  things  to 
manage  in  a room  are 
white  wood  work  and 
white  ceiling,  because 
they  too  often  put  all 
its  appointments  out  of 
time.  If  a light  shade 
of  paper  is  used  the 


CHEAP  COTTAGE,  NO.  24. 

SOME  CHEAP  COTTAGES.— The  accom. 
panying  designs  may  be"  constructed  in  either  effect  IS  not  SO  bad. 
Would  be  Out  of  place  Stone  or  brick.  The  walls,  if  stone,  should  be 
, 14  inches  thick;  if  brick,  8 inches. 

m the  carpet,  upon  The  living 

room,  marked  A,  has  two  bed 
which  One  is  to  Stand  rooms  at  its  rear,  a kitchen  on  the  left,  and  hall 

entrance  on  the  right.  The  second,  or  hall  story.  par£  ^ve  never  could 

rritrpc  . room c pq r*h  of  thpcp  * 

the 


the  contrast  is  not  so 
striking.  For  our  own 

vu  xnu  ^vwiiu,  jr  hnll  Ctnrv 

and  look  downward.  It  gives  bed-rooms  over  each  of  these, 
is  enough  to  say  in  this  see  w^y  ^he  ceiling 

should  be  a uniform  white,  when  an  agreeable  tint  can  be  imparted  so  easily.  While  we 
are  not  in  favor  of  highly  decorated  ceilings  for  rooms  of  ordinary  size,  yet  we  think 
there  should  be  some  change  from  the  clear  white.  In  a room  whose  walls  are  covered 
with  paper  of  subdued  gray  or  other  similar  tint,  the  ceiling  can  be  calsomined 
with  the  same  tint  three  or  four  shades  lighter,  and  a border  made  with  bands  of  paper 
in  designs  of  walnut  wood,  and  the  ground  lines  shaded  in  gray,  with  fancy  corners  and 
centre  piece  of  the  same,  with  a thread  of  gold  along  the  edge.  This  would  have  a 
pleasing  effect,  and  the  imitation  would  be  hard  to  detect,  even  with  a critical  eye. 


314 


THE  ARCHITECTURE  OF  THE  HOME. 


KALSOMINING. — There  can  be  no  more  beautiful  and  appropriate  covering  for 
the  walls  of  a small  room  with  low  ceiling  than  some  one  of  the  exquisite  tints  formed 
by  uniting  a little  color  powder,  lavender,  peach  blossom,  blue,  delicate  gray  or  violet 
with  the  calsomining  mixture. 

FURNITURE  AND  HANGINGS. — An  important  matter  in  regard  to  the  furni- 
ture and  the  hanging,  and  one  which  too  many  enterprising  furniture  dealers  disregard, 
is  the  color  and  combination  of  colors.  A hue  that  may  be  proper  in  one  kind  of  ma- 
terial may  be  the  reverse  in  another.  For  example,  satin  may  appear  gorgeous  in  yel- 
low, but  cloths  of  the  same  hue  would  be  detestable.  What  in  flannel  would  seem  to  be 

nothing  but  a dirty  white,  in  fine  cashmere  or  heavy 
silk  would  appear  elegant.  Green  and  red  of  the  same 
depth  never  go  well  together,  for  although  they  are 
complementary  colors,  the  effect  is  unpleasant ; but  a 
delicate  sea-green  will  contrast  finely  with  Indian  red 
or  deep  crimson.  Some  one  has  written  the  following  : 
“ As  lovely  a drawing  room  as  we  ever  saw  in  point 
of  color  was  carpeted  with  gray  felt  with  a deep  dark- 
blue  bordering ; the  lounges  and  chairs  were  covered 
with  chintz  in  the  most  delicate  shade  of  robin’s- egg, 
or  gaslight  blue,  as  the  wool  dealers  call  it ; the  re- 
mainder was  of  wicker-work  and  black  lacquer;  and  the 
heavy  pieces  of  furniture  were  in  black  lacquer  and  gilt  ; 
the  curtains  were  of  snowy  muslin  under  lambrequins  of 
chintz ; and  the  rest  of  the  room  was  made  up  of  vases, 
tripods,  cups,  pictures,  flowers,  and  sunshine,  till  it 
seemed  to  overflow  with  harmonious  color.” 

A grand  rich  carpet  does  not  make  a furnished  room  in  itself,  while  a plain  straw 
matting,  with  tasteful  mats  and  rugs  of  home  manufacture,  with  appropriate  articles  for 
use  and  a display  of  flowers  and  plants,  is  both  furnished  and  attractive.  There  must 
be  a happy  blending  of  all  the  surroundings. 

A ROOM  FOR  USE. — The  apartment  that  has  the  air  of  being  kept  not  for  use, 
but  display,  though  it  may  be  artistic,  is  most  unattractive  . “ The  best  chairs  and  sofas, 

are  those  which  you  like  best  and  those  which  conform  to  the  natural  contour  of  the 
human  figure  in  repose.”  Let  the  entire  furniture  be  serviceable,  and  such  as  will  add 
to  the  comfort  of  the  occupant ; in  the  parlor,  not  less  than  in  the  living  room  of  the 
family. 

WINDOWS. — Windows  require  much  attention  in  properly  furnishing.  The  de- 
sign of  the  window  is  to  admit  the  light  and  to  afford  the  occupant  glimpses  of 
die  outer  world.  Therefore,  too  much  elaboration  should  not  be  attempted. 
if  the  immediate  surroundings  of  the  outside  do  not  happen  to  be  agreeable,  then 
there  may  be  some  excuse  for  an  artistic  attempt  to  exclude  it  from  view  ; but  an 
unobstructed  view  of  pleasant  fields  and  hill  slopes,  an  outlook  into  the  garden,  and  the 
sight  of  the  living  panorama  of  nature  is  worth  more  than  all  the  artistic  glass  painting 
and  rose-tinted  shades  that  inventive  art  have  ever  devised. 


GROUND  PLAN,  NO.  25. 


The  living  room  marked  A has  two 
bed-rooms  at  its  rear,  a kitchen  on 
the  left,  and  hall  entrance  on  the 
right.  The  second  or  half  story  gives 
bed-rooms  over  each  of  these. 


THE  ARCHITECTURE  OF  THE  HOME. 


315 


No.  27 — First  Floor.— P,  Parlor;  D,  Din- 
ing-room; K,  Kitchen;  BB,  Bed-rooms;  C. 
Closet;  E,  Bath;  P,  Pantry;  VV,  Verandas; 
W,  Woodhouse. 


CURTAINS. — In  this  day,  when  the  raa-  no.  26— rural  gothic  farmhouse,  to  cosi 
„ . J $1,100.— See  Elevation, 

terials  and  designs  of  curtains  are  so  numerous, 

there  is  the  widest  range  for  the  display  of  taste 
in  curtains  and  shades  for  the  windows  of  every 
room  in  the  house.  It  would  be  useless  to  at- 
tempt to  give  any  very  definite  direction  in  re- 
gard to  them.  A sense  of  propriety  and  the 
fitness  of  things  should  govern.  To  produce 
the  best  effect,  lace  curtains  should  never  be 
hung  without  thick  ones  of  a decided  color  either 
over  or  under  them.  Inside  curtains  of  two  feet 
in  length  may  properly  by  used  with  them.  The 
effect  of  white  Hollands  is  to  subdue  and  soften 
the  light,  and  they  make  the  most  satisfactory 
shades  for  such  purposes.  But  crimson  and 
scarlet  hues  may  be  used,  as  the  delicate 
shadows  cast  by  them  are  at  the  same  time 
cheerful  and  becoming.  An  edging  of  lace  and 
a bow  of  blue  or  rose-colored  ribbon  in  the  cen- 
tre just  above  it  adds  to  the  beauty  of  the  white 
shade.  Avoid  the  use  of  dark  and  heavy 
lambrequins,  which  exclude  the  light  and  darken  the  room.  Under  no  circumstances 
shut  out  the  needed  light  or  prevent  a glimpse  upon  the  outside  when  that  is  desirable. 

THE  DINING-ROOM. — The  common  fault  with  our  American  houses  is  that 
this  room  rarely  expresses  the  purpose  for  which  it  was  designed.  It  is  too  often  merely 
the  “ eating-room,”  and  an  old  work  soberly  puts  forth  the  advice  that  the  dining- 
room should  contain  nothing  that  would  tend  to  divert  the  mind  from  that  occupation. 
The  fact  is  that  this  room  should,  by  its  cheerful  and  pleasing  appearance,  be  made  as 
inviting  to  the  eye  as  any  room  in  the  house.  The  articles  required  for  daily  use  should 
be  not  only  strong,  honest,  real  and  simple,  but  should  possess  a dignity  and  taste  which 
are  indispensable  to  a proper  furnishing  of  a room.  Let  the  furniture  then  be  tasteful 
and  serviceable,  the  walls  adorned  with  proper  pictures,  the  floor  with  a harmonious 
carpet,  and  all  the  appointments  of  the  house  in  keeping  with  the  general  idea  of  refine- 
ment and  culture.  We  have  already  spoken  of  the  adornment  of  the  table,  and  refer 
the  reader  to  our  chapter  on  page  371  of  this  volume. 

THE  LIBRARY. — In  all  homes  there  should  be  one  room  in  the  house  where 
the  books,  of  which  there  ought  to  be  a good  supply,  may  be  suitably  kept  for  preser- 
vation and  reference.  However  humble  the  home  may  be,  this  library  should  find  a 
place,  even  though  a separate  room  cannot  be  devoted  to  it. 

BED-ROOMS.  — The  various  theories  which  have  been  put  forth  in  regard  to  sleep- 
ing rooms  are  legion  and  would  comprise  a volume  in  themselves.  We  will  venture  only 
a few  general  hints.  Ventilation  and  light  are  the  essential  points  and  are  required  by 
the  laws  of  hygiene  and  good  sense.  In  reference  to  the  furnishing  and  arrangement 
of  these  rooms  but  little  need  be  said.  Quite  often  these  rooms  are  used  from  necessity 


316 


THE  ARCHITECTURE  OF  THE  HOME. 


for  dressing-room,  sitting-room,  study,  bath-room  and  boudoir,  all  in  one,  and  what  would 
be  applicable  in  one  case  would  be  inappropriate  in  another.  Either  one  of  two  extremes 
must  be  avoided — a barren,  cold,  uninviting  aspect,  on  the  one  hand,  and  an  over-bur- 
dened and  fussy  appearance  on  the  other.  There  must  be  of  necessity  a marked  indi- 
viduality in  the  sleeping  room  which  partakes  of 
the  characteristics  of  the  one  who  occupies  it. 
The  air  of  his  or  her  presence  pervades  it,  and 
each  room  has  an  aspect  peculiar  to  itself.  The 
furnishing  of  the  room  should  accord  to  the  indi- 
vidual’s tastes  and  peculiarities,  so  that  he  may 
always  feel  that  this  is  his  room. 

THE  HALLS. — The  first  approach  to  a 
house  should  partake  of  the  general  plan  of  the 
whole,  and  impart  to 
him  who  enters  it  the 
hint  of  what  he  may 
find  beyond  the  outer 
courts  of  its  sanctuary. 

Once  across  the  thresh- 
old which  separates  it 

No.  28 — second  floor. — BBB,  Bed-rooms;  r , 

ni.  u * r>  *rom  the  great  OUtSlde 

C,  Chamber;  CC,  Closet;  P,  Passage.  The  & 

part  containing  the  two  bed-rooms,  bathing  world,  he  should  be 
and  clothes  room  is  quite  economically  ob-  able  to  discover  SOme- 
tained,  it  being  a lean-to  addition,  one  story  j-j^no.  of  the  Spirit 
high,  with  a flatish  roof.  Above  this  is  a . . . . . 

gabled  window,  with  its  stool  resting  on  this  whlch  Pervades  t h e 
roof.  The  gable  rises  to  the  height  of  the  family  and  the  genius 
roof,  thus  breaking  the  otherwise  monoton-  which  presides  Over  its 
ous  appearance  of  that  side  of  the  building  destinies  The  C a r - 

and  balancing,  in  a degree,  the  mass  of  the  ^ -n  • 1 

Other  Side.  pets  .walls, pictures  and 

The  main  roof  rises  at  an  angle  of  450  ; furniture  of  the  hall, 
the  woodhouse  part  is  one  story — roof  one-  should  be  neither  bet- 
fourth  pitch.  The  inside  is  finished  appro-  ternor  poorer  than  that 
priately,  plain  and  neat.  The  lower  story  is  . 

9 feet  high  in  the  clear;  the  upper  story;  fin-  which  he  may  expect  ^os#  ^ and  30. — These  are 
ished  to  cellar  beams,  is  8 feet  6 inches.  The  within  the  Other  apart-  plans  of  a superior  class  of  cot- 
cellar  under  kitchen  and  dining  room  is  well  mentS  of  the  house,  tage  suitable  for  a merchant,  shop- 

lighted  and  the  chimney  standing  in  the  centre  ^ sense  of  unitv  or  deeper,  artisan  or  clerk,  though 

is  furnished  with  openings  for  ventilation;  . . . „ none  the  less  adapted  to  the  thrifty 

with  this  arrangement  the  cellar  can  be  kept  Unity  in  variety,  laborer.  A is  the  parlor,  with  its 

sweet  and  wholesome.  should  govern  the  bay  window,  J;  B,  the  dining- 

The  bathing  room  is  easily  accessible,  it  whole.  room;  C,  the  kitchen,  with  iis 

being  connected  with  the  kitchen  and  bed-  shelved  pantry,  H;  D,  the  hall;  E, 

room,  which  renders  it  convenient  and  CONCLUSION. — the  vestibule;  F,  staircase;  S# 
useful.  The  cost  of  this  house,  with  a With  these  general  chamber;  I,  porch.  The  second 
light  timber  frame,  clapboard  lined  on  inside  0bservationS  upon  a st0IT»  AAA— A,  bed-rooms;  B, 
with  inch  lumber,  then  furred  with  strip  lath,  - hall;  C,  dressing-room;  t>,  bath- 

lathed  and  plastered,  with  two  coats  finish,  is  sukject  O SO  grea  room  and  water  closet;  E,  roof  of 
about  $1  100.  importance  to  all,  we  bay  window. 


THE  ARCHITECTURE  OF  THE  HOME. 


317 


ieave  our  readers  to  follow  the  suggestions  which  they  contain.  The  questions 
which  arise  in  connection  with  the  subject  are  numerous  and  susceptible  of  differ- 
ent answers,  and  would  require  .extended  treatment.  What  we  have  said  in  this 
general  way  is  merely  an  outline,  to  be  filled  up  in  its  details  by  the  taste  and  judgment 
of  each  one  interested.  It  is  simply  impossible  to  give  - a few  rigid  rules  from  which 
there  can  be  no  deviation.  Above  all  things,  avoid  being  a mere  imitator  of  some  one 

else,  but  display  your  own 
personal  taste  and  judg- 
ment in  this  matter,  and 
you  will  find  that  it  does 
not  require  a prodigal  ex- 
penditure of  money  to 
make  the  home  the  attrac- 
tive abode  of  beauty  and 
comfort.  The  interesting 
and  valuable  article  of 
the  Rev.  Dr.  Dennen 
(page  281-287)  on  “ Home 
Life  and  Happiness’  has  an 

No.  31— Front  Elevation.  intimate  connection  with  No*  32— Ground  Plan. 


Nos.  33,  34,  35  AND  36 — A PLAN  OF  A BLOCK  OF  FOUR  HOUSES. 


The  plan  represents  the  ground  floor  of  a block  of  four  houses,  two  or  more  stories  high,  built  of  wood 
or  brick.  It  is  suitable  for  the  city  or  for  a manufacturing  village,  and  may  be  built  plain  or  ornamental,  as 
the  owner  may  wish.  The  two  pairs  are  homogeneous  and  similar,  as  shown  in  the  subjoined  cut. 

The  one  at  the  end  is  designated  with  description  to  suit  each.  The  living  room  in  front,  11x13,  has  a 
square  bay  window.  The  hall  opens  from  the  vestibule  and  into  the  living  room  and  kitchen.  The  latter  is 
the  same  size  as  the  former,  and  contains  the  pantry  and  china  closet,  each  5x5.  A staircase  leads  from  the 
hall  to  the  second  story. 


this  subject,  and  the  reader  will  be  more  than  repaid  for  perusing  it  a second  or  third 
time.  The  practical  and  sensible  advice  which  he  has  presented  in  so  pleasing  a form 
ought  to  be  the  guide  in  every  home  and  family. 


THE  ART  OF  COOKERY; 


OR,  DOMESTIC  ECONOMY  IN  THE  KITCHEN, 

For  the  Prudent  American  Housewife. 


HE  art  of  preparing  savory  and  inviting  food,  that  will  be  at  the  same  time 
both  wholesome  and  palatable,  is  one  that  it  is  the  duty  of  all  housekeepers 
to  acquire  in  their  first  experience  of  married  life.  When  we  consider 
that  this  physical  nature  of  ours  requires  so  much  attention  and  care  to 
preserve  its  strength  and  health,  and  a constant  supply  to  meet  the  corre- 
spondingly constant  waste,  it  does  not  appear  that  the  profession  of  a cook  is  one  which 
should  be  ignored  among  sensible  men  and  women.  Among  all  civilized  nations  a due 
regard  is  paid  to  gastronomic  matters,  and  the  evidences  of  refinement  are  seen  where 
these  have  attained  the  highest  perfection.  The  prudent  wife  who  would  live  within  her 
husband’s  income,  and  at  the  same  time  would  preserve  the  happiness  of  home,  as  well  as 
the  health  of  her  family,  will  feel  herself  in  duty  bound  to  perfect  herself  in  the  best  meth' 
ods.  The  early  training  of  marriageable  daughters  should  include  this  all-important  in- 
struction. We  are  heartily  glad  that  the  subject  is  beginning  to  attract  the  attention 
that  is  due  to  this.  As  the  mother  of  the  writer  was  accustomed  to  observe,  years  ago, 
“ Every  institution  for  the  education  of  young  ladies  ought  to  have  a professorship  of 
Domestic  Economy,”  That  mother  would  have  been  amply  fitted  to  fill  the  chair  of 
such  a professorship.  Of  course  very  much  must  depend  upon  the  circumstances  in  each 
case,  and  it  is  unwise,  if  not  impossible,  to  prescribe  any  system  which  can  be  generally 
applied  without  some  modification.  The  hints  we  give  pertain  to  families  in  the  ordi- 
nary walks  of  life,  and  will  be  found  serviceable  to  all.  No  one  family  should  measure  its 
style  of  living  by  what  another  family  does.  The  resources,  the  tastes,  the  happiness, 
and,  above  all,  the  health  of  the  family,  are  items  to  be  taken  into  account. 

THE  KITCHEN. 

The  culinary  department,  if  it  is  to  be  the  abode  of  a human  being,  either  the  mistress 
of  the  house  or  a subordinate  for  a large  part  of  the  waking  hours,  should  be  convenient, 
attractive  and  pleasant.  This  should  especially  be  the  case  if  the  kitchen  is,  at  the  same 
time,  to  be  the  living  room  of  the  family.  Let  it  be  the  pleasantest  in  the  house.  “ Our 
girl  Maria”  was  correct  when  she  said,  “ For  my  part,  I do  not  see  why  a kitchen,  of  all 


THE  ART  OF  COOKERY. 


319 


the  rooms  in  the  house,  should  be  built  like  a dark  box,  with  the  sole  prevailing  idea  of 
work , work.  I think  that  the  baking  of  bread  and  pies,  the  broiling  of  meats  and  fish, 
ought  to  be  made  as  pleasant  as  any  other  part  of  house  work.”  I do  not  see  how  any 
sensible  woman  can  endure  the  drudgery  of  a kitchen,  such  as  may  be  found,  with  only 
one  window,  and  that  over  the  sink,  with  dark,  dingy  walls,  and  so  contracted  that  sitting 
in  a stiff-backed  chair  in  the  center,  she  can  touch  them  on  all  sides.  Let  this  room  be 
light  and  airy,  so  large  that  the  furniture  needed  for  convenience  shall  not  crowd  one 
piece  upon  another,  and  with  an  appearance  of  home-like  comfort.  The  appurtenances 
and  utensils  should  be  arranged  in  order,  with  a neatness  and  propriety  such  as  the  native 
good  taste  of  a true  woman  would  suggest ; the  walls  made  cheerful  with  attractive  paper 
and  pictures  and  growing  flowers,  arranged  to  receive  the  light.  To  quote 
from  “ our  Maria”  again : “ I do  think,  that  until  some  contrivance  is  invented  to  carry 
off  the  smoke,  steam  and  odor  of  cooking,  which  will  arise  in  spite  of  the  utmost  care, 
all  the  ventilation,  sun-light  and  attractions  will  be  of  little  avail ; and  when  that  time 
comes  the  millennium  of  housekeeping  will  set  in,  and  I shall  not  be  there.”  With  this 
improvement  the  kitchen  might  be  made  the  most  pleasant  room  in  the  house,  and  we 
hope  that  “ Maria  ” will  live  to  see  the  happy  day  in  a kitchen  of  her  own. 

UTENSILS  FOR  COOKING. 

They  should  be  made  of  pottery  ware,  wood,  glass  or  metal,  each  of  which  has  its 
suitable  uses  in  preference  to  the  others.  A proper  knowledge  of  chemical  effects  upon 
certain  metals  is  imperatively  necessary  to  avoid  ill  consequences  to  health,  if  not  imme- 
diate danger  to  life.  Silver  is  indissoluble  by  any  substances  proper  for  food,  although 
the  sulphates  unite  with  it  and  form  a crust,  giving  the  appearance  of  varnish,  which 
may  come  off  into  the  food  ; but  this  is  not  liable  to  happen  often.  The  discoloring  of 
silver  used  in  beating  eggs  is  caused  by  this. 

Copper  and  brass  are  dissoluble  with  vinegar,  the  acid  of  certain  fruits  and  pearl- 
ash,  and  the  compound  is  highly  poisonous.  Let  vessels  made  of  these  metals  be  lined 
with  tin.  Do  not  suffer  ashes  or  pearlash  to  remain  long  in  such  vessels. 

Block  tin  is  made  of  thin  sheets  of  iron  covered  with  tin.  This  is  as  dissoluble  as 
the  copper  or  brass,  but  less  harmful.  Iron  is  the  safest  metal  for  cooking  purposes,  and 
the  chief  objection  is  its  liability  to  rust,  causing  labor  in  cleaning.  Orange  peel,  quinces 
and  artichokes,  &c.,  are  turned  black  by  iron,  and  should  not  stand  in  vessels  made  of 
this  material.  Leaden  vessels  should  never  be  used  for  milk,  cream  or  salted  provisions. 

Oriental  china  is  enamelled  with  perfect  glues  which  cannot  be  dissolved.  English 
pottery  is  badly  glazed  with  lead  and  unsafe  for  acids.  Glass  vessels  are  better  than  any 
pottery  except  Oriental  ware,  and  should  be  used  in  preference  for  keeping  pickles  or 
salted  substances. 

Wooden  ware  may  be  used  for  many  articles,  but  when  once  impregnated  with  taint 
of  any  kind,  will  impart  it  to  other  substances. 

Hollow  iron  ware,  lined  with  enamel,  is  to  be  preferred  for  all  cooking  purposes 


320 


THE  ART  OF  COOKERY. 


CHOOSING  AND  PURCHASING  SUPPLIES. 

BEEF,  if  it  is  young,  will  be  of  a good  red  color,  with  fine  open  grain,  and  the  fatty 
parts  white  and  clear.  The  beef  from  a cow  will  be  closer  than  that  from  an  ox,  and  the 
lean  part  not  so  red,  but  the  fat  white.  When  the  beef  is  deep  red,  the  fat  hard  and 
skinny,  it  is  of  inferior  quality.  When  the  beef  has  a line  of  horny  substance  running 
between  the  ribs,  you  may  be  sure  that  the  animal  was  an  old  one. 

MUTTON  is  regarded  prime  when  five  years  old.  The  firmness  and  fineness  of  its 
texture,  good  color,  and  white  firm  fat  are  marks  for  choosing. 

LAMB. — Will  spoil  soon  after  it  has  been  slaughtered.  If  kept  too  long  the  veins  in 
the  neck  will  have  a greenish  tinge,  instead  of  the  normal  bluish  hue.  In  the  hind  quarter 
examine  the  kidney  and  knuckle  for  the  same  marks.  If  kept  too  long  the  knuckle  will 
not  have  the  firm  appearance  which  it  otherwise  would  have. 

VEAL — Should  be  of  a delicate  whiteness,  though  a deeper  color  is  more  juicy  and  well 
flavored.  The  cruel  practice  of  bleeding  calves  to  produce  the  delicate  white  color  robs 
the  meat  of  its  flavor  and  nourishment.  The  loin  will  furnish  the  best  chance  of  any  part 
to  judge  of  veal.  If  the  kidney  be  surrounded  with  fat,  firm  and  white,  deeply  imbedded 
therein  it  is  good,  but  if  the  suet  is  soft  and  the  meat  of  the  kidney  flabby,  the  animal  has 
been  kept  too  long. 

PORK. — The  meat  will  be  smooth  and  cool  to  the  touch  if  it  is  fresh.  When  flabby 
and  clinging  it  is  not  good.  The  rind  should  be  thin.  If  there  are  enlarged  glands  or 
kernels,  so-called  in  the  pork,  avoid  it  for  it  is  unhealthy. 

BACON. — Should  have  the  fat  firm  and  of  a reddish  tinge.  The  lean  should  be 
firm  to  the  bone,  with  no  yellowish  streaks  in  it.  A knife  stuck  into  the  bacon  should 
come  out  not  having  any  meat  sticking  to  it  and  with  no  unpleasant  odor. 

TO  SELECT  FISH. 

COD. — Can  be  judged  by  the  redness  of  the  gills.  The  flesh  should  be  white,  stiff 
and  firm,  and  the  eyes  have  a fresh  appearance.  The  whole  fish  should  be  firm  and 
thick. 

SALMON. — The  gills  should  have  a firm  red  color,  and  so  the  flesh  ; the  texture 
firm  and  scales  bright.  Some  persons  think  that  it  is  better  after  being  kept  a day  or 
two. 

TURBOT. — The  underside  to  be  good  must  be  of  a yellowish  white.  If  it  is  bluish 
or  very  transparent,  and  then  it  is  not  good.  Let  the  fish  be  thick  and  firm. 

WHITE  FISH. — They  are  in  their  prime  early  in  the  year.  This  fish  is  white  and 
delicate.  The  fins  and  flesh  should  be  firm. 

LOBSTERS. — If  lately  caught,  pressing  the  eyes  will  cause  motion  of  the  claws. 
The  elasticity  of  the  tail  will  show  whether  the  boiled  lobster  is  good.  The  weight, 
aside  from  freshness,  tells  of  the  goodness  of  this  shell  fish. 

CRABS. — Are  judged  of  by  their  weight  and  the  stiffness  of  the  joints  of  the  legs. 
The  appearance  of  the  eye  is  an  indication  of  how  long  they  have  been  caught. 


THE  ART  OF  COOKERY. 


321 


TO  SELECT  POULTRY ; 

The  age  of  the  fowl  is  the  main  point  to  be  determined.  A smooth  black  leg,  eyes 
full  and  fresh  and  moist  feet,  are  marks  of  a young  turkey. 

CHICKENS. — Will  have  smooth  comb  and  legs  if  young,  otherwise  they  will  be 

rough. 

YOUNG  GEESE. — Will  have  yellow  bills  and  feet  and  a few  hairs  on  them.  If  old, 
they  will  be  red.  If  the  bird  has  been  recently  killed  the  feet  will  be  pliable,  but  stiff 
and  dry  after  some  time. 

DUCKS. — Should  have  a plump,  hard  breast  and  supple  feet.  The  tame  duck  has 
yellowish  feet  and  the  wild  one  reddish. 

PIGEONS. — Should  only  be  eaten  when  fresh.  When  the  under  part  is  flabby  and 
discolored  they  are  not  good.  The  condition  of  the  fee^  show  the  age  of  the  bird. 

TO  SELECT  EGGS. 

Take  the  egg  in  the  hand,  and  holding  it  lengthwise  to  the  light  the  egg  should  be 
transparent.  If  there  are  any  specks  in  it  the  egg  is  not  fresh  laid,  but  may  be  good 
for  ordinary  purposes.  If  there  is  a large  spot  near  the  shell  it  is  bad.  When  a newly- 
laid  egg  is  softly  boiled,  the  white  will  be  like  milk  ; an  old  egg;  tough,  hard  and 
indigestible. 

BOILING  AND  STEWING. 

This  most  simple  process  of  the  culinary  art  is  not  in  many  cases  carried  to  the  per- 
fection which  it  deserves.  Care  should  be  taken  that  the  water  boils  all  the  time;  the 
liquor  should  be  skimmed  and  the  kettle  removed  at  just  the  right  moment.  Less  fire 
is  required  for  boiling  than  for  roasting.  The  oftener  the  liquor  is  skimmed  and  the 
cleaner  it  is  kept  the  sweeter  will  be  the  meat,  and  the  neater  the  appearance  of  the  dish 
for  the  table.  Put  your  meats  into  cold  water,  letting  them  come  gradually,  and  note 
the  time  from  the  instant  they  begin  to  boil.  The  size  of  the  vessel  should 
be  proportioned  to  the  amount  to  be  boiled.  Let  the  cover  be  close  fitting.  Do  not 
let  the  meats  remain  in  the  water  after  they  are  done.  While  under  done  beef  and  mut- 
ton make  the  better  hash,  lamb,  pork  and  veal  are  unpalatable  if  well  boiled. 

BOILING  CORNED  BEEF. — Put  water  enough  to  cover  the  meat  well.  Let  it 
heat  slowly,  and  afterwards  boil  slowly.  Skim  off  the  grease.  If  vegetables  are  boiled 
with  it  pare  them.  Allow  twenty  minutes  for  each  pound  of  beef. 

A GOOD  DISH  FOR  BREAKFAST. — Cold  roast  beef  cut  in  thin  slices  in  a 
sauce  pan  set  in  boiling  water  ; cover  with  a gravy  compound  of  melted  butter  three 
tablespoonfuls,  walnut  catsup,  vinegar,  one  table  spoonful  each,  a little  salt  and  pepper, 
spoonful  current  jelly,  homemade  mustard  and  warm  water,  steam  for  half  an  hour. 
With  rare  roast  beef  this  is  very  nice. 

TO  STEW  A BEEF’S  HEART. — Cut  it  lengthwise  into  large  pieces.  Put  into 
cold  water  and  parboil  for  fifteen  minutes,  skim  often.  Remove  the  meat  and  cut  it  into 
small  pieces.  Strain  the  liquor  and  return  the  meat,  add  chopped  celery,  sliced  onions* 


322 


THE  ART  OF  COOKERY. 


peeled  potatoes  quartered,  and  a piece  of  butter.  Season  with  a whole  pepper  and  cloves 
if  you  like.  Stew  slowly  until  all  is  quite  tender.  A beefs  kidney,  and  the  heart  and 
liver  of  the  calf  can  be  stewed  in  the  same  way. 

BOILED  BEEF’S  TONGUE. — Soak  over  night.  Put  it  into  cold  water  and  boil 
it  six  hours.  Take  out  and  trim  neatly,  then  serve  it  hot  with  mashed  potatoes  arranged 
around  it,  and  sprigs  of  parsley  over  the  roots  of  the  tongue. 

TO  BROIL  DRIED  BEEF. — Cut  into  thin  slices  and  put  into  a saucepan  with 
water  enough  to  cover,  set  over  the  fire  ten  minutes,  drain  off  the  water  and  cut  the 
meat  fine  with  a knife  and  fork.  Return  to  hot  pan  with  tablespoonful  of  butter  and  a 
little  pepper.  Stir  well  beaten  eggs  into  the  pan  with  the  fine  meat  and  cook  two  min- 
utes. Send  it  to  table  in  a covered  dish. 

BOILING  A LEG  OF  MUTTON. — Make  a stuffing  of  bread  and  pork  seasoned 
with  salt  and  pepper,  chopping  all  fine.  Take  out  the  bone  and  fill  in  the  cavity  with  the 
stuffing,  closing  wdth  a stout  thread  sewed  in,  making  the  whole  piece  compact.  Put 
into  a large  vessel,  cover  with  water  and  let  it  simmer  slowly  two  hours.  If  water  must 
be  added  let  it  be  boiling. 

BOILING  HAMS. — Soak  the  ham  in  water  to  draw  out  a part  of  the  salt,  and 
scrape  and  trim  it  well.  Put  it  into  a large  pan  with  a good  supply  of  cold  water. 
Place  over  a moderate  fire,  and  let  it  be  an  hour  and  a half  coming  to  a boil.  Skim  often 
and  let  it  simmer  for  four  or  five  hours,  and  when  done  remove  the  skin.  Then  rub  th« 
surface  of  the  meat  with  beaten  eggs  and  sprinkle  on  cracker  dust.  Place  it  in  the  oven 
till  well  browned.  Garnish  the  edges  of  the  dish  to  make  a tasteful  appearance  when  on 
the  table.  Cover  the  cold  ham  with  the  skin  when  set  away.  The  best  way  to  steam  a 
ham.  Put  into  a steamer  set  over  boiling  water,  allow  20  minutes  to  the  pound,  cover 
tightly.  Care  should  be  taken  in  preparing  the  ham,  soaking  12  hours  previous  to  steam- 
ing, and  rubbed  with  a stiff  brush.  When  served  hot  treat  as  above. 

TO  STEW  RABBITS. — Truss  the  animals  and  put  them  in  warm  water  for  fifteen 
minutes.  Then  with  plenty  of  water  in  a stew-pan,  and  salt,  simmer  slowly  for  an  hour. 
Have  boiled  onions  in  another  pan  and  when  cooked  drain  and  slice  thin.  Drawn  butter 
melted  in  a gill  of  milk  should  be  added  to  the  rabbit  and  brought  to  a simmer,  then  put 
in  the  onions  and  let  it  boil  up  once. 

BOILING  VEGETABLES. 

VE  them  fresh.  In  summer  they  should  be  picked  the  same  day.  Ex- 
amine them  well  and  remove  all  unripe  or  damaged  portions.  Let  them 
stand  a little  while  in  cold  water  before  cooking.  Always  put  them  into 
boiling  water  and  let  it  continue  at  a boil  until  the  vegetable  is  cooked. 
POTATOES. — Select  these  of  nearly  the  same  size.  Do  not  pare, 
but  wash  them  thoroughly.  Put  in  water  to  cover  them  about  an  inch.  Use  no  lid. 
When  boiling  pour  off  the  water  and  put  in  cold.  This  drives  the  heat  to  the  heart  of 
the  potato  and  makes  it  mealy.  Try  them  with  a fork.  When  done  pour  off  the  water 
and  cover  with  a cloth,  letting  them  stand  on  the  stove  until  dry.  Peel  and  send  to  table. 


THE  ART  OP  COOKERY. 


323 


When  the  potatoes  are  old  it  is  best  to  pare  them  before  boiling,  and  mash  them  before 
sending  to  the  table,  adding  butter,  salt  and  a little  milk.  New  potatoes  do  not  require 
peeling. 

STEWED  POTATOES. — Pare,  quarter,  and  let  them  stand  in  cold  water  half  an 
hour.  Stew  in  enough  water  to  cover  them,  adding  salt.  When  they  are  just  breaking 
up,  pour  off  half  the  water  and  add  the  same  amount  of  milk.  Boil  three  minutes,  stir- 
ring well.  Add  a lump  of  butter,  salt  and  pepper,  with  a sprinkling  of  flour  and  serve 
in  covered  dish. 

SWEET  POTATOES. — Boil  with  skins  on,  in  abundance  of  water,  but  no  salt 
Try  with  a fork  and  see  when  done  through.  Drain  and  let  them  dry.  Peel  and  send 
to  table.  If  they  are  large  roast  them. 

CABBAGE. — Examine  and  clean  carefully,  by  removing  the  outer  leaves  ; then  pare 
and  trim  stalk.  If  large,  quarter  it.  If  small  halve  it ; let  it  stand  in  cold  water,  large 
end  downwards.  Boil  it  two  hours,  or  till  stalk  is  tender.  When  done  drain  and  squeeze 
it  well.  Introduce  fresh  melted  butter  between  the  leaves.  Serve.  A young  cabbage 
should  be  boiled  in  an  hour  or  an  hour  and  a half. 

BACON  AND  CABBAGE — Is  not  an  unsavory  or  unwholesome  dish,  when  prop- 
erly prepared.  Do  not  boil  the  two  together  but  boil  the  cabbage  in  the  pot  liquor  by 
itself  two  hours.  Drain  thoroughly,  pressing  out  the  last  drop,  without  breaking  the 
leaves,  and  lay  the  cabbage  around  the  meat  upon  the  dish,  and  on  each  quarter  of  the 
cabbage  a slice  of  hard  boiled  egg.  Season  when  eating,  with  salt,  pepper  and  vinegar. 

CAULIFLOWER — Should  be  boiled  like  cabbage  and  send  to  the  table  with  melt- 
ed butter. 

TURNIPS. — Turnips  should  boil  gently  for  an  hour  and  a half,  and  when  tender 
drained  on  a sieve  and  sent  to  the  table  whole,  served  with  melted  butter.  Or  they  may 
be  mashed,  squeezing  and  pressing,  well  seasoned  with  pepper  and  salt.  A little  piece 
of  butter.  The  sun  shining  upon  turnips  after  they  are  cooked  imparts  a very  disagree- 
able taste.  Turnips  should  always  be  served  with  mutton. 

SPINACH. — Boil  in  clear  water  half  an  hour.  A bit  of  pearlash  or  saleratus  will 
impart  a green  tint  to  them.  Drain  thoroughly  and  dress  with  poached  eggs  and  butter. 

GREEN  PEAS — Require  about  an  hour  to  boil  soft.  Drain  them,  mix  butter  and 
a little  pepper.  A little  sugar  boiled  with  them  adds  to  their  flavor,  and  a sprig  of  mint, 
to  be  removed  when  they  are  done. 

ASPARAGUS. — Large,  or  full  sized  is  best.  Set  a pot  with  plenty  of  water  on  the 
fire,  sprinkle  salt  therein.  Scrape  the  stalks  till  they  are  nice  and  white,  cut  them  in 
equal  lengths,  leaving  but  a little  below  the  green  part.  Put  the  stalks  into  cold  water 
as  prepared,  then  bunch  them  together.  Put  the  bunches  into  rapidily  boiling  water, 
and  let  them  remain  boiling  for  an  hour.  Serve  on  toasted  bread,  with  melted  butter. 

ONIONS. — Prepare  them  by  removing  tops  and  stems  and  outer  skin.  Put  into 
the  bottom  of  a vessel  in  single  layer,  cover  with  water  and  let  them  simmer  slowly  till 
done.  Serve  with  melted  butter. 

TOMATOES — Should  stew  slowly  one  hour,  with  butter,  pepper  and  sugar,  adding 
bread  crumbs. 


324 


THE  ART  OF  COOKERY. 


BOILED  GREEN  CORN. — Choose  young  corn  still  in  the  milk.  Strip  off  the 
outer  leaves  and  every  bit  of  the  silk.  Re-cover  the  ear  with  the  thin  husk  that  grows 
nearest  to  it,  and  tie  the  top  together  with  thread  ; put  into  boiling  water  that  has  been 
salted,  and  boil  fast  from  twenty  to  thirty  minutes  ; cut  the  stalks  close  to  the  cob,  and 
serve  whole,  or  cut  the  corn  from  the  ear  while  hot  and  season  to  taste,  serving  it  in  a 
covered  dish. 

OTHER  VEGETABLES. — Carrots  require  three  hours  boiling;  parsnips  from 
thirty  to  forty-five  minutes  ; string  beans,  two  hours  ; Lima  beans,  thirty  minutes  ; arte- 
chokes,  two  to  three  hours  ; summer  squash,  forty-five  minutes ; winter  squash,  much 
longer  ; boiled  hominy,  five  hours  ; rice,  twenty  minutes. 

FISH. 

BOILED  MACKEREL. — Put  the  fish,  well  cleaned,  into  cold  water,  with  salt ; 
boil  slowly ; when  the  eyes  start  out  and  the  tail  splits,  they  are  done  ; take  them  out  at 
once,  or  put  the  fish  in  cold  water  and  let  it  heat  gradually  for  an  hour  ; give  them  one 
boil  and  they  are  done. 

BOILING  FRESH  COD. — Put  the  fish  into  cold  water  and  let  it  heat  gradually 
for  three  hours,  if  large  ; if  small,  for  two  hours  ; then  increase  the  fire  and  boil  it  quickly 
for  fifteen  minutes  only ; salt  the  water  at  first. 

BOILING  ROCK  FISH  AND  RIVER  BASS.— Put  into  a kettle,  with  water 
enough  to  cover,  already  salted  ; set  over  a slow  fire  and  not  boil  too  fast,  skimming 
often ; when  done,  drain,  and  serve  with  hard-boiled  eggs,  cut  in  half,  laid  along  the  back 
of  the  fish. 

SEA  BASS  AND  BLACK  FISH — May  be  boiled  in  the  same  way. 

SALT  COD  FISH. — Soak  it  in  water  and  a half  gill  of  vinegar  over  night ; put  it 
into  cold  water  enough  to  cover  ; heat  gradually,  not  letting  it  boil  too  much  ; skim  well* 
and  drain  the  fish  when  done. 


ROASTING. 

Slow  roasting  is  as  important  as  slow  boiling.  Let  the  cook  proportion  her  fire  to 
the  work  in  hand,  and  see  that  it  has  the  proper  attention.  The  time  that  it  will  take 
meats  to  roast  will  depend  upon  how  long  they  have  been  kept  and  the  temperature  of 
the  season.  No  specific  rule  can  be  laid  down  in  reference  to  time.  Have  a good  drip- 
ping pan  ; be  attentive  to  the  appearance  of  your  roast,  and  let  it  present  an  evenly 
browned  surface. 

ROAST  BEEF. — The  sirloin  and  rib  are  the  best  pieces.  Have  the  bone  removed 
and  skewer  the  meat  into  a round.  If  roasted  in  an  oven,  dash  a cup  of  hot  water  over 
the  beef  when  first  put  in.  Baste  often,  first  with  salted  water  and  afterwards  with  drip- 
pings Allow  fifteen  minutes  to  each  pound  for  rare  roasts,  and  more  if  you  wish  it  well 
done.  When  nearly  dry,  roll  with  flour  and  baste  once  with  butter.  When  ready,  re- 
move beef  to  a heated  dish,  skim  the  drippings,  add  teacup  of  boiling  water,  letting  the 
mixture  boil  up  once,  and  send  to  table  in  gravy  boat.  Serve  with  mustard  and  scraped 
horse  radish. 


THE  ART  OF  COOKERY. 


325 


BEEF  A LA  MODE. — Take  the  bone  out  of  a round,  and  beat  the  fresh  meat 
tender.  Chop  small  onions  and  parsley,  the  marrow  from  the  bone,  and  a quarter  pound 
of  suet ; add  two  slices  of  stale  bread  grated  ; season  to  taste  ; mix  well  with  the  beaten 
yolks  of  four  eggs.  Fill  the  cavity  from  which  the  bones  were  taken  with  this  prepara- 
tion, and  rub  it  over  the  outside.  Fasten  the  meat  well  together  to  make  it  compact- 
Cover  the  bottom  of  a stew-pan  with  slices  of  ham,  lay  on  your  meat,  and  cover  it  with 
more  ham.  Four  onions,  four  carrots  and  four  turnips,  cut  in  thick  slices,  are  placed 
around  it.  Pour  in  half  a pint  of  water,  and  cover  tightly ; set  it  in  the  oven  and  bake 
at  least  six  hours.  When  thoroughly  done,  remove  the  beef  and  vegetables,  arranging 
them  on  a plate.  Make  a gravy  by  straining  off  the  liquid  and  boiling  it  over  the  coals, 
adding  a little  port  wine.  Send  to  the  table. 

A BREAST  OF  VEAL — Will  require  roasting  three  hours  and  a half.  Cover  the 
veal  with  the  caul,  and  skewer  the  sweet  bread  to  the  back ; take  away  the  caul  when  it 
is  nearly  roasted. 

A FILLET  OF  VEAL.— The  stuffing  is  made  of  butter,  or  suet  chopped  fine, 
mixed  with  an  equal  quantity  of  bread  crumbs,  a tablespoonful  of  grated  lemon  peel,  sum- 
mer savory,  and  thyme,  pepper  and  salt,  and  parsley  ; mix  these  with  the  yolks  of  eggs 
beaten ; with  this  fill  the  cavities  from  which  the  bones  were  removed,  and  into  cuts 
made  for  the  purpose.  Put  salt  and  water  into  the  dripping-pan,  and  with  this  baste  the 
meat.  It  requires  three  hours’  baking.  Half  an  hour  before  it  is  roasted  baste  with 
butter  and  sprinkle  on  flour.  A shoulder  of  veal  may  be  roasted  the  same  way. 

ROAST  PORK. — Cut  the  skin  into  narrow  strips,  with  salt,  pepper  and  dry  sage 
rubbed.  Stuff  between  the  ribs  with  a dressing  composed  of  bread  crumbs,  chopped 
onion,  pepper  and  salt,  mixed  with  the  beaten  yolks  of  eggs.  Baste  with  its  own  lard 
while  roasting. 

SPARE  RIB. — Cover  with  larded  paper  when  first  put  into  the  oven.  Remove 
and  dredge  with  flour ; baste  once  with  butter,  and  then  every  little  while  with  its  own 
lard.  When  ready  to  take  up,  cover  the  surface  with  bread  crumbs  seasoned  with  salt, 
pepper  and  sage.  Cook  five  minutes  and  baste  again  with  butter.  For  a gravy,  add  half 
a cup  of  hot  water,  thicken  with  brown  flour,  squeeze  in  lemon  juice  and  pour  it  over  the 
meat. 

ROAST  HAM. — Soak  the  ham  in  tepid  water  over  night.  Set  in  the  oven  to  roast 
two  hours.  Remove  it  and  take  away  the  hide.  Scrape  all  the  fat  out  of  your  pan,  and 
return  the  ham  to  roast  two  hours  more.  Baste  often.  Put  drippings  in  the  saucepan, 
stir  tablespoonful  of  flour  in  a teacup  of  water  and  let  it  boil  up. 

ROAST  TURKEY. — Wash  the  turkey  well  both  inside  and  out,  removing  all  the 
pin  feathers.  Singe  away  the  fine  feathers.  With  a teaspoonful  of  salt,  half  as  much 
black  pepper  and  a lump  of  butter  in  a bowl,  with  broken  pieces  of  bread,  pour  water 
over  it  to  make  a dough.  Scald  your  bird  in  a pot,  and  then  fill  with  the  dressing,  rub- 
bing in  salt  and  pepper  ; sew  up  the  cavities  with  a thread.  Then  grease  well  with  lard 
and  put  into  the  oven.  Let  it  bake  slowly,  basting  it  with  its  own  fat ; when  it  becomes 
brown  bake  faster  and  turn  it  over.  For  a gravy,  stir  half  a pint  of  water  with  two 
tablespoonfuls  of  brown  flour  into  the  drippings,  adding  salt  and  pepper ; some  hot 


326 


THE  ART  OF  COOKERY. 


oysters  added  to  the  dressing  improve  it.  Chopped  celery  fine  is  much  liked  mixed  with 
it.  Do  not  forget  to  remove  the  string. 

ROAST  CHICKEN. — The  same  as  roast  turkey,  roasting  one-half  an  hour.  Stew 
the  inwards  till  tender  ; chop  them  and  mix  into  the  gravy  ; thicken  with  brown  flour  ; 
season  to  taste.  Cranberry  or  freshly  made  apple  sauce  is  good. 

ROAST  DUCKS. — Have  the  inside  as  well  as  outside  well  cleaned.  For  stuffing, 
green  sage  leaves  very  fine,  twice  as  much  onion,  butter  and  seasoning  to  taste,  mixed 
with  bread  crumbs.  Fill  the  cavities,  leaving  a little  space  for  the  stuffing  to  swell.  Re- 
serve the  liver,  gizzard  and  heart.  Tie  the  bodies  of  the  ducks  with  strings,  and  have  a 
brisk  fire,  basting  often.  Roast  them  an  hour.  Chop  the  boiled  livers,  gizzards,  & c.,  and 
put  them  into  the  drippings  ; thicken  with  flour.  Do  not  stuff  canvas-backs,  and  roast 
them  half  as  long.  Parboil  other  wild  ducks,  with  a carrot,  before  roasting ; this  will  draw 
all  the  fishy  taste  away. 

ROAST  GOOSE. — For  stuffing  use  four  onions  minced  fine,  half  the  quantity  of 
green  sage  leaves,  grated  bread  crumbs,  piece  of  butter  and  the  beaten  yolks  of  two  eggs. 
Mix  the  whole,  and  fill  the  cavities,  pressed  in  hard,  but  not  full,  as  it  will  swell.  Tie  the 
bird  up  well,  and  cover  the  breast  with  larded  paper,  to  keep  from  scorching.  The  fire 
must  be  brisk  and  well  supplied.  Two  hours  and  a half  is  the  time  required.  Baste  it 
well  and  often.  Remove  the  paper  when  half  done  and  sprinkle  on  a little  flour.  Apple 
sauce  should  be  served  with  goose.  You  can  make  a good  gravy  of  the  giblets,  stirred  in 
a little  water,  thickened  with  butter  and  flour,  seasoned  to  the  taste.  Before  serving  to 
table  remove  all  but  heart  and  liver  ; mincing  them  up,  leave  them  in  the  gravy — or  a 
gravy  may  be  made  the  same  as  for  the  turkey. 

BROILING  FRESH  MACKEREL.— Wash  the  fish  dry  with  a cloth  ; split  and 
rub  with  salt.  Heat  the  gridiron  over  live  coals  and  lay  on  the  mackerel,  taking  care  not 
to  let  it  burn.  Turn  when  one  side  is  done.  Put  the  fish  on  a hot  dish  ; butter  and  pep- 
per before  serving. 

SALT  MACKEREL. — Soak  twelve  hours  in  lukewarm  water ; change  to  cold 
water  very  early  in  the  morning,  and  let  the  fish  remain  till  ready  to  broil ; then  proceed 
as  above. 

BROILING  A SHAD. — Prepare  as  above  for  fresh  mackerel ; season  with  salt  and 
pepper  ; broil  on  gridiron  heated  over  red  coals,  and  serve  with  melted  butter. 

BROILED  CHICKEN. — Lay  your  prepared  fowl  in  skim  milk  two  hours,  dust 
them  with  flour  and  lay  in  cold  water.  Sprinkle  pepper  and  salt  and  lay  them  opened  on 
the  hot  broiling  iron,  which  must  have  been  well  greased.  Brown  neatly  and  serve  with 
melted  butter. 

BROILING  BEEFSTEAKS. — Have  a bed  of  living  coals  ; when  the  gridiron  is 
quite  hot  have  it  greased  well  with  suet ; lay  on  the  steak,  turn  often,  for  1 5 minutes. 
When  done,  season  with  pepper  and  salt  and  lay  on  a hot  plate,  basting  well  with  fresh 
butter. 

BROILED  SWEET  BREADS. — Parboil,  rub  with  butter  and  broil  on  a clean  iron. 
Turn  often,  and  now  and  then  roll  them  over  in  a plate  of  melted  butter,  to  prevent  them 
from  becoming  hard  and  dry. 


THE  ART  OF  COOKERY. 


827 


FRYING  FISH. — Clean,  wash  and  dry  the  fish,  roll  slightly  with  cracker  dust  or 
flour,  with  butter  clarified  drippings,  or  butter  and  lard  ; fry  to  a delicate  brown  quickly, 
over  a good  fire,  and  when  just  done  remove  it  to  a hot  plate. 

FRYING  OYSTERS. — Put  some  boiling  butter  in  your  frying  pan,  and  selecting 
fine  large  oysters,  put  them  in  cold  water,  a few  at  a time  ; take  them  out  quickly  roll 
in  stiff  corn  meal  and  fry  them  to  a light  brown.  Serve  hot. 

OYSTER  FRITTERS. — To  a cupful  of  the  liquor  drawn  from  the  oysters  add  the 
same  amount  of  milk,  three  eggs,  a little  salt  and  flour  to  make  a batter.  Chop  the 
oysters  and  stir  them  in.  Heat  the  frying  pan  very  hot,  put  in  lard  or  half  lard  and  half 
butter,  and  drop  in  enough  of  the  batter  to  make  the  fritter  the  size  you  wish.  Take 
quickly  from  the  pan  when  a nice  brown.  Serve  hot. 

CLAM  FRITTERS. — Twelve  clams  minced  fine,  one  pint  milk,  three  eggs  ; add 
the  liquor  from  clams  to  the  milk  ; beat  the  eggs,  with  seasoning ; add  the  flour  to  make 
a batter,  and  fry  as  above. 

PLAIN  FRIED  CHICKEN. — Lay  your  chicken,  cut  in  pieces,  in  salt  and  water, 
dredge  them  with  flour  and  fry  in  boiling  lard  till  nicely  browned.  Cover  the  pan  while 
frying. 

TO  FRY  BEEFSTEAK. — Steaks  for  frying  need  to  be  thinner  than  for  broiling. 
Beat  them  to  make  tender.  Season  before  frying.  Fry  the  steaks  for  fifteen  minutes  in 
hot  butter,  or  nice  beef  drippings.  When  browned  cover  with  a large  plate  to  retain  the 
flavor.  You  can  use  sliced  onions  with  the  steak. 

VEAL  CUTLETS. — Mix  bread  crumbs  with  the  yolks  of  two  eggs  beaten.  Put 
the  cutlet  in  the  butter  and  press  it  down  with  a knife  or  cake  turner,  letting  it  dry  on, 
then  fry  in  hot  lard  to  a light  brown.  Thicken  the  gravy  with  butter  and  browned  flour. 

VEAL  STEAK. — Put  the  steaks  on  a hot  gridiron  and  broil  them  well,  turning 
when  required.  For  seasoning,  take  finely  chopped  onions  sprinkled  with  pepper  and 
salt  and  a little  parsley,  add  butter,  and  put  into  sauce  pan  to  stew  until  browned. 

CALF’S  LIVER. — Cut  in  thin  slices.  Season  to  taste.  Sprinkle  with  flour  and 
fry  brown  in  lard,  or  drippings,  cook  thoroughly,  serve  it  in  its  own  gravy.  A piece  of 
ham  or  bacon  adds  to  the  flavor.  A calf’s  heart  may  be  fried  the  same. 

HAM  WITH  EGGS. — Cut  the  ham  into  thin  slices,  removing  the  rind.  Have  the 
pan  hot  and  fry  till  well  done.  Take  out  the  ham  and  lay  on  a plate,  then  break  the  eggs 
one  by  one  into  the  fat,  and  when  the  white  is  done,  remove  them  nicely  onto  the  ham. 

PLAIN  OMELET. — Take  six  eggs,  except  the  whites  of  two,  beat  very  light  and 
strain,  add  salt  and  pepper  to  taste,  divide  two  ounces  of  butter  into  little  bits,  and  add  it 
to  the  egg.  Have  sufficient  butter  boiling  in  the  pan  when  you  put  in  the  egg,  fry  slowly 
till  a light  brown  on  under  side  ; you  can  then  brown  the  top  by  holding  a heated  shovel 
over  it.  When  done  double  it  in  half,  back  upon  itself. 

THE  PREPARATION  OF  SOUPS. — The  quantity  of  water  should  be  in  propor- 
tion to  that  of  the  meat,  or  other  material  used,  and  depends  upon  the  degree  of  richness 
you  wish  to  attain.  Fresh  meats  should  always  be  used,  sometimes  adding  the  remains 
of  roast  beef  well  done  with  new  meat  added.  Cold  ham  may  be  used  to  advantage  in 
white  soups.  The  soup  made  entirely  from  fresh  meat  is  generally  better  the  second  day 


328 


THE  ART  OF  COOKERY. 


than  the  first,  reboiling  with  no  water  added.  If  it  is  absolutely  necessary  to  add  water 
when  the  soup  is  boiling,  let  it  be  very  hot  water,  for  if  lukewarm  or  cold  it  will  spoil  it 
Skim  off  all  the  fatty  matter  that  rises.  Lean  meats  are  best  for  soups.  Boil  slowly  and 
for  a long  time.  Remove  all  shreds  of  cartiledge  and  bone.  Season  slightly  with  pepper 
and  salt. 

BEAN  SOUP. — One  quart  of  dry,  white  beans  soaked  over  night  put  on  the  fire  as 
early  as  possible  the  next  day,  two  and  a half  pounds  of  lean  fresh  beef  cut  up  and  all 
bones  broken,  with  one-half  pound  of  bacon.  Season  with  pepper  and  pour  on  three 
quarts  of  water.  When  boiled  skim  off  the  grease  and  put  on  the  beans,  first  draining 
them,  a half  tablespoonful  of  powdered  celery  seed,  or  half  a head  of  fresh  celery.  Boil 
slowly  and  then  strain  through  colander.  Use  toasted  bread  in  serving  up. 

PEA  SOUP. — One  pint  of  green  peas  in  one  and  a half  pints  of  water,  boil  two 
hours,  strain,  return  to  the  pot  with  a piece  of  nice  pork  or  bacon,  with  a part  of  an  onion 
chopped  fine,  salt,  pepper  and  little  thyme,  thicken  with  butter  and  flour,  mixed  with  a 
little  of  the  liquor  from  the  pot.  Toasted  bread  buttered  is  served  up  with  the  soup. 

TOMATO  SOUP. — One  pound  veal  or  lamb,  nearly  two  quarts  of  water,  one  quart 
tomatoes,  one  quart  potatoes  cut  fine.  Boil  the  meat  fine  and  the  water  away  to  one 
quart,  strain,  then  put  in  the  tomatoes,  stirring  all  the  time,  and  boil  half  an  hour. 
Season  with  salt  pepper  and  any  green  herb  you  prefer.  Strain  again  and  stir  in  butter 
and  teaspoonful  of  sugar.  This  is  better  if  made  of  the  chicken  broth  left  over  from  the 
day  before,  or  chicken  instead  of  the  other  meat. 

CORN  SOUP. — One-half  a fowl  cut  in  four  pieces,  six  ears  of  green  corn  ; boil 
chicken  in  half  a gallon  of  water  until  tender,  then  put  in  the  corn  cut  from  the  cob  and 
remove  the  chicken  with  some  of  the  liquor.  Season  the  soup  with  salt,  pepper  and 
parsley,  use  rice  or  wheat  flour  for  thickening  and  serve  without  straining.  Take  the 
chicken  which  you  have  already  put  on  a dish.  Beat  up  an  egg  in  a spoonful  of  flour, 
add  to  the  liquor  which  you  reserved  from  which  the  corn  is  strained ; boil  a moment 
with  chopped  parsley,  salt  and  pepper,  and  while  scalding  hot  pour  onto  the  chicken, 
garnish  with  circular  slices  of  hard  boiled  eggs  and  curled  parsley,  and  you  have  a nice 
dish  of  fricasseed  chicken. 

VEGETABLE  SOUP. — Pare  and  slice  finely  six  common  sized  onions,  two  large 
yellow  turnips,  one  head  of  celery  and  the  red  part  of  two  carrots.  Put  into  a stew-pan 
with  water  and  one  ounce  butter  and  cover  closely.  When  cooked  add  well  seasoned 
soup  from  beef,  boil  four  hours,  skim  and  strain  before  serving. 

BEEF  SOUP. — One  pound  of  beef  cut  fine,  one  turnip,  one  carrot,  one  onion,  and  a 
half  head  celery,  all  chopped  small,  two  quarts  of  water  with  one  tablespoonful  bread 
raspings  sifted.  Boil  all  in  a covered  stew-pan  four  hours,  season  with  salt  and  pepper 
and  it  is  ready  to  serve.  Mutton  or  veal  soup  can  be  made  in  the  same  way. 

NOODLE  SOUP. — Noodles  are  composed  of  a mixture  of  flour  and  egg  beaten  to- 
gether and  made  into  a thick  paste.  Take  from  the  neck  of  mutton  one  pound,  put  into 
sauce  pan  with  one  quart  water  ; when  boiled  skim  well,  slacken  the  fire  and  let  it  sim- 
mer one  hour  ; put  in  more  mutton  and  cover  with  water,  salting  ; let  it  boil  four  hours. 
Turnips,  carrots  and  onions  chopped  fine  may  be  added  an  hour  and  a half  before  serving. 
Noodles  are  put  in  just  before  serving,  for  if  boiled  too  long  they  will  go  to  pieces. 


THE  ART  OF  COOKERY. 


829 


OX  TAIL  SOUP. — One  ox  tail,  one  whole  onion,  one  carrot,  half  a turnip,  one 
tablespoonful  of  flour  and  a little  pepper,  two  quarts  of  water,  boil  all  together  two  hours. 
Remove  the  ox  tail  and  return  the  bones  to  the  pot,  then  boil  another  hour,  strain,  rinse 
a spoonful  of  arrowroot,  add  the  meat  cut  from  the  bones  and  boil  fifteen  minutes. 

OYSTER  SOUP. — One  quart  beef  or  mutton  broth,  three  dozen  oysters,  one  ounce 
butter  and  a little  flour.  Scald  the  oysters  in  their  own  liquor,  then  add  it  to  the  broth  ; 
thicken  with  flour  and  butter  ; simmer  for  15  minutes.  Put  in  the  oysters,  stirring  well ; 
do  not  let  it  boil.  Serve  hot. 

VERMICELLI  SOUP. — Make  two  quarts  of  good  stock,  the  day  before  required  ; 
boil  in  carrot,  turnip,  onions,  parsley,  mace,  salt  and  pepper  ; strain  and  skim.  Take  the 
crumbs  of  French  rolls,  boil  and  stir  in  the  mashed  rolls  for  fifteen  minutes  ; add  yolks 
of  two  eggs,  beaten  with  cream.  Boil  the  vermicelli  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes  by  itself; 
put  it  into  the  dish  and  pour  your  soup  on  to  it. 

BAKING  BREAD. — In  the  mechanical  operation  of  bread  making  there  ought  not 
to  be  the  slightest  trouble.  If  the  close  attention  and  insight  into  chemical  effect  are 
taken,  any  housekeeper  can  surpass  her  most  sanguinary  expectations.  Most  ovens  in  an 
ordinary  family  will  bake  a good-sized  loaf  of  bread  perfectly,  if  managed  correctly,  and 
home-made  bread  is  more  nutritious,  healthy  and  cleanly  than  baker’s  bread.  House- 
keepers need  not  be  told  that  the  best  is  the  cheapest  in  the  end,  and  the  bread  made  un- 
der the  supervision  of  the  prudent  housewife  is  always  the  best. 

TO  MAKE  TWO  LOAVES. — A teacupful  of  baker’s  yeast — if  home-made 
three  tablespoonfuls  is  sufficient — a quart  of  warm  water,  stir  in  flour  enough  to  make  a 
soft  batter.  Do  this  the  last  thing  at  night,  placing  in  a warm  spot.  In  the  morning 
pour  your  batter  into  your  bread-bowl,  into  which  you  have  sifted  fine  flour ; add  a tea- 
spoonful of  salt.  If  the  yeast  seems  sour  add  a little  soda  ; do  not  add  any  flour.  About 
noon  it  should  be  ready  to  make  two  loaves.  Put  it  into  pans  well  oiled,  leave  it  to  rise, 
and  bake  when  light  in  a hot  oven.  You  can  make  Graham  bread  in  the  same  way,  by 
using  Graham  flour  in  the  morning  instead  of  wheat. 

PLAIN  BREAD  SPONGE. — One  pint  water,  three  tablespoonfuls  baker’s  yeast, 
one  of  lard  and  one  of  white  sugar,  half  a tablespoonful  of  soda,  flour  enough  to  make  a 
soft  batter  ; melt  the  lard  in  warm  water,  add  the  sugar  and  then  the  flour,  stirring  in 
evenly  ; next  the  yeast  then  the  soda.  Beat  up  hard  for  several  minutes  and  set  away 
to  rise.  Bread  mixed  with  potato  sponge  is  the  best,  keeps  longest  and  is  sweeter. 

PLAIN  WHITE  BREAD. — Set  one  pint  of  flour  and  half  the  quantity  of  good 
hop  yeast,  stirred  together,  to  rise  at  5 o’clock  in  the  afternoon.  At  9 o’clock  put  two 
quarts  of  flour  in  bread-bowl,  put  the  sponge  into  the  center  of  the  flour,  with  a little 
lard  about  the  size  of  a walnut ; knead  it  up  with  tepid  water,  made  salt  to  taste  ; work 
well  and  set  it  away  to  rise.  In  the  morning  knead  it  over  with  flour,  make  into  two 
loaves  and  set  it  in  a warm  place  till  ready  ; then  bake,  and  when  done  wrap  it  in  a 
coarse  cloth.  If  there  is  no  sugar  in  yeast,  then  you  stir  in  a large  teaspoonful  when 
you  put  in  the  flour. 

BOSTON  BROWN  BREAD. — Half  pint  rye  meal  not  sifted,  twice  as  much  Indian 
meal  sifted,  sour  milk  one  pint,  molasses  to  sweeten,  one  teaspoonful  salt,  one  of  soda. 


330 


THE  ART  OF  COOKERY. 


dissolved  in  hot  water,  stir  thoroughly,  put  in  an  oiled  pan,  let  it  rise  an  hour,  and  steam 
it  four  hours. 

RISEN  BISCUIT. — Milk  one  quart,  lard  or  buttercup  and  three-fourths  full,  same 
amount  of  yeast,  two  tablespoonfuls  of  white  sugar,  a little  salt,  flour  to  make  soft  dough. 
Mix  at  night.  The  milk  should  be  warmed  slightly  and  the  lard  or  butter  melted.  In 
the  morning  knead  and  roll  into  sheets  less  than  an  inch  thick.  Cut  round  and  set  them 
closely  in  the  pan,  letting  them  rise  20  minoces  ; then  bake  in  the  same  time.  If  you 
wish  them  for  tea  use  half  the  amount  of  flour  at  night,  making  a thin  sponge,  and  in 
five  hours  work  in  more  flour,  letting  it  rise  five  hours  longer,  and  proceed  as  directed 
above. 

JOHNNY  CAKE. — Sweet  milk  and  buttermilk  one  cupful  each,  one  tablespoonful 
melted  butter,  enough  meal  to  roll  it  into  a sheet  one  inch  and  a half  thick.  Put  in  a 
greased  tin  or  shallow  pan  and  bake  40  minutes.  Baste  it  with  melted  butter  when  it 
begins  to  brown,  repeating  four  or  five  times  till  done.  Break  it  up,  not  cut  it. 

BUCKWHEAT  CAKES. — One  quart  buckwheat  and  one  teacup  wheat  flour  sifted 
together,  one  pint  good  yeast  and  a little  salt,  made  into  a batter,  with  lukewarm  water 
at  night  and  left  in  a warm  place  to  rise.  If  a little  sour  in  the  morning  put  in  soda, 
otherwise  not.  Use  a hot,  large  griddle  and  cook  fast. 

BUCKWHEAT  IN  HASTE. — One  quart  buckwheat,  one  teacup  flour,  a large 
spoonful  yeast  powder,  sifted  together  and  made  into  a batter,  with  water  and  milk  in 
equal  parts.  Add  suet  and  bake  as  above. 

RICE  CAKES. — One  part  flour,  two  parts  boiled  rice,  one  egg,  one  teaspoonful 
soda,  two  of  cream  tartar  or  three  of  baking  powder,  sweet  milk  to  make  a batter. 

HOMINY  CAKES. — Cook  one  pint  of  hominy  soft,  mix  with  equal  amount  ot 
flour,  salt  and  a little  milk,  with  or  without  eggs.  Fry  on  a griddle,  like  buckwheat. 

WAFFLES. — One  quart  warm  milk,  two  eggs  beaten,  a small  piece  of  butter,  a cup 
of  yeast ; mix  with  flour  a little  thicker  than  for  griddle  cakes.  Let  it  rise  five  hours. 
Bake  in  waffle  irons  well  greased. 

GEMS. — Three  eggs,  three  teaspoons  sugar,  one  cup  half  full  sweet  milk,  butter  size 
of  a walnut,  flour  to  make  a nice  thick  batter.  Have  your  gem  pans  burning  hot,  and 
bake  in  very  hot  oven. 

MUFFINS. — Flour  three  pints,  half  a teaspoonful  salt,  mix  with  lukewarm  water 
quite  stiff ; half  pint  yeast ; let  it  rise  over  night  and  bake  in  small  pans.  Or  eight 
spoonfuls  flour,  four  of  meal,  one  of  lard,  with  four  eggs,  and  milk  to  make  stiff  batter. 
Bake  as  above. 

BAKING  CAKE. — In  making  cake  it  is  necessary  to  be  accurate  in  the  measuriug 
of  ingredients  ; therefore  have  the  kitchen  supplied  with  a quart,  pint  and  gill  tin  mea- 
sures. A large  sieve  for  flour,  a small  one  for  sugars  and  spices,  &c.,  &c.  Egg  and  but- 
ter should  not  be  beaten  in  tin.  The  pans  for  large  cakes  should  have  perpendicular 
sides.  All  pans  for  baking  should  be  well  greased  with  fresh  butter  before  using.  Fill 
not  more  than  half  full.  Use  the  best  flour  and  butter.  Weigh  or  measure  all  ingredi- 
ents. Sift  the  flour,  powder  the  sugar  and  prepare  the  fruit.  Then  mix  and  stir  the  but- 
ter and  sugar  and  lastly  beat  the  eggs.  Stir  the  mixture  very  hard  at  the  last,  and  unless 


THE  ART  OF  COOKERY. 


331 


there  is  yeast  in  it  the  sooner  it  gets  into  the  oven  the  better.  Admit  no  more  cold  air 
than  is  possible  when  looking  into  the  oven,  and  keep  a uniform  heat.  The  best  guide 
is  practice  and  experience,  for  no  infallible  rule  can  be  given  as  to  length  of  time  in 
baking. 

WHITE  MOUNTAIN  CAKE. — One  cup  of  sugar,  one  of  flour,  one-half  cup  each 
of  butter,  sweet  milk  and  corn  starch  Whites  of  six  eggs,  a little  vanilla,  two  tea- 
spoonfulls  of  baking  powder.  Frosting — whites  from  five  eggs,  twenty  tablespoonfuls  of 
sugar,  beaten  very  light,  a little  vanilla. 

CREAM  CAKE. — Three  cups  flour,  two  of  sugar,  two-thirds  cup  of  butter,  four 
eggs,  one-half  cup  of  milk,  one-half  teaspoonful  soda  and  one  teaspoonful  cream  tartar. 
Bake  in  thin  layers,  and  when  done  spread  the  following  mixture  between  them,  viz. : — • 
One-half  pint  milk,  two  tablespoonfuls  corn  starch,  one-half  cupful  of  sugar,  one  teaspoon- 
ful vanilla.  Start  milk  to  boiling,  and  stir  in  the  corn  starch  already  wet  with  cold  milk ; 
mix  a little  gradually  with  the  beaten  egg  and  sugar,  return  it  to  the  custard  and  stir 
;onstantly  until  quite  thick.  Cool  before  seasoning.  Use  vanilla  for  the  icing. 

LEMON  CAKE. — Two  cups  flour,  one  and  a half  cups  of  sugar,  half  cup  butter, 
the  same  of  milk,  two  eggs,  juice  and  grate  the  rind  of  one  lemon,  soda  half  teaspoonfuP. 
Bake  in  small  square  tins  and  frost  top  and  sides. 

CHOCOLATE  CAKE. — One  pound  flour,  half  pound  butter,  three-fourths  pound 
sugar,  five  eggs,  half  pint  of  milk,  two  teaspoonfuls  of  vanilla.  Beat  sugar  and  butter  to 
a cream,  then  add  the  yolks  of  the  eggs  beaten  separate,  then  the  whites,  then  milk,  and 
lastly  the  flour,  with  the  baking  powder  sifted  in.  Bake  with  moderate  fire  in  flat  pan. 
Frosting — half  pound  sugar,  six  teaspoons  chocolate  sifted  fine,  the  whites  of  two  eggs 
beaten  to  a froth.  Cool  the  cake  half  an  hour  and  spread  the  frosting,  then  return  to 
the  oven  to  harden,  leaving  the  door  open. 

JELLY  CAKE. — One-half  cup  butter,  two  cups  sugar,  one  of  sweet  milk,  three 
and  half  of  flour,  three  teaspoonfuls  of  baking  powder,  four  eggs.  Flavor  to  taste.  Bake 
in  shallow  tins,  and  when  cold  spread  the  jelly  between  the  layers. 

CUP  CAKE. — Three  cups  flour,  two  of  sugar,  one  of  butter,  one  of  sweet  milk, 
four  eggs,  one  teaspoonful  of  soda.  Bake  in  a loaf  or  as  jelly  cake. 

COCOANUT  CAKE. — Four  cups  flour,  three  of  white  sugar,  one  of  milk,  half  a 
cup  of  butter,  three  eggs.  Mix  thoroughly  and  add  one  cup  of  cocoanut. 

ORANGE  CAKE. — Three  cups  flour,  two  of  sugar,  one  of  butter  and  one  of  sweet 
milk,  five  eggs,  omitting  the  yolks  of  three,  baking  powder  three  teaspoonfuls,  two 
oranges,  grating  the  peel  and  taking  the  juice  of  one.  Bake  in  four  layers.  Filling,  fif- 
teen table  spoonfuls  of  sugar,  whites  of  three  eggs,  juice  of  one  orange.  Beat  together 
and  spread  between  layers  and  one  outside.  Pare  and  pull  to  pieces  three  oranges  and 
lay  on  top. 

MARBLE  CAKE — For  the  light  batter.  Two  cups  flour,  one  of  white  sugar,  one 
half  cup  of  butter,  the  same  of  milk,  whites  of  three  eggs,  one  teaspoonful  of  cream  tar- 
tar, one-half  the  amount  of  soda.  For  the  dark  batter,  two  cups  flour,  one-half  cupful 
truwn  sugar,  the  same  amount  of  molasses,  half  the  amount  of  butter  and  of  milk,  half 
A nutmeg,  one  teaspoonful  cinnamon,  half  as  much  allspice,  and  of  soda,  one  teaspoonful 


332 


THE  ART  OF  COOKERY. 


cream  tartar.  Yolks  of  the  three  eggs.  Butter  your  mould  an&  m the  Matter  in 
alternate  tablespoonfuls. 

SPONGE  CAKE. — Beat  ten  eggs  separately,  put  in  an  equal  weight  of  sugar,  and 
seven  times  as  much  flour ; oeat  sugar  and  yolks  together,  then  add  the  whites  and 
sprinkle  in  the  flour  slowly. 

POUND  CAKE. — One  and  a half  cups  flour,  one  of  butter,  one>  and  a half  of  sugar, 
ten  eggs,  one-half  teaspoonful  of  baking  powder.  Beat  butter  and  flour  to  a cream,  beat 
eggs  and  sugar  lightly,  put  all  together  and  add  baking  powder. 

WASHINGTON  CAKE. — Four  cups  flour,  three  of  sugar,  two  of  butter,  one  of 
milk,  five  eggs,  three  teaspoonfuls  of  baking  powder,  one  pound  raisins,  one-half  pound 
citron,  one  teaspoonful  ground  cinnamon  and  one  nutmeg. 

FRUIT  CAKE. — One  pound  flour,  one  of  powdered  sugar,  three  quarters  pound 
butter,  half-pound  currants  well  prepared,  half  pound  of  raisins  seeded  and  chopped, 
quarter  pound  citron  cut  in  slices,  seven  eggs,  one  teaspoonful  nutmeg  and  one  of  cinna- 
mon, cream  the  butter  and  sugar.  Add  brandy  if  you  wish.  Add  the  beaten  yolks,  then 
spice  and  whipped  whites  alternately  with  the  flour,  fruit  last. 

NUT  CAKE. — Three  cups  of  flour,  two  of  sugar,  one  of  butter  and  one  of  cold 
water,  one  teaspoonful  of  soda,  two  of  cream  tartar,  kernels  of  the  nuts  carefully  picked 
over,  to  be  added  last,  two  cupsful. 

GOLD  CAKE. — Beat  to  a cream  a cup  of  sugar  and  half  as  much  butter.  Beat 
very  light,  the  whites  of  two  eggs  and  yolks  of  four,  half  a cupful  of  milk,  two  and  a half 
of  flour  with  two  teaspoonfuls  of  baking  powder  sifted  in  flour,  with  lemon. 

HUCKLEBERRY  CAKE. — Three  cups  of  flour,  two  of  sugar,  one  of  butter,  one 
of  milk,  five  eggs,  two  teaspoonfuls  of  baking  powder,  one  small  lemon,  brandy  if  you 
wish  (to  be  foolish),  a quart  of  huckleberries,  dredged  with  flour  and  added  last. 

SILVER  CAKE. — Two  and  a half  cups  of  flour,  with  two  teaspoonfuls  baking 
powder  sifted  in,  a cupful  of  sugar  beaten  with  half  as  much  butter,  the  whites  of  four 
eggs  beaten  well,  half  a cupful  of  milk.  Flavor  to  taste. 

SPICE  CAKE. — Three  and  a half  cups  flour,  two  of  brown  sugar,  one  of  butter,  one 
of  cold  water,  one  large  cup  raisins  and  currants,  two  teaspoonfuls  of  baking  powder,  two 
of  cinnamon,  one-half  teaspoonful  of  cloves,  the  same  of  nutmeg  and  three  eggs. 

COOKIES. — One  cup  butter,  one  of  sugar,  one  egg,  teaspoonful  of  vanilla,  half  as 
much  soda  dissolved  in  water,  flour  enough  to  roll  very  soft ; cut  in  shape  and  bake  with 
quick  fire. 

COFFEE  CAKE. — Four  cups  flour,  one  each  of  brown  sugar,  molasses,  butter  and 
strained  coffee,  one  pound  each  of  raisins  and  currants,  one  tablespoonful  each  of  cloves 
and  cinnamon,  two  nutmegs  and  two  teaspoonfuls  baking  powder. 

GINGER  COOKIES. — One  cup  of  molasses,  one  half  as  much  each  of  butter  and 
boiling  water,  one  teaspoonful  each  of  soda  and  ginger,  a little  salt  and  flour  to  roll  out. 

MOLASSES  COOKIES. — One  cup  butter  and  one  of  brown  sugar  stirred  together 
one  cup  New  Orleans  molasses,  three  eggs,  three  teaspoonfuls  soda,  two  of  ginger ; mix 
ail  with  flour  enough  to  make  a soft  dough. 


THE  ART  OF  COOKERY. 


338 


BREAD  CAKE. — Sugar,  two  teacups,  one  of  both,  mix  with  two  large  cups  of  bread 
dough,  season  with  essence  lemon,  two  teaspoonfuls  common  allspice  and  cloves  each 
one  spoonful,  a nutmeg,  and  a large  cup  of  raisins  put  in  last. 

SOFT  GINGER  BREAD. — Mix  together  four  cups  flour,  one  of  sour  milk,  two  of 
molasses,  one  of  sugar,  ginger,  cloves,  salaratus,  one  teaspoonful  each,  four  eggs. 

CRULLERS. — Mix  into  a soft  mess,  flour,  one  cup  sugar,  one  of  sour  cream,  one 
egg,  a little  soda  and  salt ; have  the  lard  boiling  hot  while  frying. 

BAKING  PIES.- — Sifting  one  pound  of  flour  pastry,  put  in  a third  of  the  shorten- 
ing, half  lard  and  butter,  salt  and  mix  with  cold  water.  When  you  have  rolled  the  paste 
then  you  will  rub  on  as  much  of  the  shortening  as  you  can  and  kneading  it  roll  out 
again,  when  the  butter  and  lard  have  all  been  worked  in,  in  this  way  roll  out  for  use. 

MINCE  PIE. — Prepare  three  pounds  of  raisins  by  seeding  and  chopping  them  and 
two  pounds  of  currants  by  washing,  picking  over  and  drying  them  ; four  pounds  of  meat, 
that  is  one  part  meat  to  two  parts  apple,  three  quarts  of  cider;  brandy  if  you  wish  one 
pint. 

MOCK  MINCE  PIE. — For  sweetening  use  one  cup  of  molasses  and  one  of  brown 
sugar.  For  fruit,  one  cup  each  of  raisens  and  currants.  For  seasoning,  one  tablespoon- 
full  of  allspice  and  cinnamon  mixed  one  teaspoonful  each  nutmegs,  cloves,  salt  and  pepper  ; 
add  one  and  a half  cups  of  melted  butter,  one  of  sour  cider,  two  of  cold  water,  two  eggs 
beaten  light  and  half  a dozen  soda  crackers  pulverized,  and  you  have  a good  substitute 
for  mince  pies  ; use  brandy  if  you  wish. 

APPLE  PIES. — Prepare  by  peeling  and  slicing  good  tart  winter  apples,  cover  your 
plate  with  a good  crust,  put  on  to  it  a layer  of  fruit  and  one  of  light  brown  sugar  with  five 
or  six  cloves,  lay  on  more  sliced  apple  and  so  on  until  filled  ; put  on  the  top  crust  and 
bake.  The  apples  may  be  cooked  and  when  hot  add  a little  butter  and  season  it  with 
nutmeg,  then  fill  into  the  crust  already  baked  on  the  plate. 

PUMPKIN  PIE. — Stew  and  strain  one  quart  of  pumpkin,  add  one  of  milk,  one  cup 
sugar,  seven  eggs  beaten  very  light,  and  flavor  to  taste. 

SQUASH  PIE. — The  same  as  above,  using  squash  instead  of  pumpkin. 

LEMON  PIE. — For  each  pie  take  one  apple,  chop  fine,  one  egg,  one  lemon,  chop 
inside  fine  and  grate  the  rind,  one  cup  of  sugar,  and  a piece  of  butter  the  size  of  a 
walnut. 

PEACH  PIE. — Prepare  the  peaches  by  peeling,  stoning  and  slicing  with  a good 
crust  on  the  plate,  cover  with  a layer  of  sugar,  sprinkling  in  sugar,  chop  three  kernals 
from  the  pits  and  put  in  each  pie  ; put  in  water  and  cover  with  a crust  or  crossbars  over 
the  top. 

CHERRY  PIE. — U$e  ripe  cherries  and  sweeten  to  taste,  cover  with  crust,  eat 

cold. 

CUSTARD  PIE. — Milk  one  quart,  four  eggs,  four  tablespoonfuls  of  white  sugar, 
the  yolks  and  sugar  should  be  beaten  light  and  mixed  with  the  milk,  the  whites  whipped 
in  and  all  stirred  well  together,  then  pour  into  the  crust  made  in  a shell  and  grate  nut- 
meg on  top  ; this  can  be  used  in  pies  or  in  cup  custard. 


334 


THE  ART  OF  COOKERY. 


COCOANUT  PIES. — Rub  one-half  pound  of  butter  and  of  sugar  together  and  beat 
light  with  two  teaspoonfuls  of  lemon  juice,  stir  in  the  beaten  yolks  of  four  eggs,  then  one 
pound  of  grated  cocoanut  beaten  with  the  whites  of  the  four  eggs,  add  two  teaspoonfuls 
of  vanilla  and  one  glass  of  brandy  if  you  wish  ; bake  in  open  crust  and  cut  when  cold. 

LEMON  PIE.— Three-fourths  cup  white  sugar  and  grate  spoonful  of  butter  beaten 
into  a cream,  stir  in  three  beaten  yolks  of  eggs,  add  the  lemon  juice  and  grated  peel  of 
almond  beaten  with  the  whites,  adding  a little  rose-water  and  three  tablespoonfuls  of  sugai 
for  a meringue,  to  cover  the  pie  when  done ; this  for  one  good  sized  pie. 

BLACKBERRY,  RASPBERRY  AND  PLUM  PIES.— Are  each  made  like  the 
cherry  pie, 

RHUBARB  PIE. — Prepare  the  pie  plant  by  removing  the  skin  and  cutting  in 
pieces  half  an  inch  in  length,  sweeten  lavishly  with  sugar  and  fill  the  crusts  with  the  raw 
material,  a few  seedless  raisins  scattered  over  the  top  will  improve  the  pie,  cover  with 
crust  and  bake. 

PUDDINGS. 

. SWEET  APPLE  PUDDING.^-Beat  the  yolks  of  four  eggs  very  light,  put  in  one 
quart  of  milk,  some  nutmeg  and  cinnamon,  and  stir  in  flour  for  a stiff  batter  for  five  min- 
utes; three  cups  of  chopped  apples  with  the  juice  of  a lemon,  and  half  its  rind  are  then 
beaten  in,  the  whites  of  the  four  eggs  and  lastly  a little  soda  dissolved  in  vinegar.  This 
is  to  be  baked  in  two  shallow  tins  for  an  hour  and  eaten  hot.  Care  must  be  taken  in  mix- 
ing the  ingredients. 

TAPIOCA  PUDDING. — Put  one  cup  of  tapioca  into  enough  water  to  cover  it,  and 
let  it  stand  two  hours,  drain  off  the  water,  then  put  the  tapioca  in  one  quart  of  milk  for 
two  hours.  When  it  has  become  soft,  beat  two  tablespoonfuls  of  sugar  and  the  same  of 
butter  together,  add  the  beaten  yolks  of  five  eggs,  the  milk  and  tapioca,  and  lastly  the 
whites.  Stir  thoroughly,  and  bake  in  a well  buttered  dish.  It  is  to  be  eaten  warm. 

The  same  for  Sago  Pudding. 

APPLE  AND  TAPIOCA  PUDDING. — Pare  and  core  six  apples,  and  pack  them 
in  a single  layer  in  a deep  dish,  steam  them  in  a little  water,  covering  the  dish  over,  and 
when  soft  pour  on  a mixture  of  tapioca  prepared  as  above.  A clove  in  each  apple  adds 
to  the  flavor. 

CRACKER  PUDDING. — Heat  one  quart  of  milk  slightly,  and  pouring  in  one  cup 
of  powdered  cracker,  let  it  stand  for  fifteen  minutes.  Stir  into  this  the  beaten  yolks  of 
five  eggs,  then  add  two  t^blespoonfuls  of  melted  butter  and  one-half  teaspoonful  of  soda. 
Mix  these  thoroughly,  and  add  the  beaten  whites  of  the  five  eggs.  This  is  to  be  eaten 
hot. 

THE  QUEEN  OF  PUDDINGS. — Have  bread  crumbs  soaked  over  night  in  milk. 
Rub  together  one  tablespoonful  of  butter  and  one  cup  of  white  sugar,  till  they  are  like 
cream,  the  yolks  of  five  eggs  beaten  light.  Mix  with  bread  crumbs  and  one  quart  rich 
fresh  milk,  one-half  cup  of  jelly,  then  season  with  vanilla,  rosewater  or  lemon.  Bake  in 
a buttered  dish  until  the  custard  has  “ set.”  Cover  this  with  the  whipped  whites  of  the 
five  eggs  and  half' a cup  of  white  sugar,  and  return  to  the  oven  until  the  surface  is  a deli* 
cate  brown. 


THE  ART  OF  COOKERY. 


385 


COTTAGE  PUDDING. — Take  two  cups  flour,  one  of  sugar,  one  of  milk,  two  eggs, 
two  spoonfuls  baking  powder,  two  of  melted  butter.  Mix  thoroughly  and  bake  an  hour. 
Eat  this  pudding  with  sweet  sauce. 

APPLE  DUMPLINGS. — Mix  one  quart  of  flour,  one-fourth  pound  of  suet,  one  tea- 
spoonful of  salt,  one  half  teaspoonful  of  soda,  one  teaspoonful  cream  tartar  sifted  into  the 
flour,  with  cold  water  enough  to  make  it  thick.  Knead  it  well,  and  roll  out,  cutting  into 
squares.  In  the  center  of  each  put  a nice  apple,  pared  and  cored,  filling  the  hole  in  the 
apple  with  sugar  moistened  with  lemonade  and  a clove.  Cover  over  with  the  paste,  and 
tie  each  dumpling  in  a cloth,  after  you  have  wet  it  with  hot  water  and  sprinkled  it  with 
flour.  Boil  an  hour,  and  serve  hot,  with  sweet  sauce. 

SUET  DUMPLINGS. — Let  fine  bread  crumbs  be  soaked  in  a very  little  milk— two 
cups  full  of  crumbs  will  do.  Take  one  cup  of  beef  suet,  clean  and  fine,  beat  the  yolks 
and  whites  of  four  eggs  separately  ; sift  one  tablespoonful  of  sugar  and  one  teaspoonful 
of  cream  tartar  into  the  flour,  dissolve  half  a teaspoonful  cf  soda  in  hot  water,  salt  and 
mix  with  milk  to  a thick  paste.  Cover  the  hands  with  flour,  and  make  into  balls  ; put 
into  dumpling  cloths  which  have  been  dipped  into  hot  water  and  sprinkled  with  flour. 
Boil  45  minutes,  and  serve  hot.  ( 

FRUIT  SUET  DUMPLINGS.— Add  to  the  ingredients  as  given  above  one-half 
pound  of  raisins,  seeded  and  chopped  fine,  and  one-fourth  pound  currants,  washed  and 
dried,  dredging  them  with  flour.  Boil  i hour  and  15  minutes. 

ORANGE  ROLLY-POLY.— Prepare  your  paste  as  if  for  apple  dumplings,  and  roll 
into  an  oblong  sheet.  Put  sweet  oranges,  seeded,  pared  and  sliced  thickly  over  it.  Scatter 
white  sugar  and  a little  of  the  grated  yellow  peel  over  it,  fold  over  and  roll  down  the 
edges  to  secure  the  juice.  Boil  in  a cloth  for  an  hour  and  a half.  Eat  with  lemon  sauce. 

SAUCES  FOR  PUDDINGS 

HARD  SAUCE. — A fourth  of  a pound  of  butter,  beaten  to  a cream,  adding  grad- 
ually, while  beating,  the  same  amount  of  sugar.  Heat  until  white,  and  flavor  with  lemon 
or  nutmeg. 

PUDDING  SAUCE.— The  yolks  of  two  eggs  beaten  very  light,  mix  with  one  cup 
of  sugar  thoroughly,  add  the  beaten  whites,  with  flavor  to  taste.  Serve  quickly. 

LEMON  SAUCE. — Grate  the  rind  of  one  lemon,  and  take  the  juice,  mix  with  one 
cup  sugar  and  half  the  amount  of  butter  and  a little  boiling  water.  Thicken  in  a dish 
over  boiling  water. 

A PLAIN  SAUCE. — Mix  with  cold  water  one  tablespoonful  of  flour,  a cup  of  sugar 
and  a little  salt.  Pour  on  a half  pint  of  boiling  water,  and  let  it  boil  up  a few  minutes. 
Just  before  taking  it  off,  put  in  two  tablespoonfuls  of  butter.  Grate  nutmeg  over  it,  or 
flavor  to  taste. 

CUSTARD,  BOILED. — Mix  eight  eggs,  omitting  the  whites  of  four,  beating  light 
with  a quart  of  milk  and  four  ounces  of  sugar,  pouring  in  while  stirring.  Put  the  yellow 
peel  of  a lemon  and  a handful  of  cinnamon  with  this  compound  into  a pan,  and  simmer 
slowly  over  hot  coals,  stirring  it  all  the  while.  Take  it  off  the  stove  the  instant  it  comes 


33G 


THE  ART  OF  COOKERY. 


to  a boil.  Strain  it,  and  add  a tablespoonful  of  rose  water.  Put  a macaroon  in  each  cup, 
and  pour  in  the  custard,  grating  nutmeg  over  the  top. 

FLOATING  ISLAND. — Into  a pint  of  rich  cream,  sweetened  with  loaf  sugaf  stir 
sufficient  currant  jelly  to  give  it  a rich  pink.  Place  this  in  a glass  dish.  In  the  center 
put  slices  of  lady  cake,  or  any  delicate  cake,  each  piece  covered  with  marmalade  or  rasp- 
berry jam,  and  laid  evenly  on  each  other.  Flavor  another  pint  of  cream  with  the  juice  of 
two  lemons,  and  beat  to  a stiff  foam.  Pour  this  over  the  mass  of  cake. 

HOW  TO  MAKE  I0E  CREAM. 

LEMON. — Into  a pound  of  nice  cream  stir  a pound  of  the  best  powdered  loaf 
sugar,  the  grated  rind  of  four  lemons  and  the  juice  of  the  same.  The  first  is  best,  but 
if  not  to  be  obtained  use  essence  or  oil  of  lemon  instead.  Beat  the  mass  already  made 
into  a quart  and  a half  of  cream,  gradually,  till  it  is  hard.  Cover  and  set  it  away  for 
half  an  hour.  Then  if  flavored  and  sweetened  to  taste  strain  into  the  freezer ; if  not, 
add  more  lemon  and  sugar.  It  is  then  ready  for  freezing.  When  cream  is  not  plenty, 
use  good  milk  and  powdered  arrowroot.  Orange  may  be  substituted  for  lemon. 

CHOCOLATE. — Heat  one  part  of  milk  almost  to  boiling  point ; beat  together  two 
Cggs , one  pound  of  sugar  and  five  tablespoonfuls  of  powdered  chocolate,  and  pour  the( 
Scalding  milk  onto  the  mass.  When  cool  add  one  quart  of  cream,  and  flavor  to  taste. 
It  is  then  ready  for  the  freezing. 

VANILLA.-— In  half  a pint  of  milk  boil  slowly  a vanilla  bean  till  the  flavor  has 
been  extracted.  A pound  of  powdered  loaf  sugar  is  then  mixed  into  the  milk,  and  all  is 
stirred  hard  in  a quart  of  rich  cream.  It  is  then  ready  for  freezing,  and  should  be  frozen 
twice. 

STRAWBERRY. — A quart  of  fresh  strawberries  should  be  mashed  and  the  juices 
Strained  through  a muslin  cloth.  Beat  this  into  a quart  of  cream  and  freeze  very  quickly. 

LEMON  ICE. — Press  the  juice  from  three  lemons  and  one  sweet  orange,  for  an 
hour.  Strain  through  a cloth,  wringing  it  dry.  Mix  in  one  pint  of  sugar  and  one  pint  of 
water.  Stir  until  all  is  dissolved,  and  freeze  by  serving  it  as  for  ice  cream  in  a freezer. 
Open  three  times  to  beat  all  up  together. 

ORANGE  ICE. — Press  the  juice  out  oi  a dozen  juicy  oranges  and  two  lemons  ; the 
grated  rind  of  two  oranges  in  boiling  water,  a pound  and  a half  of  sugar  and  a quart  of 
water,  well  stirred  together.  Strain,  and  when  half  frozen  add  the  beaten  whites  of 
three  eggs. 

PINE-APPLE  ICE. — Peel  and  cut  fine  one  ;uicy  pine-apple,  the  grated  peel  of  a 
lemon,  one  pint  of  sugar,  and  water  to  dissolve.  Cover  the  pine-apple  with  the  sugar, 
mash  together  and  strain ; then  it  is  ready  for  freezing. 


INSTRUCTIONS  IN  THE  ART  OF  FOLDING  TABLE  NAPKINS, 

WITH  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


INSTRUCTIONS  IN  THE  ART  OF  FOLDING  TABLE  NAPKINS.— 
The  folding  of  the  dinner  napkins,  their  fair  purity  and  the  pretty  forms  in 
which  they  are  folded  adds  much  to  the 
effective  appearance  of  the  dining  table. 

‘The  popularity  of  the  mitre-form  has  made  it 

almost  conventional,  but  there  are  a variety  Cut  i.  Cut  2. 

of  ways  which  may  be  practised  at  leisure,  and  which  our  diagrams  will  easily  explain. 
Thirty  inches  long  by  twenty-eight  in  breadth  is  a large  size  for  dinner-napkins.  To  ac- 
complish the  Mitre  (Cut  i),  fold  the  napkin  lengthways  into  three  parts,  turn  down  the 
right-hand  corner,  and  turn  up  the  left-hand  one,  as  in  Cut  2,  a and  b Turn  back  the 

point  A to  the  right,  so  that  it  shall  lie  behind,  c 
and  B to  the  left,  so  as  to  lie  behind  d.  Double 
the  napkin  back  at  the  line  e,  and  turn  up  from  f 
Cut  3.  Cut  4.  before,  and  g from  behind,  when  they  will  ap- 

pear as  in  cut  3.  Arrange  the  corner  H towards  the  right,  and  tuck  it  behind  1,  and  bend 
back  the  corner  k towards  the  left  at  the  dotted  line,  and  tuck  it  into  a corresponding 
part  in  the  back.  The  bread  is  placed  either  under  the  mitre  or  in  the  center  at  the  top. 
The  Exquisite  (cut  4):  Fold  the  napkin  into  three 
parts,  as  before  described,  then  fold  down  two- 
fifths  of  the  length  from  each  side,  as  in  cut  5 at  a, 
roll  up  the  part  b towards  the  back,  repeat  on  the 
other  side,  then  turn  up  the  corner  towards  the 
corner  a,  and  it  will  appear  as  d.  The  center 
part  e,  is  now  turned  up  at  the  bottom,  and  down  £UT  ^ 

at  the  top,  and  the  two  rolls  adjusted  under  the  center  part  as  in  cut  4.  The  bread  is 
placed  under  the  center,  k.  The  Collegian  (cut  6)  is  another  pretty  form  ; fold  the  nap- 
kin, as  before,  into  three  parts  lengthways,  and  turn  down  the  sides  towards  you, 
JL  as  the^  appear  *n  cut  7 ’ next>  ro^  UP  Porti°n  A under-^ 
f I > /\1  A neath,  until  it  looks  like  b (cut  8).  Then  take  the  cornel' 

b and  roll  it  up  in  the  same  way  towards  c,  so  that  the  edge 
of  the  rolled  part  shall  be  equal  with  the  center  line.  Re- 
peat the  same  on  either  side  and  turn  the  whole  over,  when 
Cut  7.  Cut  8.  it  will  appear  as  in  cut  6.  The  bread  is  placed  under  k. 

These  three  forms  are  amongst  the  prettiest  modes  of  folding  finger-napkins.  We  refer 
the  reader  to  “ Table  Ornaments  and  Arrangement,”  on  page  68  of  this  work,  (Guide  to 
Polite  Society.) 


Cut  6. 


CANNING  FRUITS. 

PEACHES. — Cut  the  fruit  in  halves,  being  careful  not  to  break  it;  take  out  the 
pits,  put  each  half  in  cold  water  as  prepared.  Put  a heaping  tablespoonful  of  sugar  to 
each  quart,  scattering  between  the  layers.  When  your  kettle  is  full  heat  it  to  a boil,  and 
let  it  boil  three  minutes  ; can  and  seal.  Large  white  free-stone  peaches  of  firm  texture 
are  the  best. 

PLUMS. — For  a syrup  take  a gill  of  pure  water,  a pound  of  sugar  to  every  quart 
of  the  fruit.  When  well  dissolved  add  the  plums,  taking  the  precaution  to  prick  each 
one  to  prevent  bursting.  Heat  the  plums  slowly  and  boil  five  minutes  slowly.  Put 
the  plums  into  ajar,  and  pour  the  liquid  on  while  hot.  Seal  up. 

PEARS. — For  a syrup  use  a pint  of  water  and  a quarter  pound  of  sugar  to  each 
quart  of  fruit.  Peel  the  fruit  and  drop  into  cold  water.  When  the  syrup  is  boiling  rap- 
idly put  in  the  pears,  taking  care  not  to  bruise  them,  and  boil  until  they  are  tender. 
Pack  the  pears  into  cans  heated  with  water,  and  fill  to  overflowing  with  the  syrup  still 
left.  Apples  may  be  treated  the  same  way. 

PINE  APPLE. — Take  the  same  weight  of  sugar  and  of  the  chopped  fruit  freed 
from  rind,  mix  together  and  let  it  remain  in  a stone  jar  24  hours  ; then  fill  the  cans  full 
and  seal  tightly.  In  two  weeks  examine  for  any  signs  of  fermentation.  If  there  is,  un- 
seal and  warm  the  fruit  over  again,  canning  as  before. 

CANNED  CORN. — When  your  corn  is  in  nice  condition  for  roasting  boil  it  on  the 
cob  for  twenty  minutes  over  a brisk  fire,  and  cut  off  while  hot.  Prepare  as  for  the  table 
and  bring  to  a hard  boil.  Then  can  as  quickly  as  possible,  and  when  cold  set  in  a safe 
place. 

GLASS  CANS — May  be  prepared  to  receive  hot  truits,  &c.,  without  breaking  by 
standing  them  in  cold  water  put  in  a large  boiler,  so  they  will  not  touch  the  bottom,  and 
gradually  bring  it  to  a boil,  and  when  filled  allowing  no  cold  air  to  reach  them. 


THE  ART  OF  CARVING  MADE  EASY 

WITH  THIRTY-FOUR  ILLUSTRATIONS 

ARVING  is  an  art  that  requires  manual  dexterity,  rather  than  strength. 
Occasionally  some  little  strength  is  required,  but  in  general,  address  will 
accomplish  what  physical  force  never  could  effect.  A good  carver  is  sure 
to  be  a general  favorite,  though  he  is  sometimes  to  be  greatly  feared. 
Knowing,  as  he  necessarily  must,  the  anatomy  of  every  animal,  and  where 
to  find  the  most  delicious  tidbits,  he  is  equally  skilled  in  finding  out  the  most  unsavory 
enorsels,  and  if  he  chance  to  owe  a grudge  to  any  of  the  assembled  guests,  what  an  op- 
portunity has  he  for  revenge! 


THE  ART  OF  CARVING  MADE  EASY. 


339 


FISH. 

SALMON. — Here  is  a piece  cut  out  of  the  middle  of  a large  fish,  which  is  reck- 
oned tne  choicest.  In  order  to  avoid  breaking  the  grain,  it  must  be  cut  lengthways. 
The  fish-slice  must  be  put  in  requisition — from 
the  thick  and  lean  parts,  from  a to  B;  for  the  thin 
and  fat  parts,  from  c to  D.  The  skin  must  be 
cut  through  in  both  cases,  and  left  adhering  to 
the  pieces  when  transferred  to  the  plate.  A 
slice  of  each  should  be  given,  unless  a wish  be 
expressed  to  the  contrary,  as  the  parts  differ  in  flavor. 

When  a salmon  is  served  whole,  cut  the  thickest  parts  for  the  lean,  and  the  thinnest 
for  the  fat,  always  taking  care  to  “ work  ” towards  the  head,  the  tail  being  less  savory. 
When  the  fish  is  very  thick,  the  fish-slice  should  not  be  suffered  to  penetrate  to  the  bone, 
as,  from  the  richness  of  the  salmon,  the  flesh  near  the  bone  is  generally  discolored. 

TURBOT. — This  should  be  in  good  hands,  and  delicately  dealt  with  ; carry  the 
edge  of  the  knife  or  slice  down  to  the  bone,  from  a to  B along  the  middle,  then  make 

deep  and  clean  cuts  each  way  to  the  fins.  Help 
the  underside,  which  is  the  most  prized,  as  far 
as  it  will  go,  taking  care  (unless  you  would  make 
enemies)  to  divide  and  send  a portion  of  the  fins, 
which  are  considered  a delicacy,  with  each 
square  of  fish.  Should  more  than  the  underside 
be  required,  lift  up  the  backbone  with  a fork, 
and  separate  a portion  of  the  upperside ; many 
persons  prefer  it,  and  though  not  so  delicate  as  the  underpart,  it  is  more  solid.  Brill, 
Dory  and  Plaice  are  served  in  a similar  manner  to  Turbot.  Soles  are  divided  in 
half  unless  they  are  filleted.  Whiting  and  Flounders  are  served  whole. 

COD’S  HEAD  AND  SHOULDERS. — The  best  parts  of  this  fish  are  found 
about  the  backbone  and  shoulders.  A dainty  morsel,  called  the  cheek,  lies  behind  the 
eye ; the  gelatinous  parts  are  about  the  jawbones 
and  the  tongue,  palate  and  sound  are  considered 
delicacies.  Cut  with  the  fish-slice,  before  help- 
ing  from  A to  c,  then  cut  slices  from  A to  B,  and 
from  c to  D ; give  with  each  plate  a portion  of 
the  sound,  which  lines  the  backbone,  and  may 
be  easily  got  at  with  the  aid  of  a tablespoon  in- 
troduced into  the  under  part  of  the  fish,  between  B and  D. 

MACKEREL.— Introduce  the  fish-slice  at  A,  and  carry  it  down  in  a straight  line 

as  far  as  B,  towards  the  end  of  the  tail.  In  help- 
ing never  venture  nearer  the  head  of  the  fish 
than  A,  all  beyond  being  discolored  and  of  an  ill- 
flavor.  The  fhickest  part,  next  the  head,  is  the 
choicest,  and  when  half  a side  is  served,  always 
give  the  thick  in  preference  to  the  thin.  The 
roe  may  be  found  at  the  lower  part  of  the  belly,  between  A and  B. 


340 


THE  ART  OF  CARVING  MADE  EASY. 


POULTRY. 

FOWL  (ROASTED.) — Hold  the  fowl  down  firmly  with  your  fork  in  the  centre 
of  the  breast.  Then  insert  the  knife  at  A,  and  draw  it  lightly  as  far  as  c,  just  to  outline 
what  you  intend  doing.  Take  the  wing  off  in  the  direction  of  a to  B,  dividing  the  joint 
with  your  knife,  and  carrying  it  skilfully  through  as  far  as  B,  giving  a slight  jerk  with 
the  wrist,  and  at  the  same  time  turning  the  blade ; this  should  insure  the  division  of  a 
wing.  Next,  slip  the  knife  between  the  leg  and  body  at  E,  and  cut  downwards  as  far  as 
C;  with  the  fork  turn  the  left  leg  back,  and  if  not  an  old  bird,  the  joint  will  separate. 

Turn  the  fowl,  and  proceed  in  the  same  way  to  re- 
move the  other  wing  and  leg.  Next,  take  off  the 
merrythought,  inserting  the  knife  in  the  straight 
line  at  D,  bending  it  back.  The  neck  bones  should 
be  divided  from  the  part  that  adheres  to  the 
breast  without  breaking  them;  this  is  done  by 
putting  the  prongs  of  the  fork  through  each  and 
wrenching  it  up  carefully.  The  next  thing  is  to  divide  the  breast  from  the  back  by 
cutting  through  the  carcass,  close  to  the  breast,  right  down  to  the  tail.  Then  turn 
the  back  up  and  divide  it  across  the  centre.  The  side  bones  are  then  readily  separ- 
ated from  the  rump.  Insignificant  as  they  appear,  a delicious  morsel  will  be  found 
lying  in  the  cavity  of  the  bone.  The  thigh  may  be  divided  from  the  drumstick  by 
inserting  the  knife  at  the  joint 

FOWL  (BOILED).-  The  only  difference  in  the  carving  of  boiled  and  roast  fowls 
consists  in  serving  the  breast  of  the  former  whole, 
unless  it  happens  to  be  a very  large  bird.  Proceed 
as  before  and  take  off  the  wings  from  A to  B,  the 
leg  B to  c,  taking  care  to  fix  your  fork  firmly  in  the 
sinews,  and  to  wrench  the  joint  from  the  socket. 

In  helping,  the  upper  part  of  the  leg  is  considered  superior  to  the  wing.  Next, 
take  off  the  merrythought  at  D and  cut  up  the  remainder  as  directed  for  a roast  fowl. 

TURKEY  (BOILED).  The  anatomy  of  a turkey  is  so  closely  allied  to  that  of  a 

fowl  the  only  difference  being  the  absence  of  the 
merrythought  in  the  turkey,  that  the  instruction 
given  under  the  head  of  Boiled  Fowl  will  be 
found  a good  guide,  but  a turkey  being  a much 
larger  bird  of  the  two,  delicate  slices  should  be 
cut  from  the  breast,  and  continued  if  necessary  to 
the  wings  and  legs,  which  are  rarely  removed  at  the  dinner  table;  if  found  necessary  to 
remove  these,  proceed  as  with  a fowl,  though  more  strength  will  have  to  be  exerted. 

TURKEY  (ROASTED). — The  most  choice 
parts  of  a turkey  are  the  breast,  wings  and  neck- 
bones;  the  instructions  for  serving  boiled  tur- 
key will  equally  apply  to  roast  turkey.  After 
cutting  all  the  delicate  slices  which  the  breast 
affords,  and  serving  the  portions  already  named, 
the  thigh-bones  may  be  divided.  A thin  slice  of 
the  forcemeat,  or  stuffing  which  is  under  the  breast,  should  be  served  to  each  plate. 


THE  ART  OF  CARVING  MADE  EASY.  d4L 

GOOSE. — In  carving  a goose  turn  the  neck  towards  you,  and  cut  quite  down  to 
the  bone  two  or  three  slices  from  each  side  of  the  breast,  from  A to  B;  next  remove  the 
legs;  this  is  easily  done  if  the  bird  be  a young  one,  by  putting  the  fork  through  the 
small  part  of  the  leg  bone,  and  pressing  it  close  to  the  body,  cutting  in  the  direction  of 
DEG.  In  taking  off  the  wings,  put  the  fork  into  the  small  part  of  the  pinion,  which 

press  in  the  same  way  close  to  the  body,  and  di- 
vide tlie  joint  at  c,  carrying  the  knife  on  to  D,  then 
take  off  the  merrythought,  L to  H.  To  extract 
the  seasoning,  remove  the  apron  according  to 
the  slope  marked  FEG.  The  prime  parts  are  the 
slices  from  the  breast,  the  fleshy  part  of  the  wing 
which  may  be  separated  from  the  pinion,  the  thigh-bone  divided  from  the  leg-bone  and 
the  side-bones  The  carcass  divided  and  devilled  makes  a savory  breakfast  dish.  A 
Green  Goose  is  carved  in' the  same  way  ; the  most  esteemed  part  is  the  breast ; but  as 
this  makes  only  a few  slices,  the  whole  bird  should  be  cut  up  before  any  one  is  helped. 

DUCK.—  The  same  likeness  prevails  in  the  anatomy  of  the  duck  and  goose  as 
there  is  in  that  of  a fowl  and  turkey  ; some  persons  commence  by  taking  off  the  legs 
and  wings,  and  then  cut  slices  from  the  breast. 

We,  however,  should  follow  in  every  way  the  di- 
rections already  given  for  carving  a goose — first 
cutting  the  prime  slices  from  the  breast,  A to  B, 
next  taking  off  the  leg,  D to  E,  then  the  wing,  c 
to  D,  and  merrythought,  G to  F.  If  necessary, 
the  bird  may  then  be  turned,  and  the  opposite  joints  removed.  Help  the  season- 
ing, which  will  be  found  under  the  apron,  with  each  portion  of  the  bird. 

PIGEONS  Are  usually  divided  down  the  centre,  through  both  breasts  and  back, 

and  subsequently  quartered.  The  lower  part  is 
considered  the  best.  Or  they  may  be  divided 
as  in  our  engraving,  by  placing  the  point  of  the 
knife  at  a,  and  cutting  from  A B,  A c.  Also, 
when  very  large,  they  maybe  carved  like  fowls. 

GAME. 

A HAUNCH  OF  VENISON. — In  carving  this  joint,  great  care  must  be  taken 
to  prevent  the  gravy  running  out.  Insert  the 
knife  in  the  line  A,  and  cut  straight  across  the 
knuckle.  Then  cut  from  A to  the  extreme  end, 
or  D.  By  sloping  the  knife,  in  making  the 
premier  pass,  all  the  gravy  will  find  its  way  to 
the  well.  The  broadside  of  the  joint  should  now  be  turned  to  the  carver,  who  has 
hitherto  had  the  haunch  lengthways  before  him,  and  slices  are  to  be  cut  from 
each  side  alternately,  serving  a portion  of  the  delicious  fat  with  each  slice. 
This,  the  most  highly-prized  portion  of  the  joint,  will  be  found  at  the  left  side. 


342 


THE  .ART  OF  CARVING  MADE  EASY. 


ROAST  HARE. — Either  remove  the  shoul- 
ders and  legs,  and  cut  the  back  across  into 
four  pieces;  or,  after  taking  a few  slices  from 
either  side  of  the  backbone  from  a to  B,  slip 
the  point  of  the  knife  under  the  shoulder,  at  c, 
and  cut  all  the  way  down  to  the  rump.  Re- 
peat this  process  on  the  other  side.  Take  off 
the  shoulder  at  c A D,  and  divide  the  legs  from  the  body — in  doing  which  be  careful 
to  hit  the  joints.  The  backbone  should  be  cut  through  in  three  or  four  places,  as 
marked  in  the  engraving.  Serve  a portion  of  the  stuffing  with  each  slice.  The  brains 
and  ears  are  considered  a delicacy  by  some  persons.  The  first  should  be  cut  off  at 
the  roots,  and  the  head  divided  by  putting  the  point  of  the  knife  into  the  center  of 
it,  and  cutting  firmly  down  to  the  nose. 

PHEASANT. — In  carving  this  bird  fix 
your  fork  in  the  center  of  the  breast  just  below 
the  cross  line,  which  .will  enable  you  to  hold  it 
firmly;  then  cut  thin  slices  from  A to  B,  exactly 
as  you  would  the  breast  of  a duck.  Separate 
the  wing  from  c to  D,  and  take  off  the  leg  on  the 
same  side,  cutting  in  the  direction  of  D E.  Repeat  the  operation  on  the  opposite 
side,  removing  the  merrythought  by  passing  the  knife  under  it  from  G to  F toward 
the  neck,  and  separate  the  neck-bone  in  the  same  manner  as  those  of  a roast  fowl. 
The  prime  parts  are  the  breast,  the  wings,  and  merrythought ; but  the  thigh  has  a 
high  flavor,  and  some  persons  esteem  the  brains. 

PARTRIDGE. — If  very  large  this  bird  may  be  carved  like  a fowl:  the  legs  and 
wings  may  be  taken  off  in  the  lines  from  a to  B,  and  the  merrythought  if  desired  in 
the  direction  D to  c.  It  is  usual,  however,  on  account  of  its  smallness,  to  help  the 
merrythought  with  the  breast,  the  wing  and  leg  being  served  together,  the  back 

only  with  some  of  the  other  parts.  When  very 
small,  it  is  generally  divided  into  two  parts  by 
cutting  quite  through  the  breast  to  the  tail. 

The  wings,  breast,  and  merrythought  are  the 
best  parts,  the  wing  is  most  esteemed,  and  the  tip 
of  it  is  considered  by  epicures  the  most  delicate  morsel  of  the  whole. 

RABBIT  (ROASTED). — The  anatomy  of 
this  animal  precisely  resembles  that  of  the  hare, 
and  it  should  be  carved  in  like  manner. 

RABBIT  (BOILED). — Is  carved  in  exactly  the  same  way  as  roasted;  taking  off  the 
legs  and  shoulders  first,  and  dividing  the  back  into  two  or  three  pieces.  This  is  very 
simply  managed  by  placing  the  knife  in  the  joint  and  lifting  up  the  back  with  your  fork. 
The  middle  piece  is  the  pnmest,  then  the  other  portions  of  the  back,  afterwards  the  legs, 
shoulders,  etc.  Liver  sauce  should  be  served  to  each  plate,  or  onion  sauce,  if  preferred. 


THE  ART  OF  CARVING  MADE  EASY. 


343 


JOINTS. 


as  the  under-cut  eats  better  hot  than 


SIRLOIN  OF  BEEF. — Cutting  from  B to 
A in  long  thin  slices.  The  fat  and  lean  are  fairly 
proportioned,  and  the  flavor  is  very  much  bet- 
ter than  when  the  meat  is  cut  across  the  grain. 

The  most  delicate  and  juiciest  portion  of 
the  joint  lies  underneath  (see  straight  line  c); 
a judge  will  always  commence  with  this  part 
first,  the  rich  fat  is  found  close  at  hand  ; and 
cold,  a word  to  the  wise  will  be  enough. 


RIBS  OF  BEEF. — This  joint  is  carved  in  precisely  the  same  way  as  the  pre- 
ceding one,  cutting  along  the  whole  length  of  the  bone  from  the  thinnest  end.  Some- 
times the  joint  is  boned,  stuffed,  and  rolled  ; in  which  case  it  must  be  carved  exactly 
like  a round  of  beef. 

The  meat  beyond  the  fourth  rib  is  not  so  tender  as  the  other  parts,  and  is  there- 
fore called  by  professional  cooks — the  chuck , or  inferior  end. 

ROUND  OF  BEEF. — Have  the  dish  put 
before  you  exactly  as  in  the  engraving,  then 
take  off  a slice  about  half  an  inch  thick  all  round 
from  B to  A,  which  must  be  set  aside.  Now 
commence  cutting  thin  slices,  both  fat  and 
lean,  observing  that  the  solid  fat  will  be  found 
at  D,  the  richer  marrowy  fat  at  c ; and  it  may 
be  observed  that  this  is  much  better  eaten  hot  tiian  cold.  After  a few  slices  are 
taken  off,  the  skewer  may  be  taken  out.  Its  own  juice  is  the  only  gravy  necessary, 
and  this  will  flow  after  the  first  round  is  taken  off. 


TONGUE. — The  proper  mode  of  cutting  a 
tongue  is  nearly  through  the  middle ; A to  B. 
The  knife  must  not  penetrate  very  deep,  nor 
the  slices  be  cut  very  thick,  or  the  tongue  will 
not  go  far,  in  a large  party.  Cut  from  both 
sides  alternately.  If  fat  be  required,  it  must  be  cut  from  under  the  tongue. 

A SADDLE  OF  MUTTON— Should  be 
cut  in  long  and  rather  thin  slices  from  the  tail 
to  the  end,  inserting  the  knife  at  B,  and  cutting 
on  each  side  of  the  backbone  to  A.  The  lean 
will  be  found  in  the  neighborhood  of  B,  the  fat 
at  the  lower  and  thin  part.  Some  persons  pass  the  knife  down  the  bone  that  sepa- 
rates the  two  loins,  so  as  to  loosen  all  the  meat  from  that  side,  which  is  then  cut 
obliquely,  and  thus  fat  and  lean  are  served  together.  This  joint  is  generally  sent  to 
table  with  a bouquet  of  vegetable  flowers  decorating  the  tale  end. 


344 


THE  ART  OF  CARVING  MADE  EASY. 


LEG  OF  MUTTON  (ROASTED). — Aim  at  the  prime  part  of  this  joint, 
whether  roast  or  boiled,  midway  between  the  round  end  and  the  knuckle  ; in  short, 
cut  in  the  line  from  A to  B.  Some  persons  recommend  taking  the  slices  alternately 
from  both  sides  of  this  line;  we,  however,  have  our  prejudice  in  favor  of  the  upper 

juiciest  portion,  and  recommend  that  the  slices 
be  not  too  thin;  but  whichever  side  is  preferred, 
cut  right  through  to  the  bone.  As  the  cramp- 
bone  is  by  some  persons  considered  a delicacy, 
it  is  well  to  know  that  it  will  be  found  near  the 
knuckle,  and  may  be  got  at  between  D and  c, 
by  cutting  in  a semi-circular  direction. 

LEG  OF  LAMB,  (BOILED). — Draw  a line  midway  between  the  round  and 
the  knuckle  from  A to  B,  and  help  from  both  sides  alternately.  Be  careful  not  to  cut 
the  slices  too  thin.  The  fat  will  be  found  in  two 
directions,  marked  D c,  c D.  A portion  may  be 
cut  from  each.  The  meat  is  said  to  cut  finer  on 
this  side,  and  affords  a number  of  prime  pieces. 

Some  persons,  when  the  joint  is  thus  presented 
to  them,  cut  the  slices  long  ways,  from  the 
round  to  the  knuckle  end. 

OR  LAMB. — This  much  maligned  dish  pos- 
sesses greater  variety  of  flavor  and  more  deli- 
cate slices  than  any  other  joint  in  the  sheep.  It 
is  always  served,  as  seen  in  the  engraving,  back 
uppermost.  Cut  through  from  A to  B on  both 
sides  for  the  lean  cuts,  the  prime  fat  will  be 
found  on  the  outer  edge  at  E;  the  bladebone, 
on  which  some  delicious  morsels  will  be  found, 
lies  between  the  lines  C D.  When  there  is  no  necessity  for  cutting  up  the  whole  at 
one  time,  the  best  plan  is  to  begin  the  joint  on  the  under  side.  Here  the  finest  cuts 
will  be  found,  portions  full  of  aroma  and  juiciness,  lost  when  cold,  while  by  enjoy- 
ing them  the  first  day,  the  slightliness  of  the  joint  will  be  preserved  for  the  next. 

LOIN  OF  MUTTON  OR  LAMB. — If  the  butcher  has  done  his  duty  properly, 
and  separated  the  joints,  this  is  a very  simple  affair  for  the  carver,  who  has  only  to 
divide  the  chops,  and  help  fat  and  lean  together,  beginning  at  the  thinnest  end. 


SHOULDER  OF  MUTTON 


UPPER  SIDE 


A HAUNCH  OF  LAMB. — This  handsome  joint  is  cut  precisely  like  a haunch 
ol  venison,  and  is  dressed  as  nearly  as  possible  to  imitate  it.  It  is  also  carved  ex- 
actly in  the  same  way. 


LAMB  (FORE-QUARTER) — This  requires 
the  fork  to  be  pressed  in  towards  the  knuckle, 
and  the  knife  to  be  passed  round  the  shoulder  in 
the  direction  A B c,  so  as  to  divide  it  from  the 
ribs  without  depriving  them  of  too  much  of  the 


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THE  ART  OF  CARVING  MADE  EASY. 


•345 


meat.  Have  close  at  hand  half  a lemon  or  Seville  orange,  with  pepper  and  salt,  and 
raising  the  shoulder  with  the  fork,  squeeze  the  juice  of  the  pungent  fruit  over  the 
ribs,  add  a little  salt  and  pepper,  and  lay  a piece  of  butter  between  the  joints  till  it  is 
melted ; then  remove  the  shoulder  to  a separate  dish,  and  divide  the  breast  by  cut- 
ting through  from  A to  D.  Next  separate  the  ribs  by  passing  the  knife  in  the  straight 
line,  E F.  The  breast,  if  chosen,  must  be  divided  in  the  direction  of  G to  H.  Legs, 
loins  or  shoulders  of  Lamb  and  Mutton  should  be  carved  the  same  way. 

FILLET  OF  VEAL. — The  directions  given  for  carving  a round  of  beef  will  be 
found  equally  applicable  for  the  proper  carving  of  this  joint,  except  that  the  upper 
slice  was  cut  thinner,  and  instead  of  being  laid 
aside,  a portion  of  it  should  be  served  along 
with  each  slice,  most  persons  being  fond  of  the 
brown.  Cut  for  the  lean  slices  in  the  direc- 
tion of  a to  B,  and  from  D to  C for  the  stuffing, 
which  will  be  found  skewered  within  the  flap. 

The  fat  lies  between  A and  D ; take  care  to  help  some  of  both  to  each  person.  A 
lemon  thinly  sliced  should  accompany  this  joint. 

KNUCKLE  OF  VEAL.— In  carving  this 
joint,  the  best  way  is  to  cut  from  B to  A;  the  two 
bones  may  be  divided  from  c to  D.  It  is  con- 
sidered delicate  and  nutritious,  but  unless  very 
nicely  stewed  is  an  insipid  dish. 

BREAST  OF  VEAL. — Put  your  knife  in 
at  A,  about  four  inches  from  the  thick  part  or 
“ brisket,”  and  cut  to  B ; this  will  separate  it 
from  the  long  ribs;  divide  these  as  shown  in 
the  line  c,  and  serve  the  gristles  in  portions,  as  seen  at  D.  A morsel  of  the  sweet- 
bread, &c.,  should  be  served  with  each  plate. 

A shoulder  of  veal  should  (if  it  ever  be  desired)  be  carved  on  the  under  side  for 
the  prime  slices,  precisely  as  a shoulder  of  mutton. 

LOIN  OF  VEAL. — In  carving  the  chump 
end  of  this  joint  (which  our  engraving  repre- 
sents) cut  in  the  direction  B to  A,  in  the  same 
way  as  you  would  carve  a sirloin  of  beef.  The 
fat  will  be  found  underneath,  and  the  kidney 
which  imbedded  in  it  is  in  favor  with  most 
people;  be  careful  therefore  in  helping  your  friends  to  send  a slice  of  the  fat  and 
kidney  to  each  one,  and  if,  as  is  sometimes  the  case,  a toast  is  laid  under  the  joint, 
serve  a portion  of  that  likewise. 

CALF’S  HEAD. — Halt  of  a head  as  seen  in 
our  cut,  will  generally  be  found  sufficient  for  a 
small  family.  It  is  an  exceedingly  rich  dish,  and 
abounds  in  dainty  tidbits.  In  purchasingyou  will  be  sure  to  have  the  skin  left  on:  with- 


3-lt*  THE  ART  OF  CARVING  MADE  EASY, 

out  it  the  joint  is  worthless.  The  eye,  the  throat  sweetbread,  the  palate,  and  the  fine 
lean  meat  under  the  jawbone,- are  each  a separate  delicacy,  and  so  are  the  brains  and 
. tongue,  which  are  always  made  a distinct  dish,  but  should  nevertheless  be  served 
with  the  head,  as  making  important  parts  of  it.  Commence  by  cutting  slices  from 
A to  B,  letting  your  knife  go  close  to  the  bone.  Take  out  the  eye  with  the  point  of 
your  knife,  and  divide  it;  and  look  for  the  sweetbread  near  the  neck,  in  the  direc- 
tion of  c to  D.  The  palate  lies  under  the  head,  and  should  be  divided  into  small 
portions  and  the  delicate  meat  will  be  got  at  by  removing  the  jawbone.  Some  of 
the  brains  and  tongue  should  be  served  with  each  slice. 

LEG  OF  PORK  BOILED  OR  ROASTED. 

— In  serving  this  joint,  cut  slices  in  the  direc- 
tion of  A to  B,  helping  from  both  sides  alternate- 
ly. When  roasted,  unless  too  broadly  scored,  the 
best  plan  in  carving  is  to  follow  the  lines  in  the 
crackling,  which  most  people  like.  The  joint  must  then  be  turned  over  to  get  at  the 
seasoning,  which  is  generally  found  under  the  skin  round  the  shank  bone;  but  if  served 
as  in  our  cut,  it  will  be  discovered  under  the  line  c to  A.  Carve  from  A to  B,  and  as  be- 
fore directed,  from  both  sides  alternately.  A 
loin  of  pork  is  carved  precisely  like  a loin  of 
mutton.  A hand  of  pork  when  small,  plump 
and  white,  is  a very  delicate  little  dish  ; it  should 
be  cut  in  thin  slices— first  across,  and  secondly 
from  off  the  blade  bone,  where  the  most  delicate  morsels  will  be  found. 

ROAST  PIG. — As  sucking  pig  is  never 
sent  whole  to  the  table,  the  cook  having  first 
divided  the  body  and  head,  with  which  and 
the  ears  the  dish  is  usually  garnished,  all  that 
the  carver  has  to  do  is  to  take  out  the  brains, 

mix  them  with  the  stuffing  and  gravy,  and  divide  the  ribs.  The  joints  are  to  be 
subdivided,  or  slices  may  be  cut  from  them.  The  ribs  are  considered  the  prime 
parts,  and  the  neck,  between  the  shoulders,  is  preferred  by  some  persons.  A por- 
tion of  the  ear,  and  plenty  of  stuffing  and  gravy,  is  to  be  served  to  each  plate. 

A HAM. — This  joint  is  always  served  back 
upwards,  and  should  have  the  knuckle  decor- 
ated with  a paper  frill.  Some  persons  adopt 
the  fanciful  plan  of  cutting  in  a circular  direc- 
tion, as  at  C,  but  it  is  not  a good  one.  Begin 
by  cutting  a wedge-shaped  slice  from  A to  B,  that  the  other  slices  may  follow  in  a 
slanting  direction.  Let  your  knife  be  as  sharp  as  possible,  and  cut  (from  the  knuckle 
end  upwards)  slices  of  the  most  wafery  thinness. 


ONE  HUNDRED  INFALLIBLE 


MISCELLANEOUS  HOUSEHOLD  RECEIPTS. 


RECEIPTS  WHICH  WILL  BE  FOUND  EXCEEDINGLY  VALUABLE 

IN  EVERY  FAMILY. 


ONE  HUNDRED  INFALLIBLE 

MISCELLANEOUS  HOUSEHOLD  RECEIPTS 


RECEIPTS  WHICH  WILL  BE  FOUND  EXCEEDINGLY  VALUABLE  IN 

EVERY  FAMILY. 

MID  the  flood  of  receipts  on  every  conceivable  subject  which  have  del- 
uged the  market  in  late  years,  we  have  taken  care  to  select  only  such 
ones  as  will  bear  the  test  of  practical  use  and  be  of  the  greatest  utility. 
Each  one  in  our  list  will  be  found  of  inestimable  value  when  put  to  such 
a test,  and  we  are  satisfied  that  the  reader  who  intelligently  employs  them 
will  be  more  than  repaid  for  the  space  they  occupy,  and  find  them  of  more  worth  to  him 
than  a thousand  gathered  from  other  sources. 

TO  PRESERVE  BUTTER. — Work  out  the  last  drop  of  buttermilk.  Use  rock 
salt  only,  and  put  in  clean  cans  or  jars,  airtight.  Keep  in  a cool  place,  and  vou  will  have 
good  butter  at  any  time. 

TO  KEEP  EGGS  FOR  USE  IN  WINTER.— Fill  a barrel  half  full  of  water,  fresh 
slacked  lime  and  common  salt,  in  the  proportion  of  one  pint  of  lime  and  half  a pint  of 
salt  to  every  three  gallons  of  water.  Then  put  in  the  eggs  carefully,  without  cracking 
the  shells.  This  can  be>  done  by  letting  the  dish  containing  a dozen  or  more  eggs  into 
the  water  until  it  fills,  and  then  overturning  it.  Fresh  eggs  put  in  this  brine  come  out 
fresh.  When  the  barrel  is  nearly  full,  put  a board  over  the  eggs  and  put  on  more  salt 
and  lime  to  keep  the  brine  equally  strong  at  top  and  bottom. 

TO  CLEAN  BOTTLES. — Put  powdered  charcoal,  with  hot  or  cold  water,  into  the 
bottles,  and  shake  thoroughly.  If  allowed  to  remain  a little  while,  all  disagreeable  smells 
will  be  removed. 

DISINFECTANT  FOR  SICK  ROOMS,  &c.— Take  half  a cupful  of  common  salt, 
and  two  or  three  ounces  of  sulphuric  acid.  Upon  the  salt  pour  one-half  ounce  of  the 
acid,  and  stir  every  fifteen  minutes  till  all  the  acid  is  used.  Tainted  meats,  fish  or  other 
articles  can  be  purified  by  being  confined  in  a tight  box  with  salt  and  sulphuric  acidt 
All  effluvia  of  an  animal  nature  can  be  removed  from  a room  by  burning  pulverized  coffee 
upon  a fire  shovel. 

CAMPHORATED  ICE — For  chapped  hands*  or  lips. — Heat  together  until  dis- 
solved, three-fourths  of  an  ounce  of  powdered  gum  camphor,  four  teaspoonfuls  oil  of  sweet 
almonds  and  one  and  a half  ounces  of  spermaceti.  Stir  constantly,  and  when  cool  use 
freely. 

DRINKS  FOR  FEVERS. — One  pint  of  water,  into  which  mix  the  juice  of  a lemon 
and  one  teaspoonful  of  cream  of  tartar.  Sweeten  with  loaf  sugar,  and  drink  freely. 

EXCELLENT  HAIR  WASH. — Dissolve  in  a quart  of  boiling  water,  one  part  oJ 
camphor  and  two  of  borax  pulverized.  Use  frequently  when  cool.  It  cleanses,  beauti- 
fies and  preserves  the  hair. 


ONE  HUNDRED  INFALLIBLE  MISCELLANEOUS  RECEIPTS. 


FOR  SICK  HEADACHE. — This  is  occasioned  by  acidity  or  overloading  the  stom* 
ach.  When  not  caused  by  overeating,  all  that  one  need  do  is  to  soak  the  feet  in  hot 
water,  drinking  herb  tea  and  taking  a sweat. 

TO  REMOVE  GREASE  AND  OIL  STAINS. — Mix  well  together  a strong  iye 
of  pearlashes  and  soft  water  with  unslacked  lime.  Let  it  settle,  and  then  bottle  it  up 
close.  Dilute  with  water,  and  scour  the  wood.  Do  not  let  it  stand  too  long  on  the 
boards,  for  it  will  take  out  the  color.  Be  careful  and  expeditious. 

SPECIAL  RECEIPTS. 

BEEF  TEA. — Take  a wide-mouthed  jar,  and  put  into  it  a pound  of  fresh  juicy 
meat,  cut  fine,  and  a little  salt,  and  set  the  jar  into  a pan  of  water.  Bring  it  gradually  to 
a boil ; keep  it  boiling  briskly  for  an  hour,  then  strain  the  essence  of  the  beef  into  a 
bowl. 

CHICKEN  TEA  is  made  in  the  same  way,  using  chicken  meat  instead  of  beef. 

INDIAN  MEAL  GRUEL. — For  a cupful,  wet  a tablespoonful  of  meal  with  a little 
water,  pour  on  half  a pint  of  boiling  water,  and  let  it  boil  for  30  minutes.  Nutmeg,  sugar 
and  cream  will  improve  this. 

OATMEAL  GRUEL  is  made  like  the  last,  using  oatmeal  in  the  place  of  Indian. 

APPLE  WATER. — Take  a fine  juicy  apple,  pare  and  slice  ; pour  on  boiling  water 
$md  let  it  stand  until  cool. 

TO  MAKE  SOAP. — Cut  up  fine  and  dissolve  in  five  gallons  of  soft  water  four  pounds 
of  white  bar  soap,  adding  one  pound  sal  soda.  Mix  well  together  and  let  it  cool. 

TO  PREVENT  TROUBLE  FROM  MOSQUITOS.— Dilute  water  of  Cologne 
m a basin  of  clean  water,  and  wash  the  hands  and  face  before  retiring.  It  may  be  ap- 
plied to  neck  and  arms,  and  then  the  pests  will  not  trouble  one  so  long  as  its  odor  lasts. 
There  is  nothing  better. 

TOOTH  POWDER. — Mix  thoroughly  two  drachms  of  rose  pink,  twelve  of  precipi- 
tated chalk,  one  of  magnesia,  and  six  grains  of  sulphate  of  quinine,  all  well  pulverized. 

CHEAP  BLACK  INK. — Mix  thoroughly  one  drachm  each  of  prussiate  of  potash 
and  bichromate  of  potash,  one  ounce  logwood  and  one  gallon  of  water.  When  dissolved 
it  is  ready  for  use. 

INDELIBLE  INK. — One  inch  of  a stick  of  nitrate  of  silver  dissolved  in  a little 
water,  and  then  stir  it  into  a gallon  of  water.  This  is  good  for  cloth. 

RED  WRITING  INK. — Water  of  ammonia,  20  drops;  rain  water,  one-fourth 
ounce,  and  two  grains  best  carmine.  Add  some  gum  arabic. 

0 TO  CLEAN  GLOVES. — Wash  the  gloves  when  on  your  hands  with  spirits  of  tur- 
pentine, and  dry  them  before  removing. 

HAIR  OIL. — Castor  oil  and  95  per  cent,  alcohol,  in  the  proportion  of  one  part  of 
oh  to  eight  parts  01  alcohol.  Perfume  with  oil  of  cinnamon,  or  to  taste. 

TO  CLEAN  STRAW  MATTING. — Use  a cloth  wet  in  clean  salt  and  water  to 
wash  the  matting,  and  wipe  dry  at  once.  This  prevents  it  from  turning  yellow. 


ONE  HUNDRED  INFALLIBLE  MISCELLANEOUS  RECEIPTS. 


349 


TO  WASH  WOOLENS. — Use  hot  soap-suds,  rinse  in  clear  hot  water,  and  shake 
out  the  wet  without  wringing.  Worsteds  should  never  be  wrung  when  washed. 

TO  CLEAN  CARPETS. — Sprinkle  with  moist  tea  leaves,  then  sweep  thoroughly, 
using  soft  soap  and  warm  water  on  grease  and  dirt  spots. 

ANTIDOTES  FOR  POISONS. — For  any  poison  stir  a heaping  teaspoonful  of 
common  salt  and  of  ground  mustard  each  into  a glass  of  water,  and  drink  it  all  at  once* 
When  this  emetic  has  acted,  take  the  whites  of  two  eggs  instantly.  For  corrosive  sub- 
limate, swallow  six  raw  eggs  at  once  after  the  emetic.  For  laudanum,  a cup  of  strong 
coffee,  clear.  For  arsenic,  after  the  emetic  take  half  a cup  of  sweet  oil  or  melted  lard. 

ALUM  IN  STARCH. — To  give  a fine  gloss,  dissolve  a bit  of  alum  the  size  of  a 
walnut  in  a pint  of  starch.  This  holds  the  colors. 

YEAST  FROM  CIDER. — With  flour  enough  to  make  a stiff  batter,  pour  cider 
taken  from  sour  apples  before  it  foments,  while  hot.  When  cool  put  yeast  of  common 
kind,  letting  it  rise  ; stir  down  when  danger  of  running  over.  Put  in  a cool  place  and  it 
will  keep  until  May. 

FOR  COCKROACHES. — Cut  up  green  cucumbers  and  place  them  at  night  where 
these  vermin  usually  come.  Remove  the  peel  at  morning  and  place  fresh  at  night. 
Three  applications  will  be  effectual. 

FOR  MOTHS. — An  ounce  of  gum  camphor  and  shell  of  a red  pepper  are  macerated 
in  eight  ounces  of  strong  alcohol  for  a few  days,  then  strained.  Sprinkle  this  over  ar- 
ticles to  be  preserved,  rolling  up  in  sheets. 

SUBSTITUTE  FOR  YEAST. — In  two  gallons  of  water  boil  one  pound  of  flour 
and  a little  salt.  When  lukewarm,  bottle  and  cork*tightly,  and  use  in  24  hours. 

TO  MAKE  LYE. — Prepare  a large  tub  or  cask  and  bore  a hole  in  one  side  for  a 
tap  near  the  bottom.  Put  in  bricks  and  cover  with  straw.  Put  in  strong  wood  ashes? 
oak  is  best.  Fill  with  hot  water.  If  ashes  settle  down  fill  up. 

TO  GIVE  STOVES  A BRILLIANT  APPEARANCE.— Mix  a teaspoonful  of 
the  lye  with  the  polish.  This  will  give  a permanent  lustre  to  the  stove. 

TOMATO  WINE. — Use  fresh,  ripe  fruit,  mash  fine,  strain  through  fine  sieve^ 
sweeten  with  good  sugar.  Let  it  stand  in  earthen  or  glass  vessel  nearly  full ; cover 
tightly  with  a wet  cloth  for  refuse  to  work  off.  When  done  fomenting,  bottle  and  cork. 
A little  salt  improves.  The  longer  it  is  kept  the  better. 

TO  CAUSE  FRUITS  AND  FLO  VERS  TO  GROW  TO  UNUSUAL  SIZE.— 
Water  with  a solution  of  sulphate  of  iron  and  the  fruit  will  be  double  the  usual  size. 
Dr.  Becont  once  tried  the  experiment  on  a plantation  near  the  sulphurous  springs  of 
Enhein  during  the  early  spring,  and  found  that  the  plants  and  flowers  watered  from  the 
spring  not  only  thrived,  but  grew  to  great  size,  and  the  flowers  had  unusual  brilliancy 
and  beauty. 


ONE  HUNDRED  INFALLIBLE  MISCELLANEOUS  RECEIPTS. 


350 


FOR  RESTORING  SCORCHED  LINEN.— In  half  a pint  of  vinegar  boil  two 
ounces  of  Fuller’s  earth,  an  ounce  of  hen’s  dung,  half  an  ounce  of  cake  soap  and  the 
juice  of  two  onions.  Cover  the  damaged  part,  and  let  it  dry  on  ; then  give  a good  wash- 
ing, and  if  the  threads  are  not  fully  turned  it  will  come  out  white. 

CHILI  SAUCE. — A dozen  ripe  tomatos,  four  ripe  peppers,  two  onions,  two  to  three 
tablespoonfuls  of  salt,  two  of  sugar,  three  teacups  of  vinegar,  a little  cinnamon.  Peel 
the  tomatoes  and  chop  fine  with  peppers  and  onions  ; boil  an  hour. 

TO  REMOVE  INK  STAINS. — Soak  the  stained  part  in  strong  salt  water,  then 
wash  with  ammonia.  Salt  unites  with  nitrate  of  silver  and  forms  chloride  of  silver,  which 
is  dissolved  by  ammonia. 

TO  MEND  CRACKS  IN  STOVE-PIPES  AND  IRON. — Wood  ashes  and  com- 
mon salt  made  into  a paste  will  completely  close  the  aperture  in  a moment.  Apply 
whether  stove  be  hot  or  cold. 

TO  GIVE  LUSTRE  TO  SILVER. — Alum  dissolved  in  water  to  make  a strong 
brine  ; skim  carefully,  then  add  soap.  Apply  with  linen  rag,  rubbing  gently. 

TO  CLEAN  CARPETS. — One  teaspoonful  ammonia  in*  one  gallon  water  will  re- 
store color ; or,  after  the  carpet  has  been  well  beaten,  scour  with  ox  gall ; one  pint  to 
three  gallons  of  water  for  a large  carpet. 

TO  DRY  CORN. — Scrape  the  corn  from  the  ear,  leaving  one  half  the  hull  clinging 
to  cob.  Place  an  earthen  vessel  containing  the  corn  in  a kettle  of  boiling  water ; stir 
frequently  till  dry  enough  to  spread  upon  a cloth,  then  the  wind  and  sun  will  finish  the 
work.  For  the  table,  put  this  in  cold  water,  let  it  simmer  over  the  fire  for  two  hours, 
season  to  taste,  then  boil  ten  minutes ; add  butter  and  white  sugar  when  ready  to  serve. 

CRACKED  WHEAT. — Two  quarts  of  water  ready  boiling  in  smooth  iron  pot- 
stir  in  one  pint  of  cracked  wheat  slowly,  boil  fast  and  stir  constantly  half  an  hour, 
then  cook  slowly  for  a full  hour ; cover  closely  ; do  not  let  it  burn.  This  is  the  best 
method.  Eat  warm  or  cold,  at  pleasure. 

GREEN  PEA  SOUP  IN  WINTER. — Takethebest  marrowfats  and  sow  thickly  in 
pots  and  boxes  six  weeks,  growing  in  a temperature  of  6o°.  When  three  or  four  inches 
high  cut  the  plants  and  run  them  through  a seive  ; this  alone  will  make  a fair  soup.  Dry 
peas  passed  through  the  sieve,  mixed  with  these,  add  to  the  flavor.  In  the  spring  a few 
rows  may  be  grown  in  the  open  air  for  the  purpose  of  cutting  them  when  about  four 
inches  high. 

TO  COOK  CAULIFLOWERS. — Take  these  white,  close  and  of  moderate  size. 
Cut  away  outside  leaves,  trim  stock  close,  let  them  soak  in  salted  water  for  an  hour,  put 
. into  boiling  water  with  salt,  boil  moderately  and  skim  until  done  ; fifteen  minutes  for  a 
small  one.  To  boil  too  long  impairs  the  flavor. 

TO  PICKLE  STRING  BEANS. — Put  in  alternate  layers  of' beans  and  salt,  leav- 
ing  them  for  one  day.  Drain  off  and  put  the  beans  with  allspice,  cloves,  pepper  and  a 
little  salt.  Cover  with  boiled  vinegar,  letting  it  stand  24  hours.  Draw  off  the  vinegar 
and  boil  again.  Cover  the  beans  with  this  liquid  and  repeat  the  third  day  ; then  when 
cold  cover  the  jars  tightly  and  keep  in  a cool  place. 


ONE  HUNDRED  INFALLIBLE  MISCELLANEOUS  RECEIPTS. 


351 


TO  CAN  GOOSEBERRIES  WHOLE. — Let  the  jars  filled  with  berries,  covered 
with  water,  into  a vessel  of  water,  and  gradually  increase  to  boiling  point.  Boil  eight 
minutes,  remove  from  kettle  and  cover  the  berries  with  boiling  water  and  seal  at  once. 
If  to  be  sweetened,  use  pure  white  sugar  made  into  a syrup,  instead  of  the  water  in  the 
cans. 

TO  PREVENT  THE  SOURING  OF  MILK.— Add  a little  sub-carbonate  of  soda 
or  of  potash.  It  is  harmless  and  does  not  affect  the  taste. 

TO  PRESERVE  MILK  FOR  A LONG  TIME.— Place  bottles  filled  with  milk  in 
a saucepan  of  cold  water  and  let  it  come  to  a boil ; take  from  the  fire  and  cork  at  once. 
Let  it  cool  in  the  water  in  which  it  was  boiled.  This  will  remain  good  for  six  months. 

TO  CLEAN  FURNITURE. — The  best  preparation  according  to  one  old  cabinet 
maker,  is  a mixture  of  three  parts  of  linseed  oil  and  turpentine.  It  not  only  covers  the 
disfigured  parts,  but  restores  the  wood  to  its  natural  color,  leaving  a fine  luster.  Apply 
with  woolen  rag. 

WHITE  CEMENT. — White  fish  glue  one  pound  ten  ounces,  dry  white  lead  six 
ounces,  soft  water  three  pints,  alcohol  one  pint ; dissolve  the  glue  in  a kettle  placed  in 
another  to  prevent  burning.  When  dissolved,  put  in  lead  and  stir  while  boiling  till  com- 
pletely mixed.  When  cool  add  the  alcohol  and  bottle  it  while  yet  luke  warm. 

TO  MAKE  CUCUMBER  VINES  BEAR  FIVE  CROPS.— Cut  the  cucumber  so 
as  to  have  about  a fourth  of  an  inch  on  the  stem.  Slit  the  stem  with  a knife  to  the  vine 
leaving  a little  of  the  cucumber  on  each  part ; on  each  slit  there  will  be  a new  cucumber. 

A COLD  CEMENT  FOR  MENDING  EARTHENWARE.— Grate  a pound  of 
cheese  into  a quart  of  milk,  leave  it  standing  fourteen  hours,  stirring  it  frequently.  Pul- 
verize a pound  of  unslcked  lime  in  a mortar  and  add,  mix  by  beating ; then  whites  ot 
twenty -five  eggs  are  beaten  in  and  you  have  a good  cement. 

TO  PREVENT  IRON  RUST. — Kerosene  oil  applied  will  effect  the  desired  result, 

TO  REMOVE  DRIED  PAINT. — Use  diluted  oxalic  acid  with  a swab  having  a 
short  handle. 

TO  STOP  PIN  HOLES  IN  LEAD  PIPE.— Place  the  head  of  a ten-penny  nail 
over  the  hole  and  hit  the  other  end  two  or  three  slight  blows  and  you  will  stop  the  hole 
and  save  a plumber’s  bill.  This  forces  the  lead  together. 

TO  WASH  SUMMER  SUITS — The  water  should  be  tepid  and  the  soap  should 
not  be  applied  directly  to  the  fabric.  It  should  be  washed  and  rinsed  quickly  and  turned, 
then  hang  in  shade.  When  starched  in  thin  starch  it  should  be  folded  in  some  delicate 
white  cloth,  then  ironed  on  wrong  side  quickly.  It  is  well  to  wash  in  water  in  which  hay  or 
a bag  ot  bran  has  been  boiled.  A little  salt  will  set  the  colors  of  light  cambrics  and  lawns, 
A little  ox  gall  is  good  for  yellow  and  purple  tints. 

WAX  FOR  BOTTLING. — Rosin  thirteen  parts,  wax  one  part,  melt  and  add  any 
color ; used  to  make  bungs  and  corks  tight. 

TO  REMOVE  GREASE  FROM  WOOLENS.— Apply  Fuller’s  earth.  If  the 
grease  is  wax  or  tallow  warm  carefully  with  an  iron,  then  apply  the  Fuller’s  earth. 

WHITEWASH. — Half  a bushel  of  lime  slacked,  boiling  water,  covered  with  a 
cloth  to  prevent  evaporation,  strain  the  liquor : add  salt  one  peck,  previously  dissolved  in 


352 


ONE  HUNDRED  INFALLIBLE  MISCELLANEOUS  RECEIPTS. 


warm  water,  three  pounds  boiled  rice  reduced  to  paste,  eight  ounces  Spanish  white,  one 
pound  glue,  five  gallons  water  ; let  it  stand  a few  days  and  heat  it  when  used  ; good. 

TO  PURIFY  WATER  FOR  DRINKING. — Filter  througl  a compressed  sponge 
filled  with  charcoal  and  all  impurities  will  be  removed. 

TO  KEEP  APPLES  FROM  FREEZING.— Cover  with  a linen  cloth. 

TO  REMOVE  INK  STAINS. — Muriatic  acid  diluted  with  five  or  six  times  its 
weight  in  water  applied  to  spot,  and  after  a minute  washed  off,  will  be  found  good,  but 
vegetable  acids  can  be  used  with  less  risk.  Apply  acids  carefully,  as  some  of  them  injure 
the  cloth  more  than  the  ink. 

TO  MEND  TIN  WARE  BY  CANDLE  HEAT.— Fill  a phial  two-thirds  full  with 
muriatic  acid,  put  in  little  bits  of  zinc  as  long  as  the  acid  will  act,  add  a bit  of  sal  ammonia, 
fill  with  water.  With  the  cork  of  the  bottle  dampen  the  spot  to  be  mended,  then  apply  a 
bit  of  sheet  zinc  over  the  hole  and  hold  a lighted  candle  under  the  place ; wet  the  zinc 
■with  the  solution,  or  a little  solder  may  be  used  instead  of  the  zinc. 

TO  MAKE  FENCE  POSTS  LAST  A LONG  TIME.— Stir  pulverized  charcoal 
into  boiled  linseed  oil,  making  a paste  as  thick  as  paint.  Apply  this  to  the  post  and  it 
will  last  forever. 

TO  PREVENT  MOTHS. — Use  spirits  of  turpentine  or  gum  of  camphor. 

TO  MAKE  THE  SOLES  OF  SHOES  WATER-TIGHT.— A little  beeswax  and 
mutton  suet  warmed  until  in  a liquid  state  and"* applied  over  the  stitches  will  repel  the  wet 
and  not  prevent  polish  when  blacking. 

TO  MAKE  SEA  WATER  SUITABLE  FOR  WASHING.— Soda  makes  sea 
water  turbid,  the  magnesia  and  lime  are  precipitated.  Enough  soda  should  be  used  to 
cause  this  effect. 

TO  KILL  FLIES. — Quassia  chips  boiled  in  water  and  sweetened  with  syrup  will 
destroy  flies,  but  not  children. 

TO  PRESERVE  GRAPES. — First  put  a layer  of  dry  bran  in  an  air-tight  cask 
then  a layer  of  well  cleaned  grapes,  also  free  from  moisture ; alternate  layers  of  bran 
and  grapes,  with  bran  last.  When  taken  out  the  grapes  will  be  restored  to  their 
original  flavor  by  putting  the  stems  into  wine,  red  or  white,  according  to  the  kind  of 
grape. 

TO  PICKLE  BEEF  FOR  LONG  KEEPING. — Thoroughly  rub  in  salt  and  leave  it 
in  bulk  for  twenty -four  hours  for  the  blood  to  draw  off ; drain  all  the  blood  out  and  pack, 
use  a pickle  prepared  as  follows  : For  every  hundred-weight  of  beef  seven  pounds  of  salt, 
one  ounce  each  of  saltpetre  and  cayenne  pepper,  one  quart  molasses  and  eight  gallons  of 
water,  boil  and  skim  ; apply  cold. 

TO  TAKE  THE  IMPRESSION  OF  A BUTTERFLY  IN  ALL  ITS  COL- 
ORS.— Catch  your  butterfly  and  kill  it  without  injury  to  its  wings  ; spread  out  carefully  in 
a flying  position  ; wash  a spot  of  white  paper  with  gum  water,  using  a small  brush  ; lay 
the  butterfly  on  the  spot,  cut  away  its  body  clean  to  the  wings,  then  cover  these  with 
another  piece  of  paper,  then  let  it  remain  in  a letter,  press  and  screw  down  tightly  for  hall 
an  hour.  This  will  leave  a perfect  impressiqn  of  the  wings  in  their  natural  colors,  then 
you  can  paint  in  the  body,  coloring  it  to  nature. 


ONE  HUNDRED  INFALLIBLE  MISCELLANEOUS  RECEIPTS. 


353 


TO  DESTROY  RATS. — Fill  a half  barrel  with  water  to  within  six  or  eight  inches 
of  the  top.  Fix  a cover  held  with  pegs,  so  that  it  will  tip  upward  easily.  Cover  this 
with  moistened  bran,  and  arrange  so  that  rats  coming  onto  it  will  fall  into  the  water  and 
be  drowned. 

RAT  POISON. — Flour  three  pounds,  sugar  one-half  pound,  sulphur  two  pounds, 
phosphorus  two  pounds. 

HOW  TO  MAKE  GANDIES. 

GINGER  CANDY. — One  pound  of  clarified  sugar  boiled  until  it  becomes  brittle  ; 
when  cold  stir  into  it  a teaspoonful  of  ground  ginger.  If  you  wish  to  have  it  extra  nice, 
add  half  the  white  of  an  egg  beaten  up  with  fine  loaf  sugar  and  20  drops  of  strong  Ja- 
maica ginger. 

GINGER  DROPS. — The  same,  made  with  all  loaf  sugar. 

GINGER  LOZENGES. — One-half  an  ounce  dissolved  in  a gill  of  hot  water;  when 
cold  stir  it  into  a pound  and  a half  of  loaf  sugar  and  a teaspoonful  of  powdered  ginger, 
of  essence  of  ginger  12  drops.  Make  into  a flat  paste,  and  punch  out  the  lozenges  with 
a stamp  made  for  that  purpose. 

SAFFRON  LOZENGES. — One  pound  fine  powdered  sugar,  eight  ounces  pulver- 
ized starch,  one  ounce  hay  saffron  finely  powdered,  mucilage  enough  to  mix. 

LIQUORICE  LOZENGES. — Two  pounds  white  sugar,  one  pound  liquorice,  mix 
with  mucilage  made  with  rose  water. 

PEPPERMINT  LOZENGES. — Seven  pounds  best  white  sugar,  one  pound  pure 
starch  ; peppermint  to  taste. 

CANDIED  LEMON,  OR  PEPPERMINT  FOR  COLDS.--One-half  pint  of 
water  to  one  and  a half  pounds  of  sugar.  Boil  till  candied  and  add  eight  drops  of  es- 
sence. Pour  on  paper  spread  with  butter,  and  then  cut  with  a knife.  Flavor  with  pep< 
permint,  lemon,  rose  or  horehound. 

COMMON  TWIST  CANDY. — One  pint  of  water  to  three  pounds  common  sugar; 
boil  slowly.  When  boiled  work  it  like  molasses  candy  till  white,  then  twist  or  braid  into 
any  shape  you  wish. 

FRUIT  CANDY. — Dip  the  lumps  of  one  pound  of  loaf  sugar  into  water  and  place 
into  the  kettle.  Boil  and  skim  until  candied.  Dip  your  fruit  into  this  whilo,  hot,  and 
place  in  a cold  spot  to  cool. 

MOLASSES  CANDY. — Stir  the  molasses  constantly  over  a moderately  hot  fire 
until  boiled  enough  to  work  well.  Add  a little  vinegar  and  any  flavoring  you  like.  Pour 
into  greased  pans.  Add  nuts  if  you  wish  before  pouring  it  out. 

FIG  CANDY. — One  pint  of  water  to  one  pound  of  sugar,  over  a slow  fire.  Add 
vinegar  and  a lump  of  butter  when  done,  and  pour  into  a pan  over  the  figs,  split  and  pre- 
pared. 

RAISIN  CANDY — Is  made  the  same,  using  raisins  instead  of  figs. 

SCOTCH  BUTTER. — One  pint  water,  one  pound  sugar.  When  done  add  one 
tablespoonful  butter.  Flavor  to  taste. 


354 


ONE  HUNDRED  INFALLIBLE  MISCELLANEOUS  RECEIPTS. 


CEMENT  FOR  THE  MOUTHS  OF  CORKED  BOTTLES.— Melt  a couple 
of  ounces  of  beeswax  and  four  ounces  of  rosin  ; stir  with  a tallow  candle  ; when  melted, 
dip  in  the  mouth  of  the  corked  bottle,  this  will  exclude  air. 

FOR  LEAKY  CASKS,  BUNGS,  & c. — Tallow  two  pounds,  spirits  of  turpentine 
one  pound,  solid  turpentine  six  pounds  ; melt  wax  and  solid  turpentine  over  a slow  fire, 
then  add  tallow  ; remove  from  the  fire  and  stir  in  spirits  of  turpentine  and  let  it  cool. 

STOMACH  BITTERS  equal  to  Hostetter’s  for  one-quarter  cost.  European  gen- 
tian root,  | ounce;  orange  peel,  i£  ounces;  cinnamon,  £ ounce;  anise  seed,  £ ounce; 
coriander  seed,  £ ounce  ; unground  Peruvian  bark,  £ ounce  ; gum  kino,  £ ounce.  Bruise 
all  these,  and  put  in  the  best  alcohol,  £ pint.  Let  it  stand  a week  and  pour  off ; boil  the 
dregs  in  one  pint  of  water  ; strain  and  press  out  all  the  strength.  Dissolve  £ pound  of 
loaf  sugar  in  the  hot  liquid,  adding  i£  quarts  of  cold  water,  and  mix  with  tincture  first 
poured  off. 

SODA  SYRUP  TO  BE  USED  WITH  OR  WITHOUT  FOUNTAIN.— Loaf 
sugar,  4 pounds ; pure  water,  2 quarts ; gum  arabic,  I ounce  ; mix  in  brass  or  copper 
kettle,  and  boil  till  dissolved ; then  skim  and  strain  through  white  flannel ; add  tartaric 
acid,  2\  ounces,  dissolved  in  hot  water  ; flavor  to  the  taste,  using  extracts  desired. 

SCOTCH  WHISKEY. — Twenty  gallons  proof  whiskey,  30  drops  creosote  dis- 
solved in  I pint  of  alcohol,  1 ounce  acetic  acid,  £ pound  loaf  sugar.  Let  it  stand  48 
hours. 

STRONG  BEER— ENGLISH  IMPROVED.— Half  peck  malt ; coarse  brown 
sugar,  3 pounds ; hops,  2 ounces  ; good  yeast,  half  teacup.  If  you  have  no  malt,  take  2 
quarts  barley,  put  it  into  the  oven  and  steam  the  moisture  from  it.  Grind  coarsely. 
Pour  upon  the  ground  malt  if  gallons  water,  heated  to  170°.  Let  the  tub  have  a false 
bottom,  with  strainer  holes  to  hold  back  the  malt.  Stir  well,  and  let  it  stand  3 hours  ; 
draw  off  by  faucet ; put  in  3£  gallons  of  water  heated  to  1800  ; stir  well  and  let  it  stand 
2 hours,  and  draw  off.  There  should  be  2£  to  3 gallons.  Add  3 pounds  of  coarse  brown 
sugar  in  an  equal  amount  of  water,  and  boil  2 hours  with  the  hops  ; when  cool  put  in  the 
yeast,  and  let  it  work  20  hours,  covered  with  a sack.  Use  sound  iron-hooped  kegs, 
bung  tightly,  and  in  two  weeks  you  will  have  good  strong  beer. 

SUPERIOR  GINGER  BEER. — Five  pounds  sugar,  4£  ounces  of  lemon  juice,  4 
ounces  of  honey,  5£  ounces  bruised  ginger  root,  4£  gallons  water,  i£  pints  of  yeast ; boil 
the  ginger  in  half  gallon  water  for  an  hour,  then  add  the  rest  of  the  water  and  other  in- 
gredients, and  strain  ; add  the  white  of  an  egg  beaten,  and  £ ounce  of  essence  of  lemon. 
Let  it  stand  four  days,  then  bottle. 

ROOT  BEER. — For  5 gallons  of  beer,  take  i£  pounds  common  burdock  root,  or 
half  an  ounce  essence  of  sassafras,  £ pound  good  hops,  £ pint  corn  roasted  brown  ; boil 
in  3 gallons  pure  water  till  you  get  all  the  strength  ; strain  while  hot ; add  enough  cold 
water  to  make  5 gallons.  When  nearly  cold,  add  clean  molasses  until  palatable.  Add 
yeast.  Place  in  cellar  or  other  cold  place,  and  in  forty -eight  hours  you  have  good  root 
beer. 

CHEAP  BEER. — Simmer  green  shells  of  peas  in  a kettle  for  three  hours  ; strain 
off  the  liquor  and  add  a strong  decoction  of  wood  sage,  or  hops,  to  make  pleasantly  bit- 


HOW  TO  PREPARE  SUMMER  DRINKS. 


355 


ter,  then  allow  it  to  ferment.  Boil  a fresh  supply  of  the  pea-pods  in  the  decoction  before 
it  is  cool,  and  it  will  become  impregnated  with  soccharine  substance  as  to  afford,  when 
fermented,  a strong  beer. 

GINGER  WINE. — Take  one  pint  of  95  per  cent,  alcohol,  put  it  into  a £ ounce  of 
best  ginger  root,  bruised,  2£  grains  capsicum,  and  £ a drachm  of  tartaric  acid.  Let  it 
remain  one  week  and  filter  ; then  add  £ a gallon  of  water  which  has  been  boiled  with  £ 
pound  of  crushed  sugar.  Mix  when  cold.  To  give  color,  boil  £ ounce  cochineal,  f ounce 
cream  tartar,  £ ounce  saleratus,  £ ounce  alum  in  £ pint  of  water. 

PORT  WINE. — Worked  cider,  21  gallons  ; good  port  wine,  6 gallons  ; good  brandy, 
i£  gallons  ; pure  spirits,  3 gallons  ; mix.  To  give  color,  elderberry,  and  aloes  and 
hawthorn  berry  give  a fine  color. 

MADEIRA  WINE. — To  40  gallons  prepared  cider  add  £ pound  of  tartaric  acid,  4 
gallons  spirits,  3 pounds  loaf  sugar.  Let  it  stand  10  days  ; draw  off  carefully. 

SHERRY  WINE. — To  20  gallons  prepared  cider  add  1 gallon  spirits,  £ pound 
raisins,  3 gallons  good  sherry,  £ ounce  bitter  almonds  dissolved  in  alcohol.  Let  it  stand 
10  days,  and  draw  off  carefully  ; fine  it  down,  and  again  rack  it  off  into  another  cask. 

PORT  WINE. — To  20  gallons  prepared  cider  add  3 gallons  good  port  wine,  5 
quarts  wild  grapes  in  clusters,  £ pound  bruised  shatany  root,  i£  pounds  loaf  sugar,  1 
gallon  spirits.  Let  it  stand  10  days,  then  rack  it  off  and  fine  it.  If  color  is  too  light, 
add  tincture  of  shatany  root. 

TO  PREVENT  A BAD  TASTE  AND  SOURNESS  IN  WINE. — Put  in  a 
bag  the  roots  of  wild  hoise  radish,  cut  in  bits.  Let  down  into  the  wine  and  leave  it  two 
days  ; take  this  out  and  put  in  another  until  the  wine  is  restored — or  use  wheat. 

HOW  TO  PREPARE  SUMMER  DRINKS  AT  SMALL  COST. 

CIDER  CHAMPAGNE. — Good  cider  ten  gallons,  spirits  one-half  gallon,  honey  of 
sugar  three  pounds.  Mix  and  let  rest  for  two  weeks  ; then  fine  with  a pint  of  skimmed 
milk.  This  has  often  been  sold  for  champagne. 

CIDER  WITHOUT  APPLES. — Put  in  a barrel  5 gallons  hot  water,  30  lbs.  brown 
sugar,  | lb.  tartaric  acid,  25  gallons  cold  water,  3 pints  of  hop  or  brewers*  yeast  worked 
into  paste  (£  lb.  flour,  and  one  pint  of  water  will  be  required  in  making  this  paste)* 
put  all  together  in  a barrel,  which  it  will  fill,  and  let  it  work  24  hours — the  yeast  running 
out  at  the  bung  all  the  time,  by  putting  in  a little  occasionally  to  keep  it  full.  Then  bot- 
tle, putting  in  two  or  three  broken  raisins  to  each  bottle,  and  it  will  nearly  equal  cham* 
pagne. 

TO  KEEP  CIDER  SWEET. — By  the  use  of  three-fourths  of  an  ounce  of  the  bi- 
sulphate  of  lime  to  the  barrel.  By  burning  a little  sulphur  or  sulphur  match  before  put- 
ting in  the  cider.  By  putting  into  the  barrel  before  the  cider  has  begun  to  work  about  a 
half  pint  of  whole  fresh  mustard  seed  tied  up  in  a course  muslin  bag. 


356 


ART  IN  THE  HOUSEHOLD. 


ICING  FOR  CAKE. — The  whites  of  two  eggs  beaten  to  a froth,  one-quarter  pound 
of  sugar,  beaten  until  it  will  remain  in  a solid  mass.  Flavor  to  taste.  Spread  evenly 
over  the  surface  of  the  cake  with  a knife  dipped  in  cold  water  frequently. 

EVERTON  TAFFY. — Three  ounces  butter,  one  and  a half  pounds  of  sugar,  a 
teacup  and  a half  of  water,  one  lemon.  Boil  half  the  rind  of  the  lemon  with  water,  sugar 
and  butter  ; when  done  and  cooled  add  the  lemon  juice.  A quick  fire  and  constant  stir- 
ring are  needed. 

TO  CLARIFY  SUGAR  FOR  CANDIES. — A large  cup  of  water  to  each  pound 
sugar,  in  a brass  kettle,  over  a slow  fire,  for  half  an  hour.  Put  in  a little  isinglass  in 
gum  arabic,  dissolved  together.  Skim  off  the  impurities  which  rise.  If  loaf  sugar  is 
Used,  add  a teaspoonful  of  rum  or  vinegar  to  prevent  its  being  brittle. 

ART  IN  THE  HOUSEHOLD. 

RECEIPTS  FOR  BEAUTIFYING  THE  HOME. 

O TRANSFER  ENGRAVINGS  TO  PLASTER  PARIS.— Cover  the 
plate  with  ink,  polish  its  surface,  then  put  a greased  paper  over  it.  Pour 
over  it  Plaster  Paris  made  into  a fine  paste,  taking  care  to  prevent  the  air 
bubbles,  and  let  it  remain  one  hour ; then  you  will  find  a good  impres- 
sion. 

TRACING  PAPER. — Use  the  varnish  formed  with  Demarara  resin,  as  follows  : 
Lay  the  sheets  of  paper  flatly  upon  each  other,  spread  the  varnish  over  them  with  a 
brush  till  the  paper  is  without  color.  Remove  sheet  by  sheet  and  hang  it  up  for  drying. 
After  it  is  dry  you  can  use  a pencil  or  chalk  for  tracing. 

TO  MAKE  WAX  FLOWERS. — The  prepared  wax  can  be  found  at  any  store  of 
artists’  supplies.  They  are  in  the  several  colors  most  needed,  but  for  coloring  the  white 
wax  to  make  varigated  leaves,  there  will  be  needed  the  following : one  bottle  each  carmine 
and  ultramarine  blue,  chrome  yellow,  rose  pink,  royal  purple,  scarlet  powder,  balsam  fir. 
Many  moulds  for  different  leaves  can  be  bought ; fine  wire  for  stems  and  to  hold  parts 
together.  Stand  the  flower  to  be  imitated  in  detail  as  to  all  its  parts  ; then  form  each 
one  separately  and  lay  aside  for  use.  The  leaves  can  oe  traced  by  mould  or  pattern  with 
a needle  or  the  thumb  nail.  When  each  part  is  prepared,  cover  the  wire  with  green  wax 
for  stems ; to  warm  the  wax  so  it  will  stick,  hold  carefully  between  the  hands  or  breathe 
gently  upon  it ; the  green  leaves  hanging  independently  must  be  formed  double,  with  a 
wire  running  through  the  length  between  the  two  layers  ; trace  the  branches  and  veins 
to  nature.  Hold  the  wax  in  the  left  hand,  working  with  the  right,  commencing  at  the 
center  of  the  flower,  then  place  each  part  in  its  order  until  completed.  A little  fir  bal- 
sam hardens  the  wax  for  use  in  summer,  but  in  winter  it  is  not  needed.  Flowers  can  be 
made  without  a teacher,  but  it  is  better  to  observe  the  method  of  one  who  is  acquainted 
with  the  process.  If  the  colored  sheets  can  not  readily  be  produced,  you  can  make  them 
by  melting  white  wax  in  a clean  dish,  one  pound  of  wax  to  one  quart  of  water.  When 


ART  IN  THE  HOUSEHOLD. 


357 


the  wax  has  boiled  sufficiently,  take  a pane  of  clean  glass,  dip  it  into  soft  soap  suds,  and 
then  into  the  wax ; return  it  to  the  soap  suds,  and  a thin  sheet  of  wax  will  come  off 
The  wax,  after  boiling,  can  be  colored  as  desired,  and  the  same  process  used  to  form  the 
sheets  of  wax. 

THE  ART  OF  TRANSFERRING  ONTO  GLASS.— Photographs,  water  colors, 
lithographs,  steel  plates,  newspaper  cuts,  oil  paintings,  plain  and  colored  engravings, 
crayons,  in  fact  anything  may  be  used.  Have  the  glass  perfectly  clean  ; varnish  it  per- 
fectly smooth  ; let  it  dry  over  night  in  a place  free  from  dust.  Wet  your  engraving  in 
clean  water  ten  or  fifteen  minutes.  Dry  one  side,  leaving  the  other  damp  ; this  can  be 
done  by  laying  it  on  a newspaper.  Then  varnish  your  glass  the  second  time,  place  your 
engraving  on  it,  pressing  down  closely,  excluding  all  the  air.  Rub  the  paper  on  the 
glass  until  it  is  transparent,  and  varnish  it  the  third  time.  Articles  needed  are  balsam 
of  fir  two  ounces,  spirits  of  turpentine  one  ounce;  apply  with  a camel  hair  brush.  You 
can  then  color  the  back  of  the  photograph,  or  other  print  not  yet  colored,  with  any  de« 
sired  or  natural  color. 

THE  ART  OF  POTCHIOMONI. — Plain  glass  jars,  thoroughly  clean,  may  be 
decorated  in  an  endless  variety  of  ways.  Use  figures,  bought  in  sheets,  Chinese,  Egyp- 
tian, Swiss  and  antique  designs.  Cut  each  figure  separate,  following  its  outline.  Stick 
your  picture,  face  outward,  on  the  inside  ot  the  jar,  with  any  transparent  preparation. 
This  can  be  obtained  by  boiling  a piece  of  parchment.  Having  secured  your  figures  to 
the  jar  make  a varnish  of  balsam  of  fir  and  spirits  of  turpentine,  with  which  cover  the 
inside  of  the  jar,  and  then  varnish  over  with  ordinary  varnish.  Then  you  can  color  the 
figures  according  to  your  wish. 

HOW  TO  PRESERVE  DEAD  PETS  BY  EMBALMING.— One  pound  of  dry 
sulphate  of  alumine,  one-fifth  of  a quart  of  water  and  twenty  grains  of  arsenious  acid, 
well  mixed.  Inject  this  into  all  the  vessels  of  the  body,  and  you  can  thus  preserve  cats, 
dogs,  birds,  fishes,  &c. 

TREE  OF  LEAD. — Dissolve  an  ounce  of  sugar  of  lead  in  a quart  of  clean 
water,  and  put  it  into  a glass  decanter  or  globe.  Then  suspend  in  the  solution,  near  the 
top,  a small  piece  of  zinc  of  an  irregular  shape.  Let  it  stand  undisturbed  for  a day,  and 
it  will  begin  to  shoot  out  into  leaves  and  apparently  to  vegetate.  If  left  undisturbed  for 
a few  days,  it  will  become  extremely  beautiful ; but  it  must  be  moved  with  great  caution. 
It  may  appear  to  those  unacquainted  with  chemistry  that  the  piece  of  zinc  actually  puts 
out  leaves,  but  this  is  a mistake,  for  if  the  zinc  be  examined,  it  will  be  found  nearly  unal- 
tered. This  phenomenon  is  owing  to  the  zinc  having  a greater  attraction  for  oxygen  than 
the  lead  has ; consequently,  it  takes  it  from  the  oxide  of  lead,  which  reappears  in  its 
metallic  state. 

ARBOR  MARTIS,  OR  TREE  OF  MARS. — Dissolve  iron  filings  in  aquafortis 
moderately  concentrated,  till  the  acid  is  saturated ; then  add  to  it  gradually  a solution  of 
fixed  alkali,  commonly  called  oil  of  tartar  per  deliquium.  A strong  effervescence  will 
ensue  ; and  the  iron,  instead  of  falling  to  the  bottom  of  the  vessel,  will  afterwards  rise  so 
as  to  cover  the  sides,  forming  a multitude  of  ramifications  heaped  one  upon  the  other, 
which  will  sometimes  pass  over  the  edge  of  the  vessel,  and  extend  themselves  on  the  out- 
ride with  all  the  appearance  of  a plant. 


A MANUAL  OF  ETIQUETTE, 

OR 

FORMS  AND  USAGES  OF  GOOD  SOCIETY 


A MANUAL  OF  ETIQUETTE, 


OR 

FORMS  AND  USAGES  OF  GOOD  SOCIETY. 

E word  etiquette  is  a comprehensive  term,  embracing  all  the  social  ameni- 
ties of  life,  arising  in  the  multiform  intercourse  of  civilized  man  with  his 
kind  in  all  the  various  relations  of  life  in  the  family  circle,  upon  the  street, 
in  business,  in  traveling  and  in  a thousand  things. 

In  its  restricted  sense  it  embraces  the  usages  and  customs  of  good 
society  in  all  dealings  with  those  with  whom  they  come  in  social  contact.  The  standard 
of  etiquette  may  vary  in  different  countries,  cities  and  grades  of  society,  but  the  same 
general  principles  underlie  the  subject  and  pertain  alike  in  all  grades  of  social  life.  A 
due  attention  to  these  forms  and  customs  is  requisite  of  every  one  who  would  maintain 
his  position  in  society  and  attain  the  greatest  influence  among  his  fellow  men.  It  is  the 
effect  of  those  viewless  and  unenacted  laws  which  bind  society  together  and  preserve 
the  self-respect  and  manhood  of  all — and  at  the  same  time  keeping  each  in  his  proper 
position,  preventing  all  friction  and  ill  feeling  among  them. 

We  write  for  the  benefit  of  those  who  have  not  had  the  advantages  of  a training 
from  their  birth  in  the  usages  of  the  best  society,  but  who  from  their  own  innate  power 
or  laudable  ambition  would  rise  to  a position  where  these  requirements  might  be  expected 
of  them. 

By  not  attending  to  these  little  demands  of  etiquette  which  are  observed  in  all  good 
society  a person  of  good  parts,  extensive  information,  and  even  talent,  has  crippled  his 
usefulness  and  curtailed  his  influence.  While  many  another  of  less  ability  by  a due 
regard  to  these  matters  has  surpassed  his  competitor  in  the  race. 

It  should  be  the  especial  care  of  all  young  people  of  both  sexes,  who  would  be  sure 
of  success  or  happiness  in  life,  to  inform  themselves  of  the  requirements  and  regulations 
pertaining  to  the  best  society,  for  true  politeness  is  often  the  stepping  stone  to  positions 
of  honor  or  trust.  The  underlying  principle  of  true  politeness  is  a proper  desire  to 
please  and  a regard  for  the  feelings  and  rights  of  others.  When  this  is  innate  in  the 
individual  he  will  from  very  naturalness  fall  most  readily  into  those  usages  and  forms 
which  are  regarded  as  correct.  The  fundamental  principle  of  all  courtesy  is  given  in 
the  Golden  Rule,  “ Do  unto  others  as  you  would  have  others  do  unto  you.” 

It  is  always  proper  for  a person  to  appear  to  the  best  advantage,  and  he  can  most 
surely  accomplish  this  only  by  a proper  attention  to  these  matters  of  which  we  are  treat- 
ing. As  a guide  to  any  one  who  wishes  to  inform  himself  upon  the  requirements  jf 
society,  we  write  this  article  believing  that  by  observing  strictly  and  practicing  constantly, 
the  precepts  and  directions  given,  he  may  appear  at  ease  and  conduct  himself  with  social 
propriety  on  all  occasions. 

In  this  connection  we  think  we  cannnot  do  better  than  insert  the  following  .* 


362 


THE  GUIDE  TO  POLITE  SOCIETY. 


A MODEL  WOMAN. 

Of  a lady  who  died  in  Pittsburg,  Penn.,  a few  days  ago,  the  Commercial  Gazette  of 
that  city  says  : “ She  was  a model  woman  in  all  the  relations  of  life,  whether  as 

daughter,  wife,  mother,  sister,  friend  or  Christian.  She  was  a model  in  her  thoughtful- 
ness and  care  for  her  parents  in  their  declining  years.  She  was  a model  in  the  confidence 
she  placed  in  her  husband  and  her  interest  in  his  success.  She  was  a model  in  the  affec- 
tion she  bestowed  on  her  children  and  her  solicitude  for  their  salvation.  She  was  a 
model  in  the  example  she  set  for  her  sisters  to  follow.  They  were  all  disposed  to  take 
her  as  such.  She  was  a model  as  a friend,  in  that  she  was  a ‘ friend  at  all  times/  She 
was  a model  in  the  consistent,  godly  life  she  lived  and  the  peaceful  and  triumphant  death 
she  died.  She  was  altogether  unselfish,  she  was  kind,  she  was  benevolent,  she  was  char- 
itable ; she  was  forgiving,  she  was  meek,  she  was  humble,  she  was  Christlike  ; she 
believed,  she  trusted,  she  worked,  she  made  home  happy,  and  when  a stranger  entered 
the  family  circle  to  sojourn  for  a little  it  was  but  a little  while  until  he  felt  he  was  in  the 
sunshine.  She  was  never  idle,  and  the  work  she  had  to  do  at  home,  m the  church,  or 
institutions  for  charity,  she  did  well.” 

The  valuable  space  which  we  have  devoted  to  the  classic  sayings  of  Lord  Chester- 
field, will  be  fully  appreciated  by  our  readers,  as  they  contain  a mint  of  wisdom  upon  the 
habits  and  requirements  of  good  society  everywhere  and  for  all  time.  But  to  make  them 
of  practical  service  in  our  ordinary  life  we  now  intend  to  touch  upon  the  incidental  and 
particular  formalities  of  etiquette  applicable  to  the  social  usages  of  this  country. 

COURTEOUS  GREETINGS  AND  INTRODUCTIONS. 

The  mode  of  salutation  differs  widely  in  various  countries,  and  especially  in  the 
Eastern  nations  there  is  a dignity  and  grace  that  is  admirable.  We  have  thought  that  it 
would  be  better  if  we  had  in  our  English  tongue  more  graceful  forms  than  the  simple 
“ How  are  you  ?”  or  “ How  d’ye  do  ?”  The  Bedouin  of  the  desert  hails  you  with  his  sono- 
rous ‘‘May  God  grant  you  a happy  morning,”  or  “ If  God  wills  it  you  are  well.”  But 
however  tempting  it  may  be  to  study  the  forms  of  salutation  among  different  people  we 
must  forbear. 

The  saluation  “ How  are  you  ?”  is  not  allowed,  in  a slight  acquaintance,  and  the 
reply,  “ Very  well,  thanks,”  is  made  only  among  intimate  friends.  “ Good  morning,”  and 
“ Good  evening,”  are  permitted  in  any  society. 

A greeting  on  the  street  or  in  the  parlor  should  always  be  accompanied  by  a well 
defined  bow,  which  is  at  the  same  time  both  deferential  and  respectful,  not  a mere  nod 
or  jerk  of  the  head.  In  the  street  it  is  the  gentleman’s  duty  to  remove  the  hat  to  ladies 
or  aged  men,  with  an  inclination  of  the  entire  body. 

It  is  the  place  of  a lady  to  bow  first  on  meeting  a slight  acquaintance.  When  a 
gentleman  is  promenading  with  a lady  he  lifts  his  hat  to  every  one  whom  the  lady  recog- 
nizes. A gentleman  will  always  stand  aside  at  a narrow  crossing  and  lifting  his  hat, 
allow  the  lady  to  pass,  or  in  going  up  or  down  stairs.  Notice  a salutation  and  return  it 


THE  GUIDE  TO  POLITE  SOCIETY. 


363 


politely,  from  whomsoever  given.  True  etiquette  is  based  on  common  sense  and  morality 
and  requires  the  exercise  of  these  qualities. 

If  you  wish  to  converse  with  an  acquaintance  on  the  street,  do  not  remain  standing, 
to  the  annoyance  of  others  passing,  but  in  case  of  a lady  turn  about  and  accompany  her 
a few  blocks. 

A lady  will  always  thank  a person  for  any  polite  favor  bestowed,  and  a lady  or  gen- 
tleman will  express  gratitude  in  concise,  well-selected  terms. 

At  church  you  should  rarely  give  introductions,  or  invitations,  although  you  recognize 
your  friends.  Do  not  enter  into  long  conversations  with  any  one.  While  the  arbitrary 
rules  of  society  do  not  apply  there,  true  politeness  is  expected.  You  may  with  propriety 
offer  a stranger  a seat  or  a book  used  in  the  service,  and  if  a lady,  find  the  place  for  her. 
If  the  books  are  all  in  use,  or  not  plentiful,  you  may  offer  her  half  of  your  own  book. 

A gentleman  always  precedes  a lady  in  entering  a public  place  of  amusement  or 
religious  service. 

When  you  introduce  a gentleman  and  lady  always  mention  the  name  of  the  lady 
first,  as  : Mrs.  A.  permit  me  to  introduce  you  to  my  J?iend  Mr.  B.  or  Mrs.  A.  allow  me  to 

make  you  acquainted  with  my  friend  Mr.  B.  Always  pronounce  the  names  distinctly  so 
that  either  party  may  have  no  misunderstanding.  If  the  name  is  not  understood  by 
either,  that  one  may  say,  “ I beg  pardon,  I did  not  hear  the  name,”  or  “ Excuse  me,  I did 
not  get  the  name”  A lady  when  introduced  to  a gentleman  need  not  offer  her  hand,  but 
bowing  gracefully,  may  acknowledge  the  introduction. 

A lady’s  permission  should  be  obtained  before  introducing  her  to  a gentleman,  ex- 
cept in  some  cases,  for  instance,  where  the  person  introducing  the  parties  is  upon  terms 
of  firm  friendship  with  both.  The  lady  of  the  house  introducing  her  guests,  or  a mother 
introducing  her  son,  etc. 

But  always  the  friend  introducing  the  parties  must  be  persuaded  that  the  acquain- 
tance will  be  mutually  desirable. 

With  gentlemen  the  matter  of  introductions  may  be  less  formal,  as  : Mr.  A.  this  is 
Mr.  B;  my  friend  Mr.  A.,  Mr.  B. 

Introductions  are  rarely  given  on  the  street  unless  desired  by  the  parties,  or  they  are 
walking  in  the  same  direction  for  some  time. 

Ladies  may  kiss  each  other  when  meeting,  or  upon  being  introduced.  Gentlemen 
usually  shake  hands  with  each  other. 

The  use  of  titles  in  introductions  should  be  gracefully  and  distinctly  done,  or  not  at 
all.  In  introducing  a single  person  to  a number,  pronounce  the  name  but  once,  so  that 
all  may  understand,  Mr.  G.,  I make  you  acquainted  with  Mr.  H.,  Mr.  If  Mr.  J.>  designating 
each  in  turn  by  a gesture.  Persons  meeting  at  the  house  of  a mutual  friend,  although 
they  are  not  upon  good  terms  with  each  other  must  be  courteous  out  of  respect  to  their 
host  or  hostess. 

A gentleman  may  proffer  his  needed  service  to  a lady,  in  a respectful  manner’ 
whether  acquainted  or  not.  He  may  lift  his  hat  and  say,  “ Excuse  me , may  I assist  you  ? * 
A true  lady  will  accept  such  proffered  service,  and  the  gentleman  will  not  on  that  ac- 
count presume  to  press  an  acquaintance. 

When  a person  has  been  introduced  to  you  it  is  the  height  of  ill  breeding  to  ignore 
him,  however  distasteful  he  may  be. 


364 


THE  GUIDE  TO  POLITE  SOCIETY. 


ETIQUETTE  IN  THE  HOME. 

|HE  due  observance  of  the  forms  and  requirements  of  good  society  among  the 
members  of  the  same  family  is  most  requisite  to  an  easy  grace  of  man- 
ners and  air  of  refinement.  Not  to  speak  of  the  duty  of  treating  our  most 
intimate  friends,  and  those  whose  interests  are  most  closely  allied  to  our 
own,  with  the  same  courtesy  and  attention  that  we  bestow  upon  casual 
acquaintances,  or  strangers,  this  is  the  surest  method  of  acquiring  the  habits  which  are 
requisite  in  the  best  company.  By  a constant  attendance  upon  these  matters  an  ease  of 
manner  and  natural  demeanor  are  acquired  that  no  amount  of  subsequent  training  will 
give.  Lord  Chesterfield,  from  whom  we  have  already  taken  so  much,  writes  to  his  son  : 

“ The  most  familiar  and  intimate  habitudes,  connections  and  friendships  require  a 
degree  of  good  breeding,  both  to  preserve  and  cement  them.  The  best  of  us  have  our 
bad  sides,  and  it  is  as  imprudent  as  it  is  illbred  to  exhibit  them.  I shall  not  use  cere- 
mony with  you,  it  would  be  misplaced  between  us,  but  I shall  certainly  observe  that  de_ 
gree  of  good  breeding  with  you  which  is,  in  the  first  place,  decent,  and  which  I am  sure 
is  absolutely  necessary  to  make  us  like  one  another’s  company  long.’* 

This  is  the  most  sensible  counsel  which  can  be  given  in  all  the  close  relations  of 
life,  to  husbands  and  wives,  to  parents  and  children,  to  friends  and  relations,  to  partners 
in  business,  and  fellow  workmen  in  trades. 

The  scriptural  injunction  should  be  heeded.  Parents  provoke  not  your  children  to 
wrath.  ” The  habit  of  teasing  and  bantering  children  for  sport  or  the  entertainment  of 
others  is  both  foolish  and  wicked. 

An  epithet  of  ridicule  given  husband  or  wife  by  the  other  to  occasion  a little  merri- 
ment, lowers  the  parent  in  the  eyes  of  the  children,  and  produces  a lasting  injury  hard  to 
be  undone. 

Constant  criticism  and  covert  fault  finding,  either  in  direct  words,  or  by  covert  in- 
sinuation, is  both  incompatible  with  good  breeding,  and  destructive  to  the  good  feeling 
which  should  underlay  all  true  politeness.  The  use  of  any  term  not  in  accord  with  re- 
spectful address  to  either  parent  in  their  presence  at  any  time,  is  most  reprehensible. 

The  child  who  calls  his  mother  “ The  Governess,  ” “ The  Empress,  ” or  any  other 
title  not  recognized  in  good  society,  shows  a bad  heart  as  well  as  ill-breeding.  No  one 
thinks  of  doing  this,  yet  the  lad  will  speak  of  “ The  Old  Man,  ” “ The  Governor,  ” or 
“ The  Emperor,  ” in  referring  to  his  father.  But  this  is  as  much  a want  of  refinement  as 
the  other. 

At  home  there  should  be  “ line  upon  line,  precept  upon  precept,  ” in  teaching  the 
young  by  word  and  example  the  habits  of  good  society.  If  it  is  made  a daily  matter  it 
will  come  to  be  worn  easily  and  naturally  like  an  every  day  garment,  and  not  with  con- 
straint and  awkwardness  like  a dress  coat  that  is  worn  only  on  rare  occasions,  and  for 
show. 

Let  each  be  taught  to  respect  the  rights  and  feelings  of  the  others  ; never  proffer  a 
request  or  secure  a favor  without  observing  the  due  forms  of  politeness.  “ If  you  please  I 
will  take,”  etc., I will  thank  you  to,”  etc.,  •*  Shall  I trouble  you  for,”  etc.,  always  followed 
when  the  request  is  granted,  with,  “ I thank  you,”  “ Thanks,”  or  “ I am  much  obliged.” 


THE  GUIDE  TO  POLITE  SOCIETY. 


365 


VISITORS  AT  THE  HOME. 


N commending  a certain  person  or  class,  the  apostle  says  the*  they  were 
given  to  hospitality. 

Hospitality  is  enjoined  as  a Christian  virtue,  an4  it  as  the  duty  of  all 
householders  to  exercise  it  towards  friends,  and  to  some  extent  towards 
strangers. 

The  author  of  our  being  did  not  intend  that  we  should  prescribe  our  life  within  narrow 
limits  but  of  course  each  family  has  a right,  within  the  conventionalities  of  good  society 
to  select  who  shall  become  its  guests.  Either  of  two  extremes  should  be  avoided  by 
young  housekeepers,  entertaining  too  much  company,  or  not  receiving  any  company. 

The  advice  of  the  Duke  of  Sully  on  this  matter  is  timely  and  good.  “Live  frugally 
that  you  may  live  happily ; shut  not  your  doors  or  hearts  against  those  who  have  a claim 
upon  your  hospitality,  but  remember,  if  they  really  esteem  and  love  you,  they  will  come 
not  to  look  at  your  table  or  furniture,  but  to  enjoy  your  society.” 

The  chief  art  of  hospitality  is  to  cause  the  guest  to  have  a feeling  of  home  that  puts 
him  at  his  ease.  If  any  thing  has  arisen  to  cause  you  annoyance,  do  not  burden  your 
guests  with  a recital  of  your  troubles. 

Some  persons  seem  born  with  the  faculty  of  making  everything  about  them  pleasant 
to  all  who  are  with  them.  They  have  great  discernment,  and  can  encourage  the  bash- 
ful, draw  out  the  diffident,  repress  the  forward,  and  call  forth  the  personal  talent  of  each 
to  advantage,  while  others  strive  ever  so  hard,  are  unable  to  do  this.  But  this  should  be 
cultivated  so  far  as  possible  to  add  to  the  comfort  and  pleasure  of  all. 

If  you  are  entertaining  visitors  for  any  length  of  time  it  is  proper  to  give  them  an 
insight  into  your  mode  of  living.  It  is  their  duty  not  to  encroach  too  much  upon  your 
time,  but  conform  to  your  established  methods.  You  have  a right  to  give  the  morning 
hours  to  your  domestic  duties. 

After  dinner  you  should  devote  your  time  to  their  entertainment.  You  have,  it  is 
presumed,  provided  everything  for  their  comfort,  so  far  as  you  could  before  the  arrival  of 
the  guest. 

Make  your  guest  feel  that  his  visit  is  a real  pleasure  to  you,  and  provide  for  recrea- 
tions and  amusements,  which  do  not  enter  into  the  usual  routine.  Do  this  without  giving 
the  impression  that  you  are  “ putting  yourself  out  ” or  taking  unusual  pains,  but  in  a 
natural  easy  matter-of-course  way  that  says,  “ I am  used  to  this  sort  of  thing.” 

If  guests  are  invited  state  the  day  and  week  when  it  will  be  convenient  for  them  to 
come  and  the  period  you  would  like  them  to  remain,  so  that  they  may  regulate  their  own 
duties  and  amount  of  dress  to  bring  to  correspond. 

When  the  guest  intimates  a desire  or  necessity  of  departing  and  you  wish  them  to 
continue  the  visit,  say  so  frankly,  but  do  not  urge  it,  for  the  visitor  is  supposed  to  know 
his  own  mind  and  understand  his  own  business  better  than  yourself.  If  a longer  visit  is 
distasteful  to  you  or  tends  to  disarrange  your  plans,  do  not  practice  any  deception  by  say- 
ing to  the  contrary.  This  is  not  only  a violation  of  truth,  but  of  good  breeding ; of  course 
no  guest  would  depart  without  giving  expression  to  regrets  and  good  will,  and  to  neglect 
writing  on  reaching  home  to  inform  of  safe  arrival,  is  a gross  breach  of  etiquette.  No 


366 


THE  GUIDE  TO  POLITE  SOCIETY. 


well  bred  person  would  be  guilty  of  this,  norfail  to  express  gratitude  to  all  the  members 
of  the  family  mentioning  each  by  name  in  the  letter. 

It  is  proper  for  guests  to  remember  servants  who  have  bestowed  attention  upon 
them,  and  performed  unusual  services  for  them,  with  a gift  of  money  or  its  equivalent. 

Above  all,  the  guests  in  civilized  communities  should  equal  the  Arab  in  one  respect 
at  least,  “he  never  speaks  ill  of  those  whose  salt  he  has  eaten.  ” It  is  the  height  of  ill 
breeding  for  a guest  to  repeat  to  another  what  he  has  heard  in  the  privacy  of  the  house, 
or  what  he  has  learned  by  observation  there.  This  is  perfectly  unendurable,  and  ought 
to  debar  the  party  guilty  of  such  a breach  of  morality  and  etiquette,  not  only  from  the 
hospitality  which  he  has  violated,  but  from  the  home  of  every  one,  whose  sanctity  he 
would  be  equally  ready  to  violate  in  the  same  way. 


CEREMONIOUS  VISITS. 


ISITS  of  ceremony  are  given  after  receiving  any  marked  attention  from 
the  hands  of  your  friends,  and  are  required  by  the  usages  of  good  society. 
Though  they  may  demand  a considerable  amount  of  time,  taking 
all  together,  they  are  not  to  be  neglected,  as  they  are  essential  to  pro- 
mote good  feeling. 

You  should  call  within  a week  after  being  invited  to  a dinner  or  supper  party,  or 
private  reception,  but  the  call  must  be  of  short  duration,  unaccompanied  by  children  or 
pets.  You  should  hand  your  card  to  the  servant  and  inquire  if  tho  lady  or  ladies  are  at 
home.  When  you  have  gained  access  to  the  parlor  you  retain  your  hat  in  hand,  not 
placing  it  upon  rack  or  table.  If  other  callers  are  announced  do  not  rise  to  leave  until 
they  are  seated.  The  hostess  is  not  required  to  introduce  casual  c allers,  but,  if  you  are 
waiting  in  the  parlor  with  strangers,  you  may  enter  into  general  conversation  with  them, 
and  when  the  lady  of  the  house  enters  the  conversation  becomes  mutual.  Your  calls 
should  be  made  at  such  hours  as  you  know  or  think  that  the  lady  i*  prepared  to  receive. 
In  the  large  cities  the  reception  days  are  printed  upon  the  visiting  card : “ At  home 

Mondays , from  12  o clock  to  4.  Only  the  closest  friends  will  call  at  any  other  time. 

When  you  are  intending  to  be  absent  from  home  for  a long  time,  several  months,  it 
is  your  duty  to  call  upon  all  your  friends,  send  or  leave  cards  for  each  member  of  the 
family.  If  you  neglect  to  do  this  previous  to  a long  voyage,  or  your  marriage,  it  is  an 
intimation  that  the  acquaintance  ceases.  On  return  from  the  voyage  or  marriage  trip, 
those  to  whom  cards  have  been  sent  are  to  call  first. 

A slip  of  thin  card,  with  the  name  and  residence  of  the  person,  is  acccepted  instead 
of  a visit.  Before  the  name  Miss,  Mrs.  or  Mr.  is  written,  or  the  professional  title,  but 
the  political,  military  or  naval  rank  are  not  designated. 

Never  send  your  visiting  card  through  the  post  office. 


THE  GUIDE  TO  POLITE  SOCIETY. 


367 


TREATMENT  OF  CALLERS. 

O not  keep  a caller  waiting  longer  than  is  necessary  for  the  exigencies  of 
the  case. 

To  perform  needlework  during  a ceremonious  call  is  considered  dis- 
courteous, except  in  cases  of  very  intimate  friends,  and  when  the  work 
does  not  interfere  with  conversation.  To  measure  or  count  stitches,  or 
any  work  requiring  undivided  attention,  is  always  discourteous  to  a caller. 

To  look  at  the  watch,  or  glance  at  the  clock  is  an  intimation  that  the  call  has  been 
prolonged  to  an  improper  length.  If  the  visitor  has  come  from  a distance,  or  has  been 
long  from  home,  offer  some  slight  refreshment. 

Keep  a Visitors’  Book,  with  record  ol  calls  received  and  made,  for  time  passes  so 
quickly,  and  memory  is  too  treacherous  to  be  entrusted  with  little  details.  Return  calls 
at  proper  times.  If,  however,  persons  are  sick,  or  infirm,  you  may  call  without  reference 
to  return  calls. 

CALLS  FOR  CONGRATULATION. 

A call  of  congratulations  may  be  made  after  the  birth  of  a child,  taking  a bouquet  of 
flowers.  When  a friend  has  received  an  appointment  to  office,  or  promotion,  or  has  pub- 
lished a successful  book,  made  a great  speech,  sermon,  or  performed  any  successful 
achievement  in  art  or  literature,  it  is  proper  to  call ; or  when  your  friends  intend  to  marry. 

CALLS  FOR  CONSOLATION 

Should  be  made  within  a week  after  bereavement,  or  after  the  family  has  appeared 
at  church. 

You  send  in  your  card  and  inquire  if  your  friends  will  receive  you.  The  lady  caller 
should  be  dressed  in  quiet  colors.  When  the  party  or  parties  appear  wait  until  they  make 
the  first  mention  of  their  bereavement  before  you  speak  of  it,  and  then  speak  in  kindly 
sympathy,  but  not  in  a formal,  constrained  manner.  Where  invitations  are  sent  to  at- 
tend the  funeral,  only  those  to  whom  they  are  sent  are  expected  to  call. 

SOCIAL  CALLS. 

HEN  your  friends  have  rooms  at  a hotel  or  boarding  house  send  up  your 
card  by  a servant,  and  wait  until  invited  before  entering  the  room. 

If  a gentleman  calls  upon  a lady  who  is  receiving  a lady  caller,  he 
rises  when  she  takes  her  leave  and  hands  her  to  the  carriage. 

In  this  country  ladies  are  permitted  considerable  latitude  in  making 
and  receiving  calls,  etc.  They  may  appear  upon  the  street  in  the  day  time  unattended  by 
gentlemen  or  ladies,  and  many  attend  places  of  amusement,  instruction,  or  religious 
service  alone  in  the  day  time. 


368 


THE  GUIDE  TO  POLITE  SOCIETY. 


In  regard  to  the  retiring  caller  she  may  do  as  she  pleases,  accompany  them  to  the 
door,  shaking  hands  with  them,  or  bidding  them  good  day  in  the  parlor,  ring  for  a ser- 
vant to  show  the  visicor  out. 

Good  manners  should  be  observed  constantly  and  to  all,  if  we  would  have  them  a 
part  of  our  life,  and  not  the  mere  varnish  to  be  applied  at  certain  times  and  for  certain 

purposes. 

The  person  who  forgets  to  be  polite  to  a servant,  or  inferior,  is  most  likely  to  neglect 
the  duty  to  others  whose  good  opinion  he  desires  to  retain. 

POLITENESS  WHILE  TRAVELING. 

one  should  forget  that  he  is  a gentleman  or  she  is  a lady  when  traveling. 
Each  should  remember  the  courtesies  due  to  all,  and  neither  take  or  give 
what  is  not  regarded  his  right  in  the  best  society.  The  man  who  takes  more 
room  on  a car  than  he  is  entitled  to  by  the  fare  he  has  paid,  is  far  more  ill- 
bred  than  the  one  who,  by  his  boisterous  conduct,  disturbs  the  rest  of  his 
fellow  passengers. 

A lady  may  safely  travel  alone  in  the  United  States,  and  if  any  boor  presumes  U 
take  advantage  of  that  fact,  she  has  only  to  appeal  to  the  protection  of  the  nearest  gen 
tleman.  In  leaving  the  car  at  a way  station  the  placing  of  a coat  or  valise  upon  the  seat 
is  an  indication  that  the  owner  has  a right  to  the  seat  on  his  return.  The  rules  in  regard 
to  checks,  tickets,  &c.,  may  be  found  in  the  chapter  on  Commercial  Law  under  the  title 
of  Common  Carriers. 

THE  ETIQUETTE  OBSERVABLE  AT  TABLE, 

HE  right  to  be  called  a gentleman  or  lady  can  be  tested  nowhere  else  more 
readily  than  at  the  table,  and  children  will  there  show  their  careful  train- 
ing, or  want  of  it,  more  conspicuously  than  in  almost  any  other  way. 
Those  who  regard  the  hour  for  meals  as  intended  only  to  supply  needed 
food,  and,  therefore,  a duty  which  must  be  performed  as  speedily  as  pos- 
sible, are  laboring  under  a serious  mistake.  If  they  are  inclined  to  regard  all  reference 
to  the  etiquette  of  the  table,  and  other  refinements  connected  with  eating,  as  of  little 
moment,  they  are  unobserving  and  short-sighted. 

The  family  meal  ought  to  be  served  with  the  same  regard  to  proprieties  and  arrange- 
ment when  only  the  home  circle  are  present  as  when  the  table  is  filled  with  guests.  It 
should  be  made  the  occasion  of  interesting  and  profitable  social  intercourse,  not  only  for 
the  benefit  of  the  ease  and  refinement  it  gives  the  young  people  but  for  the  health  of  all. 
“ Chatted  food  is  half  digested  food,”  has  come  to  be  a proverb.  A meal  eaten 
in  silence,  or  when  brooding  over  some  question  of  business,  or  in  the  discussion  of  dis- 
agreeable topics,  or  when  the  mind  is  highly  excited  by  any  of  the  master  passions,  is 
both  unwise  and  harmful.  As  a nation  we  have  a reputation  not  to  be  envied  in  this 
respect.  We  eat  in  a hurry,  bolting  the  articles  of  food  as  if  we  had  no  relish  for  them, 
and  were  in  haste  to  perform  a disagreeable  duty.  The  city  merchant  treats  his  break- 
fast and  his  morning  paper  in  the  same  way  and  at  the  same  time,  getting  through  with 
both  as  speedily  as  possible,  allowing  his  brain  no  rest. 


THE  GUIDE  TO  POLITE  SOCIETY. 


369 


The  farmer  finishes  his  enormous  plateful  of  meat,  vegetables,  pie  or  pudding,  as  he 
would  any  other  distasteful  job,  and  hurries  away  from  the  table  before  his  wife  and 
daughters  have  had  time  to  serve  the  men  folks  and  wait  upon  themselves. 

The  student  hurries  to  his  boarding  house  as  fast  as  he  can  walk  after  the  recitation 
hour  is  over,  bolts  his  food  as  a horse  does  his  oats — as  fast  as  possible — and  hurries 
away  to  his  base  ball  or  boat  practice.  All  these  are  sowing  the  fruitful  seeds  of  dispep- 
sia,  or  apoplexy,  that  will  in  future  years  bring  a harvest  of  sorrow. 

Sociability  is  a good  digester  of  food,  and  the  adjunct  of  a pleasant  and  proper  meal. 
Solomon  has  wisely  said  : “ Better  is  a dinner  of  herbs  where  love  is,  than  a stalled  ox 

and  hatred  therewith.”  There  is  true  morality  and  correct  hygiene  for  all.  Let  the  neat 
and  tasteful  arrangement  of  the  viands,  however  poor  they  may  be,  please  the  eye,  and 
the  bright  and  pleasant  conversation  of  the  circle  please  the  mind,  and  there  will  be  little 
danger  of  indigestion  or  want  of  appetite.  The  little  things  of  life  which  cost  nothing 
in  themselves,  but  are  of  priceless  value,  are  those  which  make  home  what  it  was 
designed  to  be,  the  most  attractive  spot  in  all  the  world  for  its  inmates. 

The  more  you  invite  good  society  to  your  table  the  better,  and  you  can  judge  of  the 
hospitality  of  the  family  and  the  training  of  the  children  more  by  their  demeanor  at  one 
meal,  than  by  seeing  them  under  other  circumstances  for  hours. 

THE  HONORS  OF  THE  TABLE. 

• 

HE  duties  of  the  host  and  hostess  are  to  attend  to  the  wants  and  add  to  the 
pleasure  of  their  guests  in  every  way,  without  bustle,  confusion,  or  the 
appearance  of  being  over-solicitous.  It  requires  tact  and  judgment  of  hu- 
man nature  to  do  this,  observing  the  little  peculiarities  of  people  and  the 
indications  of  their  preferences.  Of  course  it  is  presumed  that  the  table 
is  in  readiness,  and  all  things  needed  are  in  easy  reach  of  either  master  or  mistress  of 
the  house,  or  can  be  at  once  produced  by  servant.  If  anything  is  needed  where  there 
is  no  servant  ask  one  of  the  family  to  procure  it,  and  not  suffer  two  persons  to  leave  the 
table  at  once  during  the  meal. 

Having  ascertained  the  preferences  of  the  guest  to  any  particular  portion  of  the 
main  dish,  help  him  to  that,  not  too  abundantly  but  enough  to  tempt  the  appetite,  and 
have  him  ready  for  more.  Do  not  urge  more  upon  a person  who  has  declined. 

Avoid  the  extreme  of  carelessness  in  attention  to  guests  on  the  one  hand,  and  too 
great  officiousness  on  the  other.  Study  the  wishes  of  your  guests,  and  in  an  easy,  nat' 
ural  manner,  without  making  a display  of  such  intention,  seek  to  supply  them. 

GENERAL  OBSERVANCES. 

* 

Avoid  these  ill-bred  and  disagreeable  things : 

Passing  the  plate  to  which  the  host  has  helped  you  to  another.  He  knew  in  what 
order  he  wished  to  serve  his  guests,  and  you  need  not  dictate  to  him. 

Refusing  the  last  piece  upon  a plate.  The  old-fashioned  idea  of  not  taking  the  last 


370 


THE  GUIDE  TO  POLITE  SOCIETY. 


piece  is  obsolete,  and  refusing  to  do  so  when  it  is  needed  is  a reflection  upon  the  ability 
of  the  host  to  furnish  more. 

Reaching  across  the  table  for  an  article  which  another  might  hand  you. 

The  use  of  your  knife  in  the  butter  plate,  or  your  fork  in  any  article  not  upon  your 
own  plate. 

The  use  of  the  knife  for  any  other  purpose  than  cutting  your  own  food. 

Waiting  after  you  are  helped  before  commencing  to  eat  until  others  are  served. 
Spread  your  napkin  on  your  person  to  protect  the  clothing,  but  never  tuck  it  under  your 
chin  for  a bib. 

DINNER  PARTIES.  THEIR  REQUIREMENTS 


INNER  parties  have  been  supposed  to  be  the  indicators  of  the  social  pro- 
gress in  a community,  and  in  all  generations  have  been  productive  of 
kindly  relations  between  nations,  and  conducive  to  the  acquaintance  of 
the  educated  and  refined.  The  ability  to  preside  with  elegance  and 
dignity,  and  to  carve  with  ease  and  grace,  are  marks  of  refinement  which 
cannot  be  disputed.  Upon  the  subject  of  carving  we  refer  the  reader  to  the  department 
of  cookery. 

The  number  to  be  invited  to  a select  dinner  party  must,  of  course,  be  limited 
Some  insist  that  eight  persons  are  all  that  can  be  entertained  with  due  attention  to  the 
physical  and  mental  requirements  of  each.  Others  ten,  but  all,  whether  claiming  to  be 
superstitious  or  not,  dislike  to  set  down  at  a table  of  thirteen  persons  in  deference  to  the 
superstition  that  if  that  number,  and  no  more,  eat  at  the  same  time,  one  of  them  will  die 
before  the  close  of  the  year.  If  it  is  to  be  a formal  dinner  party  the  invitations  should 
be  issued  some  time  in  advance,  and  the  persons  invited  are  bound  to  respond  at  once  if 
there  is  the  least  uncertainty  as  to  their  ability  to  attend,  so  that  the  host  can  supply  his 
place  with  another  friend.  The  note  of  regret  must  be  well  worded,  as  : 


A formal  acceptance  should  read  : 


/ 


. 

The  acceptance  should  be  directed  to  the  lady,  although  addressed  as  above. 

When  any  doubt  arises  in  your  mind  as  to  your  ability  to  attend  a dinner  party, 
you  should  decline  at  once.  But  if  for  an  evening  party,  you  would  accept,  and  if  being 
afterwards  unable  to  attend,  send  regrets.  The  reason  for  this  is  that  a dinner  party 
must  needs  be  more  select  and  limited  in  number  than  an  evening  party. 


THE  GUIDE  TO  POLITE  SOCIETY. 


371 


TABLE  ORNAMENTS  AND  ARRANGEMENT. 

RNAMENTING  and  arranging  the  table  should  not  be  left  to  the  care  of 
servants  unless  they  are  well  trained,  for  this  is  a very  essential  part  of 
the  dinner,  adding  much  to  the  comfort  or  pleasure  of  the  guests.  To 
quote  the  words  of  another  : “ It  has  been  well  said  that  if  you  ask  a man 
to  dinner  you  are  responsible  for  his  happiness  while  he  remains  under 
your  roof,  and  he  who  asks  his  friends  to  dinner  and  gives  no  personal  attention  to  the 
dinner  is  unworthy  to  have  any  friends.” 

Notice  that  the  center  piece  does  not  take  too  much  space,  and  is  not  too  high  to 
prevent  the  guests  sitting  opposite  from  seeing  each  other. 

Have  a tasty  and  diffuse  display  of  flowers. 

A very  desirable  ornament  for  the  center  can  be  made  with  a block  of  ice  12  x 16 
or  18,  on  a silver  salver,  or  it  may  be  placed  upon  a common  waiter  embedded  in  moss, 
bright  flowers,  with  trailing  vines  to  conceal  the  base  of  the  ice.  It  serves  to  cool  the 
air  overheated  by  the  viands  and  the  presence  of  the  guests,  and  for  this  reason  has  a 
refreshing  influence  upon  all. 

Many  elegant  and  lovely  devices  can  be  obtained  at  the  china  and  silver  stores 
which,  by  the  aid  of  the  florist,  can  be  made  really  attractive 

Each  guest  should  have  ample  space,  and  there  should  be  placed  beside  each  plate  a 
napkin,  two  large  knives  and  forks,  a tumbler,  and  (if  wine  is  to  be  served)  three  wine 
glasses,  a twisted  roll  or  small  piece  of  bread,  also  a soup  spoon  ; then  when  the  dessert 
is  served,  a silver  knife,  fork  and  spoon. 

Less  regard  is  given  in  this  country  to  rank  or  other  distinction  than  in  European 
countries.  Yet  there  is  a certain  caste  in  society  which  is  to  be  respected.  When  the 
servant  announces  that  the  dinner  is  ready  each  gentleman  escorts  the  lady  whom  the 
host  has  designated  to  him  to  the  dining  room,  the  host,  giving  his  arm  to  the  most  dis- 
tinguished or  the  greatest  stranger  among  the  lady  guests,  leading  the  way,  the  hostess 
inviting  the  most  distinguished  or  greatest  stranger  among  the  gentlemen  present  to 
escort  her,  frequently  urges  the  other  guests  to  precede  her,  proceeds  to  her  seat,  and 
motioning  her  escort  to  a seat  at  her  right.  The  guests  are  informed  of  their  places, 
care  being  taken  that  a lady  sits  at  the  right  and  left  hand  of  the  host,  a gent  at  the  right 
and  left  of  hostess,  gentlemen  and  ladies  alternating  if  possible.  At  stylish  parties  there 
is  a servant  for  every  three  or  four  guests. 

The  first  course  is  usually  raw  oysters  or  clams  served  on  the  shell.  Then  soup,  of 
which  there  are  two  kinds,  one  dark  and  one  white,  which  the  guest  may  choose  ; two! 
kinds  of  fish,  roast  beef  or  mutton,  or  both,  while  fowl,  wild  game,  and  side  dishes  may 
follow  ad  libitum and  finally  the  dessert  ends  up  with  plain  crackers  and  cheese,  served 
after  every  dainty  dish  has  been  offered.  The  custom  for  ladies  to  retire  before  the  gen- 
tlemen, that  they  may  enjoy  their  drinking  to  excess,  does  not  prevail  in  this  country  to 
any  extent.  Nor  is  a guest  obliged  to  indulge  in  wine  or  cigars.  When  the  servant 
offers  to  fill  his  glass  he  has  only  to  cover  the  top  of  his  glass  with  his  fingers  and  say> 
“ Please  excuse  me,”  that  is  sufficient,  and  it  is  a breach  of  courtesy  to  urge  him.  The 


372 


THE  GUIDE  TO  POLITE  SOCIETY. 


more  refined  portions  of  society  adopt  the  custom  now  of  rising  all  together,  gentlemen 
and  ladies,  from  the  table,  and  repairing  to  the  parlor,  where  the  company  entertain 
themselves  with  music,  cards,  etc.,  while  any  of  the  gentlemen  who  wish  repair  to  the 
Smoking  room  to  indulge  in  a cigar. 


ENTERTAINING  COMPANY. 


BY  RALPH  WALDO  EMERSON 


whole  philosophy  of  hospitality  is  summed  up  in  the  following  manner : 
“ I pray  you,  O excellent  wife  ! not  to  cumber  yourself  and  me  to  get  a rich 
dinner  for  this  man  or  this  woman  who  has  alighted  at  our  gate,  nor  the 
bedchamber  made  ready  at  too  great  a cost.  These  things,  if  they  are 
curious  in,  they  can  get  for  a dollar  at  the  village.  But  let  this  man  see, 
if  he  will,  in  your  looks,  in  your  accent  and  behavior,  your  heart  and  earnestness,  your 
thought  and  will,  what  he  cannot  buy  at  any  price,  at  any  village  or  city,  and  which 
he  may  well  travel  fifty  miles  and  dine  sparingly  and  work  hard  in  order  to  behold.  Cer- 
tainly let  the  board  be  spread  and  the  bed  be  dressed  for  the  traveler,  but  not  let  the 
emphasis  of  hospitality  be  in  these  things.  Honor  to  the  house  where  they  are  simple  to 
the  verge  of  hardship,  so  that  the  intellect  is  awake  and  sees  the  laws  of  the  universe,  the 
soul  worships  truth  and  love,  honor  and  courtesy  flow  into  all  deeds.”  One  of  the  greatest 
comforts  of  having  a home  should  be  that  in  it  we  have  a place  for  friends  and  even 
strangers — rooms,  more  than  supply  the  needs  of  the  family  and  extra  “ leaves  ” to  the 
extension-table.  The  secret  of  true  hospitality,  as  Emerson  has  stated,  is  in  its  coming 
from  the  heart. 


A FEW  HINTS  TO  YOUNG  HOUSEKEEPERS . 

ELECT  your  guests  among  those  who  are  agreeable  to  each  other  in  such 
a way  that  there  shall  be  variety  but  no  inharmony,  in  ages,  professions, 
tastes  and  attainments. 

Invite  an  equal  number  of  gentlemen  and  ladies  unless  the  party  be 
wholly  of  gentlemen. 

By  far  the  best  arrangement  is  for  the  master  and  mistress  of  the  house  to  sit  oppo- 
site each  other  in  the  center  of  the  table  with  a lady  member  of  the  family  at  one  end 
and  a gentleman  member  at  the  other  end  of  the  table,  so  that  each  gentleman  may 
receive  attention. 

The  soup  is  served  by  servants,  after  the  guests  are  seated,  or  if  the  dinner  be  an 
informal  one  it  may  be  placed  in  a tureen  and  the  hostess  serve  it  first  to  the  right  and 
then  to  the  left. 

No  one  asks  for  soup  or  fish  the  second  time,  nor  does  the  hostess  offer  it. 


THE  GUIDE  TO  POLITE  SOCIETY. 


373 


Sometimes  where  only  one  servant  is  employed  the  soup  may  be  placed  on  the  table 
at  each  seat  before  the  guests  are  seated. 

Oysters  and  clams  on  the  shell  are  served  before  the  soup,  if  at  all. 

No  one  will  drink  wine  unless  he  chooses,  and  it  should  not  be  urged  upon  a guest. 

The  cloth  is  rarely  removed  for  the  dessert  now,  because  large  napkins  are  usually 
placed  under  the  dishes,  to  be  removed  before  the  last  course. 

Let  your  demeanor  be  easy  and  perfectly  composed  at  the  dinner  table. 

Use  low  and  quiet  tones  in  speaking,  and  avoid  fussiness  either  with  servants,  chil- 
dren or  guests.  Be  pleasant,  but  not  continuously  laughing,  though  that  would  be  better 
than  sourness. 

Teach  your  servants  to  be  neat  and  tidy,  and  attend  upon  all  the  little  details  of  wait- 
ing when  you  have  no  guests,  and  they  will  be  prepared  when  friends  come  in  unexpect- 
edly, to  perform  their  duties  in  an  easy,  graceful  and  tidy  manner. 


EVENING  ENTERTAINMENTS. 

F the  party  is  to  be  a simple  evening  entertainment,  you  should  so  state  in 
your  invitations,  but  if  a dress  party  or  a ball,  a large  or  a small  gathering 
intimate  it  so  that  your  guests  need  not  be  embarrassed  upon  the  question 
of  dress. 

The  caprices  of  fashion  must  govern  the  hour  for  a party. 

You  should  provide  two  dressing  rooms,  one  for  ladies,  one  for  gentlemen,  with  all 
conveniences,  with  separate  attendants  for  each,  to  assist  in  removing  wraps,  &c. 

The  first  imperative  duty  of  guests  is  to  pay  their  respects  to  the  host  and  hostess, 
on  coming  from  the  dressing  room,  the  gentleman  waiting  for  the  lady  whom  he  has 
escorted  to  the  party,  offering  his  arm,  and  with  her  entering  the  parlor  finds  the  host 
and  hostess. 

It  is  the  duty  of  a gentleman  to  *see  that  the  lady  whom  he  escorts  is  entertained, 
her  needs  provided  for,  and  that  she  has  an  escort  to  the  supper  table,  but  if  she  be 
mother,  sister  or  wife,  he  may  attend  her  to  the  supper  room  himself. 

When  she  has  found  other  acquaintances  it  is  proper  for  him  to  leave  her  for  a time, 
always  taking  notice  that  she  is  not  unattended  or  neglected. 

We  do  not  see  why  a gentleman  and  his  wife  should  be  debarred  from  waltzing, 
dancing,  or  conversing  with  each  other  to  their  heart’s  content  if  it  is  a pleasure  to  both, 
although  some  authorities  say  it  is  not  considered  strictly  decorous  for  husband  and  wife 
to  seek  each  other’s  company  in  society. 

And  a high  authority  says : “A  gentleman  never  dances  with  his  wife  unless  every 
one  else  in  the  quadrille  does  the  same.” 

Of  course  it  might  be  considered  out  of  taste  for  him  to  dance  continually  with  her 
but  we  see  no  valid  reason  why  he  should  neglect  her  because  she  is  his  wife. 

A guest  may  move  about  quite  unrestrained  at  small  private  parties  conversing  here 
and  there  with  other  guests. 

It  is  the  duty  of  the  hostess  to  add  to  the  amusement  and  pleasure  of  all  her  guests 
without  distinction,  and  see  that  none  are  neglected. 


374 


THE  GUIDE  TO  POLITE  SOCIETY. 


She  must  find  her  own  pleasure  in  seeking  that  of  her  guests,  making  arrangements 
to  have  them  show  off  to  advantage.  Her  toilet  should  be  quiet,  not  outshining  that 
of  any  guest,  and  unless  there  are  strangers  demanding  her  attention  she  should  make 
no  distinction  in  her  manner  towards  any. 

THE  SUPPER  TABLE. 


HE  hostess  is  relieved  from  the  responsibility  of  the  supper  table  in  cities 
and  towns  by  obtaining  the  service  of  the  caterer.  But  in  the  country 
where  such  an  one  cannot  be  obtained,  she  should  superintend  the  prep- 
aration. Full  directions  will  be  given  in  the  Department  of  Domestic 
Economy. 

We  cannot  forbear  one  item  of  advice:  Always  forget  to  furnish  wine.  Aside  from 
the  question  of  morality  and  responsibility  which  are  connected,  young  people  do  not. 
need  any  other  stimulant  than  that  which  is  afforded  by  pleasant  company,  flowers, 
music  and  pleasant  viands. 

Every  gentleman  will  offer  his  arm  to  a lady  when  the  supper  is  served  and  escort 
her  to  the  table,  taking  care  that  her  wants  are  supplied  from  the  delicacies  there  spread 
before  helping  himself,  and  afterwards  attend  her  back  to  the  reception  room. 


TAKING  LEAVE. 


O not  leave  without  bidding  adieu  to  the  host  and  hostess,  nor  remain  until 
all  the  other  guests  have  gone,  nor  leave  too  early  and  thus  attract  the 
attention,  as  much  as  to  say  “ You  are  keeping  this  up  too  late,  and  I will 
set  you  an  example.” 

If  any  circumstances  make  it  necessary  for  you  to  retire  early,  seek 
the  hostess  and  without  attracting  the  attention  of  the  other  guests  quietly  explain  and 
withdraw.  If  this  cannot  be  done,  then  leave  at  once,  without  bidding  any  one  good 
night. 

When  the  leave-taking  is  general,  be  sure  to  take  the  right  hand  in  passing  through 
the  halls  and  up  and  down  the  stairways,  thus  avoiding  confusion.  This  rule  holds  good 
in  all  public  places  of  entertainment. 


AN  EARLY  GALL  AFTERWARDS. 

It  is  the  duty  of  guests  to  call  upon  their  hostess  within  a few  days  after  the  party, 
say  a week. 

You  will  express  in  a few  well  chosen  words,  without  formality,  and  in  sincerity  the 
pleasure  afforded  you,  complimenting  her  upon  her  arrangements,  guests,  and  the  enter- 
tainments. To  neglect  this  call  would  be  impolite  and  subject  you  to  adverse  criticism. 

Many  persons  who  complain  that  they  are  not  invited  out  may  find  the  sole  reason, 
if  they  will  but  seek,  within  themselves. 


THE  GUIDE  TO  POLITE  SOCIETY. 


375 


MANNERS.  PERSONAL  APPEARANCE.  DRESS. 

HILE  the  old  adage  remains  true,  “ Dress  does  not  make  the  man,”  yet  a 
due  regard  to  the  elegancies  of  life  in  this  respect  is  not  only  the  duty  of 
all  who  would  be  received  in  good  society  in  accordance  with  their  merit, 
but  also  a passport  to  favor  and  position  ; while  the  man  who  persist- 
ently disregards  or  neglects  this  will  be  embarrassed  and  hindered  in  his 
advancement  whatever  may  be  his  talent. 

The  following  incident  is  related  of  the  celebrated  French  painter,  Gerard:  When 

he  was  a young  man  he  presented  a letter  of  introduction  to  Lanjuinais,  then  of  the 
Council  of  Napoleon.  He  was  very  coolly  received  by  the  minister  because  of  his  shabby 
and  uncouth  dress.  But,  displaying  a talent  in  conversation  and  merit  of  an  extraordi- 
nary nature,  Lanjuinais  accompanied  him  to  the  door  on  his  departure  with  such  extreme 
cordiality  as  to  attract  the  young  man’s  attention.  Upon  perceiving  this  the  minister 
said:  “Young  man,  we  receive  an  unknown  person  according  to  his  dress ; we  take 

leave  of  him  according  to  his  merit.”  This  is  true  to  some  extent,  but  not  altogether 
true.  Yet  the  first  impression  is  governed  to  an  extent  by  the  dress,  and  we  cannot  help 
'it  if  we  would.  A tasteful,  appropriate  costume,  adapted  to  the  form  and  complexion  of 
the  individual,  and  not  too  expensive,  is  the  mark  of  gentility  neither  out  of  nor  in  the 
extreme  of  fashion,  always  bearing  in  mind  the  position  of  the  individual  in  the  social 
scale. 

It  is  always  best  to  consider  the  size,  form  and  complexion  in  the  selection  of  new 
garments  rather  than  the  prevailing  fashion.  Do  not  attract  attention  by  being  either 
over-dressed  or  under-dressed. 

A brunette  should  avoid  silks,  thibets  or  muslins  in  dark,  subdued  colors,  always 
excepting  black.  While  a person  of  fair  complexion  should  avoid  high  colors  and  too 
much  variety. 

It  should  be  consistent  with  one’s  age  and  external  appearance. 

The  dress  should  be  adapted  to  the  occasion  and  society  in  which  one  is  moving. 

An  ease  of  manner  will  be  attained  by  feeling  that  one  is  properly  dressed,  that  can- 
not be  attained  if  he  is  constantly  reminded  of  a want  in  this  respect. 

Every  one,  gentleman  or  lady,  should  avoid  the  two  extremes  ; one  of  thinking  too 
much  about  the  dress,  the  other  of  ignoring  the  matter  altogether.  While  you  have  en- 
gaged in  conversation  for  a time  with  a lady,  and  do  not  remember  how  she  was  dressed, 
you  may  be  sure  that  she  was  clad  in  taste. 

After  you  have  paid  all  due  attention  to  tne  matter  of  dress  before  your  appearance 
in  company,  do  not  give  it  another  thought,  but  leave  your  mind  free  to  attend  to  the 
courtesies  of  the  occasion.  And  do  not  attract  the  attention  of  others  by  manner,  ges- 
ture, or  reference  to  your  dress  in  any  way. 

The  compliment  of  a lady  upon  her  dress  should  be  done  judiciously  and  in  well 
chosen  terms  or  not  at  all.  Let  the  dress  be  what  it  is  intended  to  be,  for  the  protection 
and  adornment  of  the  person,  and  not  to  advertise  the  wealth  of  the  wearer,  or  the  es- 
tablishment where  it  was  purchased. 

Much  more  might  be  added,  but  the  hints  above  given  form  the  ground  work  of  all 
that  ought  to  be  said. 


376 


THE  GUIDE  TO  POLITE  SOCIETY. 


THE  CARE  OF  THE  PERSON  AND  THE  TOILET. 

amount  of  talent  or  genius  can  atone  for  the  habits  of  carelessness  and 
neglect  of  the  person  into  which  many  have  fallen.  Not  to  speak  of  the 
importance  of  the  matter  from  a hygienic  standpoint,  it  is  encumbent 
upon  all  to  avoid  everything  that  would  be  offensive  and  disagreeable  to 
others  with  whom  he  associates. 

The  cleanliness  of  the  person  in  all  its  minor  details  adds  very  much  to  the  enjoy- 
ment of  life,  and  heightens  the  regard  of  those  with  whom  he  associates.  We  might  go 
into  the  details  of  the  toilet,  but  our  readers  are  sufficiently  conversant  with  the  matter 
if  they  only  give  it  due  attention. 

The  care  of  the  hair  and  the  preservation  of  the  teeth  in  their  natural  whiteness,  de- 
mand daily  attention.  The  external  parts  of  the  system,  concealed  by  the  clothing, 
should  not  be  neglected,  while  the  proper  appearance  of  the  hands,  ears,  neck  and  face 
are  to  be  regarded  by  all  means.  Frequent  bathings  are  conducive  to  health,  and  pro- 
duce an  exhilaration  at  once  grateful  to  the  individual  and  agreeable  to  all,  because  it 
removes  the  effete  matter  that  has  exuded  from  the  pores,  and  the  invisible  perspiration 
that  collects  upon  the  surface  of  the  body. 

Attend  to  the  bath  as  a sacred  duty  of  the  toilet  that  nothing  but  sickness  and  in- 
firmity should  prevent. 

The  preservation  of  beauty  of  complexion  can  be  accomplished  by  a proper  attention 
to  the  laws  of  physical  health  in  diet,  exercise  and  bathing,  and  any  attempt  to  heighten 
the  natural  charms,  or  hide  defects,  by  cosmetics,  will  be  attended  with  injurious  effect 
to  the  skin  if  not  to  the  health  ; but,  for  the  benefit  of  “whom  it  may  concern,”  we  give 
a few  harmless  receipts  for 

ADJUNCTS  TO  THE  TOILET. 

ACE  WHITE. — French  chalk,  finely  powdered,  is  one  of  the  most  harm- 
less. Whitestarch,  powdered,  is  also  used.  Another — i lb.  starch  ; 4 oz 
oxide  bismuth. 

Hair  Oil. — One  pint  fine  olive  oil ; 16  drops  ottar  roses.  If  color 
is  desired,  use  alkanet  root  strained  before  putting  in  the  ottar  of  roses. 
ce  the  Hair  Curl. — One  pound  olive  oil ; one  drachm  oil  of  Origanum  ; 
one  and  a quarter  drachms  oil  of  rosemary. 

Caution. — White  lead,  and  all  cosmetics  having  it  for  a base,  should  be  avoided,  as 
it  is  most  dangerous. 

Hair  dyes  are  all  pernicious.  Avoid  the  use  of  all  coloring  material  under  whatever 
name  sold  or  by  whom  recomended,  for  the  complexion. 

Hair  brushes,  nail  brushes,  tooth  brushes,  and  flesh  brushes,  etc.,  are  important  ad- 
juncts to  the  toilet  table,  and  should  be  used  habitually. 

A due  attention  should  be  paid  to  the  breath.  Personal  neatness  is  the  mark  of 
gentility  which  cannot  be  disregarded  with  impunity  by  any  one.  An  untidy,  ill-dressed 
slovenly  appearing  man  is  repulsive  in  any  society  ; what  shall  we  say  of  such  a woman. 


THE  GUIDE  TO  POLITE  SOCIETY. 


377 


Teach  your  young  people  that  an  ease  of  manner,  tidiness  in  dress,  courteous  de- 
portment and  refinement  in  address  are  requisites  for  success,  but  not  the  chief  or  greatest 
duty  of  an  earnest,  true  manhood  or  womanhood.  They  are  the  graces  and  adornments 
that  heighten  and  make  attractive  the  solid  fabric  of  true  character. 

COURTSHIP  AND  MARRIAGE. 

HIS  subject  is  by  far  the  most  important  of  any  in  the  great  problems  of 
social  life. 

The  marriage  state  is  the  foundation  stone  upon  which  the  super- 
structure of  all  society  rests — the  family,  the  community,  the  State,  the 
world.  If  this  be  insecure,  or  ill-chosen,  the  whole  fabric  suffers  in  com 

sequence. 

The  most  important  changes  in  life  are  made  at  this  point.  The  young  lady  goes 
out  from  the  sanctity  of  her  girlhood  home  to  form  a home  of  her  own.  The  young  man 
turns  his  back  upon  the  friendships  and  surroundings  of  his  earlier  years  to  enter  a 
realm  of  beauty  and  happiness,  where  these  cannot  enter  save  as  he  opens  the  way  for 
them  to  catch  glimpses  merely  of  what  that  enchanted  land  may  possess.  This  step 
is  taken  not  for  a day,  but  for  a life,  and  “ should  not  be  entered  into  thoughtlessly,, 
inconsiderately,  or  unadvisedly.”  Nor  should  the  least  step  be  taken  leading  thereto* 
which  one  would,  of  necessity,  be  obliged  to  retrace. 

While  the  duty  of  choice  must  devolve  upon  the  parties  most  interested,  the  man 
and  woman  who  are  to  enter  the  state,  the  advice  and  suggestion  of  parents  and  rela- 
tives upon  the  matter  are  to  be  considered,  but  we  insist  that  no  one  has  a right  to  inter- 
fere with  the  matter  in  the  least. 

AN  OFFER  OF  MARRIAGE. 

Love  will  seek  its  own  vehicle  of  thought  and  expression,  and  be  as  varied  in  form 
as  the  thousand  peculiarities  of  individuality.  If  it  is  done  in  the  formal  and  hackneyed 
phraseology  of  the  “ Popular  Letter  Writer,”  as  if  copied  for  the  purpose,  it  may  be  safe 
to  question  its  sincerity.  No  encouragement  m words  or  manner  ought  to  be  presented 
which  a refined  gentleman  would  construe  into  a personal  regard  for  himself,  unless  there 
is  sincerity.  The  thoughtless  flirt  who  would  lure  a man  on  to  a declaration  of  le  grande 
passion , only  to  deceive  and  ridicule  him,  is  unworthy  the  title  of  lady.  She  who  does 
not  scruple  to  sacrifice  the  aspirations  and  hopes  of  a gentleman  upon  the  altar  of  her^ 
inordinate  vanity,  for  the  purpose  of  boasting  of  her  conquests,  is  an  object  to  be  shunned 
by  man  and  woman.  If  this  is  said  of  the  female  flirt,  what  words  can  be  too  mean,  too 
contemptuous  for  a recognized  male  flirt.  When  a lady  perceives  that  she  has  become 
attractive  to  a gentleman  for  whom  she  has  no  more  than  a passing  regard,  she  should 
take  some  of  the  thousand  little  ways  that  women  know  how  to  employ  so  well  without 
rudeness,  to  make  him  sensible  of  the  true  condition  of  affairs,  before  he  has  taken  the 
final  step.  It  is  cruel,  not  to  say  discourteous,  to  leave  him  in  suspense  only  to  fling  him 
into  the  vortex  of  disappointment. 


THE  GUIDE  TO  POLITE  SOCIETY. 


378 

It  is  far  better  not  to  receive  any  attentions  from  him,  save  those  which  are  due  to 
all  ladies  from  gentlemen,  unless  there  is  a tacit,  if  not  expressed  understanding  in  re- 
gard to  the  whole  subject. 

Love,  reason,  and  good  common  sense  should  govern  in  all  these  matters.  Where 
there  is  the  first  of  these  that  alone  should  settle  the  whole  question,  other  things  being 
equal.  A due  regard  for  the  proprieties  of  the  case,  the  laws  of  hereditary  descent, 
and  relationship  ought  to  have  their  proper  weight. 

Temperament,  health,  physical  structure,  taste,  and  education  also  should  be  consid- 
ered before  the  affections  are  seated  upon  the  object.  A passing  fancy,  great  admira- 
tion or  respect  fora  person  must  not  be  mistaken  for  the  superlative  passion  itself.  When 
that  has  been  aroused  toward  any  lady  who  by  her  manner  has  indicated  a preference  for 
the  society  of  any  true  man,  he  has  a God-given  right  to  declare  it  in  a respectful  way  at 
a proper  time,  and  choose  his  own  words  for  doing  it. 

When  such  a declaration  is  made  in  writing  answer  it  as  becomes  a true  lady,  ask- 
ing the  advice  of  parents,  or  if  none,  of  some  matured  relative,  letting  no  one  else  into 
the  secret. 

If  you  are  adverse  to  the  proposition  say  so  frankly  and  pointedly.  Be  sincere  in 
what  you  say,  as  your  own  happiness  and  that  of  another  are  involved  for  all  time,  if  not 
for  eternity.  If  you  intend  to  refuse  the  suit  commence  the  reply  with — “ Sir.” 

There  is  enough  pain  and  mortification  in  being  rejected,  but  to  be  known  as  a 
rejected  lover  is  worse,  and  no  true  woman  will  subject  an  honorable  man  to  that  by 
telling  other  persons  of  it. 

When  you  have  accepted  the  suit  of  a gentleman  pray  be  sensible  and  use  your 
reason.  Do  not  exhibit  him  in  triumph  as  a great  capture,  to  be  led  triumphantly  before 
your  friends.  Do  not  take  advantage  of  his  love  and  impose  upon  his  better  nature. 
Nor  seek  to  have  him  uniformly  yield  to  your  tastes,  inclinations,  and  habits  of  thought. 
Above  all,  do  not  try  to  excite  his  jealousy  to  test  the  strength  of  his  affection.  We 
repeat,  treat  the  matter  with  good  common  sense  and  remember  that  the  to  you  new  ex- 
perience of  happiness  is  as  old  as  the  race,  and  thousands  have  seen  the  same  picture  of 
human  life  which  you  are  now  presenting.  The  tale  of  love  is  as  old  as  our  human 
nature,  but  ever  new  to  hearts  that  feel  its  power. 

Your  behavior  to  your  accepted  lover  will  affect  all  your  life  with  him  to  a greater 
degree  than  you  imagine.  A mutual  forbearance,  desire  to  please,  concession  to  taste, 
and  promotion  of  each  other’s  happiness  should  be  the  characteristics  of  their  dealing 
with  each  other  during  engagement. 

There  should  be  a marked  preference  for  each  other’s  society,  but  this  can  be  shown 
in  a thousand  ways  without  being  constantly  by  each  other’s  side,  or  extolling  the  excel- 
lences of  each  to  one’s  friends. 

Above  all,  avoid  insipid  twaddle  and  silly  pet  names  in  company. 


THE  GUIDE  TO  POLITE  SOCIETY. 


:J7o» 


LOVE  LETTERS. 

RUE  sentiment  is  neither  forced  nor  restrained,  and  the  interchange  of 
thought  between  lovers  should  be  natural  and  to  the  point.  It  need  not 
stray  into  the  byways  of  literature,  nor  cull  the  flowers  of  poesy  and  rhetoric, 
but  breathe  the  spirit  of  the  heart  which  indited  it.  If  it  is  the  impulse 
of  love  it  can  no  more  be  forced  to  flow  into  set  channels  of  thought  and 
expression  than  the  Nile  can  be  turned  back  upon  its  source.  They  will  be  natural, 
unaffected,  and  straightforward,  all  model  love  letters  to  the  contrary  notwithstanding. 


ADDITIONAL  HINTS  TO  ENGAGED  PARTIES., 

A closer  and  less  restrained  intimacy  is  allowed  to  persons  engaged  in  this  country 
than  elsewhere  in  the  world. 

When  the  suitor  has  been  introduced  to  the  friends  of  the  lady  she  in  turn  is  intro- 
duced to  his  friends.  The  latter  make  the  first  call  upon  the  lady’s  family. 

The  lady  will  be  more  careful  to  refuse  than  encourage  attention  from  other  gentle- 
men. Affected  indifference  and  exclusiveness  are  alike  in  bad  taste.  Do  not  exhibit  too 
great  freedom  in  public,  or  make  too  much  display  of  affection.  Treat  the  relatives  and 
friends  of  the  opposite  party  with  the  respect  which  is  due  them  under  the  circumstances. 
Be  not  extravagant  in  presents  and  expressions  of  esteem.  Begin  as  you  intend  to  con- 
tinue through  life.  The  engagement  ring,  worn  on  the  next  to  the  little  finger  of  the 
right  hand  in  England,  sometimes  the  fore  finger,  in  this  country,  should  be  a plain  gold 
band,  set  with  gems,  or  if  the  lover  can  afford  it,  with  diamonds.  It  remains  there  until 
after  marriage  when  it  is  transferred  to  the  corresponding  finger  of  the  left  hand  as  a 
keeper  for  the  wedding  ring. 


MARRIAGE  CEREMONY. 

Marriage  being  regarded  as  a religious  ceremony,  is  usually  performed  in  a 
church,  but  with  propriety  can  be  performed  at  the  home  of  the  bride. 

We  will  suppose  that  the  all-important  day  has  been  set  and  the  bride’s  trousseau, 
with  all  its  hidden  mysteries,  has  been  prepared.  Then  the  bride  calls  upon  all  her 
acquaintances,  whom  she  wishes  to  retain  after  marriage,  or  sends  them  a card  with  P.  P« 
C.  (to  take  leave,)  engraved  on  the  right-hand  lower  corner. 

This  is  done  from  four  to  two  weeks  before  the  wedding,  and  before  the  wedding 
cards  are  out. 

The  yearly  fashion  decides  the  style  and  wording  of  the  wedding  cards.  There 
must  be  one  containing  the  name  of  the  bride,  one  that  of  the  bridegroom,  a large  card 


380 


THE  GUIDE  TO  POLITE  SOCIETY. 


containing  the  names  of  the  bride’s  parents,  the  hour  and  date  of  the  ceremony  and  of 
the  reception  at  the  house.  The  present  fashion  requires  two  cards  written  in  script* 
thus : 


The  invitation  to  the  reception  should  read : 


If  the  married  parties  don’t  take  a trip,  then  a wedding  card,  with  the  name  of  hus- 
band and  wife  should  be  sent  to  all  friends. 


twist/ 

& 'c/ao/i. 

J 6 J2.  C^uwistte 


HESE  cards  are  sent  to  all  the  husband’s  friends  whom  he  wishes  to  retain. 
The  bride  always  rides  to  church  with  her  parents,  or  those  who  fill 
their  place. 

The  bridegroom  comes  with  his  friends  and  endeavors  to  be  on  hand 
, in  time  to  help  her  out  of  her  carriage. 

The  bridegroom  furnishes  a carriage  for  the  officiating  clergyman,  and  one  for 
himself. 

The  bridesmaids  and  grooms  come  in  carriages  furnished  by  the  groomsmen. 

The  ushers  are  selected  from  the  relatives  and  friends  of  both,  and  attend  to  assign- 
ing the  invited  guests  to  seats  in  the  church. 

When  the  wedding  party  have  arrived  at  church  the  last  bridesmaid  and  grooms- 
man precede  them,  the  others  following  in  the  order  in  which  they  are  to  stand  at  the 
altar.  The  father  walks  with  the  bride,  and  groom  attends  her  mother.  When  arriving 


THE  GUIDE  TO  POLITE  SOCIETY. 


381 


at  the  altar  the  father  and  mother  stand  aside  and  the  groom  offers  his  reft  ^rm  to  the 
bride  and  take  their  places  at  the  center  of  the  altar. 

Sometimes  the  bride  and  groom  walk  arm  in  arm  behind  the  first  bridesmaid  and 
groomsman,  the  former  standing  to  the  right,  the  latter  to  the  left  to  leave  a space  for 
the  couple  at  the  altar. 

The  near  relatives  stand  in  a group  around  the  wedding  party,  or  are  seated  in  the 
pews. 

When  the  guests  are  all  seated  and  before  the  arrival  of  the  wedding  cortege,  the 
ushers  stretch  a white  ribbon  along  the  entrance  of  the  pews  on  either  side  of  the  aisle 
up  which  the  party  is  to  come,  to  inform  them  that  they  are  to  remain  in  their  places 
Until  the  ceremony  is  over,  and  the  cortege  has  passed  out.  Then  the  ribbon  is  removed, 
ind  the  ushers  announce  the  other  carriages. 

The  ushers  wear  a white  badge  upon  the  left  hand  lappel  of  the  coat. 

When  the  party  have  reached  the  house  of  the  bride’s  parents,  the  ushers  escort  the 
invited  guests  in  to  congratulate  the  newly  married  pair  and  introduce  any  who  may  not 
be  acquainted  with  both.  The  guests  use  well  chosen  words  in  congratulation.  Do  not 
feiake  the  mistake  of  wishing  either  party  many  happy  returns,  as  was  once  done. 

A supper  or  dinner  may  be  furnished  by  the  bride’s  parents,  but  should  not  be 
ieyond  the  easy  means  of  the  family. 

WEDDING  CAKE 

RIGINATED  from  a Latin  custom  of  furnishing  a cake  of  barley  or  wheat 
to  signify  the  close  conjunction  or  union  between  man  and  wife.  It  forms 
a conspicuous  part  of  the  wedding  entertainment,  and  pieces  are  provided 
in  white  paper  for  the  guests  to  take  home. 

WEDDING  CALLS. 

When  the  day  for  receiving  company  has  arrived,  the  friends  should  make  their  calls 
as  soon  as  possible,  within  two  or  three  weeks..  Cake  and  wine  may  be  served.  If 
business  engagements  prevent  the  young  husband  from  being  present,  some  gentleman 
friend  should  represent  him,  apologizing  for  his  absence,  or  if  not  a gentleman,  some 
lady  friend  of  the  bride,  not  leaving  her  alone  to  perform  this  duty. 


WEDDING  GIFTS: 

If  they  are  the  spontaneous  promptings  of  the  heart  they  have  a significance  of 
greater  value  than  money.  If  they  are  the  forced  demand  of  custom  they  are  to  be  re- 
gretted, for  the  day  of  reckoning  will  surely  come.  We  gladly  commend  the  custom, 
which  is  gaining  ground,  to  announce  in  the  invitations,  “ No  presents  received,  ” and 
advise  our  readers  to  adopt  it. 


THE  GUIDE  TO  POLITE  SOCIETY. 


832 


HUSBANDS  AND  WIVES. 

HUSBAND’S  duty  is  to  make  an  agreeable  and  attractive  home  for  his 
wife,  and  to  do  so  he  is  to  break  away  in  a measure  from  his  old  modes 
of  living.  No  one  who  fails  to  receive  a card  has  a right  to  call  after 
marriage,  because  the  man  has  assumed  new  responsibilities,  and  knows 
best  how  he  can  meet  them. 

The  young  husband  should  not  conceal  from  his  wife  the  condition  of  his  business 
and  expect  her  to  practice  economy  when  she  does  not  know  the  reason  therefor 

The  more  honorable  and  the  happier  way  to  do  is  to  inform  the  wife  just  what  the 
income  is  expected  to  be,  and  what  are  the  unavoidable  expenses,  and  together  plan  for 
the  disbursement  of  the  amount,  he  supplying  her  with  so  much  money  per  week  or 
month  for  the  house  and  giving  her  the  whole  management,  unless  she  asks  his  assist- 
ance. If  she  has  sense  enough  to  attract  you  for  a husband,  she  has  sense  enough  to  at- 
tend to  your  interests. 

Be  kind  and  patient  to  her  in  her  new  experience  oi  housekeeping.  Do  not  notice 
the  little  deficiences,  much  less  complain  of  them,  and  never  by  word  or  intimation  in- 
sinuate that  your  old  home  was  better  kept. 

Your  own  mother  had  the  same  experience  before  you  were  born.  Praise  your  wife 
and  encourage  her  in  all  her  duties.  Remember,  however  much  you  appreciate  her,  a 
word  of  that  appreciation  fitly  spoken,  makes  her  unusual  burden  lighter,  and  carries  a 
gleam  of  light  that  lasts  when  you  are  away  from  her  side.  Overpraise  never  kills,  but 
fretting  and  fault  finding  may  destroy  love. 

By  gentle  treatment,  courteous  bearing,  and  an  exhibition  ot  genuine  affection  teacn 
jr'our  wife  to  regard  you  as  a Prince  among  men. 

One  of  the  chief  duties  of  the  wife  is  to  make  the  house  the  most  attractive  place  in 
ill  the  world  to  her  husband,  a haven  of  rest  from  the  cares  and  perplexities  of  business  > 
i.nd  a home  in  every  sense  of  the  word,  where  the  wicked  can  not  come,  and  where  the 
sanctities  of  life  have  found  their  most  endearing  shrine. 

We  need  not  tell  any  sensible  woman  that  she  should  not  neglect  her  personal  ap- 
•jearance  and  dress  when  no  one  is  to  see  her  but  her  husband  ; that  his  taste  for  beauty 
“iiid  neatness  are  so  much  to  be  regarded  before  as  after  marriage. 

Why  does  it  matter  so  much  just  how  this  that  or  the  other  thing  is  placed  ? Is  not 
the  great  satisfaction  of  having  pleased  your  husband  better  than  the  feeling  of  having 
nad  your  own  way  at  the  expense  of  pain  to  him,  or  a slight  alienation  in  affection  that 
may  widen  into  an  irreparable  breach  ? Be  prompt  at  the  toilet,  the  table,  and  in  all  the 
duties  of  the  household 

Study  the  little  personal  peculiarities  of  your  husband,  and  conform  thereto. 

When  the  question  is  one  simply  of  taste  or  comfort,  always  yield  to  him  with  readi- 
ness. He  has  no  moral  right  to  dictate  in  matters  of  conscience  and  belief,  but  even 
‘■here  a quiet  demeanor,  and  gentle  passing  over  the  differences  of  opinion,  will  accorm 
nUsh  more  than  persistent  argument  and  debate.  Never  tease  him,  or  make  his  foibles 
ihe  subject  of  merriment  before  others. 


THE  ETIQUETTE  OF  THE  BALL  ROOM. 


383 


Yield  to  his  superior  judgment  in  matters  pertaining  to  business  life,  and  never  re- 
flect upon  his  not  trusting  your  advice,  even  when  afterwards  he  comes  to  see  his  mis- 
take. 

Never  compare  your  home  with  your  parents  with  that  to  which  he  has  brought 
you,  in  disparagement  to  the  latter.  Be  not  too  hasty  to  get  up  in  the  world,  but  appre- 
ciate all  your  husband  is  doing  for  your  comfort  and  mutual  advancement.  Defer  to  his 
wishes  in  all  your  social  relations  with  other  gentleman. 

Do  not  give  him  the  least  cause  to  think  that  relations  have  regretted  the  choice  you 
have  made. 

Never  take  part  in  the  first  quarrel  and  you  will  have  no  second  one. 


THE  ETIQUETTE  OF  THE  BALL  ROOM, 

PUBLIC  AND  PRIVATE,  WITH  FULL  INSTRUCTIONS. 


E directions  which  we  give  apply  to  private  dancing  parties,  as  well  as  to 
public  balls. 

The  lady  of  the  house  sends  the  invitation  in  her  own  name,  using 
small  note  paper  of  fine  quality.  If  printed  forms  are  most  desired  they 
can  usually  be  found  at  any  stationery  store  in  gold  or  silver.  It  is  proper 
to  use  gilt  edged,  but  not  colored  paper. 

A week  or  ten  days  before  the  ball  is  the  proper  time  to  send  out  the  invitations. 
The  person  receiving  one  should  reply  within  two  or  three  days  of  its  reception,  and 
should  address  the  lady  sending  it 

This  is  the  proper  form  to  be  employed : 

Mrs.  Peters  requests  the  honor  of  Col.  Brown  s company  at  an  evening  party,  on 

Wednesday,  May  the  ioth  inst. 

Dancing  will  commence  at  nine  o’clock, 

Thursday,  April  27th. 

And  this  is  the  reply . 

Col  Brown  has  much  pleasure  in  accepting  Mrs.  Peters’  polite  invitation  for  Wednesday 

evening,  May  the  ioth  inst. 

Friday,  April  28th 

There  should  be  a room  reserved  for  the  accommodation  of  ladies,  provided  with 
mirrors,  brushes.,  combs,  and  other  articles  used  in  the  toilet;  and  affording  ample  space 
for  the  deposit  of  outside  wraps. 


THE  ETIQUETTE  OF  THE  BALL  ROOM. 


A room  for  supplies  of  refreshment — coffee,  ices,  wines  and  lemonade — where  guests 
may  repair  at  any  time  during  the  evening.  If  this  is  not  done  then  pass  refreshments 
between  the  dancing. 

TOILET  FOR  THE  BALL  ROOM. 

Age,  wealth  and  fashion  must  decide  the  matters  of  dress.  The  fickle  goddess 
changes  so  suddenly  that  what  was  fashionable  to-day  may  be  altogether  different  to-mor- 
row. But  we  will  venture  to  throw  out  a few  general  hints  on  the  subject,  in  addition  to 
what  has  been  said  on  dress  in  another  place. 

Even  if  the  fashion  demands  long  trails,  ease  and  comfort  in  the  ball  room  suggest 
the  propriety  of  wearing  such  as  will  conduce  to  the  enjoyment  of  the  lady  and  others 
while  in  the  dance. 

Proper  coverings  for  the  hands  and  feet  are  indispensible.  Too  much  jewelry  is  in 
bad  taste,  but  flowers  are  always  attractive  to  any  lady. 

GENTLEMEN’S  DRESS.  . 

! 

A gentleman  should  wear  a simple  suit  in  good  taste  and  of  excellent  quality,  black 
enamelled  boots,  white  necktie,  white  or  delicate  light  colored  gloves,  a plain  or  embroid- 
ered shirt,  and  but  little  jewelry.  A watch  chain  with  charms,  and  small  but  rich  studs. 

ETIQUETTE  IN  THE  BALL  ROOM. 

First  pay  your  respects  to  the  hostess,  then  salute  such  acquaintances  as  are  present. 

At  a public  ball  the  gentleman  must  ask  the  committee  to  introduce  him  to  any 
strange  lady  with  whom  he  wishes  to  dance. 

No  gentleman,  at  any  time,  must  ask  a lady  to  whom  he  has  never  been  introduced 
to  dance  with  him,  nor  will  a lady  dance  with  a gentleman  under  the  circumstances. 

At  a private  party  the  guarantee  of  the  host  and  hostess  is  sufficient  to  establish  the 
respectability  of  all  the  guests.  The  mere  gathering  of  the  company  in  the  home  of 
their  host  is  a kind  of  general  introduction. 

A gentleman  should  not  presume  upon  the  introduction  in  a ball  room  to  claim  ac- 
quaintance with  a lady  unless  she  chooses  to  recognize  him  first. 

No  gentleman  would  accept  an  invitation  to  a ball  if  he  is  unable  to  dance.  It  is  a 
breach  of  etiquette  to  attempt  to  dance  when  he  does  not  understand  how,  as  well  as  an 
insult  to  his  partner.  Neither  gentleman  nor  lady  ought  to  place  a partner  under  such 
embarrassment.  Never  forget  the  engagement  made  in  the  ball  room. 

The  gentleman  bows  to  his  partner  at  the  conclusion  of  the  dance,  and  escorts  her 
to  a seat  or  offers  to  conduct  her  to  the  refreshment  room.  No  gentleman  will  suffer  a 
lady  to  pay  for  any  refreshment,  but  no  lady  will  accept  these  attentions  from  a stranger. 

It  is  not  regarded  as  good  taste  to  dance  too  often  with  the  same  lady  at  the  same 
entertainment. 

If  by  any  chance  a lady  should  stand  up  with  a partner,  having  forgotten  a previous 
engagement,  the  gentleman  making  the  engagement  is  bound  to  consider  it  uninten- 
tional, and  never  allow  his  sensitive  pride  to  get  the  advantage  of  his  better  judgment. 


THE  ETIQUETTE  OF  THE  BALL  ROOM. 


885 


Avoid  any  scene  in  the  presence  of  guests,  or  of  your  host  and  hostess. 

Remember  that  gentility  and  good  temper  always  go  hand  in  hand. 

Let  your  conversation  be  sprightly  and  interesting,  not  confined  to  the  topic  of  ihm 
weather,  while  conversing  with  your  partner. 

Take  proper  care  not  to  injure  the  dress  of  your  partner. 

Do  not  attempt  to  take  the  place  appropriated  to  another  in  a dance. 

Reconduct  your  last  partner  to  the  supper  room  and  escort  her  back  to  the  ball-room. 
From  eighteen  to  twenty-one  dances  are  enough  for  an  evening’s  entertainment, 
having  a recess  for  supper  after  the  twelfth  dance. 

The  following  arrangements  of  dances  and  engagements  is  a good  guide : 


PROGRAMME. 


ENGAGEMENTS. 


I 

Quadrille. 

2 

Waltz. 

3 

Quadrille. 

4 

Waltz. 

5 

Lancers. 

b 

Galop. 

<7 

Quadrille. 

8 

Waltz. 

9 

Quadrille. 

*0 

Waltz. 

si 

Quadrille. 

12 

Waltz. 

<3 

Lancers. 

*4 

Galop. 

5=5 

Quadrille. 

16 

Waltz. 

17 

Quadrille 

18 

Waltz. 

19 

Lancers. 

20 

Galop. 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

io 

n 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 


At  public  balls,  a floor  committee,  distinguished  by  a badge  they  wear,  have  charge 
of  the  arrangements,  and  gentlemen  wishing  to  dance  apply  to  them  for  introductions  to 
’ady  partners. 

QUADRILLE. 


The  most  popular  and  by  far  the  most  sociable  of  all  the  dances  in  vogue  at  the 
present  day,  is  the  Quadrille.  It  is  suited  to  all  ages,  permits  frequent  interchange  of 
partners  and  gives  opportunity  for  interesting  conversation  among  partners. 

Each  one  is  free  to  a certain  extent  in  his  movements,  and  an  occasional  mistake  is 
less  observable  in  this  than  any  other  dance.  The  gentleman  and  lady  are  not  forced  by 
the  partner  to  dance  otherwise  than  is  convenient.  A graceful  carriage,  a good  ear  for 
time,  and  a knowledge  of  the  figure  are  the  prerequisites  for  good  quadrille  dancing. 

An  elegant  walk  is  permitted  without  attention  to  the  steps. 

When  a gentleman  has  engaged  a lady  for  a quadrille,  he  should  try  to  have  a friend 
or  acquaintance  as  his  opposite,  and  if  the  post  of  honor  at  the  head  of  the  set  be  still 
vacant,  conduct  his  lady  there,  always  placing  her  at  his  right. 

You  would  do  well  not  to  burden  the  memory  with  too  many  figures,  but  learn  a 
few  which  are  most  practical. 


THE  FLORAL  REALM 

AND 

DICTIONARY  OF  FLOWERS. 

LANGUAGE  AND  SENTIMENT  OF  FLOWERS. 


the  economy  of  Nature,  where  nothing  has  been  created  in  vain,  flow* 
ers  have  their  office  of  beauty  and  refinement.  They  appeal  to  the 
finest  sensibilities  of  our  nature,  and  while  they  gladden  the  eye 
with  their  beauty  they  impress  the  heart  with  sweet  lessons  of  love  and 
wisdom.  The  prattling  child,  unable  to  tell  the  reason  of  his  happiness, 
laughs  in  very  glee  amid  the  opening  blossoms  of  spring,  while  drinking  in  their  beauty 
and  fragrance.  The  youthful  lover  with  timid  hands  plucks  the  modest  garland  to  give 
to  his  “ ladie  faire  ” that  it  may  speak  to  her  the  tender  message  which  he  dare  not  trust 
his  tongue  to  utter. 

The  wreath  of  flowers  offers  its  incense  of  fragrant  loveliness  at  the  shrine  when 
bridal  vows  are  plighted.  The  wealth  of  spring  is  poured  with  lavish  love  by  a grateful 
nation  upon  the  graves  of  its  hero  dead. 

The  homes  of  rich  and  poor  alike  may  share  in  the  beautiful  gift  which  nature 
strews  broadcast  through  forest  and  field.  They  add  new  grace  to  the  charms  of  female 
loveliness,  and  deck  the  triumphant  battle  flags  of  returning  heroes.  They  nestle  in  the 
cradle  of  the  innocent  babe,  and  hallow  the  chamber  of  the  aged  pilgrim.  They  speak 
of  hope  and  love  at  the  bridal,  and  teach  faith  in  immortality  at  the  graves  of  our  dead. 
Everywhere  their  forms  of  beauty,  and  the  perfume  of  their  fragrance  reach  the  senses 
of  humanity  and  teach  the  heart  that  “ God  is  good.” 

The  Eastern  nations  spoke  a language  rich  in  abundant  metaphor  and  striking 
simile,  and  with  all  this  wealth  of  expression  in  speech  they  were  the  first  to  catch  the 
idea  that  flowers  could  be  made  to  utter  the  sentiments  of  human  passion  and  love,  with  a 
tenderness  and  refinement  unknown  to  tongue  or  pen.  It  was  from  them  that  the  language 
of  buds  and  blossoms  first  came.  The  sighing  swain  and  modest  maiden  whose  mother 
tongue  was  Anglo  Saxon,  is  indebted  to  the  gifted  Lady  Mary  Wortley  Montague  for 
the  knowledge  of  how  the  tender  lovers  of  the  Orient  had  given  a mute  language  to  the 
i flowers,  and  compelled  the  fragrant  boquette  to  bear  its  message  of  love  to  the  happy 
recipient.  She  taught  them  how  to  convey  the  various  expressions  of  thought  without 
a written  or  spoken  word,  and  showed  them  how  to  transmit  letters  of  passion,  friend* 
ship,  courtesy,  or  even  information  without  using  paper  or  pen. 


THE 


THE  LANGUAGE  AND  SENTIMENT  OF  FLOWERS. 


387 


THE  ROSE,  THE  QUEEN  OF  FLOWERS. — In  that  realm  of  beauty  whose 
loveliness  appeals  to  the  heart  through  the  eye  and  where  the  incense  of  fragrant  perfume 
arises  to  bless  the  air,  the  rose  reigns  without  a rival.  Whether  it  decks  the  wilderness 
with  its  variegated  colors  or  blossoms  in  the  gardens  of  the  wealthy,  in  its  wild  or  culti- 
vated condition,  it  is  alike  the  peerless  beauty  and  the  unrivaled  gem  of  them  all.  The 
richness  of  color  from  the  heavy  damask,  the  deep  red,  the  maiden’s  blush,  the  yel- 
low and  the  pure  white,  unites  with  the  exquisite  perfume  which  it  breathes  upon  the 
senses  to  compel  the  adoration  of  every  lover  of  the  beautiful.  The  ancients  regarded  it 
with  especial  favor,  and  acknowledged  its  right  to  royalty  by  giving  it  the  power  to  com- 
pel secrecy  upon  all  who  came  beneath  its  sway.  They  suspended  the  rose  in  their  hall 
of  council  and  entertainment,  to  denote  that  whatever  was  said  or  done  therein  was  to 
be  kept  inviolably  secret.  The  Eastern  nations  gave  it  a prominent  place  in  their  poetry, 
and  made  it  the  symbol  of  the  highest  type  of  beauty,  and  in  the  language  of  sentiment 
it  tells  of  the  ruling  passion  which  sways  human  hearts,  that  of  love.  There  is  a legend 
that  when  the  Queen  of  the  Fairies  would  bestow  upon  each  flower  some  new  grace  to 
increase  its  loveliness,  she  found  that  she  could  add  nothing  to  that  of  the  rose,  which 
she  held  in  her  hand,  and  laying  it  aside  upon  the  moss  clad  throne  upon  which  she  sat, 
some  of  the  moss  adhered  to  the  tender  leaves  still  wet  with  dew,  and  thus  there  were 
the  new  variety  of  the  moss  rose,  combining  the  regal  beauty  of  queen  with  the  humility 
of  the  least  of  her  subjects.  Thus  the  delicate  loveliness  of  the  rose  blended  with  ver- 
dure of  the  moss  to  create  the  perfect  union  of  beauty  in  humility,  the  rarest  type  of 
exquisite  perfection.  The  Rose,  still  peerless  and  unrivaled,  has  been  the  theme  of  the 
poet’s  fancy,  the  symbol  of  inspired  truth,  and  the  subject  of  the  painter’s  brush.  Be- 
neath its  emblem,  female  charms  have  held  their  sway,  and  under  the  rival  standards  of 
the  Roses  of  York  and  Lancaster,  brave  men  have  dared  to  contend  and  meet  death  with 
undaunted  courage, 

THE  LANGUAGE  OF  FLOWERS. — Quite  an  extended  correspondence  might 
be  carried  on  by  the  use  of  buds  and  blossoms  between  absent  friends,  each  combining 
the  different  flowers  which  convey  the  sentiments  desired,  into  a bouquet,  and  sending  it 
to  the  other.  For  example,  if  one  wishes  to  convey  to  a lady  the  following : 

MESSAGE:  “You  are  pure  and  lovely.  I dare  confess  my  love  for  you,  and 
think  myself  worthy  of  you.  Let  the  bonds  of  wedlock  unite  us.  I offer  you  my  all.” 

Flowers  Required. 

Red  Rosebud. — Pure  and  lovely . 

Moss  Rosebud. — Confession  of  love. 

White  Rose. — lam  worthy  of  you. 

White  and  Red  Rose  together. — Unity . 

Shepherd’s  Purse. — I offer  you  my  all. 

ANSWER  : “I  partake  your  sentiment,  and  will  consider  your  offer.  Your  love 
is  returned.” 

Flowers  Required. 

Garden  Daisy. — I share  your  sentiment. 

Wild  Daisy. — I will  think  of  it. 

Ambrosia. — Love  returned. 


388 


THE  LANGUAGE  AND  SENTIMENT  OF  FLOWERS. 


MODIFIED  SIGNIFICATION. — When  the  natural  position  of  the  bud  or  blos- 
som is  reversed  it  has  the  opposite  meaning  from  its  original  one. 

Divesting  a rosebud  of  its  thorns  while  the  leaves  are  left  intact,  would  express  the 
sentiment,  “ I no  longer  fear  but  hope,”  the  first  signifying  lear  and  the  last  hope.  When 
both  the  thorns  and  leaves  are  removed,  the  language  implied  is,  " there  is  nothing  either 
to  fear  or  to  hope.” 

The  position  in  which  the  flower  is  placed  also  has  its  peculiar  signification,  for  in- 
stance, the  marigold  placed  on  the  head  conveys  the  sentiment,  “ mental  anguish,”  on  the 
breast,  “ Indifferent.” 

When  the  flower  is  bent  to  the  right  hand  the  language  applies  to  the  person  giving 
it,  but  when  to  the  left,  to  the  person  receiving  ; for  example,  if  a gentleman  hands  a 
mountain  pink  to  a lady,  with  the  flower  bent  to  the  right,  it  would  signify,  “ I am  aspir. 
ing  ; ” if  bent  to  the  left,  “you  are  aspiring.” 

To  touch  the  lips  to  the  flower  means  “ Yes.” 

To  pinch  a petal  and  throw  it  aside  signifies  “ No.” 

Twisting  a laurel  leaf  about  a bouquet  significes  u I am.” 

An  ivy  leaf  folded  together,  “ I have.” 

The  leaf  of  a Virginia  creeper,  “ I offer  you.” 

SWEET  V?EAS. 

* * * * * But  who  can  paint 
Like  Nature  ? Can  imagination  boast 
Amid  its  gay  creation,  tints  like  hers. 

Or  can  it  mix  them  with  that  matchless  skill 
And  lose  them  in  each  other,  as  appears 
In  every  bud  that  blows  ? If  fancy  then 
Unequal  fails  beneath  the  pleasing  task 
Ah  ! what  can  language  do  ? 

—Thompson’s  Seasons. 

This  humble  flower,  so  common  in  all  our  gardens,  speaks  to  us  of  “ Delicate 
Erasure, ” and  reminds  us  that  we  need  not  soar  too  high  in  our  search  for  the 
things  that  make  our  lives  happy  and  pleasurable. 

It  is  the  fitting  emblem  of  that  ethereal . ecstacy  which  fills  the  soul  with  an  ex- 
quisite delight  and  warns  her,  that  the  sweetest  joys  of  earth  are  short  lived  and  transitory, 
and  in  the  innocent  enjoyment  of  them  she  should  not  forget  that  “ we  all  do  fade  as  a 
leaf.” 

Flowers  are  their  own  interpreters  and  speak  a universal  language.  The  blind  lady  ■ 
in  one  ot  the  historic  towns  of  Connecticut,  who  thought  that  the  flowers  talked  to  her, 
was  not  far  away  from  the  truth  after  all.  If  they  had  been  neglected  she  said,  “ they 
would  plead  with  her  in  plaintive  tones  for  water  and  care.”  If  they  had  been  tenderly 
cared  for,  she  said  that  she  could  hear  them  laugh  and  sing  as  they  thanked  her  in  joyous 
language. 

Was  it  all  a fancy  ? If  so,  it  was  at  least  a pretty  one,  and  as  I have  heard  her  chat- 
ting away  to  the  flowers  when  she  was  alone  with  them,  and  she  seemed  to  converse  with 
some  unseen  friend,  I could  but  think  that  the  blind  have  eyes  we  know  not  of  How 
many  go  through  life  as  in  a blind  show,  careless  of  the  forms  of  life  and  beauty  ail  around 


THE  LANGUAGE  AND  SENTIMENT  OF  FLOWERS. 


m 


them.  Nature  will  continue  to  sing  her  songs  of  praise,  and  hope  from  the  thousands  of 
winged  creatures  in  the  air,  in  the  winds  that  move,  the  waving  trees  and  rustling  grains 
in  the  running  streamlet  and  the  heavy  cascade,  she  will  paint  with  matchless  colors  the 
clouds  which  skirt  the  western  sky,  the  bow  that  hangs  upon  the  summer  shower,  and 
the  delicate  petals  of  the  flowery  world,  but  mortal  ears  are  dull  and  human  eyes  are  holden 
so  that  they  fail  to  see  and  hear  what  is  all  around  them.  “ Flowers  bloom  best  in  the 
gardens  of  those  who  love  them,”  is  a sentiment  from  the  pen  of  one  of  England’s 
greatest  writers. 

The  heart  that  is  susceptible  to  the  gentle  influences  which  come  from  their  beauty 
and  which  feels  their  power  is  in  tune  with  the  deep  under  tones  of  nature  and  alive  to 
the  tenderest  emotions  which  sway  our  hearts.  Their  unrivaled  tints,  delicate 
perfume  and  exquisite  forms  all  speak  to  the  eye  and  tell  the  soul  that, 

“ A thing  of  beauty  is  a joy  forever.” 

DICTIONARY  OF  FLOWERS. 


Abecedary — Volubility. 

Abatina — Fickleness. 

Acacia — F riendship. 

Acanthus — The  fine  arts,  artifice. 
Acalia — T emperance . 

Aconite,  Crowfoot — Luster. 
Adonis,  Flos — Sad  memories. 
African  Marigold — Vulgar  minds. 
Almond  (flowering) — Hope. 
Almond,  Laurel — Perfidy. 

Allspice — Compassion. 

Aloe — Grief,  religious  superstition. 
Alyssum  (sweet) — Worth  beyond 
beauty. 

Amaranth  (globe) — Immortality, 
unfading  love. 

Amaryllis — Pride,  timidity,  splen- 
did beauty. 

Ambrosia — Love  returned. 
American  Cowslip — Divine  beauty. 
American  Elm — Patriotism. 
American  Linden — Matrimony. 
American  Starwort — Welcome  to 
a stranger, 

Amethyst — Admiration. 
Andromeda — Self-sacrifice. 
Anemone  (garden) — Forsaken. 
Angelica — Inspiration,  or  magic. 
Angrec — Royalty. 

Apricot  (blossom) — Doubt. 

Apple  (blossom) — Preference. 
Apple,  Thorn — Deceitful  charms. 
Apocynum — Deceit. 

Arbor  Vitae— Unchanging  friend- 
ship. 

Arum  (Wake  Robin) — Ardor,  zeal. 
Ash-leaved  Trumpet-flower — Sep- 
aration. 

Ash  Tree — Grandeur. 


Aspen  Tree — Lamentation,  or  fear. 
Aster  (China) — Variety,  after- 
thought. 

Asphodel — My  regrets  follow  you. 
Auricula,  scarlet — Avarice. 
Austurtium — Splendor. 

Azalea — T emperance. 

Bachelor’s  Buttons — Celibacy. 
Balm — Sympathy. 

Balm,  gentle — Pleasantry. 

Balm  of  Gilead — Cure,  relief. 
Balsam,  red — Touch  me  not. 
Balsam,  yellow — Impatience. 
Barberry — Sharpness  of  temper. 
Basil — Hatred. 

Bay  leaf — I change  but  in  death. 
Bay  Wreath — Reward  of  merit. 
Bearded  Crepis — Protection. 

Beech  Tree — Prosperity. 

Bee  Orchis — Industry. 

Bee  Ophrys — Error. 

Begonia — Deformity. 

Belladonna — Silence,  hush  ! 

Bell  Flower — Constancy. 

Belvedere — I declare  against  yuu. 
Betony — Surprise. 

Bilberry — T reachery. 

Bindweed,  great — Insinuation,  im- 
portunity. 

Bindweed,  small — Humility. 

Birch — Meekness. 

Birdsfoot,  Trefoil — Revenge. 
Bittersweet — T ruth. 

Black  Poplar — Courage. 
Blackthorn — Difficulty. 

Bladder  Nut  Tree  — Frivolity, 
Amusement. 

Bluebottle — Delicacy. 


Bluebell — Constancy,  regret. 
Bonus  Henricus — Goodness. 
Borage — Bluntness. 

Box  Tree — Stoicism. 

Bramble — Lowliness,  envy. 

Branch  of  Currants — You  please 
all 

Branch  of  Thorns — Severity,  rigor. 
Bridal  Rose — Happy  love. 

Broom-  Humility,  Neatness. 
Browallia  Jamisonii — Could  you 
bear  poverty  ? 

Buckbean — Calm  repose. 

Buglos — F alsehood . 

Bulrush. — Indiscretion,  docility. 
Burdock — I mportunity. 

Burr — Rudeness,  you  weary  me. 
Buttercup — Ingratitude,  childish- 
ness. 

Butterfly  Orchis — Gayety. 

Butterfly  Weed — Let  me  go. 

Cacalia — Adulation. 

Cactus — W armth. 

Calla  ^Ethiopica  — Magnificent 
beauty. 

Calceolaria — I offer  you  my  for- 
tune. 

Calycanthus — Benevolence. 
Camelia  Japonica,  red  — Unpre- 
tending excellence. 

Camelia  Japonica — Perfected  love- 
liness. 

Camomile — Energy  in  adversity. 

C ampanula  Pyramida — Aspiring. 
Canary  Grass — Perseverance. 
Canterbury  Bell  — Acknowledg- 
ment. 

Cardamine — Paternal  error. 


390 


THE  LANGUAGE  AND  SENTIMENT  OF  FLOWERS. 


Carnation,  deep  red— Alas  ! for  my 
poor  heart. 

Carnation,  striped — Refusal. 
Carnation,  yellow — Disdain. 
Cardinal  Flower — Distinction. 
Catchfly — Snare. 

Catchfly,  red — Youthful  love. 
Catchfly,  white — Betrayed. 

Cattleya — Mature  charms. 

Cedar — Strength. 

Cedar  of  Lebanon — Incorruptible. 
Cedar  Leaf — I live  for  thee. 
Celandine,  lesser — -Joys  to  come. 
Cereus,  creeping — Modest  genius. 
Centaury — D elicacy . 

Champignon — Suspicion. 
Checkered  Fritillary — Persecution. 
Chestnut  Tree — Do  me  justice. 
Chinese  Primrose — Lasting  love. 
Chickweed — Rendezvous. 

Chicory — F rugality. 

China  Aster — Variety. 

China  Rose  — Beauty  always 
new. 

Christmas  Rose  — Relieve  my 
anxiety. 

Chrysanthemum,  red — I love. 
Chrysanthemum,  white — Truth. 
Chrysanthemum,  yellow — Slighted 
love. 

Cineraria — Always  delightful. 
Cinquefoil — Maternal  affection. 
Circaea — Spell. 

Cistus,  gum — I shall  die  to-mor- 
row. 

Citron — Ill-natured  beauty. 
Clematis — Mental  beauty. 

Clematis,  evergreen — Poverty. 
Clianthus — W orldliness. 

Clotbur — Rudeness,  pertinacity. 
Cloves — Dignity. 

Clover,  four-leaved — Be  mine. 
Clover,  red — Industry. 

Clover,  white — Think  of  me. 
Cobaea — Gossip. 

Cockscomb,  Amaranth — F oppery, 
affectation. 

Coltsfoot — Justice  shall  be  done. 
Columbine — F oily. 

Columbine,  purple — Resolved  to 
win. 

Columbine,  red  — Anxious  and 
trembling. 

Convolvulus — Bonds. 

Corchorus — Impatient  of  absence. 
Coreopsis — Always  cheerful. 
Coreopsis  Arkansa — Love  at  first 
sight. 

Coriander — Hidden  worth. 

Corn — Riches. 

Corn,  broken — Quarrel. 

Corn  Straw — Agreement.. 

Corn  Bottle — Delicacy. 

Corn  Cockle — Gentility. 

Cornel  Tree — Duration. 


Coronella — Success  crown  your 
wishes. 

Cosmelia  Subra — The  charm  of  a 
blush. 

Cowslip — Winning. 

Cowslip,  American — Divine  beauty. 
Crab,  blossom — Ill-natured. 
Cranberry — Cure  for  heart-ache. 
Creeping  Cereus — Horror. 

Cress — Stability,  power. 

Crocus — Abuse  not. 

Crocus,  Spring — Youthful  glad- 
ness. 

Crocus,  Saffron — Mirth. 

Crown,  Imperial — Majesty,  power. 
Crowsbill — Envy. 

Crowfoot — Ingratitude. 

Cuckoo  Plant — Ardor. 

Cudweed  — Unceasing  remem- 
brance. 

Currant — Thy  frown  will  kill  me. 
Cuscuta — Meanness. 

Cyclamen — Diffidence. 

Cypress — Death,  mourning. 

Daffodil — Regard. 

Dahlia — Instability. 

Daisy — Innocence. 

Daisy,  garden — I share  your  senti- 
ments. 

Daisy,  Michaelmas — Farewell. 
Daisy,  party-colored — Beauty. 
Daisy,  wild — I will  think  of  it. 
Dandelion — Rustic  oracle. 

Daphne — Glory,  Immortality. 
Daphne  Odora — Painting  the  lily. 
Darnel — Vice. 

Dead  Leaves — Sadness. 

Dew  Plant — A serenade. 

Dianthus — Make  haste. 

Diosma  — Your  simple  elegance 
charms  me. 

Dittany  of  Crete — Birth. 

Dittany  of  Crete,  white — Passion. 
Dock — Patience. 

Dodder  of  Thyme — Baseness. 
Dogwood — Durability. 

Dragon  Plant — Snare. 

Dragon  wort — H orror. 

Ebony  Tree — Blackness. 

Elder — Zealousness. 

Elm — Dignity. 

Endive — F rugality. 

Everflowering  Candytuft — Indiff- 
erence. 

Everlasting  — Undying  remem- 
brance. 

Everlasting  Pea — Lasting  pleasure. 

Fennel — Worthy  all  praise. 

Fern — Fascination,  sincerity. 
Ficoides,  Ice  Plant — Your  looks 
freeze  me. 

Fig — Argument. 


Fig  Marigold — Idleness. 

F ilbert — Reconciliation. 

Fir — Time. 

Fir  Tree — Elevation. 

Flax — Domestic  industry. 
Flax-leaved  Golden-locks — Tardi- 
ness. 

Fleur-de-lis — Flame,  I burn. 

F leur-de-Luce — F ire. 

Flowering  Fern — Reverie. 

Flower  - of  - an  - Hour  — Delicate 
beauty. 

Fly  Orchis — Error. 

Flytrap — Deceit. 

Fool’s  Parsley — Silliness. 
Forget-Me-Not — True  love. 

F oxglove — Insincerity. 

Foxtail  Grass — Sporting. 
Franciscea  Latifolia — Beware  of 
false  friends. 

French  Marigold — Jealousy. 
French  Willow  — Bravery  and 
humanity. 

Frog  Ophrys — Disgust. 

Fuller’s  Teasel — Misanthropy. 

F umitory — Spleen. 

Fuchsia,  scarlet — Taste. 

Garden  Chervil — Sincerity. 
Garden  Marigold — Uneasiness. 
Gardenia — Refinement. 

Germander  Speedwell — Facility. 
Geranium,  dark — Melancholy. 
Geranium,  Horse-shoe — Stupidity 
Geranium,  Ivy — Bridal  favor. 
Geranium,  Lemon — Unexpected 
meeting. 

Geranium,  Nutmeg  — Expected 
meeting. 

Geranium,  Oak  - leaved  — True 
friendship. 

Geranium,  Penciled — Ingenuity. 
Geranium,  Rose — Preference. 
Geranium,  scarlet — Comforting. 
Geranium,  Silver — Recall. 
Geranium,  wild — Steadfast  piety. 
Gillyflower — Bonds  of  affection. 
Gladioli — Ready  armed. 

Glory  Flower — Glorious  beauty. 
Goat’s  Rue — Reason. 

Golden  Rod — Precaution. 
Gooseberry — Anticipation. 

Gourd — Extent,  bulk. 

Grape,  wild — Charity. 

Grass — Submission,  utility. 

Hand  Flower  Tree — Warning, 
Harebell — Submission,  grief. 
Hawkweed — Quicksightedness. 
Hawthorn — Hope. 

Hazel — Reconciliation. 

Heath — Solitude. 

Helenium — Tears. 

Heliotrope — Devotion. 

Hellebore — Scandal,  calumny. 


THE  LANGUAGE  AND  SENTIMENT  OF  FLOWERS. 


391 


Hemlock — You  will  be  my  death. 
Hemp — Fate. 

Henbane — Imperfection. 

Hepatica — Confidence. 

Hibiscus — Delicate  beauty. 

Holly — F oresight. 

Holly  Herb — Enchantment. 
Hollyhock — Ambition,  fecundity. 
Honesty — Honesty,  fascination. 
Honey  Flower — Love  sweet  and 
secret. 

Honeysuckle— Generous  affection. 
Honeysuckle  (Coral) — The  color 
of  my  fate. 

Honeysuckle  (French)  — Rustic 
beauty. 

Hop — Injustice. 

Hornbeam — Ornament. 

Horse  Chestnut — Luxury. 
Hortensia — You  are  cold. 
Houseleek — Vivacity,  domestic  in- 
dustry. 

Houstonia — Content. 

Hoya — Sculpture. 

Hoyabella — Contentment. 

Humble  Plant — Despondency. 
Hyacinth — Sport,  game,  play. 
Hyacinth,  purple — Sorrowful. 
Hyacinth,  white  — Unobtrusive 
loveliness. 

Hydrangea — A boaster. 

Hyssop — Cleanliness. 

Iceland  Moss— Health. 

Ice  Plant — Your  looks  freeze  me. 

I mbricata — U pr  ightness . 

Imperial  Montague — Power. 

Indian  Cress — Warlike  trophy. 
Indian  Pink,  double — Always  love- 

. *y- 

Iris — Message. 

Iris,  German — Flame. 

Ivy — Friendship,  fidelity,  marriage. 
Ivy,  sprig  of — Assiduous  to  please. 

Jacob’s  LADDER~-Come  down. 

J asmine — Amiability. 

Jasmine,  Cape — Transport  of  joy. 
Jasmine,  Carolina — Separation. 
Jasmine,  Indian — I attach  myself 
to  you. 

Jasmine,  Spanish — Sensuality. 
Jasmine,  yellow — Grace  and  ele- 
gance. 

Jonquil — I desire  a return  of  affec- 
tion. 

Judas  Tree — Unbelief,  betrayal. 
Juniper — Succor,  protection. 
Justicia — The  perfection  of  female 
loveliness. 

Kennedia — Mental  beauty. 
King-cups — Desire  of  riches. 

Laburnum — Forsaken. 


Lady’s  Slipper — Capricious  beauty. 
Lantana — Rigor. 

Larch — Audacity,  boldness. 
Larkspur — Lightness,  levity. 
Larkspur,  pink — Fickleness. 
Larkspur,  purple — Haughtiness. 
Laurel — Glory. 

Laurel,  common — Perfidy. 

Laurel,  Ground — Perseverance. 
Laurel,  Mountain — Ambition. 
Laurestina — A token. 

Lavender — Distrust. 

Lemon — Zest. 

Lemon  Blossoms — Fidelity  in  love. 
Lettuce — Cold-heartedness. 

Lichen — Dejection,  solitude. 

Lilac,  field — Humility. 

Lilac,  purple — first  emotion  of  love. 
Lilac,  white — Youthful  innocence. 
Lily,  Day — Coquetry. 

Lily,  Imperial — Majesty. 

Lily,  white — Purity,  sweetness. 
Lily,  yellow — Falsehood,  gaiety. 
Lily  of  the  Valley — Return  of  hap- 
piness. 

Linden  or  Lime  Trees — Conjugal 
love. 

Lint — I feel  my  obligations. 

Live  Oak — Liberty. 

Liverwort — Confidence. 

Liquorice,  wild — I declare  against 
you. 

Lobelia — Malevolence. 

Locust  Tree — Elegance. 

“ “ green — Affection  be- 

yond the  grave. 

London  Pride — Frivolity. 

Lote  Tree — Concord. 

Lotus — Eloquence. 

Lotus  Flower — Estranged  love. 
Lotus  Leaf — Recantation. 
f Love  in  a Mist — Perplexity, 

Love  lies  Bleeding — Hopeless,  not 
heartless. 

Lucern — Life. 

Lupine — V oraciousness. 

Madder — Calumny. 

Magnolia — Love  of  Nature. 
Mallow — Mildness. 

Mallow,  Marsh — Beneficence. 
Mallow,  Syrian  — Consumed  by 
love. 

Mallow,  Venetian — Delicate  beau- 
ty. 

Mandrake — Horror. 

Maple — Reserve. 

Marianthus — Hope  for  better  days. 
Marigold — Grief. 

Marigold,  African — Vulgar  minds. 
Marigold,  French — Jealousy. 
Marigold,  Prophetic — Prediction. 
Marigold  and  Cypress — Despair. 
Marjoram — Blushes. 

I Marvel  of  Peru — Timidity. 


Meadow  Lychnis — Wit. 

Meadow  Saffron — My  best  days 
are  past. 

Meadowsweet — Uselessness. 
Mercury — Goodness. 

Mezereon — Desire  to  please. 
Mignonette — Your  qualities  sur- 
pass your  charms. 

Milfoil — War. 

Milkvetch — Your  presence  softens 
my  pains. 

Milkwort — Hermitage. 

Mint — Virtue. 

Mistletoe — I surmount  difficulties. 
Mock  Orange — Counterfeit. 
Monkshood — A deadly  foe  is  near. 
Moonwort — F orgetfulness. 
Morning  Glory — Affectation. 
Moschatel— W eakness. 

Moss — Maternal  love. 

Messes — Ennui. 

Mossy  Saxifrage — Affection. 
Motherwort — Concealed  love. 
Mountain  Ash — Prudence. 
Mourning  Bride — Unfortunate  at- 
tachment. 

Moving  Plant — Agitation. 
Mudwort — Happiness,  tranquillity. 
Mulberry  Tree,  black — I shall  not 
survive  you. 

Mulberry  Tree,  white — Wisdom. 
Mushroom — Suspicion. 

Musk  Plant — Weakness. 

Mustard  Seed — Indifference. 
Myrrh — Glad  ness. 

Myrtle — Love. 

Narcissus — Egotism. 

N asturtium — Patriotism. 

Nettle,  common  stinging — You  are 
spiteful. 

Nettle,  burning — Slander. 

Nettle  Tree — Conceit. 
Night-blooming  Cereus  — Tran- 
sient beauty. 

Night  Convolvulus — Night. 

N ightshade — F alsehood. 

Oak  Leaves — Bravery. 

Oak  Tree — Hospitality. 

Oak,  white — Independence. 

Oats — The  soul  of  music. 

Oleander — Beware. 

Olive — Peace. 

Orange  Blossoms  — Your  purity 
equals  your  loveliness. 

Orange  Flowers — Chastity,  bridal 
festivities. 

Orange  Tree — Generosity. 

Orchis — A belle. 

Osier — F rankness. 

Ox  Eye — Patience. 

Palm — Victory. 

Pansy — Thoughts. 


393 


THE  LANGUAGE  AND  SENTIMENT  OF  FLOWERS. 


Parsley — F estivity. 

Pasque  Flower  — You  have  no 
claims. 

Passion  Flower — Religious  Super- 
stition, when  the  flower  is 
reversed,  or  Faith  if  erect. 
Patience  Dock — Patience. 

Pea,  Sweet — Departure. 

Peach — Your  qualities,  like  your 
charms,  are  unequaled. 

Peach  Blossom — I am  your  cap- 
tive. 

Pear — Affection. 

Pear  Tree — Comfort. 

Pennyroyal — Flee  away. 

Peony — Shame,  bashfulness. 
Peppermint — Warmth  of  feeling. 
Periwinkle,  blue — Early  friendship. 
Periwinkle,  white — Pleasures  of 
memory. 

Persicaria — R estoration. 
Persimmon — Bury  me  amid  Na- 
ture’s beauties. 

Petunia — Your  presence  soothes. 
Pheasant’s  Eye — Remembrance. 
Phlox — U nanimity . 

Pigeon  Berry — Indifference. 
Pimerpnel — Change,  assignation. 
Pine — Pity. 

Pine-apple — You  are  perfect. 

Pine,  Pitch — Philosophy. 

Pine,  Spruce — Hope  in  adversity. 
Pink — Boldness. 

Pink,  Carnation — Woman’s  love. 
Pink,  Indian,  double  — Always 
lovely. 

Pink,  Indian,  single — Aversion. 
Pink,  Mountain — Aspiring. 

Pink,  red,  double — Pure  and  ar- 
dent love. 

Pink,  single — Pure  love. 

Pink,  variegated — Refusal. 

Pink,  white — Ingeniousness,  talent. 
Plantain — White  man’s  footsteps. 
Plane  Tree — Genius. 

Plum,  Indian — Privation. 

Plum  Tree — Fidelity. 

Plum,  wild — Independence. 
Plumbago  Larpenta — Holy  wishes. 
Polyanthus — Pride  of  riches. 
Polyanthus,  crimson — The  heart’s 
mystery. 

Polyanthus,  lilac — Confidence. 
Pomegranate — F oolishness. 
Pomegranate  Flower — Mature  ele- 
gance. 

Poor  Robin — Compensation. 
Poplar,  black — Courage. 

Poplar,  white — Time. 

Poppy,  red — Consolation. 

Poppy,  scarlet — Fantastic  extrava- 
gance. 

Poppy,  white — Sleep  ; my  bane. 
Potato — Benevolence. 

Potentilla — 1 claim  your  esteem. 


Prickly  Pear — Satire. 

Pride  of  China — Dissension. 

Primrose — Early  youth  and  sad- 
ness. 

Primrose,  Evening — Inconstancy. 

Primrose,  red — Unpatronized  mer- 
it. 

Privet — Prohibition. 

Purple  Clover — Provident. 

Quaking-grass— Agitation. 

Queen’s  Rocket  — You  are  the 
queen  of  coquettes,  fashion. 

Quince — T emptation. 

Ragged  Robin — Wit. 

Ranunculus,  garden  — You  are 
rich  in  attractions. 

Ranunculus,  wild — Ingratitude. 

Raspberry — Remorse. 

Ray  Grass — Vice. 

Reed — Complaisance,  music. 

Reed,  split — Indiscretion. 

Rhubarb — Advice. 

Rocket — Rivalry. 

Rose — Love. 

Rose,  Austrian — Thou  art  lovely. 

Rose,  Bridal — Happy  love. 

Rose,  Burgundy  — Unconscious 
beauty. 

Rose,  Cabbage — Ambassador  of 
love. 

Rose,  Campion — Only  deserve  my 
love. 

Rose,  Carolina — Love  is  danger- 
ous. 

Rose,  China — Beauty  always  new. 

Rose,  Christmas — Tranquilize  my 
anxiety. 

Rose,  Daily — Thy  smile  I aspire 
to. 

Rose,  Damask — Brilliant  complex- 
ion. 

Rose,  deep  red — Bashful  shame. 

Rose,  Dog — Pleasure  and  pain. 

Rose,  Guelder — Winter,  age. 

Rose,  Hundred-leaved — Pride. 

Rose,  Japan — Beauty  is  your  only 

' attraction. 

Rose,  Maiden-blush — If  you  love 
me  you  will  find  it  out. 

Rose,  Montiflora — Grace. 

Rose,  Mundi — Variety. 

Rose,  Musk — Capricious  beauty. 

Rose,  Musk,  cluster — Charming. 

Rose,  single — Simplicity. 

Rose, thornless — Early  attachment. 

Rose,  Unique — Call  me  not  beau- 
tiful. 

Rose,  white — I am  worthy  of  you. 

Rose,  white,  withered — Transient 
impressions. 

Rose,  yellow — Decrease  of  love, 
jealousy. 

Rose,  York  and  Lancaster — War. 


Rose,  full-blown — Secrecy. 

Rose,  white  and  red — Unity. 

Roses,  crown  of — Reward  of  vir. 
tue. 

Rosebud,  red — Pure  and  lovely. 
Rosebud,  white — Girlhood. 
Rosebud,  Moss  — Confession  of 
love. 

Rosebud  (Rhododendron)  — Be- 
ware, danger. 

Rosemary — Remembrance. 
Rudbeckia — J ustice. 

Rue — Disdain. 

Rush — Docility. 

Rye  Grass — Changeable  disposi- 
tion. 

Saffron — Beware  of  excess. 
Saffron — My  happiest  days  are 
past. 

Sage — Domestic  virtue. 

Sage,  garden — Esteem. 

Sainfoin — Agitation. 

Saint  John’s  Wort — Animosity. 
Salvia,  blue— Wisdom. 

Salvia,  red — Energy. 

Saxifrage,  mossy — Affection. 
Scabious — Unfortunate  love. 
Scabious,  sweet — Widowhood. 
Scarlet  Lychnis  — Sunbeaming 
eyes. 

Scotch  Fir — Elevation. 

Sensitive  Plant — Sensibility. 

Senvy — I ndiff  erence. 

Shamrock — Light-heartedness. 
Shepherd’s  Purse — I offer  you  my 
all. 

Snakesfoot — Horror. 

Snapdragon — Presumption,  No. 
Snowball — Bound. 

Snowdrop — Hope. 

Sorrel — Affection. 

Sorrel,  wild — Wit  ill-timed. 

Sorrel,  wood — Joy. 

Southernwood — Jest,  bantering. 
Spanish  Jasmine — Sensuality. 
Spearmint — Warmth  of  sentiment. 
Speedwell — Female  fidelity. 

Spider  Ophrys — Adroitness. 
Spiderwort — Esteem,  not  love. 
Spindle  Tree — Your  charms  are 
engraven  on  my  heart. 

Star  of  Bethlehem — Purity. 
Starwort— After-thought. 
Starwort,  American — Cheerfulness 
in  old  age. 

Stock — Lasting  beauty. 

Stonecrop — Tranquillity. 

Straw,  broken — Rupture  of  a con- 
tract. 

Straw,  whole — Union. 

Strawberry  blossom — F oresight. 
Sultan,  lilac — I forgive  you. 

Sultan,  white — Sweetness. 

Sultan,  yellow — Contempt. 


THE  LANGUAGE  AND  SENTIMENT  OF  FLOWERS. 


393 


Sumach,  Venice — Splendor. 
Sunflower,  dwarf — Adoration. 
Sunflower,  tall — Haughtiness. 
Swallow- wort — Cure  for  heartache. 
Sweet  Basil — Good  wishes. 
Sweet-brier,  American — Simplicity. 
Sweet-brier,  European — I wound 
to  heal. 

Sweet-brier,  yellow — Decrease  of 
love. 

Sweet  Pea — Delicate  pleasures. 
Sweet  Sultan — Felicity. 

Sweet  William — Gallantry. 
Sycamore — Curiosity. 

Syringa — Memory. 

Syringa,  Carolina  — Disappoint- 
ment. 

Tamarisk — Crime. 

Tansy,  wild — I declare  war.  . 

T easel — Misanthropy. 

Thistle,  common — Austerity. 
Thistle,  Fuller’s — Misanthropy. 
Thistle,  Scotch — Retaliation. 
Thorn,  apple — Deceitful  charms. 
Thorn,  branch  of — Severity. 

Thrift — Sympathy. 

Throat  wort — Neglected  beauty. 
Thyme — Activity  or  courage. 
Traveler’s  Joy — Safety, 
free  of  Life — Old  age. 

Trefoil — Revenge. 


Tremella  Nestoc — Resistance. 
Trillium  Pictunv — Modest  beauty. 
Triptilion  Spinosum — Be  prudent. 
T ruffle — Surprise. 

Trumpet  Flower — Fame. 

Tuberose — Dangerous  pleasures. 
Tulip,  red — Declaration  of  love. 
Tulip,  variegated— -Beautiful  eyes. 
Tulip,  yellow — Hopeless  love. 
Turnip — Charity. 

Valerian — An  accommodating 
disposition. 

V alerian , Greek — R upture . 

Venus’  Car — Fly  with  me. 

Venus’  Looking-glass — Flattery. 
Venus’  Trap — Deceit. 

Verbena,  pink — Family  union. 
Verbena,  scarlet — Unite  against 

evil. 

Verbena,  white — Pray  for  me. 
Vernal  Grass — Poor,  but  happy. 

V eronica — F idelity . 

Veronica  Speciosa — Keep  this  for 
my  sake. 

Vervain — Enchantment. 

Vine . . Intoxication. 

Violet,  blue — Faithfulness. 

Violet,  dame — Watchfulness. 
Violet,  sweet — Modesty. 

Violet,  yellow — Rural  happiness. 
Virginia  Creeper — I cling  to  you. 


Virgin’s  Bower — Filial  love. 
Viscaria  Oculata — Will  you  dance 
with  me  ? 

Volkamenia — May  you  be  happy ! 

Walnut — Intellect,  stratagem. 
Wall  flower — Fidelity  in  adversity. 
Water  Lily — Purity  of  heart. 
Water  Melon — Bulkiness. 

Wax  Plant — Susceptibility. 

Wheat  Stalk — Riches. 

Whin — Anger. 

Whortleberry — T reason. 

Willow,  Water — Freedom. 

Willow  Herb — Pretension. 

Willow,  Weeping — Mourning. 
Willow,  French — Bravery  and  hm 
manity. 

Witch  Hazel — A spell. 

Woodbine — Fraternal  love. 

Wood  Sorrel — Maternal  tender- 
ness. 

Wormwood — Absence. 

Xanthium  — Rudeness,  perti' 
nacity. 

Yew — Sorrow. 

Zephyr  Flower — Expectation. 
Zinnia  — Thoughts  of  absent 
friends. 


LORD  CHESTERFIELD’S 

INSTRUCTIONS  AND  ADVICE  TO  HIS  SON 

ON 

ETIQUETTE.  BUSINESS  AND  SOCIAL  RELATIONS. 


ONE  is  more  celebrated  than  Lord 
Chesterfield,  who  has  been  truly 
called  “the  master  of  true  polite- 
ness.” His  letters,  sentences  and 
maxims  to  his  son  are  regarded  as 
the  finest  in  the  English  language, 
and  are  equally  applicable  to  every  age  and  coun- 
try. We  therefore  propose  to  quote  extensively 
from  the  writings  of  this  classic  author  of  whom  it 
has  been  written — 

’It  should  be  put  into  the  hands  of  every  young 
gentleman.” — Dr.  Johnson , May , 1766. 

“Viewed  as  compositions,  they  appear  aimost 
annvalled  for  a serious  epistolary  style  ; clear,  ele- 
gant, and  terse,  never  straining  at  effect,  and  yet 
joever  hurried  into  carelessness.” — Lord  Mahony  1845. 

“In  point  of  style  a finished  classical  work,  they 
contain  instructions  for  the  conduct  of  life  that  "will 
never  be  obsolete.  Instinct  with  the  most  consum- 
mate good  sense  and  knowledge  of  life  and  busi- 
ness, and  certainly  nothing  can  be  more  attractive 
than  the  style  in  which  they  are  set  before  their 
readers.” — Quarterly  Review , vol.  Ixxvi.,  1845. 

"Lord  Chesterfield’s  letters  are,  I will  venture  to 
say,  masterpieces  of  good  taste,  good  writing  and 
good  sense.” — John  Wilson  Croker,  1846. 

“If  Chesterfield  in  particular  instances,  insists 
upon  graces  of  manner  at  any  price,  it  is  because  he 
has  already  provided  for  the  more  solid  parts  of 
education,  and  because  his  pupil  is  not  in  the  least 
-danger  of  sinning  on  the  side  which  makes  man  re- 
spectable, but  rather  on  that  which  renders  him 
Agreeable.” — Sainte-Beuve. 

Sainte-Beuve  on  Lord  Chesterfield. — Before 
going  into  detail,  it  will  be  necessary  to  know  a 
little  about  Lord  Chesterfield,  one  of  the  most  bril- 
liant English  wits  of  his  time,  and  one  most  closely 
allied  to  France.  Philip  Dormer  Stanhope,  Earl  of 
Chesterfield,  was  born  in  London,  on  the  22d  of 
September,  1694,  the  same  year  as  Voltaire.  The 
descendant  of  an  illustrious  race,  he  knew  the  value 
of  birth,  and  wished  to  sustain  its  honor  ; neverthe- 
less, it  was  difficult  for  him  not  to  laugh  at  genea- 
logical pretensions  when  carried  too  far.  Thus, 


while  upholding  the  honor  of  race,  he  put  bis  veto 
upon  chimerical  vanities  arising  from  it. 

His  father  paid  no  attention  whatever  to  his  edu- 
cation ; he  was  placed  under  the  care  of  his  grand- 
mother, Lady  Halifax.  From  a very  early  age  he 
manifested  a desire  to  excel  in  everything,  a desire 
which  later  he  did  his  utmost  to  excite  in  the  breast 
of  nis  son,  and  which  for  good  or  ill  is  the  principle 
of  all  that  is  great.  Like  himself  in  his  early  youth, 
he  was  Without  guidance,  he  was  deceived  more 
than  once  in  the  objects  of  his  emulation,  and  fol- 
lowed some  ridiculous  chimera.  He  confesses  that 
at  one  period  of  inexperience  he  gave  himself  up  to 
wine,  and  other  excesses,  for  which  he  was  not  at 
all  inclined  by  nature,  but  it  flattered  his  vanity  to 
hear  himself  cited  as  a man  of  pleasure.  Jn  this 
way  he  plunged  into  play  (which  he  considered  a 
necessary  ingredient  in  the  composition  of  a young 
man  of  fashion),  at  first  without  passion,  but  after- 
wards without  being  able  to  withdraw  himself  from 
it,  and  by  that  means  compromised  his  fortune  for 
years.  “Take  warning  by  my  conduct,”  said  he  to 
his  son,  “choose  your  own  pleasures,  and  do  no* 
let  others  choose  them  for  you.” 

In  his  letters  to  his  son,  he  has  pictured  himself 
the  first  day  he  made  his  entree  into  good  society 
still  covered  with  the  rust  of  Cambridge,  shame 
faced,  embarrassed,  silent ; and,  finally,  forcing  ins 
courage  with  both  hands  to  say  to  a beautiful 
woman  near  him,  “Madame,  don’t  you  find  it  very 
warm  to-day  ?” 

In  1744  he  became  one  of  the  administration,  first 
as  Ambassador  to  the  Hague  and  Viceroy  of  Ire- 
land,  afterwards  as  Secretary  of  State  and  member 
of  Cabinet. 

He  wrote  to  his  son,  in  all  sincerity,  “From  the 
first  day  of  your  life,  the  dearest  object  of  mine  has 
been  to  make  you  as  perfect  as  the  weakness  o| 
human  nature  will  allow.”  Towards  the  education 
of  his  son  ail  his  wishes,  all  his  affectionate  and 
worldly  predilections  tended.  And  whether  Viceroy 
of  Ireland  or  Secretary  of  State  iu  London,  he  found 
time  to  write  long  letier>  ■M"  or  minute  details  to 


LORD  CHESTERFIELD  ON  BUSINESS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE. 


395 


him  to  instruct  him  in  small  matters  and  to  perfect 
him  in  mind  and  manner. 

He  was  not  long  in  finding  out  what  was  wanting 
in  this  child  whom  he  wished  to  bring  up  ; whose 
bringing  up  was,  indeed,  the  end  and  aim  of  his 
life.  “On  sounding  your  character  to  its  very 
depths,”  he  said  to  him,  “I  have  not,  thank  God, 
discovered  any  vice  of  heart  or  weakness  of  head  so 
far  ; but  I have  discovered  idleness,  inattention  and 
indifference,  defects  which  are  only  pardonable  in 
the  aged,  who,  in  the  decline  of  life,  when  health 
and  spirits  give  way,  have  a sort  of  right  to  that 
kind  of  tranquility.  But  a young  man  ought  to  be 
ambitious  to  shine  and  excel.”  And  it  is  precisely 
this  sacred  fire,  this  lightning,  that  makes  the 
Achilles,  the  Alexanders  and  the  Caesars  to  be  the 
first  in  every  undertaking , this  motto  of  noble  hearts 
and  of  eminent  men  of  all  kinds,  that  nature  had 
primarily  neglected  to  place  in  the  honest  but 
thoroughly  mediocre  soul  of  the  younger  Stanhope. 
“You  appear  to  want,”  said  his  father,  “that  vivida 
vis  animi  which  excites  the  majority  of  young  men 
to  please,  to  strive,  and  to  outdo  others.”  “When 
I was  your  age,”  he  says  again,  “I  should  have 
been  ashamed  for  another  to  know  his  lesson  bet- 
ter, or  to  have  been  before  me  in  a game,  and  I 
should  have  had  no  rest  till  I had  regained  the  ad- 
vantage." 

“I  have  a boy,”  he  wrote  to  a friend,  “who  is 
now  thirteen  years  old.  As  to  the  boy,  perhaps  it 
is  partiality,  but  I think  him  amiable  ; he  has  a 
pretty  face  ; he  has  much  sprightliness,  and  I think 
intelligence,  for  his  age.  He  speaks  French  per- 
fectly ; he  knows  a good  deal  of  Latin  and  Greek, 
and  he  has  ancient  and  modern  history  at  his  fin- 
gers’ ends.  He  is  at  school  at  present,  but  as  they 
never  dream  here  of  forming  the  manners  of  young 
people,  and  they  are  almost  all  foolish,  awkward 
and  unpolished,  in  short  such  as  you  see  them 
when  they  come  to  Paris  at  the  age  of  twenty  or 
twenty-one,  I do  not  wish  my  boy  to  remain  here 
to  acquire  such  bad  habits  ; for  this  reason,  when 
he  is  fourteen  I think  of  sending  him  to  Paris.  As 
I love  the  child  dearly,  and  have  set  myself  to  make 
something  good  of  him,  as  I believe  he  has  the  stuff 
in  him,  my  idea  is  to  unite  in  him  what  has  never 
been  found  in  one  person  before — I mean  the  best 
qualities  of  the  two  nations.” 

Here  are  some  precepts  or  remarks  which  are 
worthy  of  those  masters  of  human  morality  : 

“The  most  essential  of  all  knowledge,  I mean  the 
knowledge  of  the  world,  is  never  acqiured  without 
great  attention,  and  I know  a great  many  aged  per- 
sons who,  after  having  had  an  extensive  acquaint- 
ance, are  still  mere  children  in  the  knowledge  of 
the  world.” 


“Human  nature  is  the  same  all  over  the  world  ; 
but  its  operations  are  so  varied  by  education  and 
custom  that  we  ought  to  see  it  in  all  its  aspects  to 
get  an  intimate  knowledge  of  it.” 

“Almost  all  men  are  born  with  every  passion  to 
some  extent,  but  there  is  hardly  a mail  who  has  not 
a dominant  passion  to  which  the  others  are  subordi- 
nate. Discover  this  governing  passion  in  every 
individual  ; search  into  the  recesses  of  his  heart, 
and  observe  the  different  effects  of  the  same  passion 
in  different  people.  And  when  you  have  found  the 
master  passion  of  a man,  remember  never  to  trust 
to  him  where  that  passion  is  concerned.” 

“If  you  wish  particularly  to  gain  the  good  graces 
and  affection  of  certain  people,  men  or  women,  try 
to  discover  their  most  striking  merit,  if  they  have 
one,  and  their  dominant  weakness,  for  every  one 
has  his  own,  then  do  justice  to  the  one,  and  a little 
more  than  justice  to  the  other .” 

“Women,  in  general,  have  only  one  object,  which 
is  their  beauty,  upon  which  subject  hardly  any  flat- 
tery can  be  too  gross  to  please  them.” 

“The  flattery  which  is  most  pleasing  to  really 
beautiful  or  decidedly  ugly  women,  is  that  which  is 
addressed  to  the  intellect.” 

Lord  Chesterfield  tells  his  son  that  he  always  fre- 
quented the  company  of  his  superiors  ; and  his 
superiors  he  reckoned  not  only  by  their  rank.  “Dr. 
Swift  and  Mr.  Pope,”  he  says,  “condescended  to 
admit  me  into  their  company,  and  though  they  had 
no  titles,  and  I was  an  earl,  I always  felt  that  I was 
obliged  by  their  politeness,  and  was  favored  by 
being  allowed  to  converse  with  them.” 

True  Decency. — One  of  the  most  important 
points  of  life  is  decency  ; which  is  to  do  what  is 
proper,  and  where  it  is  proper  ; for  many  things  are 
proper  at  one  time,  and  in  one  place,  that  are  ex- 
tremely improper  in  another  ; for  example,  it  is 
very  proper  and  decent  that  you  should  play  some 
part  of  the  day  ; but  you  must  feel  that  it  would  be 
very  improper  and  indecent,  if  you  were  to  fly  your 
kite,  or  play  at  nine  pins,  while  you  are  with  Mr. 
Maittaire  [his  tutor.] 

Lord  Chesterfield  died  on  the  24th  of  March,  1773. 
Politeness  a Necessity. — Know  then,  that  as 
learning,  honor  and  virtue  are  absolutely  necessary 
to  gain  you  the  esteem  and  admiration  of  mankind  ; 
politeness  and  good  breeding  are  equally  necessary 
to  make  you  welcome  and  agreeable  in  conversa- 
tion and  common  life.  Great  talents,  such  as 
honor,  virtue,  learning,  and  parts,  are  above  the 
generality  of  the  world,  who  neither  possess  them 
themselves  nor  judge  of  them  rightly  in  others  : but 
all  people  are  judges  of  the  lesser  talents,  suck  a« 
civility,  affability,  and  an  obliging,  agreeable  ad- 


396 


LORD  CHESTERFIELD  ON  BUSINESS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE. 


dress  and  manner,  because  they  feel  the  good  effects 
of  them  as  making  society  easy  and  pleasing. 

Good  Breeding  and  Good  Sense. — Good  sense 
must,  in  many  cases,  determine  good  breeding  ; be- 
cause the  same  thing  that  would  be  civil  at  one  time, 
and  to  one  person,  may  be  quite  otherwise  at  an- 
other time,  and  to  another  person  ; but  there  are 
some  general  rules  of  good  breeding  that  hold 
always  true,  and  in  all  cases. 

Rudeness  and  Civility. — I dare  say  I need  not 
tell  you  how  rude  it  is  to  take  the  best  place  in  a 
room,  or  to  seize  immediately  upon  what  you  like 
at  table,  without  offering  first  to  help  others,  as  if 
you  considered  nobody  but  yourself.  On  the  con- 
trary, you  should  always  endeavor  to  procure  all 
the  conveniences  you  can  to  the  people  you  are 
with.  Besides  being  civil,  which  is  absolutely  nec- 
essary, the  perfection  of  good,  breeding  is  to  be 
civil  with  ease  and  in  a gentlemanlike  manner. 
For  this,  you  should  observe  the  French  people, 
who  excel  in  it,  and  whose  politeness  seems  as  easy 
and  natural  as  any  other  part  of  their  conversation  ; 
whereas  the  English  are  often  awkward  in  their 
civilities,  and,  when  they  mean  to  be  civil,  are  too 
jauch  ashamed  to  get  it  out. 

Good  Breeding. — Though  I need  not  tell  one  of 
your  age.  experience,  and  knowledge  of  the  world, 
now  nesessary  good  breeding  is  to  recommend  one 
to  mankind  ; yet,  as  your  various  occupations  Of 
Greek  and  cricket,  Latin  and  pitch-farthing,  may 
possibly  divert  your  attention  from  this  object,  I 
take  the  liberty  of  reminding  you  of  it,  and  desiring 
you  to  be  very  well  bred  at  Lord  Orrery’s.  It  is 
good-oreeding  alone  that  can  prepossess  people  in 
your  favor  at  first  sight,  more  time  being  necessary 
to  discover  greater  talents.  This  good  breeding, 
you  know,  does  not  consist  in  low  bows  and  formal 
ceremony ; but  in  an  easy,  civil  and  respectful  be- 
havior. "Vou  will  therefore  take  care  to  answer 
wiih  complaisance  when  you  are  spoken  to  ; to 
place  yourself  at  the  lower  end  of  the  table,  unless 
bid  to  go  higher  ; to  drink  first  to  the  lady  of  the 
house,  and  next  to  the  master  ; not  to  eat  awkward- 
ly or  dirtily  ; not  to  sit  when  others  stand  ; and  to 
do  all  this  with  an  air  of  complaisance,  and  not 
with  a grave,  sour  look,  as  if  you  did  it  at  all  un- 
willingly. 

The  Well-bred  Man — Feels  himself  firm  and 
easy  in  all  companies  ; is  modest  without  being 
bashful,  and  steady  without  being  impudent ; if  he 
is  a stranger,  he  observes  with  care  the  manners 
and  ways  of  the  people  the  most  esteemed  at  that 
pbce,  and  conforms  to  them  with  complaisance. 
Instead  of  finding  fault  with  the  customs  of  that 
•lace,  and  telling  the  people  that  the  English  ones 


are  a thousand  times  better  (as  my  countrymen  are 
very  apt  to  do),  he  commends  their  table,  their 
dress,  their  houses,  and  their  manners,  a little  more, 
it  may  be,  than  he  really  thinks  they  deserve.  Bu* 
this  degree  of  complaisance  is  neither  criminal  noi 
abject,  and  is  but  a small  price  to  pay  for  the  good 
will  and  affection  of  the  people  you  converse  with. 
As  the  generality  of  people  are  weak  enough  to  be 
pleased  with  these  little  things,  those  who  refuse  to 
please  them,  so  cheaply,  are,  in  my  mind,  weaker 
than  they. 

How  to  Dress. — Take  great  care  always  to  be 
dressed  like  the  reasonable  people  of  your  own  age, 
in  the  place  where  you  are  ; whose  dress  is  nevei 
spoken  of  one  way  or  another,  as  either  too  negli- 
gent or  too  much  studied. 

Insults  and  Injuries. — However  frivolous  a 
company  may  be,  still,  while  you  are  among  them 
do  not  show  them:  by  your  inattention,  that  you 
think  them  so  ; but  rather  take  their  tone,  and  con- 
form in  some  degree  to  their  weakness,  instead  of 
manifesting  your  contempt  for  them.  There  is 
nothing  that  people  bear  more  impatiently,  or  for- 
give less,  than  contempt  ; and  an  injury  is  much 
sooner  forgotten  than  an  insult. 

Good  Breeding. — Civility,  which  is  a disposition 
to  accommodate  and  oblige  others,  is  essentially 
the  same  in  every  country ; but  good  breeding,  as  it 
is  called,  which  is  the  manner  of  exerting  that  dis- 
position, is  different  in  almost  every  country,  and 
merely  local  ; and  every  man  of  sense  imitates  and 
conforms  to  that  local  good  breeding  of  the  place 
which  he  is  at.  A conformity  and  flexibility  of 
manners  is  necessary  in  the  course  of  the  world  ; 
that  is,  with  regard'  to  all  things  which  are  noj 
wrong  in  themselves.  The  versatile  ingenium  is  the 
most  useful  of  all.  It  can  turn  itself  instantly  from 
one  object  to  another,  assuming  the  proper  manner 
for  each.  It  can  be  serious  with  the  grave,  cheerful 
with  the  gay,  and  trifling  with  the  frivolous.  En- 
deavor, by  all  means,  to  acquire  this  talent,  for  it  is 
a very  great  one. 

How  “to  wear”  Learning. — Wear  your  learning, 
like  your  watch,  in  a private  pocket,  and  do  not 
pull  it  out  and  strike  it  merely  to  show  that  you 
have  one.  If  you  are  asked  what  o’clock  it  is,  tell 
it,  but  do  not  proclaim  it  hourly  and  unasked,  like 
the  watchman. 

Graceful  Behavior. — There  is  another  object 
that  must  keep  pace  with  and  accompany  knowl- 
edge ; I mean,  manners,  politeness,  and  the  graces, 
in  which  Sir  Charles  Williams,  though  very  mucn 
your  friend,  owns  you  are  very  deficient.  The  man- 
ners of  Leipzig  must  be  shook  off ; and  in  that  re- 
spect you  must  put  on  the  new  man.  No  scrambling 


LORD  CHESTERFIELD  OK  BUSINESS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE. 


397 


tt  your  meals,  as  at  a German  ordinary ; no  awk- 
ward overturns  ot  glasses,  plates  and  saltcellars  ; 
no  horseplay.  On  the  contrary,  a gentleness  of 
manners,  a graceful  carriage,  and  an  insinuating 
address,  must  take  their  place.  I repeat,  and  shall 
never  cease  repeating  to  you,  the  graces , the  graces. 

Carriage  of  the  Body. — It  sounds  ridiculously 
to  bid  you  study  with  your  dancing-master  ; and 
?et  I do.  The  bodily  carriage  and  graces  are  of  in- 
finite consequence  to  everybody,  and  more  particu- 
larly to  you. 

Formation  of  Manners.— Nothing  forms  a young 
man  so  much  as  being  used  to  keep  respectable  and 
superior  company,  where  a constant  regard  and  at- 
tention is  necessary.  It  is  true,  this  is  at  first  a dis- 
agreeable state  of  restraint  * but  it  soon  grows 
habitual,  and  consequently  easy  ; and  you  are  am- 
ply paid  for  it  by  the  improvement  you  make  and 
the  credit  it  gives  you. 

Local  Propriety. — Remember  that  there  is  a 
local  propriety  to  be  observed  in  all  companies,  and 
that  what  is  extremely  proper  in  one  company  may 
be,  and  often  is,  highly  improper  in  another.  The 
jokes,  the  bon  mots , the  little  adventures,  which 
may  do  very  well  in  one  company,  will  seem  flat 
and  tedious  when  related  in  another.  The  particu- 
lar characters,  the  habits,  the  cant  of  one  company 
may  give  merit  to  a word  or  a gesture  which  would 
have  none  at  all  if  divested  of  those  accidental  cir- 
cumstances. Here  people  very  commonly  err  ; and, 
fond  of  something  that  has  entertained  them  in  one 
company,  and  in  certain  circumstances,  repeat  it  with 
emphasis  in  another,  where  it  is  either  insipid,  or,  it 
may  be,  offensive,  by  being  ill  timed  or  misplaced. 

Self-Love. — Do  not  let  your  vanity  and  self-love 
make  you  suppose  that  people  become  your  friends 
at  first  sight,  or  even  upon  a short  acquaintance. 
Real  friendship  is  a slow  grower,  and  never  thrives 
unless  ingrafted  upon  a stock  of  known  and  recipro- 
cal merit. 

Manner. — An  easy  manner  and  carriage  must  be 
wholly  free  from  those  odd  tricks,  ill  habits  and 
awkwardnesses  which  even  very  worthy  and  sen- 
sible people  have  in  their  behavior. 

Manner — Absence  — Awkwardness  — Atten- 
tion.— However  trifling  a genteel  manner  may 
Sound,  it  ’S  of  very  great  consequence  towards 
pleasing  in  private  life,  especially  the  women, 
which  (sic),  one  time  or  other  you  will  think  worth 
p’ easing;  and  I have  known  many  a man,  from  his 
awkwardness,  give  people  such  a dislike  of  him  at 
first,  that  all  his  merit  could  not  get  the  better  of  it 
afterwards.  Whereas  a genteel  manner  prepossesses 
people  in  your  favor,  bends  them  towards  you,  and 
nakes  them  wish  to  like  you.  Awkwardness  can 


proceed  but  from  two  causes  ; either  from  not  hav 
ing  kept  good  company,  or  from  not  having  attended 
to  it.  As  for  your  keeping  good  company,  I will 
take  care  of  that ; do  you  take  care  to  observe  their 
ways  and  manners,  and  to  form  your  own  upon 
them.  Attention  is  absolutely  necessary  for  this; 
and  indeed  it  is  for  everything  else  ; and  a man  with- 
out attention  is  not  fit  to  live  in  the  world.  When 
an  awkward  fellow  first  comes  into  a room  he  goes 
and  places  himself  in  the  very  place  of  the  whole 
room  where  he  should  not ; there  he  soon  lets  his 
hat  fall  down,  and,  in  taking  it  up  again,  throws 
down  his  cane  ; in  recovering  his  cane,  his  hat  falls 
a second  time  ; so  that  he  is  a quarter  of  an  hour 
before  he  is  in  order  again.  His  hands  are  trouble- 
some to  him  when  he  has  not  something  in  them, 
and  he  does  not  know  where  to  put  them  ; but  they 
are  in  perpetual  motion.  All  this,  I own,  is  not 
criminal  ; but  it  is  highly  disagreeable  and  ridicu- 
lous  in  company  and  ought  to  be  most  carefully 
avoided  by  whoever  desires  to  please.  From  this 
account  of  what  you  ought  not  to  do,  and  a due  at- 
tention to  the  manners  of  the  people  of  fashion  and 
who  have  seen  the  world,  will  make  it  habitual  and 
familiar  to  you. 

Awkwardness  of  Expression. — There  is,  like- 
wise,  an  awkwardness  of  expression  and  words 
most  carefully  to  be  avoided,  such  as  false  English, 
bad  pronunciation,  old  sayings,  and  common  prov- 
erbs, which  are  so  many  proofs  of  having  kept  bad 
and  low  company.  For  example:  if,  instead  of 
saying  that  tastes  are  different,  and  that  every  man 
has  his  own  peculiar  one,  you  should  let  off  a prov- 
erb, and  say  that  “What  is  one  man’s  meat  is  an- 
other man’s  poison”;  or  else,  “Every  one  as  they 
like,  as  the  good  man  said  when  he  kissed  his 
cow,”  everybody  would  be  persuaded  that  you  had 
never  kept  company  with  anybody  above  footmen 
and  housemaids. 

Attention  will  do  all  this,  and  without  attention 
nothing  is  to  be  done  ; want  of  attention,  which  is 
really  want  of  thought,  is  either  folly  or  madness. 
You  should  not  only  have  attention  to  everything, 
but  a quickness  of  attention,  so  as  to  observe,  at 
once,  all  the  people  in  the  room  ; their  motions, 
their  looks,  and  their  words,  and  yet  without  staring 
at  them  and  seeming  to  be  an  observer.  This  quick 
and  unobserved  observation  is  of  infinite  advantage 
in  life,  and  is  to  be  acquired  with  care  ; and,  on  the 
contrary,  what  is  called  absence,  which  is  a thought- 
lessness and  want  of  attention  about  what  is  doing 
makes  a man  so  like  either  a fool  or  a madman, 
that,  for  my  part,  I see  no  real  difference.  A fool 
never  has  thought,  a madman  has  lost  it,  and  an  ab- 
sent man  is,  for  the  time,  without  it. 


398 


LORD  CHESTERFIELD  ON  BUSINESS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE. 


Inattention. — There  is  no  surer  sign  in  the 
world  of  a little,  weak  mind,  than  inattention. 
Whatever  is  worth  doing  at  all  is  worth  doing  well  ; 
and  nothing  can  be  done  well  without  attention.  It 
is  the  sure  answer  of  a fool,  when  you  ask  him 
about  anything  that  was  said  or  done  where  he  was 
present,  that  “truly  he  did  not  mind  it.”  And  why 
did  not  the  fool  mind  it  ? What  had  he  else  to  do 
there  but  to  mind  what  was  doing  ? A man  of  sense 
sees,  hears,  and  retains  everything  that  passes 
where  he  is.  I desire  I may  never  hear  you  talk  of 
not  minding,  nor  complain,  as  most  fools  do,  of  a 
treacherous  memory.  Mind  not  only  what  people 
say,  but  how  they  say  it  ; and,  if  you  have  any 
sagacity,  you  may  discover  more  truth  by  your  eyes 
than  by  your  ears.  People  can  say  what  they  will 
but  they  cannot  look  what  they  will,  and  their  looks 
frequently  discover  what  their  words  are  calculated 
to  conceal.  The  most  material  knowledge  of  all— 
I mean  the  knowledge  of  the  world — is  not  to  be 
acquired  without  great  attention. 

False  Delicacy. — As  for  the  mauvaise  honte  I 
hope  you  are  above  it ; your  figure  is  like  other  peo- 
ple’s, I hope  you  will  take  care  that  your  dress  is  so 
too.  Why  then  should  you  be  ashamed  ? Why  not 
go  into  mixed  company  with  as  little  concern  as  you 
would  into  your  own  room  ? 

Art  of  Pleasing. — It  is  impossible  to  reduce  the 
art  of  pleasing  to  a system,  yet  this  principle  I will 
lay  down,  that  the  desire  of  pleasing  is  at  least  half 
the  art  of  doing  it  ; the  rest  depends  only  upon  the 
manner,  which  attention,  observation  and  frequent- 
ing good  company  will  teach.  But  if  you  are  lazy 
careless,  and  indifferent  whether  you  please  or  not, 
depend  upon  it  you  never  will  please 

Foolish  Talk. — The  conversation  of  the  ignorant 
.3  no  conversation,  and  gives  even  them  no  pleas- 
ure : they  tire  of  their  own  sterility,  and  have  not 
matter  enough  to  furnish  them  with  words  to  keep 
up  a conversation. 

Entrance  into  Good  Company. — You  may  pos- 
sibly ask  me  whether  a man  has  it  always  in  his 
power  to  get  into  the  best  company  ? and  how?  I 
say,  yes,  he  has,  by  deserving  it  ; provided  he  is 
but  in  circumstances  which  enable  him  to  appear 
upon  the  footing  of  a gentleman.  Merit  and  good 
breeding  will  make  their  way  everywhere.  Knowl- 
edge will  introduce  him,  and  good  breeding  will 
endear  him  to  the  best  companies  i for,  as  I have 
often  told  you,  politeness  and  good  breeding  are 
absolutely  necessary  to  adorn  any  or  all  other  good 
qualities  or  talents.  Without  them,  no  knowledge, 
no  perfection  whatsoever,  is  seen  in  its  best  light. 

Fashionable  Ladies. — The  company  of  women 


of  fashion  will  improve  your  manners,  though  not 
your  understanding ; and  that  complaisance  and 
politeness,  which  are  so  useful  in  men  s company, 
can  only  be  acquired  in  women’s. 

Talent  and  Breeding. — Remember  always,  what 
I have  told  you  a thousand  times,  that  all  the  tal- 
ents in  the  world  will  wan<.  all  their  lustre,  and 
some  part  of  their  use  too,  ix  they  are  not  adorned 
with  that  easy  good  breeding,  that  engaging  manner, 
and  those  graces,  which  seduce  and  prepossess 
people  in  your  favor  at  first  sight.  A proper  care 
of  your  person  is  by  no  means  to  be  neglected  5 
always  extremely  clean  ; upon  proper  occasions, 
fine  ; your  carriage  genteel,  and  your  motions 
graceful.  Take  particular  care  of  your  manner  and 
address,  when  you  present  yourself  in  company. 
Let  them  be  respectful  without  meanness,  easy 
without  too  much  familiarity,  genteel  without  affec- 
tation, and  insinuating  without  any  seeming  art  or 
design. 

Polish. — Now,  though  I would  not  recommend  to 
you  to  go  into  women’s  company  in  search  of  solid 
knowledge  or  judgment,  yet  it  has  its  use  in  other 
respects  ; for  it  certainly  polishes  the  manners,  and 
gives  une  certain  tournure,  which  is  very  necessary 
in  the  course  of  the  world,  and  which  Englishmen 
have  generally  less  of  than  any  people  in  the  world. 

The  Graces. — A thousand  little  things,  not  sepa- 
rately to  be  defined,  conspire  to  form  these  graces, 
this  je  ne  sais  quoi , that  always  pleases.  A pretty 
person,  genteel  motions,  a proper  degree  of  dress, 
an  harmonious  voice,  something  open  and  cheerful 
in  the  countenance,  but  without  laughing  ; a dis- 
tinct and  properly  varied  manner  of  speaking:  all 
these  things  and  many  others,  are  necessary  ingredi- 
ents in  the  composition  of  the  pleasing  je  ne  sais 
quoit  which  everybody  feels,  though  nobody  can 
describe.  Observe  carefully,  then,  what  displeases 
or  pleases  you  in  others,  and  be  persuaded  that,  in 
general,  the  same  things  will  please  or  displease 
them  in  you.  Having  mentioned  laughing,  I must 
particularly  warn  you  against  it ; and  I could  heart- 
ily wish  that  you  may  often  be  seen  to  smile',  but 
never  heard  to  laugh,  while  you  live.  Frequent 
and  loud  laughter  is  the  characteristic  ot  folly  and 
ill  manners  ; it  is  the  manner  in  which  the  mob  ex- 
press their  silly  joy  at  silly  things,  and  they  call  it 
being  merry.  In  my  mind,  there  is  nothing  so 
illiberal  and  so  ill-bred  as  audible  laughter. 

Method  and  Manner. — The  manner  of  doing 
things  is  often  more  important  than  the  things  them- 
selves ; and  the  very  same  thing  may  become  either 
pleasing  or  offensive  by  the  manner  of  saying  or  do- 
ing it.  Materiam  superabat  opus  is  often  said  of  works 
of  sculpture,  where  though  the  materials  were  valu- 


LORD  CHESTERFIELD  ON  BUSINESS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE. 


399 


able,  as  silver,  gold,  etc.,  the  workmanship  was  still 
more  so. 

Advantage  of  Manners. — Manners,  though  the 
last,  and  It  may  be  the  least  ingredient  of  real 
merit,  are,  however,  very  far  from  being  useless  in 
Its  composition  ; they  adorn  and  give  an  additional 
force  and  lustre  to  both  virtue  and  knowledge. 
They  prepare  and  smooth  the  way  for  the  progress 
of  both,  and  are,  I fear,  with  the  bulk  of  mankind, 
more  engaging  than  either.  Remember,  then,  the 
infinite  advantage  of  manners  ; cultivate  and  im- 
prove your  own  to  the  utmost ; good  sense  will 
suggest  the  great  rules  to  you,  good  company  will 
do  the  rest. 

Affectation.  — Any  affectation  whatsoever  in 
dress  implies,  in  my  mind,  a flaw  in  the  understand- 
ing. Most  of  our  young  fellows  here  display  some 
character  or  other  by  their  dress ; some  affect  the 
tremendous,  and  wear  a great  and  fiercely  cocked 
hatv  an  enormous  sword,  a short  waistcoat,  and  a 
black  cravat ; these  I should  be  almost  tempted  to 
swear  the  peace  against,  in  vcy  own  defence,  if  I 
were  not  convinced  that  they  are  but  meek  asses  in 
lions'  skins.  Others  go  in  brown  frocks,  leather 
breeches,  great  oaken  cudgels  in  their  hands,  their 
hats  uncocked,  and  their  hair  unpowdered,  and  imi- 
tate grooms,  stage  coachmen  and  country  bumpkins 
so  well  in  their  outsides,  that  I do  not  make  the 
least  doubt  of  their  resembling  them  equally  in  their 
insides.  A man  of  sense  carefully  avoids  any  par- 
ticular character  in  his  dress  : he  is  accurately  clean 
for  his  own  sake,  but  all  the  rest  is  for  other  peo- 
ple’s He  dresses  as  well,  and  in  the  same  manner, 
as  the  people  of  sense  and  fashion  of  the  place 
where  he  is.  It  he  dresses  better,  as  he  thinks, 
that  is.  more  than  they,  he  is  a lop  ; if  he  dresses 
worse,  he  is  unpardonably  negligent  5 but  if  he  is 
negligent  at  twenty,  he  will  be  a sloven  at  forty,  and 
stink  at  fifty  years  old.  Dress  yourself  fine  where 
others  are  fine,  and  plain  where  others  are  plain  j 
but  take  care  always  that  your  clothes  are  well 
made  and  fit  you,  for  otherwise  they  will  give  you  a 
very  awkward  air.  When  you  are  once  well  dressed 
for  the  day,  think  no  more  of  it  afterwards  ; and, 
without  any  stiffness  for  fear  of  discomposing  that 
dress,  let  all  your  motions  be  as  easy  and  natural  as 
if  you  had  no  clothes  at  all.  So  much  for  dress, 
which  I maintain  to  be  a thing  of  consequence  in 
the  polite  world. 

Ambition  and  Avarice. —There  are  two  incon- 
sistent passions  which,  however,  frequently  accom- 
pany each  other,  like  man  and  wife,  and  which,  like 
man  and  wife  too,  are  commonly  clogs  upon  each 
other.  I mean  ambition  and  avarice  ; the  latter  is 
often  the  true  cause  of  the  former,  and  then  is  the 


predominant  passion.  It  seems  to  have  been  so  in 
Cardinal  Mazarin.  who  did  anything,  submitted  to 
anything,  and  forgave  anything  for  the  sake  of 
plunder.  He  loved  and  courted  power  like  a 
usurer,  because  it  carried  profit  along  with  it. 
Whoever  should  have  formed  his  opinion,  or  taken 
his  measures,  singly,  from  the  ambitious  part  of 
Cardinal  Mazarin’s  character,  would  have  found 
himself  often  mistaken.  Some,  who  had  tound  this 
out,  made  their  fortunes  by  letting  him  cheat  them 
at  play.  On  the  contrary.  Cardinal  Richelieu’s 
prevailing  passion  seems  to  have  been  ambition, 
and  his  immense  riches  only  the  natural  conse- 
quences of  that  ambition  gratified  ; and  yet.  I make 
no  doubt,  but  that  ambition  had  now  and  then  its 
turn  with  the  former,  and  avarice  with  the  lattet 
^Richelieu  (by  the  way)  is  so  strong  a proof  of  the 
inconsistency  of  numan  nature,  that  I cannot  help 
observing  to  you,  that,  while  he  absolutely  governed 
both  his  king  and  his  country,  and  was,  in  a great 
degree,  the  arbiter  ot  the  fate  of  all  Europe,  he  was 
more  jealous  of  the  great  reputation  of  Corneille 
than  of  the  power  of  Spain,  and  more  flattered  with 
being  thought  (what  he  was  not)  the  best  poet,  than 
with  being  thought  (what  he  certainly  was)  the 
greatest  statesman  in  Europe ; and  affairs  stood 
still  while  he  was  concerting  the  criticism  upon  the 
Cid.  Could  one  think  this  possible,  if  one  did  non 
know  it  to  be  true  ? 

Genteel  Carriage. — Next  to  graceful  speaking, 
a genteel  carriage  and  a graceful  manner  of  present- 
ing yourself  are  extremely  necessary,  for  they  are* 
extremely  engaging ; and  carelessness  in  these 
points  is  much  more  unpardonable  in  a young  fel- 
low than  affectation.  It  shows  an  offensive  indiffer 
ence  about  pleasing.  I have  been  told  by  one  here, 
who  has  seen  you  lately,  that  you  are  awkward  in 
your  motions  and  negligent  of  your  person  ; I am 
sorry  for  both,  and  so  will  you  be  when  it  will  be  toe 
late,  if  you  continue  so  some  time  longer.  Awk- 
wardness of  carriage  is  very  alienating,  and  a total 
negligence  of  dress  and  air  is  an  imperthient  insult 
upon  custom  and  fashion. 

Talking  About  Yourself. — The  only  sure  way 
of  avoiding  these  evils  is,  never  to  speak  of  yourself 
at  all.  But  when,  historically,  you  are  obliged  to 
mention  yourself,  take  care  not  to  drop  one  single 
word  that  can  directly  or  indirectly  be  construed  as 
fishing  for  applause.  Be  your  character  what  if 
will,  it  will  be  known ; and  nobody  will  take  it 
upon  your  own  word.  Never  imagine  that  anything 
you  can  say  yourself  will  varnish  your  defects  or 
add  lustre  to  your  perfections  ; but,  on  the  con- 
trary, it  may,  and  nine  times  in  ten  will,  make  the 
former  more  glaring  and  the  latter  obscure.  If  you 


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LORD  CHESTERFIELD  ON  BUSINESS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE. 


are  silent  upon  your  own  subject,  neither  envy,  in- 
dignation nor  ridicule  will  obstruct  or  allay  the 
applause  which  you  may  really  deserve  ; but  if  you 
publish  your  own  panegyric,  upon  any  occasion,  or 
in  any  shape  whatsoever,  and  however  artfully 
dressed  or  disguised,  they  will  all  conspire  against 
you,  and  you  will  be  disappointed  of  the  very  end 
you  aim  at. 

Attentions  — A young  man  should  never  be  want- ' 
ing  in  these  attentions  ; they  cost  little  and  bring  in 
a great  deal,  by  getting  you  people’s  good  word 
and  affection.  They  gain  the  heart,  to  which  I have 
always  advised  you  to  apply  yourself  particularly  ; * 
it  guides  ten  thousand  for  one  that  reason  influ- 
ences. 

Grace  of  Manner. — I cannot  end  this  letter 
without  repeating  my  recommendation  of  the  Graces. 
They  are  to  be  met  with  at  Turin  ; sacrifice  to  them, 
and  they  will  be  propitious.  People  mistake  gross- 
ly to  imagine  that  the  least  awkwardness,  in  either 
matter  or  manner,  mind  or  body,  is  an  indifferent 
thing,  and  not  worthy  of  attention.  It  may  possibly 
be  a weakness  in  me  (but  in  short  we  are  all  so 
made),  I confess  to  you  fairly,  that  when  you  shall 
come  home,  and  that  I first  see  you,  if  I find  you 
ungraceful  in  your  address,  and  awkward  in  your 
person  and  dress,  it  will  be  impossible  for  me  to 
love  you  half  so  well  as  I should  otherwise  do,  let 
you  intrinsic  merit  and  knowledge  be  ever  so  great. 

Left  Handedness. — An  awkward  address,  un 
graceful  attitudes  and  actions  and  a certain  left 
handedness  (if  I may  use  that  word)  loudly  pro- 
claim low  education  and  low  company ; for  it  is 
impossible  to  suppose  that  a man  can  have  fre- 
quented good  company  without  having  caught 
something,  at  least,  of  their  air  and  motions.  A 
new  raised  man  is  distinguished  in  a regiment  by 
his  awkwardness ; but  he  must  be  impenetrably 
dull,  if,  in  a month  or  two’s  time,  he  cannot  per- 
form at  least  the  common  manual  exercise,  and 
look  like  a soldier.  The  very  accoutrements  of  a 
man  of  fashion  are  grievous  incumbrances  to  a vul- 
gar man.  He  is  at  a loss  what  to  do  with  his  hat, 
when  it  is  not  upon  his  head  ; his  cane  (if  unfor 
tunately  he  wears  one)  is  at  perpetual  war  with 
every  cup  of  tea  or  coffee  he  drinks;  destroys  them 
first,  and  then  accompanies  them  in  their  fall. 

A Noble  Ease  and  Grace. — Do  not  imagine  that 
these  accomplishments  are  only  useful  with  women  ; 
they  are  much  more  so  with  men.  In  a public 
assembly,  what  an  advantage  has  a graceful  speaker, 
with  genteel  motions,  a handsome  figure,  and  a lib- 
eral air,  over  one  who  shah  speak  full  as  much 
good  sense,  but  destitute  of  these  ornaments  ! In 
business  how  prevalent  are  the  graces,  how  detri- 
mental is  the  want  of  them  ! By  the  help  of 


these  I have  known  some  men  refuse  favors  less 
offensively  than  others  granted  them.  The  utility  of 
them  in  courts  and  negotiations  is  inconceivable. 
You  gain  the  hearts,  and  consequently  the  secrets, 
of  nine  in  ten  that  you  have  to  do  with,  in  spite 
even  of  their  prudence  ; which  will,  nine  times  in 
ten,  be  the  dupe  of  their  hearts  and  of  their  senses. 
Consider  the  importance  of  these  things  as  they  de- 
serve, and  you  will  not  lose  one  moment  in  the 
pursuit  of  them. 

Dignity  of  Manners. — There  is  a certain  dignity 
of  manners  absolutely  necessary  to  make  even  the 
most  valuable  character  either  respected  or  respect- 
able. Horse-play,  romping,  frequent  and  loud  fits 
of  laughter,  jokes,  waggery  and  indiscriminate 
familiarity  will  sink  both  merit  and  knowledge  into 
a degree  of  contempt.  They  compose  at  most  a 
merry  fellow,  and  a merry  fellow  was  never  yet  a 
respectable  man.  Indiscriminate  familiarity  either 
offends  j^our  superiors,  or  else  dubs  you  their  de- 
pendant and  led  captain.  It  gives  your  inferiors 
just  but  troublesome  and  improper  claims  of  equal- 
ity. A joker  is  near  akin  to  a buffoon  ; and  neither 
of  them  is  the  least  related  to  wit.  Whoever  is  ad- 
mitted or  sought  for  in  company  upon  any  other 
account  than  that  of  his  merit  and  manners,  is 
never  respected  there,  but  only  made  use  of.  We 
will  have  such  a one,  for  he  sings  prettily  ; we  will 
invite  such  a one  to  a ball,  for  he  dances  well  ; we 
will  have  such  a one  at  supper,  for  he  is  always 
joking  and  laughing  ; we  will  ask  another,  because 
he  plays  deep  at  all  games,  or  because  he  can  drink 
a great  deal.  These  are  vilifying  distinctions,  mor- 
tifying preferences,  and  exclude  all  ideas  of  esteem 
and  regard.  Whoever  is  had  (as  it  is  called)  in 
company  for  the  sake  of  any  one  thing  singly,  is 
singly  that  thing,  and  will  never  be  considered  in 
any  other  light ; consequently  never  respected,  let 
his  merits  be  what  they  will. 

Nothing  by  Halves. — Whatever  business  you 
have,  do  it  the  first  moment  you  can  ; never  by 
halves,  but  finish  it  without  interruption,  if  possible. 
Business  must  not  be  sauntered  and  trifled  with  ; 
and  you  must  not  say  to  it,  as  Felix  did  to  Paul, 
“at  a more  convenient  season  I will  speak  to  thee.” 
The  most  convenient  season  for  business  is  the 
first ; but  study  and  business,  in  some  measure, 
point  out  their  own  times  to  a man  of  sense  ; time 
is  much  ottener  squandered  away  in  the  wrong 
choice  and  improper  methods  of  amusement  and 
pleasures. 

Necessity  of  Attention. — Sir  Charles  Williams 
told  me  then,  that  in  company  you  were  frequently 
most  provokingly  inattentive,  absent,  and  distrait. 
That  you  came  into  a room  and  presented  yourseli 
very  awkwardly,  that  at  table  you  constantly  threvf 


LORD  CHESTERFIELD  ON  BUSINESS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE. 


401 


down  knives,  forks,  napkins,  bread,  etc.,  and  that 
you  neglected  your  person  and  dress,  to  a degree 
unpardonable  at  any  age,  and  much  more  so  at 
yours. 

Distraction  and  Inattention— I know  no  one 
thing  more  offensive  to  a company  than  that  inat- 
tention and  distraction.  It  is  showing  them  the 
utmost  contempt ; and  people  never  forgive  con- 
tempt. No  man  is  distrait  with  the  man  he  fears,  or 
the  woman  he  loves  ; which  is  a proof  that  every 
man  can  get  the  better  of  that  distraction , when  he 
thinks  it  worth  his  while  to  do  so  ; and,  take  my 
word  for  it,  it  is  always  worth  his  while.  For  my 
own  part,  I would  rather  be  in  company  with  a dead 
man,  than  with  an  absent  one  ; for  if  the  dead  man 
gives  me  no  pleasure,  at  least  he  shows  me  no  con- 
tempt ; whereas  the  absent  man,  silently  indeed, 
but  very  plainly,  tells  me  that  he  does  not  think  me 
worth  his  attention.  Besides,  can  an  absent  man 
make  any  observations  upon  the  characters,  cus- 
toms and  manners  of  the  company?  No.  He  may 
be  in  the  best  companies  all  his  lifetime  (if  they  will 
admit  him,  which,  if  I were  they,  I would  not,)  and 
never  be  one  jot  the  wiser.  I never  will  converse 
with  an  absent  man  ; one  may  as  well  talk  to  a deaf 
one,  It  is,  in  truth,  a practical  blunder  to  address 
a man  who,  we  see  plainly,  neither  hears,  minds, 
nor  understands  us.  Moreover,  I aver  that  no  man 
is  in  any  degree  fit  for  either  business  or  conversa- 
tion, who  cannot,  and  does  not,  direct  and  com- 
mand his  attention  to  the  present  object,  be  that 
what  it  will.  You  know  by  experience  that  1 
grudge  no  expense  in  your  education,  but  I will 
positively  not  keep  you  a flapper.  You  may  read 
in  Dr.  Swift  the  description  of  these  flappers,  and 
the  use  they  were  of  to  your  friends. 

Amiability. — There  is  a certain  concurrence  of 
various  little  circumstances  which  compose  what 
the  French  call  Vaimable , and  which,  now  you  are 
entering  into  the  world,  you  ought  to  make  it  your 
particular  study  to  acquire.  Without  them,  your 
learning  will  be  pedantry,  your  conversation  often 
improper,  always  unpleasant,  and  your  figure,  how- 
ever good  in  itself,  awkward  and  unengaging.  A 
diamond  while  rough  has  indeed  its  intrinsic  value, 
but  till  polished  is  of  no  use,  and  would  neither  be 
sought  for  nor  worn.  Its  great  lustre,  it  is  true, 
proceeds  from  its  solidity  and  strong  cohesion  of 
parts,  but  without  the  last  polish  it  would  remain 
forever  a dirty,  rough  mineral  in  the  cabinets  of 
some  few  curious  collectors.  You  have,  I hope, 
that  solidity  and  cohesion  of  parts ; take  now  as 
much  pains  to  get  the  lustre.  Good  company,  if 
you  make  the  right  use  of  it,  will  cut  you  into 
shape,  and  give  you  the  true  brilliant  polish.  A 


propos  of  diamonds,  I have  sent  you  by  Sir  James 
Gray,  the  king’s  minister,  who  will  be  at  Venice 
about  the  middle  of  September,  my  own  diamond 
buckles,  which  are  fitter  for  your  feet  than  for  my 
old  ones  ; they  will  properly  adorn  you,  they  would 
only  expose  me. 

Trifles.  — Great  merit,  or  great  failings,  will 
make  you  respected  or  despised  ; but  trifles,  little 
attentions,  mere  nothings,  either  done  or  neglected, 
will  make  you  either  liked  or  disliked,  in  the  gen- 
eral run  of  the  world.  Examine  yourself  why  you 
like  such  and  such  people,  and  dislike  such  and 
such  others,  and  you  will  find  that  those  different 
sentiments  proceed  from  very  slight  causes.  Moral 
virtues  are  the  foundation  of  society  in  general,  and 
of  friendship  in  particular,  but  attention  and  graces 
both  adorn  and  strengthen  them. 

How  to  Please. — You  must  not  neglect  your 
dress  neither,  but  take  care  to  be  bien  mis.  Pray 
send  for  the  best  operator  for  the  teeth  at  Turin 
where  I suppose  there  is  some  famous  one,  and  1^ 
him  put  yours  in  perfect  order,  and  then  take  care 
to  keep  them  so  afterwards  yourself.  You  had 
very  good  teeth,  and  I hope  they  are  so  still  ; but 
even  those  who  have  bad  ones  should  keep  them 
clean,  for  a dirty  mouth  is,  in  my  mind,  ill  man- 
ners. In  short,  neglect  nothing  that  can  possibly 
please.  A thousand  nameless  little  things,  which 
nobody  can  describe,  but  which  everybody  feel?, 
conspire  to  form  that  whole  of  pleasing,  as  the  sev- 
eral pieces  of  a mosaic  work,  though  separately  of 
little  beauty  or  value,  when  properly  joined,  form 
those  beautiful  figures  which  please  everybody.  A 
look,  a gesture,  an  attitude,  a tone  of  voice,  all  bear 
their  parts  in  the  great  work  of  pleasing.  The  art  of 
pleasing  is  more  particularly  necessary  in  your  in- 
tended profession  than  perhaps  in  any  other  ; it  is, 
in  truth,  the  first  half  of  your  business,  for  if  you  do 
not  please  the  court  you  are  sent  to,  yop  will  be  of 
very  little  use  to  the  court  you  are  sent  from. 
Please  the  eyes  and  the  ears,  they  will  introduce 
you  to  the  heart,  and  nine  times  in  ten  the  heart 
governs  the  understanding. 

Make  your  court  particularly,  and  show  distin- 
guished attentions  to  such  men  and  women  as  are, 
best  at  court,  highest  in  the  fashion  and  in  the 
opinion  of  the  public;  speak  advantageously  of 
them  behind  their  backs,  in  companies  who  you 
have  reason  to  believe  will  tell  them  again. 

Temper. — The  principal  of  these  things  is  the 
mastery  of  one’s  temper,  and  that  coolness  of  mind 
and  serenity  of  countenance  which  hinders  us  from 
discovering,  by  words,  actions,  or  even  looks,  those 
passions  or  sentiments  by  which  we  are  inwardly 
moved  or  agitated,  and  the  discovery  of  which  givey 


402 


LORD  CHESTERFIELD  ON  BUSINESS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE. 


ooler  and  abler  people  such  infinite  advantages 
over  us,  not  only  in  great  business,  but  in  all  the 
most  common  occurrences  of  life.  A man  who 
does  not  possess  himself  enough  to  hear  disagree- 
able things  without  visible  marks  of  anger  and 
change  of  countenance,  or  agreeable  ones  without 
sudden  bursts  of  joy  and  expansion  of  countenance, 
is  at  the  mercy  of  every  artful  knave  or  pert  cox- 
comb ; the  former  will  provoke  or  please  you  by 
design,  to  catch  unguarded  words  or  looks,  by 
which  he  will  easily  decipher  the  secrets  of  your 
heart,  of  which  you  should  keep  the  key  yourself, 
and  trust  it  with  no  man  living. 

Immobility. — Determine,  too,  to  keep  your  coun- 
tenance as  unmoved  and  unembarrassed  as  pos- 
sible ; which  steadiness  you  may  get  a habit  of  by 
constant  attention.  I should  desire  nothing  better 
in  any  negotiation  than  to  have  to  do  with  one  of 
these  men  of  warm,  quick  passions,  which  I would 
take  care  to  set  in  motion.  By  artful  provocations 
I would  extort  rash  and  unguarded  expressions, 
and,  by  hinting  at  all  the  several  things  that  I could 
suspect,  infallibly  discover  the  true  one  by  the  alter- 
ation it  occasioned  in  the  countenance  of  the  per- 
son. V6lto  sciolto  con  pensieri  stretti  is  a most  useful 
maxim  in  business. 

The  Face,— Make  yourself  absolute  master, 
therefore  of  your  temper  and  your  countenance,  so 
far,  at  least,  as  that  no  visible  change  do  appear  in 
either,  whatever  you  may  feel  inwardly.  This  may 
be  difficult,  but  it  is  by  no  means  impossible  ; and 
as  a man  of  sense  never  attempts  impossibilities  on 
one  hand,  on  the  other  he  is  never  discouraged  by 
difficulties. 

Judge  of  others  by  Yourself. — In  order  to 
judge  of  the  inside  of  others,  study  your  own,  for 
men  in  general  are  very  much  alike  ; and  though 
one  has  one  prevailing  passion,  and  another  has 
another,  yet  their  operations  are  much  the  same  ; 
and  whatever  engages  or  disgusts,  pleases  or 
offends  you  in  others,  will,  mutatis  mutandis , en- 
gage, disgust,  please,  or  offend  others  in  you. 

Learning  and  Politeness. — I have  often  asserted 
that  the  profoundest  learning  and  the  politest  man- 
ners were  by  no  means  incompatible,  though  so 
seldom  found  united  in  the  same  person  ; and  I 
have  engaged  myself  to  exhibit  you  as  a proof  of 
the  truth  of  this  assertion.  Should  you,  instead  of 
that,  happen  to  disprove  me,  the  concern  indeed 
will  be  mine,  but  the  loss  will  be  yours.  Lord 
Bolingbroke  is  a strong  instance  on  my  side  of  the 
question  ; he  joins  to  the  deepest  erudition  the 
most  elegant  politeness  and  good  breeding  that 
«£ver  any  courtier  and  man  of  the  world  was  adorned 
With.  And  Pope  very  justly  called  him  All  Accom- 


plished, St.  John  with  regard  to  his  knowledge  and 
his  manners.  He  had,  it  is  true,  his  faults,  which 
proceeded  from  unbounded  ambition  and  impetuous 
passions  ; but  they  have  now  subsided  by  age  and 
experience  ; and  I can  wish  you  nothing  better  than 
to  be,  what  he  is  now,  without  being  what  he  has 
been  formerly.  His  address  pre-engages,  his  elo* 
quence  persuades,  and  his  knowledge  informs  all 
who  approach  him.  Upon  the  whole,  I do  desire 
and  insist  that  from  after  dinner  till  you  go  to  bed 
you  make  good  breeding,  address  and  manners 
your  serious  object  and  your  only  care.  Without 

them,  you  will  be  nobody  ; with  them,  you  may  be 
anything. 

Charm  of  Manner. — The  late  Lord  Townshend 
always  spoke  materially,  with  argument  and  knowl- 
edge, but  never  pleased.  Why?  His  diction  was 
not  only  inelegant,  but  frequently  ungrammatical, 
always  vulgar  ; his  cadences  false,  his  voice  unhar- 
monious,  and  his  action  ungraceful.  Nobody  heard 
him  with  patience,  and  the  young  fellows  used  to 
joke  upon  him  and  repeat  his  inaccuracies.  The 
late  Duke  of  Argyle,  though  the  weakest  reasoner, 
was  the  most  pleasing  speaker  I ever  knew  in  my 
life.  He  charmed,  he  warmed,  he  forcibly  ravished 
the  audience ; not  by  his  matter  certainly,  but  by 
his  manner  of  delivering  it.  A most  genteel  figure, 
a graceful,  noble  air,  an  harmonious  voice,  an  ele- 
gancy of  style,  and  a strength  of  emphasis,  con- 
spired to  make  him  the  most  affecting,  persuasive 
and  applauded  speaker  I ever  saw.  I was  capti- 
vated like  others ; but  when  I came  home  and 
coolly  considered  what  he  had  said,  stripped  of  all 
those  ornaments  in  which  he  had  dressed  it,  I often 
found  the  matter  flimsy,  the  arguments  weak,  and  I 
was  convinced  of  the  power  of  those  adventitious 
concurring  circumstances  which  ignorance  of  man- 
kind only  calls  trifling  ones. 

Tickling  Follies. — If  you  will  please  people, 
you  must  please  them  in  their  own  way  ; and,  as 
you  cannot  make  them  what  they  should  be,  you 
must  take  them  as  they  are.  I repeat  it  again,  they 
are  only  to  be  taken  by  agremens , and  by  what  flat- 
ters their  senses  and  their  hearts.  Rabelais  first 
wrote  a most  excellent  book  which  nobody  liked  ; 

then,  determined  to  conform  to  the  public  taste,  he 
wrote  “Gargantua”  and  “Pantagruel,”  which  every- 
body liked,  extravagant  as  it  was.  Adieu. 

How  to  Please. — An  air,  a tone  of  voice,  a com- 
posure of  countenance  to  mildness  and  softness, 
which  are  all  easily  acquired,  do  the  business*;  and 
without  farther  examination,  and  possibly  with  the 
contrary  qualities,  that  man  is  reckoned  the  gen- 
tlest, the  modestest,  and  the  best  natured  man  alive. 
Happy  the  man  who,  with  a certain  fund  of  parts 


LORD  CHESTERFIELD  ON  BUSINESS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE. 


403 


and  knowledge,  gets  acquainted  with  the  world 
early  enough  to  make  it  his  bubble,  at  an  age  when 
most  people  are  the  bubbles  of  the  world  ! for  that 
is  the  common  case  of  youth.  They  grow  wiser 
when  it  is  too  late  ; and,  ashamed  and  vexed  at  hav- 
ing been  bubbles  so  long,  too  often  turn  knaves  at 
last.  Do  not,  therefore,  trust  to  appearances  and 
outside  yourself,  but  pay  other  people  with  them, 
because  you  may  be  sure  that  nine  in  ten  of  man- 
kind do,  and  ever  will,  trust  to  them.  This  is  by  no 
means  a criminal  or  blameable  simulation,  if  not 
used  with  an  ill  intention.  I am  by  no  means 
blameable  in  desiring  to  have  other  people’s  good 
word,  good  will  and  affection,  if  I do  not  mean  to 
abuse  them.  Your  heart,  I know,  is  good,  your 
sense  is  sound,  and  your  knowledge  extensive. 

Time— Its  Value. — Very  few  people  are  good 
economists  of  their  fortune,  and  still  fewer  of  theif 
time  ; and  yet  of  the  two  the  latter  is  the  most  pre- 
cious. I heartily  wish  you  to  be  a good  economist 
of  both,  and  you  are  now  of  an  age  to  begin  to 
think  seriously  of  these  two  important  articles. 
Young  people  are  apt  to  think  they  have  so  much 
time  before  them  that  they  may  squander  what  they 
please  of  it  and  yet  have  enough  left,  as  very  great 
fortunes  have  frequently  seduced  people  to  a ruin- 
ous profusion.  Fatal  mistakes,  always  repented  of, 
but  always  too  late  ! Old  Mr.  Lowndes,  the  famous 
secretary  of  the  treasury  in  the  reigns  of  King  Wil- 
liam, Queen  Anne,  and  King  George  the  First, 
used  to  say,  Take  care  of  the  pence  and  the  pounds  will 
take  care  of  themselves.  To  this  maxim,  which  he 
not  only  preached  but  practiced,  his  two  grandsons 
at  this  time  owe  the  very  considerable  fortunes  that 
he  left  them. 

Aim  High. — Aim  at  perfection  in  everything, 
though  in  most  things  it  is  unattainable  ; however, 
they  who  aim  at  it,  and  persevere,  will  come  much 
nearer  it  than  those  whose  laziness  and  despond- 
ency make  them  give  it  up  as  unattainable.  Mag- 
nis  tamen  excidet  ausis  is  a degree  of  praise  which 
will  always  attend  a noble  and  shining  temerity, 
and  a much  better  sign  in  a young  fellow  than 
serpere  humi , tutus  nimium  timidusque  procellce%  for 
men,  as  well  as  women. 

The  Reward  of  Virtue. — If  a virtuous  man  be 
ever  so  poor  or  unfortunate  in  the  world,  still  his 
virtue  is  his  own  reward  and  will  comfort  him  under 
his  afflictions.  The  quiet  and  satisfaction  of  his 
conscience  make  him  cheerful  by  day  and  sleep 
sound  of  nights  ; he  can  be  alone  with  pleasure  and 
is  not  afraid  of  his  own  thoughts.  Besides  this,  he 
is  esteemed  and  respected,  for  even  the  most  wicked 
people  themselves  cannot  help  admiring  and  re- 
specting virtue  in  others. 


Little  Nothings. — I know  a man,  and  so  do; 
you,  who,  without  a grain  of  merit,  knowledge  or 
talents  has  raised  himself  millions  of  degrees  above 
his  level  singly  by  a good  air  and  engaging  man- 
ners, insomuch  that  the  very  prince  who  raised  him 
so  high  calls  him  mon  aimable  vaurien , but  of  this 
do  not  open  your  lips,  pour  cause.  I give  you  this 
secret  as  the  strongest  proof  imaginable  of  the  effi- 
cacy of  air,  address,  tournure  et  tous  ces petits  reins. 

Ease  of  Manners. — Les  bienseances  are  a most 
necessary  part  of  the  knowledge  of  the  world.  They 
consist  in  the  relations  of  persons,  things,  time  and 
place  ; good  sense  points  them  out,  good  company 
perfects  them  (supposing  always  an  attention  and  a 
desire  to  please),  and  good  policy  recommends  them. 
Were  you  to  converse  with  a king,  you  ought  to  be 
as  easy  and  unembarrassed  as  with  your  own  valet 
de  chambre,  but  yet  every  look,  word  and  action 
should  imply  the  utmost  respect.  What  would  be 
proper  and  well  bred  with  others,  much  your  supe- 
riors, would  be  absurd  and  ill  bred  with  one  so  very 
much  so.  You  must  wait  till  you  are  spoken  to  ; 
you  must  receive,  not  give,  the  subject  of  conversa- 
tion, and  you  must  even  take  care  that  the  given 
subject  of  such  conversation  do  not  lead  you  into 
any  impropriety. 

Social  Respect. — In  mixed  companies  with  your 
equals  (for  in  mixed  companies  all  people  are  to  a 
certain  degree  equal)  greater  ease  and  liberty  are 
allowed  ; but  they  too  have  their  bounds  within 
bienseance.  There  is  a social  respect  necessary ; 
you  may  start  your  own  subject  of  conversation 
with  modesty,  taking  great  care,  however,  de  ne 
jamais  parler  de  cordes  dans  la  maison  d’ un  peudu. 
Your  words,  gestures  and  attitudes  have  a greater 
degree  of  latitude,  though  by  no  means  an  unbound- 
ed one.  You  may  have  your  hands  in  your  pockets, 
take  snuff,  sit,  stand,  or  occasionally  walk,  as  you 
like  ; but  I believe  you  would  not  think  it  very 
bienseant  to  whistle,  put  on  your  hat,  loosen  your 
garters  or  your  buckles,  lie  down  upon  a couch  or 
go  to  bed  and  welter  in  an  easy  chair.  These  are 
negligences  and  freedoms  which  one  can  only  take 
when  quite  alone  ; they  are  injurious  to  superiors, 
shocking  and  offensive  to  equals,  brutal  and  insult- 
ing to  inferiors.  That  easiness  of  carriage  and  be- 
havior which  is  exceedingly  engaging  widely  differs 
from  negligence  and  inattention. 

Behavior. — Imitate,  then,  with  discernment  and 
judgment,  the  real  perfections  of  the  good  company 
into  which  you  may  get  ; copy  their  politeness,  their 
carriage,  their  address  and  the  easy  and  well  bred 
turn  of  their  conversation  ; but  remember  that,  let 
them  shine  ever  so  bright,  their  vices,  if  they  have 
any,  are  so  many  spots  which  you  would  no  more 


404: 


LORD  CHESTERFIELD  ON  BUSINESS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE. 


imitate  than  you  would  make  an  artificial  wart  upon 
your  face  because  some  very  handsome  man  had 
the  misfortune  to  have  a natural  one  upon  his  ; but, 
on  the  contrary,  think  how  much  handsomer  he 
would  have  been  without  it. 

Talking. — Talk  often,  but  never  long  ■ in  that 
Case,  if  you  do  not  please,  at  least  you  are  ? ire  not 
to  tire  your  hearers  Pay  your  own  reckoning,  but 
do  not  treat  the  whole  company,  this  being  one  of 
the  very  few  cases  in  which  people  do  net  care  to 
be  treated,  every  one  being  fully  convinced  that  he 
has  wherewithal  to  pay. 

Tell  stories  very  seldom,  and  absolutely  never 
but  where  they  are  very  apt  and  very  short.  Omit  every 
circumstance  that  is  not  material,  and  beware  of 
digressions.  To  have  frequent  recourse  to  narra- 
tive betrays  great  want  of  imagination. 

Never  hold  anybody  by  the  button  or  the  hand  in 
Order  to  be  heard  out,  for  if  people  are  not  willing 
to  hear  you,  you  had  much  better  hold  your  tongue 
than  them. 

Most  long  talkers  single  out  some  unfortunate 
man  in  company  (commonly  him  whom  they  ob- 
serve to  be  the  most  silent  or  their  next  neighbor)  to 
whisper,  or  at  least,  in  a half  voice,  to  convey  a con- 
tinuity of  words  to.  This  is  excessively  ill  bred, 
and,  in  some  degree,  a fraud,  conversation  stock 
being  a joint  and  common  property.  But,  on  the 
<>ther  hand,  if  one  of  these  unmerciful  talkers  lays 
hold  of  you,  hear  him  with  patience  and  at  least 
seeming  attention,  if  he  is  worth  obliging,  for  noth- 
ing will  oblige  him  more  than  a patient  hearing,  as 
nothing  would  hurt  him  more  than  either  to  leave 
him  in  the  midst  of  his  discourse  or  to  discover 
your  impatience  under  your  affliction. 

Take  rather  than  give  the  tone  of  the  company  you 
are  in.  If  you  have  parts,  you  will  show  them  more 
or  less  upon  every  subject,  and  if  you  have  not,  you 
had  better  talk  -illily  upon  a subject  of  other  peo- 
ple’s than  of  your  own  choosing. 

Avoid  as  much  as  you  can  in  mixed  companies 
argumentative,  polemical  conversations,  which, 
though  they  should  not,  yet  certainly  do,  indispose 
for  a time  the  contending  parties  towards  each 
other  ; and  if  the  controversy  grows  warm  and 
noisy,  endeavor  to  put  an  end  to  it  by  some  genteel 
levity  or  joke.  I quieted  such  a conversation  hub- 
bub once  by  representing  to  them  that  though  I was 
persuaded  none  there  present  would  repeat  out  of 
company  what  passed  in  it,  yet  I could  not  answer 


for  the  discretion  of  the  passengers  in  the  street 
who  must  necessarily  hear  all  that  was  said. 

Above  all  things  and  upon  all  occasions  avoid 
speaking  of  yourself,  if  it  be  possible.  Such  is  the 
natural  pride  and  vanity  of  our  hearts  that  it  per- 
petually breaks  out,  even  in  people  of  the  best 
parts,  in  all  the  various  modes  and  figures  of  the 
egotism. 

The  Novice  in  Society. — I remember  that  when, 
with  all  the  awkwardness  and  rust  of  Cambridge 
about  me,  I was  first  introduced  into  good  com- 
pany I was  frightened  out  of  my  wits.  I was  de- 
termined to  be  what  I thought  civil ; I made  fine 
low  bows  and  placed  myself  below  everybody,  but 
when  I was  spoken  to  or  attempted  to  speak  myself, 
obstupui , steterunque  comae  et  vox  faucibus  hcesit.  If  I 
saw  people  whisper  I was  sure  it  was  at  me,  and  I 
thought  myself  the  sole*  object  of  either  the  ridicule 
or  the  censure  of  the  whole  company,  who,  God 
knows,  did  not  trouble  their  heads  about  me.  In 
this  way  I suffered  for  some  time  like  a criminal  at 
the  bar,  and  should  certainly  have  renounced  all 
polite  company  forever  if  I had  not  been  so  con- 
vinced of  the  absolute  necessity  of  forming  my  man- 
ners upon  those  of  the  best  companies,  that  I deter- 
mined to  persevere  and  suffer  anything  or  every- 
thing rather  than  not  compass  that  point.  Insen- 
sibly it  grew  easier  to  me,  and  I began  not  to  bow  so 
ridiculously  low  and  to  answer  questions  without 
great  hesitation  or  stammering;  if,  now  and  then, 
some  charitable  people,  seeing  my  embarrassment, 
and  being  desocuvre  themselves,  came  and  spoke  to 
me,  I considered  them  as  3ngels  sent  to  comfort  me, 
and  that  gave  me  a little  courage.  I got  more  soon 
afterwards,  and  was  intrepid  enough  to  go  up  to  a 
fine  woman  and  tell  her  that  I thought  it  a warm 
day;  she  answered  me  very  civilly  that  she  thought 
so  too,  upon  which  the  conversation  ceased  on  my 
part  for  some  time,  till  she,  good  naturedly  resum- 
ing it,  spoke  to  me  thus  : “I  see  your  embarrass- 
ment, and  I am  sure  that  the  few  words  you  said  to 
me  cost  you  a great  deal;  but  do  not  be  discouraged 
for  that  reason  and  avoid  good  company.  We  see 
that  you  desire  to  please  and  that  is  the  main  point; 
you  want  only  the  manner,  and  you  think  that  you 
want  it  still  more  than  you  do.  You  must  go 
through  your  novitiate  before  you  can  profess  good 
breeding,  and  if  you  will  be  my  novice  I will  pre- 
sent you  to  my  acquaintance  as  such.” 


RECREATION  FOR  ALL 

IN 

HOME,  FIELD,  FOREST  AND  SEA. 

RULES  FOR  ATHLETIC  SPORTS 

AND 

HOME  AMUSEMENTS, 


Containing  a Dictionary  of  Nautical  Terms  ; Chapters 
on  the  Horse,  his  Care  and  Management; 

The  G-ame  Birds  of  North  America; 

The  Amatuer  Taxidermist  and 
Photographer. 


THE  AMERICAN  HORSE. 

POINTS  IN  BUYING  A HORSE— CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT,  WITH 
VALUABLE  HINTS  ON  THE  CAUSE  AND  CURE  OF  DISEASE. 

A valuable  and  good-sized  work  might  be  written  on  the  history  of  the  horse, 
but  the  size  and  purpose  of  this  article  do  not  permit  us  to  enter  into  this  subject, 
and  we  will  only  allude  to  a few  of  the  incidents  and  accidents  that  may  befall  this 
noble  beast.  No  animal  has  been  tamed  and  trained  for  the  use  of  man  which 
deserves  better  treatment  from  his  hands.  The  chief  essential  to  the  successful 
management  of  the  horse  is  that  his  training  should  be  with  a firm  but  gentle  hand. 

BREEDS: — The  American  Thoroughbred  came  from  English  stock,  which  origin- 
ated nearly  two  hundred  years  ago  from  a mixture  of  Turks,  Arabs,  and  Barbs. 
Since  which  time  it  has  been  a distinct  class  renowned  for  the  faculty  of  reproducing 
in  its  offspring  the  leading  characteristics  for  which  it  is  itself  distinguished.  The 
trotter  inherits  his  speed  and  power  of  endurance  from  the  thoroughbred,  and  the 
blood  of  the  racer  predominates  in  the  approved  hunter  and  cavalry  horse.  The 
roadster  is  also  indebted  to  him  for  the  great  staying  power  which  he  possesses.  For 
these  reasons  the  thoroughbred  is  much  sought  after  to  cross  with  other  hardier  and 
more  robust  native  breeds. 

The  American  Trotter  can  hardly  be  called  a distinct  breed,  but  he  will  almost 
always  be  found  to  be  a cross  between  a thoroughbred  and  some  other  hardier 
stock.  “ Messenger,”  an  English  thoroughbred,  was  imported  in  1788,  and  sired 
“ Plato,”  “ Engineer,”  “Commander,”  “Why  Not,”  “Mount  Holly,”  “ Mambrino  ” 
and  “ Hambletonian.”  He  was  the  grandsire  of  the  famous  “American  Eclipse,”  who 
became  the  progenitor  of  a long  list  of  trotters  and  runners  in  the  United  States. 
Canada  has  also  added  somewhat  to  our  trotting  stock. 

The  Cleveland  Bay  and  Suffolk  Peenche . — These  make  fine  stylish  carriage  horses, 
being  lighter  and  more  active  than  either  of  the  above,  with  plenty  of  movement 
and  good  carriage  for  the  road.  The  Suffolk  Peenche  as  a rule  are  shorter  jointed 
and  more  compactly  built,  and  of  a sorrel  color. 

Scrubs. — In  this  class  are  enumerated  all  horses  less  than  half  breeds  of  any  well- 
established  and  well-recognized  class.  This  includes  the  light  weight,  mongrel 
“native,”  the  mustang,  the  Indian  pony,  and  some  others. 

The  Draft-Horse. — This  is  the  race  which  first  made  the  name  of  La  Perche 
famous.  They  were  from  fifteen  to  sixteen  hands  high,  weighing  from  twelve  hun- 
dred to  fourteen  hundred  pounds.  Their  ability  to  move  heavy  loads  at  a rapid  rate, 
as  well  as  for  use  in  post  carriages  and  omnibuses,  brought  them  into  prominence. 
But  there  being  a demand  for  larger  frame  and  greater  weight  they  were  crossed 


406 


THE  AMERICAN  HORSE— POINTS  IN  BUYING. 


with  the  large,  lumbering  draft  horses  imported  from  Flanders.  In  the  main  these 
descendants  possess  the  endurance  and  action  of  the  original  Percherons,  having  a 
long,  elastic  step,  fine  legs,  a long,  tough  hoof,  a kind  and  spirited  disposition,  with 
the  weight  and  strength  of  the  true  draft-horse.  They  are,  moreover,  sure  breeders. 

TRAINING  A Colt. — He  should  be  weaned  when  five  or  seven  months  of  age, 
being  first  taught  to  eat  and  drink.  The  education  of  the  colt  should  be  commenced 
very  early,  even  before  he  is  weaned.  Let  the  owner  often  pet  and  caress  him  with 
his  own  hand  while  feeding  him.  Teach  him  the  use  of  the  halter,  both  in  the  stall 
and  about  the  yard,  also  to  be  led  by  the  foretop.  Kindness  and  never  harshness 
should  be  the  rule.  “A  hand  of  steel  in  a velvet  glove,”  is  the  maxim,  never  permit- 
ting the  colt  to  obtain  the  least  advantage  over  his  master.  Uniform  mastery  over 
himself  and  over  the  animal  will  accomplish  wonders  in  the  breaking  of  the  young 
horse.  Much  patience  and  a firm  hand  are  needed  at  every  step  in  the  process. 

To  teach  the  colt  to  obey  the  word  of  command  it  is  imperatively  necessary  to 
impress  upon  him  its  meaning.  Take  one  command  at  a time  and  see  that  he 
understands  and  executes  it.  For  example,  to  teach  him  to  stop  at  the  word 
“whoa,”  fasten  a strap  to  the  colt’s  right  fore  foot  and  pass  it  over  his  back,  then 
walk  to  his  left  side,  pull  down  the  strap  and  say,  “whoa,”  in  a firm,  but  mild  tone 
of  voice.  Repeat  the  process  until  he  understands  the  meaning  of  the  word. 

WHAT  TO  NOTICE  WHEN  BUYING  A HORSE.  Examine  the  horse  in 
an  outdoor  light.  See  that  the  feet  are  of  uniform  size  and  free  from  cracks  or  rings. 

Eyes. — Examine  them  closely  and  thoroughly  while  the  horse  is  kept  quiet. 
The  shying  of  many  horses  is  caused  by  defective  eyes.  A horse  with  either  eye  not 
actually  perfect  is  unsound. 

Corns  are  mostly  on  the  inside  of  the  heels  and  look  like  bruises.  In  the  thin, 
brittle  hoof  they  are  the  worst.  In  a strong  hoof  they  are  of  less  consequence,  pro- 
vided they  are  not  soft  corns.  If  a horse  is  a superior  one  with  good  hoofs,  do  not 
reject  him  on  this  account. 

Thrushes  are  situated  in  the  frogs  of  the  feet,  rendering  them  ragged  and 
causing  a fetid  moisture.  With  proper  treatment  they  are  of  little  consequence; 
but  when  neglected  they  turn  to  canker — which  is  troublesome  to  cure. 

Wind  Galls  are  situated  just  below  the  pastern  joint.  They  are  not  an  un- 
soundness, except  in  extreme  cases. 

THOROUGH  Pins  are  wind  galls  in  the  hocks.  Unless  they  cause  inconvenience, 
which  is  rarely  the  case,  they  are  not  an  unsoundness. 

SPLINTS  are  hard,  bony  lumps  inside  the  leg,  toward  the  back  of  the  cannon 
bone.  When  forming  they  may  cause  lameness;  but  after  they  are  formed  — unless 
they  are  under  a tendon— they  are  a blemish  of  the  least  consequence. 

CURBS  are  bony  enlargements  at  the  back  of  the  lower  part  of  the  hock  and  are 
considered  an  unsoundness. 

Ring  Bone  is  the  turning  into  bone  of  the  gristle  above  the  hoof.  It  causes  a 
ring-like  enlargement.  It  is  a permanent  unsoundness,  as  bone  cannot  be  changed 
back  into  gristle. 


THE  AMERICAN  HORSE — KlS  CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT. 


SPAVINS  are  an  enlargement  on  the  inside  and  rather  toward  the  front  of  the 
hock,  and  are  an  unsoundness. 

Blood  Spavins  are  an  enlargement  of  the  thigh  vein  which  passes  over  the 
inside  of  the  hock.  Blood  spavins  are  of  rare  occurrence  and  rarely  produce 
lameness. 

Capped  Hocks  are  the  result  of  blows  or  kicks.  They  are  not  an  unsoundness. 

SPRING  Halt  is  an  awkward  catch  of  the  hind  leg.  It  can  easily  be  detected 
when  the  horse  comes  out  of  the  stable.  Also  see  if  one  hip  is  lower  than  the  other. 
If  so,  this  is  an  unsoundness. 

Have  the  horse  driven  or  exercised,  and  listen  to  perceive  if  his  wind  is  broken. 

WHY  YOU  SHOULD  BLANKET  YOUR  HORSE.  Blanketing  a horse  in 
the  stable  makes  his  coat  short  and  sleek.  ThL  makes  him  look  more  valuable,  and 
it  is  easier  to  keep  him  clean  than  a long-haired  horse.  An  unblanketed  horse  has  a 
long  and  shaggy  coat,  which  makes  him  look  rough  and  requires  a great  deal  of  time 
to  keep  him  clean. 

A short-coated  horse  after  driving  can  be  rubbed  dry  in  half  the  time  required 
for  drying  a shaggy  horse ; and  if  you  have  a shaggy  horse,  unless  you  spend  a long 
time  rubbing  him  dry,  the  sweat  retained  by  the  long  coat  will  cause  him  to  catch 
cold  and  make  him  stiff. 

Buy  good  Horse  Blankets,  save  trouble  and  make  your  horse  worth  more. 

The  Farm , Field  and  Stockman,  of  Chicago,  one  of  the  most  influential  agricul- 
tural papers,  said,  December  8th,  1888: 

“ Every  kind-hearted  man  should  provide  his  horse  with  a comfortable  blanket, 
both  for  stable  wear  and  for  covering  when  hitched  out  of  doors.  Nor  is  it  a matter 
of  kindness  alone,  but  really  a matter  of  economy.  A well-blanketed  horse  will  keep 
in  good  condition,  and  in  the  spring  will  be  better  prepared  for  hard  work,  on  less 
feed,  than  one  not  blanketed.  The  cost  of  a blanket  will  be  more  than  saved  in  the 
feed,  besides  adding  to  the  physical  comfort  and  appearance  of  the  beast.  When 
purchasing  a blanket  it  is  an  object  to  get  the  best  for  your  money.  A good  blanket, 
which  will  wear  well,  is  the  cheapest  in  the  end.” 

REMEDIES  FOR  SICK  HORSES.  Colic. — Pulverize  half  an  ounce  of  car- 
bonate of  ammonia  and  quarter  of  an  ounce  of  ground  Jamaica  ginger  together; 
dissolve  in  a pint  of  water.  Give  every  twenty  minutes  until  horse  is  relieved.  If 
colic  is  from  indigestion  and  there  is  no  swelling,  give  a quart  of  raw  linseed  oil 
first  and  the  above  prescription  afterward. 

FOUNDER. — Take  off  the  front  shoes;  soak  the  front  feet  in  warm  water  for 
two  hours,  night  and  morning;  keep  warm  bran  poultice  on  the  feet ; give  a light 
dose  of  physic.  Keep  well  blanketed. 

SCRATCHES  OR  Sore  Heels. — Cut  the  hair  off  close  and  wash  the  part  clean. 
Dissolve  one  pound  of  sulphate  of  zinc  in  a gallon  of  water  and  apply  night  and 
morning.  Keep  the  leg  warm  with  dry  flannel  bandages. 

Nails  IN  the  Foot. — Clean  the  wound;  soak  in  warm  water;  keep  bran  poul- 
tices on.  Do  not  put  on  spirits  of  salts,  or  anything,  but  leave  the  rest  to  nature. 


408 


THE  AMERICAN  HORSE — HIS  CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT. 


Sore  Back  and  Shoulders. — Keep  clean,  and  apply  solution  of  sulphate  of 
zinc  twice  a day  (one  pound  sulphate  of  zinc  to  a gallon  of  water). 

Wounds,  Cuts,  Etc. — Apply  a solution  of  sulphate  of  zinc. 

Inflamed  Eyes. — Bathe  with  warm  water,  and  apply  a lotion  of  laudanum — 
one  ounce  to  eight  ounces  of  rain  water. 

Rheumatism  and  Lameness. — Give  a light  dose  of  physic,  bathe  well  with 
warm  water,  and  keep  hot  damp  woollen  bandages  on  for  two  days,  then  apply  lini- 
ment (turpentine,  2 ounces;  hartshorn,  ]/2  ounce,  with  a pint  of  sweet  oil)  once  or 
twice  a day.  Use  the  same  liniment  for  Sore  Throat.  Keep  well  blanketed. 

Breaking  and  Training. — The  horse  should  become  trained  to  the  duties 
which  he  must  perform,  then  it  will  become  natural  and  not  irksome.  The  proper 
training  will  not  fatigue  the  animal  any  more  than  his  voluntary' exercise  if  suffered 
to  run  at  large. 

The  trainer  should  bear  in  mind  the  following  things: 

ist.  That  obedience  is  the  ruling  principle  in  the  nature  of  the  horse,  and  there 
need  be  no  use  of  violence. 

2d.  He  is  ignorant  of  his  own  strength,  and  it  is  wise  to  keep  him  so  by  kindness.. 

3d.  That  fear  in  the  horse  as  in  man  is  born  of  ignorance,  and  therefore  you  have 
only  to  accustom  him  to  an  object  of  which  he  stands  in  dread  to  show  that  it  will 
not  harm  him.  The  best  means  is  to  allow  him  to  examine  the  object  in  the  most 
natural  way. 

4th.  That  to  make  him  obey  he  has  only  to  make  him  understand  what  is  wanted 
of  him. 

5th.  That  the  best  way  is  to  regard  him  as  an  intelligent  creature,  and  teach  him 
that  man  is  his  superior  and  best  friend. 

Care  in  THE  Stable. — The  principal  requisites  are  punctuality  and  regularity, 
for  the  physical  nature  of  the  horse  as  well  as  man  comes  to  be  governed  by  habit. 

Attention  should  be  paid  to  ventilation  and  cleanliness.  Feed  and  water  should 
be  supplied  at  regular  intervals,  for  the  stomach  will  be  regulated  by  habit,  and  ex- 
cessive thirst  and  hunger  will  be  avoided.  The  grooming  should  not  be  done  while 
the  horse  is  feeding.  All  accumulation  in  the  stable  of  refuse  material  will  engender 
foul  air,  which  will  be  harmful  to  the  animal,  therefore  mangers,  stalls,  and  every 
part  of  the  stable  requires  attention.  A horse  which  is  kept  well  groomed  and  in  a 
clean  stable  will  thrive  better  and  on  less  than  one  where  these  conditions  are  want- 
ing. Good  grooming  removes  all  outward  impurities,  which  if  allowed  to  remain 
there,  would  work  into  the  wrinkles  of  the  skin  and  produce  sores,  or  into  the  pores 
and  prevent  their  normal  functions.  It  not  only  removes  these  impurities,  but 
quickens  circulation  and  gives  nutrition  to  the  skin,  producing  a glossy  coat  of  hair 
and  better  health.  The  legs  should  be  washed  with  judicious  care,  always  leaving 
them  as  dry  as  possible.  It  is  important  to  furnish  abundant  bedding — the  best  is 
wheat  or  oat  straw. 

After  Work  OR  Exercise. — For  a weary  horse  there  should  be  supplied  only 
food  of  an  easy  kind  to  digest  and  in  moderate  quantity,  oats  or  barley  mixed  with  bran. 
A very  small  amount  of  water,  if  any,  and  that  not  cold.  A little  tepid  water  with 


THE  AMERICAN  HORSE HIS  CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT. 


409 


oats  or  barley  meal  thrown  in.  Do  not  torture  the  animal  under  the  pretence  of  cleaning 
him,  but  if  muddy  or  covered  with  perspiration  remove  gently  and  quietly,  and  allow  rest 
before  a thorough  cleaning. 

CARE  OF  FEET. — There  is  a whole  volume  in  the  pretty  maxim,  “No  foot , no 
horse!'  Many  writers  might  enlarge  upon  the  subject,  but  the  gist  of  the  matter  is  con- 
tained in  these  words.  The  construction  of  a horse’s  foot  is  most  wonderful  and  intricate. 
The  shoeing  should  be  done  by  a man  skilled  in  his  trade  and  possessing  a knowledge  of 
this  construction.  The  cutting  away  of  the  hoof  so  much,  as  is  generally  done,  is  a 
mistake.  Some  say  this  is  done  to  prevent  it  from  growing  out  of  shape,  but  there  is 
often  much  mischief  accomplished  by  this.  The  important  thing  is  to  use  judgment  and 
care  in  horse  shoeing  as  in  everything  else.  Keep  the  feet  dry.  Foot  ointments  should 
be  used  with  care. 

THE  CAUSES  OF  DISEASE  AND  THEIR  CURE.— It  is  far  better  to  prevent 
than  to  cure.  In  most  cases  the  disease  arises  from  ignorance  or  mismanagement.  Im- 
perfect stable  regulations  are  a prolific  cause.  In  his  normal  condition  the  horse 
is  always  health).  It  is  a mistake  to  drug  a horse  while  in  health  to  prevent  disease.  In 
complicated  or  critical  cases  a veterinary  surgeon  should  be  called,  but  in  disease  so 
trivial  that  a man  of  average  perception  can  understand,  medicines  may  be  safely  used. 

Do  not  bleed  ; keep  the  strength  of  the  horse  unimpaired,  attend  to  proper  ventila- 
tion of  stable,  and  the  warmth  of  body,  and  use  simple  remedies. 

Congestion  of  lungs  is  attended  with  shivering,  quickened  breathing  and  muscular 
twitching  of  the  flanks.  This  requires  skill.  If  the  blood  can  be  caused  to  circulate,  re- 
lief is  at  once  afforded  and  danger  is  over.  This  may  be  accomplished  in  most  cases  by 
the  use  of  hot  water  and  blankets,  with  promptness  and  persistence. 

Colic  is  caused  by  distension  of  the  bowels  with  unhealthy  gases,  and  is  attended 
with  much  pain.  If  there  are  no  intervals  in  the  pain  inflammation  has  set  in.  Avoid 
feeding  coarse  heavy  food  and  you  avoid  danger. 

Splints,  or  boring  enlargements  on  the  inside  of  the  fore-leg  require  strong  blisters 
and  rest.  Swelled  legs  and  cracked  heels  call  for  tonics.  These  symptoms  follow  hard 
work  after  feeding  at  grass,  but  good  diet  and  alteratives  with  proper  exercise  will  remedy 
the  trouble.  A dry  stall,  washing  and  the  use  of  ointments  based  on  glycerine,  with 
moderate  exercise  is  the  course  prescribed  for  cracked  heels.  Lameness,  arising  from 
over  work,  demands  perfect  rest.  Horses  put  to  violent  exercise  are  subject  to  strains  of 
the  tendons  and  ligaments,  then  the  treatment  depends  upon  the  circumstancs  of  the 
case.  Usually  a dose  of  physic,  cooling  applications  and  a continued  rest  are  required. 
Strong  blisters  and  sometimes  firing  must  be  resorted  to  in  severe  cases.  Bone  spavin 
is  the  result  of  straining  and  too  hard  work.  It  is  a bony  deposit  inside  the  joints  of  the 
hock.  Begin  treatment  at  once.  If  neglected  it  becomes  incurable.  Much  depends  upon 
the  part  of  the  hock  affected  in  regard  to  method  of  treatment. 

Corns  are  caused  by  improper  driving,  and  indicate  injury  to  the  feeling  part  of  the 
hoof.  The  corn  will  yield  if  treated  properly  as  soon  as  discovered.  It  may  be  pared 
and  the  shoe  shaped  to  prevent  pressure  on  the  heel.  Those  preparations  which  pro- 
mote the  growth  of  the  horse  may  be  resorted  to,  and  ointments  that  relieve  inflammation. 

Wounds  should  be  cleansed  with  warm  suds,  made  of  castile  soap,  and  all  foreign 
matter  shculd  be  removed.  Then  apply  ointments  of  a cooling  and  healing  nature, 


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saeletci:  urn  “yorars”  nrorm. 

Bok-"^. — 1 Cranium  ; 2 Lower  Jaw;  r Cer^cal  Vertebr;,*  <£,  4 Dwaa'  ^Nj?} 

tebrse ; 6.  6 Sacrum-;  7,  7 Coccjg. Vertebrae-  8 "Jterrium ; *•,  9 ,iv  ae  Riba,  Vft  tO  Cartilage  "sll 
True  Ribs;  l1.,  11  False  Ribs;'  12,  12  Cartilages  of  J .Ise  RL  „3 ; 13  C.**,ula;  14  Hum^ruc;  15  Radius;  Ifl 
jfSIiow ; 17  Os  Pisiferme  ;’  18,  19,  20,  21,  22,  23  Carpal  Boi  ea ; 24  Large  Metacaiv:?.,!  Bone ; %5  O'Pter  SmaFb 
llei.?earpa!  Bone ; 26  faster  SsialJ  V / j^aroal  Bone  ; 27,  28  Sesamoid  F a.  es  ; 29  Os  Suffraginis ; 30  Os  Coro- 
nae;  31  Gs  Pedis;’  32  Wi^g  of  Peaal  Bone;  33,  'u  36  O.-  1 .,‘omin.Jum ; "7  Femur,  38  Tibia,  M >> 
'Caleis;  40  Astragalus ; 4f,  02,  43,  44  ifsr^al  Bones;  45  -Cdi-ge  Metatarsal  ; 16  084*?  5 mal?  Met«taj»J< 
Bone ; 47  Inner  Small  Metatai-sal  Bone. 

Teeth,  Joints,  Ero. — A Ildar  Teeth-;  3,  H Canine  -s?  Tui.h ; C,  I Incisors ; S.<  ; G Crbit  ; 64 

sXriniform  Cartilage ; N EcruUai  Ca.  vilage ; <0  Co.acoid  iroeec  of  f5capuP  ; P "pine ; Q Cartilage*?* 

'Trochanter Maio* ; S Sub-Trocnanleriac  Crest;  x xN'ihleaj^U  Exte  nd  Cor  dy!v;  V Pa?Afia;  W H«lt 
•Joint. 

Parts. — a Forehead;  b CvTPi? n^o'e  the  i X)  Tempt' ,'  <3.  Lips;  e ji'uff , f Nostril* i % 'T'.p 

Nose;  li  B-arcL ; i Chi..,-  j Neck;  k iFuroat;  1 inane;  m Ior*Top;  v«  Cncst ; o Shoulders ; f.  W2tt«nj 
q Arm;  r Knee ; s iViank ; t Fetlock  Joint;  u Pastern;  v Coronet ^ ^ • « iPsflook ; 7 B.'ck  Slu- 

cws  or  2&£in  Tendonj;  * Plate  Vein;  a n Cbesnut;  b b Quarters:  c c Toe;  d d Keel;  e e ETlho*  ; 1 f 

Reins;  g g Ribs;  h h Flanks;  i i l«fely ; j j Fillets;  k * Tai! ; 1 * Rump;  m no. Buttocks;  a -« 
e to  i launches;  p £ ‘3'oighs ; «,  q 1 of  titj  :\&y£ ; £ &’  J'Xafcjp*. 


LATEST  LAWS  FOR  ATHLETIC  SPORTS. 

AS  ADOPTED  BY  THE  VARIOUS  ASSOCIATIONS: 

LA  CROSSE,  FOOT-BALL,  BOWLING,  LAWN  TENNIS,  QUOITS, 
BASE-BALL,  FENCING,  AND  ARCHERY. 

Importance  of  a Knowledge  of  the  Laws. 

It  is  of  paramount  importance  that  all  officials,  and  especially  referees,  should 
have  a thorough  knowledge  and  clear  understanding  of  not  only  the  special  rules 
and  regulations  that  govern  the  issues  on  which  they  are  called  on  to  decide,  but 
also  the  legal  bearings  which  may  be  involved  in  the  decisions  that  they  make.  We 
have  before  us  many  cases  in  Athletics,  which,  from  erroneous  decisions  by  officials, 
have  been  the  means  of  dragging  them  before  the  judicial  authorities  of  both  Eng- 
land and  America. 


Laws  of  Lacrosse. 

The  following  Revised  Laws  are  those 
adopted  by  the  National  Lacrosse  Asso- 
ciation of  Canada: 

1.  Section  I.  The  crosse  may  be  of  any 
length  to  suit  the  player,  woven  with 
catgut,  which  must  not  be  bagged. 
(“  Catgut  ” is  intended  to  mean  raw-hide- 
gut  or  clock  strings,  not  cord  or  soft 
leather.)  The  netting  must  be  flat  when 
the  ball  is  not  in  it.  In  its  widest  part 
the  crosse  shall  not  exceed  one  foot.  No 
string  must  be  brought  through  any  hole 
at  the  side  of  the  tip  of  the  turn.  A 
leading-string  resting  upon  the  top  of  the 
stick  may  be  used,  but  not  fastened  so  as 
to  form  a pocket  lower  down  the  slick 
than  to  the  end  of  the  length-strings. 
The  length-strings  must  be  woven  to  with- 
in two  inches  of  their  termination,  so 
that  the  ball  cannot  catch  in  the  meshes. 

Sec.  II.  Players  may  change  their  crosse 
during  a match. 

2.  The  ball  must  be  India-rubber 


sponge,  not  less  than  eight  and  not  more 
than  nine  inches  in  circumference.  In 
matches  it  must  be  furnished  by  the  chal- 
lenged party. 

3.  The  goals  may  be  placed  any  dis- 
tance from  each  other,  and  in  any  posi- 
tion agreeable  to  the  captains  of  both 
sides.  The  top  of  the  hag-poles  must  be 
six  feet  above  the  ground,  including  any 
top  ornaments,  and  six  feet  apart.  In 
matches  they  must  be  furnished  by  the 
challenged  party. 

4.  There  shall  be  a line  or  crease,  to  be 
called  the  goal-crease,  drawn  in  front  of 
each  goal,  six  feet  from  the  flag-poles, 
within  which  no  opponent  must  stand 
unless  the  ball  has  passed  cover-point. 

5.  Sec.  I.  There  must  be  two  umpires 
at  each  goal,  one  for  each  side,  who  must 
stand  behind  the  flags  when  the  ball  is 
near  or  nearing  the  goal,  unless  otherwise 
agreed  upon  by  the  captains.  They  must 
not  be  members  of  either  club  engaged  in 
the  match,  nor  shall  they  be  changed 
during  a match  except  for  reasons  of  ill- 


412 


LAWS  FOR  ATHLETIC  SPORTS. 


ness  or  injury.  They  must  be  thoroughly 
acquainted  with  the  game,  and  in  every 
way  competent  to  act.  Before  a match 
begins  they  shall  draw  the  players  up  in 
line,  and  see  that  the  regulations  respect- 
ing the  crosse,  spikes,  soles,  etc.,  etc.,  are 
complied  with.  They  must  also  see  that 
the  regulations  are  adhered  to  respecting 
the  ball,  goal,  crease,  etc.,  and,  in  decid- 
ing any  of  these  points,  shall  take  the 
opinions  of  the  captains  and  the  referee. 
They  must  know  before  the  commence- 
ment of  a match  the  number  of  games  to 
be  played.  They  shall  have  power  to  de- 
cide all  disputes,  subject  to  Law  6,  and 
to  suspend  for  anytime  during  the  match 
any  player  infringing  these  laws,  the  game 
to  go  on  during  such  suspension. 

Sec.  II.  No  umpire,  either  directly  or 
indirectly,  shall  be  interested  in  any  bet 
upon  the  results  of  the  match.  No  per- 
son shall  be  allowed  to  speak  to  the  um- 
pires, or  in  any  way  distract  their  atten- 
tion when  the  ball  is  near  or  nearing  the 
goal. 

Sec.  III.  When  “ foul  ” has  been  called, 
the  umpires  must  leave  their  posts  and 
cry  “time,”  and  from  that  time  the  ball 
must  not  be  touched  by  either  party,  nor 
must  the  players  move  from  the  position 
in  which  they  were  standing  in  at  the 
moment,  until  the  umpires  have  returned 
to  their  posts  and  “play”  is  called.  If  a 
player  should  be  in  possession  of  the  ball 
when  the  umpires  leave  their  posts,  he 
must  drop  it  on  the  ground  in  front;  if 
the  ball  enters  the  goal  after  the  umpires 
leave  their  posts  it  will  not  count.  The 
jurisdiction  of  umpires  shall  not  extend 
beyond  the  day  of  their  appointment; 
they  shall  not  decide  in  any  matter  in- 
volving the  continuance  of  a match  be- 
yond the  day  on  which  it  is  played. 

6.  The  umpires  shall  select  a referee, 


to  whom  all  disputed  games  and  points, 
whereon  they  are  tied,  may  be  left  for 
decision,  and  who  must  be  thoroughly 
acquainted  with  the  game,  and  in  every 
way  competent  to  act.  He  shall  take  the 
evidence  of  the  players  particularly  in- 
terested, the  respective  opinions  and  offers 
of  the  captains.  In  cases  where  the  dis- 
continuance of  the  game  is  threatened, 
his  decision  shall  be  final.  Any  side  re- 
jecting his  decision  by  refusing  to  con- 
tinue the  match,  shall  be  declared  the 
losers.  The  referee  must  be  on  the 
ground  at  the  commencement  of,  and 
during  the  match,  but  during  the  play  he 
shall  not  be  between  the  two  goals.  The 
referee  has  no  right  to  express  an  opin- 
ion, and  any  expressed  opinion  must  be 
taken  as  his  decision.  His  “ first  ” deci- 
sion must  in  all  cases  be  final. 

7.  Captains  to  superintend  the  play 
may  be  appointed  by  each  side  previous 
to  the  commencement  of  a match.  They 
shall  be  members  of  the  club  by  whom 
they  are  appointed,  and  of  no  other. 
They  may  or  may  not  be  players  in  a 
match ; if  not,  they  shall  not  carry  a 
crosse,  nor  shall  they  be  dressed  in  La- 
crosse uniform.  They  shall  select  um- 
pires, and  toss  up  for  choice  of  goal. 
They  shall  report  any  infringement  of  laws 
during  a match  to  the  nearest  umpires. 

8.  The  players  of  each  side  shall  be 
designated  as  follows  : “ Goal-Keeper,  who 
defends  the  goal ; Point , first  man  out 
from  goal;  Cover-Point , in  front  of  Point ; 
Centre , who  faces  Home  nearest  oppo- 
nent’s goal.  Others  are  Fielders . 

9.  Sec.  I.  Twelve  players  shall  consti- 
tute a full  field,  and  they  must  have  been 
regular  members  of  the  club  they  repre- 
sent, and  no  other,  for  at  least  thirty  days 
prior. 

Sec.  II.  A match  shall  be  decided  by 


LAWS  FOR  ATHLETIC  SPORTS. 


413 


the  winning  of  three  games  out  of  five, 
unless  otherwise  agreed  upon. 

Sec.  III.  Captains  shall  arrange  previ- 
ous to  a match  whether  it  is  to  be  played 
out  in  one  day,  or  postponed  at  a stated 
hour,  in  the  event  of  rain,  darkness,  etc., 
or  to  be  considered  a draw  under  certain 
circumstances,  and,  if  postponed,  if  it  is 
to  be  resumed  where  left  off. 

Sec.  IV.  If  postponed  and  resumed 
where  left  off,  there  shall  be  no  change 
of  players  on  either  side. 

Sec.  V.  Either  side  may  claim  at  least 
five  minutes’  rest,  and  not  more  than  ten, 
between  each  game. 

Sec.  VI.  No  Indian  must  play  in  a 
match  for  a club  unless  previously  agreed 
upon. 

Sec.  VII.  After  each  game  the  players 
must  change  sides. 

Sec.  VIII.  No  change  of  players  must 
be  made  after  a match  has  commenced, 
except  by  reasons  of  accident  or  injury 
during  the  match ; when  a match  has 
been  agreed  upon  and  one  side  is  deficient 
in  the  number  of  players,  their  opponents 
may  either  limit  their  own  numbers  to 
equalize  the  sides,  or  compel  the  other 
side  to  fill  up  the  complement. 

10.  No  player  must  wear  spiked  soles. 

11.  The  ball  must  not  be  touched  with 
the  hand,  save  in  the  case  of  Rules  12 
and  13. 

12.  Goal-keeper,  while  defending  goal, 
within  the  goal  crease,  may  put  away 
with  his  hand  or  block  the  ball  in  any 
manner. 

13.  Should  the  ball  lodge  in  any  place 
inaccessible  to  the  crosse,  it  may  be  taken 
out  by  the  hand,  and  the  party  picking  it 
up  must  face  with  his  nearest  opponent. 

14.  Ball  thrown  out  of  bounds  must  be 
picked  up  with  the  hand,  and  faced  for  at 
the  nearest  spot  within  bounds. 


15.  No  player  shall  throw  his  crosse  at 
a player  or  at  the  ball  under  any  circum- 
stances. 

16.  Should  the  ball  be  accidentally  put 
through  a goal  by  one  of  the  players  de- 
fending it,  it  is  game  for  the  side  attack- 
ing that  goal.  Should  it  be  put  through 
a goal  by  any  one  not  actually  a player, 
it  shall  not  count. 

17.  Should  the  ball  catch  in  the  net- 
ting, the  crosse  must  immediately  be 
struck  on  the  ground  so  as  to  dislodge  it. 

18.  No  player  shall  take  hold  of  an- 
other’s crosse,  nor  shall  grasp  opponent's 
stick  with  his  hands,  under  his  arms,  nor 
between  his  legs,  nor  shall  any  player 
hold  his  opponent’s  crosse  with  his  crosse 
in  any  way  to  keep  him  from  the  ball 
until  another  player  reaches  it. 

19.  Any  player  raising  his  fist  to  strike 
another  shall  be  immediately  ruled  out  of 
the  match. 

20.  Sec.  I.  Any  player  considering  him- 
self purposely  injured  during  play  must 
report  to  his  captain,  who  must  report  to 
the  umpires,  who  shall  warn  the  players 
complained  of. 

Sec.  II.  In  the  event  of  persistent  foul- 
ing, after  cautioning  by  the  umpires,  the 
latter  may  declare  the  match  lost  by  the 
side  thus  offending,  or  may  remove  the 
offending  player  or  players,  and  compel 
the  side  to  finish  the  match  short-handed. 

21.  In  the  event  of  a match  being  in- 

terrupted by  darkness,  or  to  any  other 
cause  considered  right  by  the  umpires, 
and  one  side  having  won  two  games,  the 
other  none,  the  side  having  won  the  two 
games  shall  be  declared  winners  of  the 
match.  Should  one  side  have  won  two 
games  and  the  other  one,  the  match  shall 
be  considered  drawn.  » 

22.  In  the  event  of  a flag-pole  being 
knocked  down  during  the  game,  and  the 


414 


LAWS  FOR  ATHLETIC  SPORTS. 


ball  put  through  what  should  be  the  goal 
if  the  flag  were  standing,  it  will  count 
game  for  the  side  putting  it  through. 

23.  Any  amendment  or  alteration  pro- 
posed to  be  made  in  any  of  these  laws 
shall  be  made  only  at  the  Annual  Con- 
ventions of  the  National  Association,  and 
by  a three-fourths  vote  of  the  members 
present. 

Football. 

The  following  Revised  and  latest  Laws 
of  Foot-ball  are  those  adopted  by  the 
Rugby  Union : 

1.  A drop-kick  or  drop , is  rtiade  by  let- 
ting the  ball  fall  from  the  hands,  and 
kicking  it  at  the  very  instant  it  rises. 

2.  A place-kick  or  place , is  made  by 
kicking  the  ball  after  it  has  been  placed 
in  a nick  made  in  the  ground  for  the  pur- 
pose of  keeping  it  at  rest. 

3.  A punt  is  made  by  letting  the  ball 
fall  from  the  hands,  and  kicking  it  before 
it  touches  the  ground. 

4.  Each  goal  shall  be  composed  of  two 
upright  posts  exceeding  11  feet  in  height 
from  the  ground,  and  placed  18  feet  6 
inches  apart,  with  a cross-bar  10  feet 
from  the  ground. 

5.  A goal  can  only  be  obtained  by  kick- 
ing the  ball  from  the  field  of  play  direct 
(without  touching  the  ground,  or  the  dress 
or  person  of  any  player  of  either  side) 
over  the  cross-bar  of  the  opponents’  goal, 
whether  it  touch  such  cross-bar  or  the 
posts  or  not ; but  if  the  ball  goes  directly 
over  either  of  the  goal-posts,  it  is  called 
a poster,  and  is  not  a goal.  A goal  may 
be  obtained  by  any  kind  of  kick  except 
a punt. 

6.  A try  is  gained  when  a player  touches 
the  ball  down  in  his  opponent’s  goal. 

7.  A match  shall  be  decided  by  a ma- 
jority of  goals,  but  if  the  number  of  goals 


be  equal,  or  if  no  goal  be  kicked  by  a 
majority  of  tries,  or  if  no  goal  be  kicked 
or  try  obtained,  the  match  shall  be  drawn. 
When  a goal  is  kicked  from  a try,  a goal 
only  is  scored. 

8.  The  ball  is  dead  when  it  rests  abso- 
lutely motionless  on  the  ground. 

9.  A touch  down  is  when  a player,  put- 
ting his  hand  upon  the  ball  on  the  ground, 
in  touch  or  in  goal,  stops  it  so  that  it  re- 
mains dead  or  fairly  so. 

10.  A tackle  is  when  the  holder  of  the 
ball  is  held  by  one  or  more  players  of  the 
opposite  side. 

11.  A scrimmage  takes  place  when  the 
holder  of  the  ball  being  in  the  field  of 
play  puts  it  down  on  the  ground  in  front 
of  him,  and  all  who  have  closed  round  on 
their  respective  sides  endeavor  to  push 
their  opponents  back,  and  by  kicking  the 
ball  to  drive  it  in  the  direction  of  the  op- 
posite goal-line. 

12.  A player  may  take  up  the  ball 
whenever  it  is  rolling  or  bounding,  except 
in  a scrimmage. 

13.  It  is  not  lawful  to  take  up  the  ball 
when  dead  (except  in  order  to  bring  it 
out  after  it  has  been  touched  down,  in 
touch  or  in  goal)  for  any  purpose  what- 
ever. Whenever  the  ball  shall  have  been 
so  unlawfully  taken  up,  it  shall  at  once 
be  brought  back  to  where  it  was  so  taken 
up  and  there  put  down. 

14.  In  a scrimmage  it  is  not  lawful  to 
touch  the  ball  with  the  hand  under  any 
circumstances  whatever. 

15.  It  is  lawful  for  any  player  who  has 
the  ball  to  run  with  it,  and,  if  he  does  so, 
it  is  called  a run.  If  a player  runs  with 
the  ball  until  he  gets  behind  his  oppo- 
nent’s goal-line  and  there  touches  down, 
it  is  called  a run  in. 

16.  It  is  lawful  to  run  in  anywhere 

across  the  goal-line. 


LAWS  FOR  ATHLETIC  SPORTS. 


415 


17.  The  goal-line  is  in  goal,  and  the 
touch-line  is  in  touch. 

1 8.  In  the  event  of  any  player  holding 
or  running  with  the  ball  being  tackled, 
and  the  ball  fairly  held,  he  must  at  once 
cry  “ down,”  and  there  put  it  down. 

19.  A maul  in  goal  is  when  the  holder 
of  the  ball  is  tackled  inside  a goal-line,  or 
being  tackled  immediately  outside,  is  car- 
ried or  pushed  across  it,  and  he  on  the 
opposite  side,  or  both,  endeavor  to  touch 
the  ball  down.  In  all  cases  the  ball,  when 
so  touched  down,  shall  belong  to  the 
players  of  the  side  who  first  had  posses- 
sion of  it,  before  the  maul  commenced, 
unless  the  opposite  side  have  gained  entire 
possession  of  it. 

20.  In  case  of  a maul  in  goal  those  play- 
ers only  who  are  touching  the  ball  with 
their  hands,  when  it  croses  the  goal-line, 
may  continue  in  the  maul  in  goal,  and 
when  a player  has  once  released  his  hold 
of  the  ball  after  it  is  inside  the  goal-line, 
he  may  not  again  join  in  the  maul,  and, 
if  he  attempts  to  do  so,  he  may  be  dragged 
out  by  the  opposite  side.  But  if  a player, 
when  running  in,  is  tackled  inside  the 
goal-line,  then  only  the  player  who  first 
tackled  him,  or  if  two  or  more  tackle  him 
simultaneously,  they  only  may  join  in  the 
maul. 

21.  Immediately  the  ball,  whether  in 
the  hands  of  a player  or  not,  goes  into 
touch  in  goal,  it  is  at  once  dead  and  out 
of  the  game,  and  must  be  brought  out  as 
provided  by  Rules  41  and  42. 

22.  Every  player  is  on  side,  but  is  put 
off  side  if  he  enters  a scrimmage  from  his 
opponent’s  side,  or  being  in  a scrimmage 
gets  in  front  of  the  ball,  or  when  the  ball 
has  been  kicked,  touched,  or  is  being  run 
with  by  any  of  his  own  side  behind  him, 
between  himself  and  his  own  goal-line. 
No  player  can  be  off  side  in  his  own  goal. 


23.  Every  player,  when  off  side,  is  out 
of  the  game,  and  shall  not  touch  the  ball 
in  any  case  whatever,  either  in  or  out  of 
touch  or  goal,  or  in  any  way  interrupt  or 
obstruct  any  player  until  he  is  again  on 
side. 

24.  A player  being  off  side  is  put  on 
side  when  the  ball  has  been  run  with  five 
yards,  or  kicked  by,  or  has  touched  the 
dress  or  person  of  any  player  of  the  op- 
posite side,  or  when  one  of  his  own  side 
has  run  in  front  of  him,  either  with  a ball 
or  having  kicked  it  when  behind  him. 

25.  When  a player  has  the  ball,  none 
of  his  opponents  who  at  the  time  are  off 
side  may  commence  or  attempt  to  run, 
tackle,  or  otherwise  interrupt  such  player 
until  he  has  run  five  yards. 

26.  It  is  lawful  for  any  player  who  has 
the  ball  to  throw  it  back  toward  his  own 
goal,  or  to  pass  it  back  to  any  player  of 
his  own  side  who  is  at  the  time  behind 
him,  in  accordance  with  the  rules  of  on 
side. 

27.  Knocking  on,  that  is,  deliberately 
hitting  the  ball  with  the  hand,  and  (throw- 
ing forward)  throwing  the  ball  in  the  di- 
rection of  the  opponent’s  goal-line,  are 
not  lawful.  If  the  ball  be  either  knocked 
on  or  thrown  forward,  the  captain  of  the 
opposite  side  may  (unless  a fair  catch  has 
been  made  as  provided  by  the  next  rule), 
require  to  have  it  brought  back  to  the 
spot  where  it  was  so  knocked  on  or  thrown 
forward  and  there  put  down. 

28.  A fair  catch  is  a catch  made  direct 
from  a kick,  or  a throw  forward,  or  a 
knock  on,  by  one  of  the  opposite  side,  or 
from  a punt-out  or  a punt-on  (see  Rules 
29  and  30),  provided  the  catch  makes  a 
mark  with  his  heel  at  the  spot  where  he 
has  made  the  catch  and  no  other  of  his 
own  side  touch  the  ball.  (See  Rules  43 
and  44.) 


416 


LAWS  FOR  ATHLETIC  SPORTS. 


29.  K punt -out  is  a punt  made  after  a 
touch-down  by  a player  from  behind  his 
opponent’s  goal-line  toward  his  own  side, 
who  must  stand  outside  the  goal-line  and 
endeavor  to  make  a fair  catch,  or  to  get 
the  ball  and  run  in  or  drop  a goal.  (See 
Rules  49  and  51.) 

30.  A punt-on  is  a punt  made  in  a man- 
ner similar  to  a punt-out,  and  from  touch 
if  necessary,  by  a player  who  has  made  a 
fair  catch  from  a punt-out  or  another 
punt-on. 

31.  If  the  ball  goes  into  touch , the  first 
player  on  his  side  who  touches  it  down 
must  bring  it  to  the  spot  where  it  crossed 
the  touch  line;  or  if  a player,  when  run- 
ning with  the  ball,  cross  or  put  any  part 
of  either  foot  across  the  touch  line,  he 
must  return  with  the  ball  to  the  spot  where 
the  line  was-  so  crossed,  and  thence  re- 
turn it  into  the  field  of  play  in  one  of  the 
modes  provided  by  the  following  rule. 

32.  He  must  then  himself,  or  by  one  of 
his  own  side,  either 

i.  Bound  the  ball  in  the  field  of  play, 
and  then  run  with  it,  kick  it,  or  throw  it 
back  to  his  own  side;  or, 

ii.  Throw  it  out  at  right  angles  to  the 
touch  line ; or, 

iii.  Walk  out  with  it  at  right  angles  to 
the  touch  line  any  distance  not  less  than 
five  nor  more  than  fifteen  yards,  and  there 
put  it  down,  first  declaring  how  far  he  in- 
tends to  walk  out. 

33.  If  two  or  more  players  holding  the 
ball  are  pushed  into  touch , the  ball  shall 
belong  in  touch  to  the  player  who  first  had 
hold  of  it  in  the  field  of  play,  and  has  not 
released  his  hold  of  it. 

34.  If  the  ball  when  thrown  out  of 
touch  be  not  thrown  out  at  right  angles 
to  the  touch  line,  the  captain  of  either 
side  may  at  once  claim  to  have  it  thrown 
out  again. 


35.  A catch  made  when  the  ball  is 
thrown  out  of  touch  is  not  a fair  catch. 

36.  Kick  off  is  a place-kick  from  the 
centre  of  the  field  of  play,  and  cannot 
count  as  a goal.  The  opposite  side  must 
stand  at  least  ten  yards  in  front  of  the 
ball  until  it  has  been  kicked.  If  the  ball 
pitch  in  touch  it  shall  be  brought  back 
and  kicked  off  again. 

37.  The  ball  shall  be  kicked  off 

i.  At  the  commencement  of  the  game. 

ii.  After  a goal  has  been  obtained. 

iii.  After  change  of  goals  at  half-time'. 

38.  Each  side  shall  play  from  either 
goal  for  an  equal  time. 

39.  The  captains  of  the  respective  sides 
shall  toss  up  before  commencement  of 
the  match;  the  winner  of  the  toss  shall 
have  the  option  of  choice  of  goals,  or  the 
kick  off. 

40.  Whenever  a goal  shall  have  been 
obtained,  the  side  which  has  lost  the  goal 
shall  then  kick  off.  When  goals  have 
been  changed  at  half-time,  the  side  which 
did  not  kick  off  at  the  commencement  of 
the  game  shall  then  kick  off. 

41.  Kick  out  is  a drop-kick  by  one  of 
the  players  of  the  side  which  has  had  to 
touch  the  ball  down  in  their  own  goal  or 
into  whose  touch  in  goal  the  ball  has  gone 
(Rule  21),  and  is  the  mode  of  bringing 
the  ball  again  into  play,  and  cannot  count 
as  a goal. 

42.  Kick  out  must  be  a drop  kick , and 
from  not  more  than  twenty-five  yards  out- 
side the  kicker’s  goal-line.  If  the  ball 
when  kicked  out  pitch  in  touch,  it  must 
be  taken  back  and  kicked  out  again.  The 
kicker’s  side  must  be  behind  the  ball  when 
kicked  out. 

43.  A player  who  has  made  and  claimed 
a fair  catch  shall  thereupon  either  take  a 
drop  kick , or  a punt , or  place  the  ball  for 
a place-kick. 


LAWS  FOR  ATHLETIC  SPORTS. 


417 


44.  After  a fair  catch  has  been  made 
the  opposite  side  may  come  up  to  the 
catcher’s  mark,  and  (except  in  cases  un- 
der Rule  50)  the  catcher’s  side  retiring, 
the  ball  shall  be  kicked  from  such  mark, 
or  from  a spot  any  distance  behind  it. 

45.  A player  may  touch  the  ball  down 
in  his  own  goal  at  any  time. 

46.  A side  having  touched  the  ball 
down  in  their  opponents’  goal  shall  try  at 
goal  either  by  a place-kick  or  a punt-out. 

47-  H a try  at  goal  be  made  by  place- 
kick , a player  of  the  side  who  has  touched 
the  ball  down  shall  bring  it  up  to  the 
goal-line  (subject  to  Rule  48),  in  a straight 
line  from  and  opposite  to  the  spot  where 
the  ball  was  touched  down,  and  there 
make  a mark  on  the  goal-line,  and  thence 
walk  straight  out  with  it  at  right  an- 
gles to  the  goal-line,  such  distance  as 
he  thinks  proper,  and  there  place  it  for 
another  of  his  side  to  kick.  The  kicker’s 
side  must  be  behind  the  ball  when  it  is 
kicked,  and  the  opposite  side  must  remain 
behind  their  goal-line  until  the  ball  has 
been  placed  on  the  ground.  (See  Rules 
54  and  55.) 

48.  If  the  ball  has  been  touched  down 
between  the  goal-posts  it  must  be  brought 
out  in  a straight  line  from  either  of  such 
posts. 

49.  If  the  try  at  goal  be  by  a punt-out 
(see  Rule  29),  a player  of  the  side  which 
has  touched  the  ball  down  shall  bring  it 
straight  up  to  the  goal-line  opposite  to 
the  spot  where  it  was  touched  down,  and 
there  make  a mark  on  the  goal-line  and 
then  punt-out.  The  opposite  must  keep 
behind  their  goal-line  until  the  ball  has 
been  kicked.  (See  Rules  54  and  55.) 

50.  If  a fair  catch  be  made  from  a punt- 
out  or  a punt-on  the  catcher  may  either 
proceed  as  provided  by  Rules  43  and  44, 
or  himself  take  a punt-on , in  which  case 


the  mark  made  on  making  the  fair  catch 
shall  be  regarded  (for  the  purpose  of  de- 
termining as  well  the  position  of  the 
player  who  makes  the  punt-on  as  of  the 
other  players  of  both  sides)  as  the  mark 
made  on  the  goal-line  in  the  case  of  a 
punt-out. 

51.  A catch  made  in  touch  from  a punt- 
out  or  a punt-on  is  not  a fair  catch ; the 
ball  must  then  be  taken  or  thrown  out  of 
touch  as  provided  by  Rule  32,  but  if  the 
catch  be  made  in  touch  in  goal  the  ball  is 
at  once  dead,  and  must  be  kicked-out,  as 
provided  by  Rules  41  and  42. 

52.  When  the  ball  has  been  touched 
down  in  the  opponent’s  goal,  none  of  the 
side  in  whose  goal  it  has  been  so  touched 
down  shall  touch  it,  or  in  any  way  dis- 
place it  or  interfere  with  the  player  of 
the  other  side  who  may  be  taking  it  up  or 
out. 

53.  The  ball  is  dead  whenever  a goal 
has  been  obtained;  but  if  a try  at  goal  be 
not  successful,  the  kick  should  be  consid- 
ered as  only  an  ordinary  kick  in  the 
course  of  the  game. 

54.  Charging , i.e.,  rushing  forward  to 
kick  the  ball  or  tackle  a player,  is  lawful 
for  the  opposite  side,  in  case  the  player 
who  is  bringing  the  ball  out  after  a try  at 
goal  has  been  obtained  (see  Rules  47  and 
48)  shall  fail  to  make  a mark  on  the  goal- 
line, in  all  cases  of  a place-kick  after  a fair 
catch , or  upon  a try  at  goal , immediately 
the  ball  touches  or  is  placed  upon  the 
ground ; and  in  cases  of  a drop-kick  or 
punt  after  a fair  catch , as  soon  as  the 
player  having  the  ball  commences  to  run 
or  offers  to  kick,  or  the  ball  has  touched 
the  ground ; but  he  may  always  draw 
back,  and  flnless  he  has  dropped  the  ball 
or  actually  touched  it  with  his  foot,  they 
must  again  retire  to  his  mark.  (See  Rule 
56.)  The  opposite  side  in  the  case  of  a 


418 


LAWS  FOR  ATHLETIC  SPORTS. 


punt-out  ox  punt-on,  and  the  kicker’s  side, 
in  all  cases  may  not  charge  until  the  ball 
has  been  kicked. 

55.  If  a player,  having  the  ball  when 
about  to  pitnt  it  out , goes  outside  the 
goal-line,  or,  when  about  to  punt-on , ad- 
vances nearer  to  his  own  goal-line  than 
his  mark,  made  on  making  the  fair  catch, 
or  if,  after  the  ball  has  been  touched 
down  in  the  opponent’s  goal,  or  a fair 
catch  has  been  made,  more  than  one 
player  of  the  side  which  has  so  touched 
it  down  or  made  the  fair  catch,  touch  the 
ball  before  it  is  again  kicked,  the  oppo- 
site side  may  charge  at  once. 

56.  In  cases  of  a fair  catch  the  opposite 
side  may  come  up  to  and  charge  from 
anywhere  on  or  behind  a line  drawn 
through  the  mark  made  by  the  player 
who  has  made  the  catch,  and  parallel  to 
their  own  goal-line;  but  in  the  case  of  a 
fair  catch  from  a punt-out  or  a punt -on, 
they  may  not  advance  further  in  the  di- 
rection of  the  touch  line  nearer  to  such 
mark  than  a line  drawn  through  such 
mark  to  their  goal-line  and  parallel  to 
such  touch  line.  In  all  cases  (except  a 
punt-out  and  a punt-on ) the  kicker’s  side 
must  be  behind  the  ball  when  it  is  kicked, 
but  may  not  charge  until  it  has  been 
kicked. 

57.  No  hacking , or  hacking  over,  or  trip- 
ping up,  shall  be  allowed  under  any  cir- 
cumstances. 

58.  No  one  wearing  projecting  nails, 
iron  plates,  or  gutta  percha  on  any  part  of 
his  boots  or  shoes  shall  be  allowed  to 
play  in  a match. 

59.  That  unless  umpires  be  appointed, 
the  captains  of  the  respective  sides  shall 
be  the  sole  arbiters  of  all  disputes,  and 
their  decisions  shall  be  final.  If  the  cap- 
tain of  either  side  challenge  the  construc- 
tion placed  upon  any  rules,  he  shall  have 


the  right  of  appeal  to  the  Rugby  Union 
Committee. 

60.  Neither  half-time  nor  no  side  shall 
be  called  until  the  ball  is  fairly  held  or 
goes  out  of  play,  and  in  the  case  of  a try 
or  fair  catch  the  kick  at  goal  shall  be  al- 
lowed. 

Bowling. 

The  following  are  the  Revised  Laws  of 
the  National  Bowling  Association: 

1.  The  game  adopted  to  be  played  by 
clubs  belonging  to  this  Association  shall 
be  what  is  known  as  the  American  Ten 
Frame  Game. 

2.  In  playing  of  match  games  there 
shall  be  a line  drawn  upon  the  alleys  sixty 
feet  from  the  head  or  front  pin. 

3.  In  the  playing  of  match  games,  any 
wooden  ball  may  be  used,  including 
Wood’s  Patent  Bush  Ball,  not  exceeding 
twenty-seven  inches  in  circumference. 

4.  The  games  shall  consist  of  ten  frames 
on  each  side,  when,  should  the  number  of 
points  be  equal,  the  play  shall  be  contin- 
ued until  a majority  of  points  upon  an 
equal  number  of  frames  shall  be  attained, 
which  shall  conclude  the  game.  All 
strikes  and  spares  made  in  tenth  frame 
shall  be  completed  before  leaving  the  alley 
and  on  the  same  alley  as  made. 

5.  In  playing  all  match  games,  ten  play- 
ers from  each  club  shall  constitute  a full 
team,  and  they  must  have  been  regular 
members  of  the  club  which  they  repre- 
sent for  thirty  days  immediately  prior  to 
the  match ; and  they  shall  not  play  in  a 
team  representing  any  other  club  during 
the  season. 

6.  Players  must  play  in  regular  rota- 
tion, and  after  the  first  inning  no  change 
can  be  made,  except  with  the  consent  of 
the  Captains. 

7.  In  match  games,  two  alleys  only  are 


LAWS  FOR  ATHLETIC  SPORTS. 


419 


to  be  used ; a player  to  roll  a frame  at  a 
time,  and  change  alleys  every  frame. 

8.  The  Umpire  shall  take  great  care 
that  the  regulations  respecting  the  balls, 
alleys,  and  all  rules  of  the  game,  are 
strictly  observed.  He  should  be  the  judge 
of  fair  and  unfair  play,  and  shall  deter- 
mine all  disputes  and  differences  which 
may  occur  during  the  game.  He  shall 
take  special  care  to  declare  all  foul  balls 
immediately  upon  their  occurrence,  un- 
asked, in  a distinct  and  audible  voice.  He 
shall  in  every  instance,  before  leaving  the 
alley,  declare  the  winning  club,  and  sign 
his  name  in  the  score  book. 

9.  In  all  matches  the  Umpire  shall  be 
selected  by  the  Captains  of  the  respective 
clubs,  and  he  shall  perform  all  the  duties 
in  Rule  8,  except  recording  the  game, 
which  shall  be  done  by  two  scorers,  one 
of  whom  shall  be  appointed  by  each  of 
the  contending  clubs. 

10.  No  person,  engaged  in  a match 
game,  either  as  Umpire,  Scorer,  or  player, 
shall  be  directly  or  indirectly  interested 
in  any  bet  on  the  game.  Neither  Umpire, 
Scorer,  nor  player  shall  be  changed  during 
a match,  unless  with  the  consent  Qf  both 
parties,  except  for  reason  of  illness,  or 
injury,  or  for  a violation  of  these  rules, 
and  then  the  Umpire  may  dismiss  any 
such  transgressors. 

11.  No  person  except  the  Captains 
shall  be  permitted  to  approach  or  speak 
with  the  Umpire,  Scorers,  or  players  dur- 
ing the  progress  of  the  game,  unless  by 
special  request  of  the  Umpire. 

12.  No  person  shall  be  permitted  to 
act  as  Umpire,  Scorer,  or  Judge  on  set- 
ting up  pins  in  any  match,  unless  he  be 
long  to  a club  governed  by  these  rules.  ' 

13.  Whenever  a match  game  shall  have 
been  determined  upon  between  two  clubs, 
play  shall  be  called  at  the  exact  hour  ap- 


pointed, and  should  either  party  fail  to 
produce  their  players  within  thirty  min- 
utes thereafter,  the  club  so  failing  shall 
admit  a defeat,  and  the  game  shall  be  con-' 
sidered  as  won,  and  as  such  counted  in 
the  list  of  matches  played  ; unless  the 
delinquent  club  fail  to  play  on  account 
of  the  recent  death  of  one  of  its  mem- 
bers, or  one  of  its  member’s  own  family, 
and  sufficient  time  has  not  elapsed  to  en- 
able them  to  give  their  opponents  due 
notice  before  the  time  of  playing. 

14.  A player  must  not  step  on  or  over 
the  line  in  delivering  the  ball,  nor  after 
it  has  been  delivered.  Any  ball  so  de- 
livered shall  be  deemed  foul , and  the  pins 
(if  any  made  on  such  ball)  shall  be  re- 
placed in  the  same  position  as  they  were 
before  the  ball  was  rolled.  It  is  also  con- 
sidered a foul  ball  if  the  hand  is  placed  on 
any  part  of  the  alley  beyond  the  line. 
All  foul  balls  shall  count  as  balls  rolled. 

15.  Should  the  first  ball  delivered  on  a 
full  frame  leave  the  alley  before  reaching 
the  pins,  the  pins,  if  any  made  on  such 
ball,  shall  not  count,  but  must  be  set  up 
again,  the  ball  to  count  as  a ball  rolled. 
After  the  first  ball  on  each  frame,  all  pins 
knocked  down  from  the  effect  of  the  ball 
rolled  by  the  player  shall  count  to  his 
credit ; unless  the  ball  should  rebound 
from  the  back  cushion,  when  the  pins  so 
knocked  down  shall  be  respotted  and  not 
counted. 

16.  No  lofting  or  throwing  balls  upon 
the  alley  will  be  allowed.  The  ball  must 
be  rolled.  Such  balls  will  be  considered 
foul  at  the  discretion  of  the  Umpire. 

17.  In  all  match  games  two  persons  to 
act  as  Judges  shall  be  chosen,  one  by 
each  Captain,  who  shall  take  their  posi- 
tions at  the  head  of  the  alleys,  and  see 
that  the  pins  are  properly  set  up  and 
that  no  one  interferes  with  them  in  any 


420 


LAWS  FOR  ATHLETIC  SPORTS. 


way  until  the  player  is  through  rolling. 
They  will  immediately  report  to  the  Cap- 
tains any  irregularities  that  they  may 
notice  during  the  progress  of  the  game. 

1 8.  Any  club  that  shall  be  detected  in 
tampering  with  the  persons  setting  up  the 
pins,  or  by  any  unfair  means  seeking  to 
win  a victory,  shall,  on  proof  of  such  con- 
duct, be  expelled  from  the  Association. 

19.  To  decide  the  championship  here 
after,  each  club  shall  play  one  game  with 
every  club  in  the  Convention,  said  game 
to  be  played  on  a neutral  alley.  When  a 
game  is  arranged  between  two  clubs  who 
occupy  the  same  alley,  said  alley  shall  be 
considered  as  neutral,  and  the  game  may 
be  played  thereon  subject  to  mutual 
agreement.  Any  club  having  no  engage- 
ment, and  receiving  a challenge,  must  roll 
the  game  within  fifteen  days  from  the  de- 
livery of  such  challenge.  Any  other  chal- 
lenge received  during  said  fifteen  days 
must  be  acted  upon  and  game  played 
within  ten  days  from  date  of  completion 
of  former  game.  The  alley  to  be  named 
immediately  after  the  toss.  The  club 
failing  to  comply  with  the  above  forfeits 
the  game.  The  club  winning  the  greatest 
number  of  games  on  or  before  the  Sep- 
tember meeting  of  the  Association  in 
each  year  shall  be  declared  the  Champion. 

20.  No  person  who  has  been  expelled 
from  any  club,  or  who  shall  at  any  time 
receive  compensation  for  his  services  as  a 
player,  shall  be  competent  to  play  in 
match ; any  club  giving  compensation  to 
a player,  or  having  to  its  knowledge  such 
a player  in  its  team,  shall  be  debarred 
from  membership  in  the  National  Asso- 
ciation, and  they  shall  not  be  considered 
by  any  club  belonging  to  this  Association 

, as  a proper  club  to  engage  in  a match 

' game,  and  such  club  so  playing  with  them 
shall  forfeit  its  membership. 


21.  Any  match  games  played  by  any 
club  in  contravention  of  the  rules  adopted 
by  this  Association  shall  be  considered 
null  and  void,  and  shall  not  be  counted  in 
the  list  of  match  games  won  or  lost. 

22.  Any  club  refusing  to  play  any  other 
club  in  the  Association,  according  to  the 
rules,  shall  forfeit  all  claims  to  the  cham- 
pionship, and  all  games  played  with  such 
club  shall  be  considered  null  and  void, 
and  shall  not  count  in  the  list  of  games 
won  or  lost. 

23.  A regulation  pin  must  be  used  in 
match  playing.  Each  pin,  excepting  the 
king-pin,  to  be  from  fifteen  to  sixteen 
inches  in  length  and  fifteen  inches  in  cir- 
cumference at  the  thickest  part. 

24.  Should  the  games  played  for  the 
championship  result  in  a tie  between  two 
or  more  clubs,  a deciding  game  shall  be 
played  under  the  rules  of  this  Association. 

25.  Any  club  expelling  a member  shall 
immediately  notify  the  Corresponding 
Secretary  of  the  Association,  and  he  shall 
notify  the  several  clubs  on  the  receipt  of 
such  information. 

26.  No  club  shall  issue  or  receive  more 
than  two  challenges  at  a time. 

Lawn  Tennis. 

The  players  may  be  few  or  many,  but 
the  best  game  is  formed  by  two,  four,  or 
eight  persons.  When  more  than  two  join 
the  game,  sides  -are  to  be  formed.  The 
players  occupy  the  courts  on  each  side  of 
the  net,  and  the  choice  of  courts  is  usu- 
ally decided  either  by  tossing  or  by  a spin 
of  the  racquet.  For  the  sake  of  simplifi- 
cation, the  winner  of  the  service  is  called 
server , and  the  player  who  receives  the 
service,  the  servee.  He  who  serves  (i.e., 
delivers  the  first  stroke)  is  said  to  be 
Hand-in , if  he  loses  a stroke,  he  becomes 


LAWS  FOR  ATHLETIC  SPORTS. 


421 


Hand-out , and  his  adversary  becomes 
Hand-in  and  serves. 

Description  of  the  Game. 

The  ball  shall  be  served  by  the  Hand- 
in  standing  with  one  foot  without  the 
base  line  of  the  court.  The  racquet 
should  be  held  lightly  but  firmly  with  the 
fingers  and  in  such  a position  that,  while 
the  stroke  may  be  firm  and  vigorous,  the 
wrist  may  have  free  play  in  order  to  at- 
tain the  strokes,  the  cut,  the  twist , and  the 
screw , which  enable  the  player  to  place 
the  ball  in  any  part  of  his  adversary’s 
court,  fie  must  serve  the  ball  from  the 
right  and  left  courts  alternately,  and  must 
hit  it  so  that  it  shall  drop  over  the  net 
between  the  net  and  service  line  of  the 
court  diagonally  opposed  to  that  from 
which  it  was  delivered.  The  server  or 
Hand-in  from  the  left  court,  consequently 
has  to  serve  to  the  servee  or  player  oc- 
cupying the  left  hand  court  on  the  oppo- 
site side.  It  is  a fault  if  the  ball  served 
shall  drop  in  the  wrong  court  or  beyond 
the  service  line,  and  the  Hand-in  shall 
serve  again  from  the  same  court. 

The  ball  to  be  served  properly  must 
fall  in  the  court  diagonally  opposed  to 
the  server,  between  the  net  and  the  ser- 
vice line.  If  the  Hand-out  or  servee  take, 
or  attempt  to  take,  a ball  served  in  the 
wrong  court,  or  over  the  service  line,  the 
service  shall  be  treated  as  good  ( i.e .,  it 
shall  not  be  a fault  of  the  server).  The 
service,  or  ball  served,  is  not  to  be  volleyed 
{i.e.,  taken  before  it  shall  have  touched 
the  ground)  by  the  Hand-out  or  servee. 
The  Hand-in  is  not  to  serve  until  the 
Hand-out  shall  be  prepared.  The  Hand- 
in  shall  win  a stroke  and  score  one  point 
if  the  Hand-out  fails  to  return  the  ball 
served  or  any  subsequent  stroke,  if  he 
volleys  the  service,  or  if  he  strikes  the 


ball  in  play  so  that  it  shall  drop  out 
of  the  court.  The  Hand-in  shall  be 
Hand-out  if  he  fails  to  serve  the  ball 
over  the  net,  or  if  he  serves  it  so  that  it 
shall  drop  out  of  the  court.  If  he  makes 
two  successive  faults  {i.e.,  if  he  twice 
serves  the  ball  into  the  wrong  court  or 
beyond  the  service  line),  he  shall  also  be 
Hand-out ; or  if,  after  the  ball  has  been 
returned  by  the  Hand-out,  in  his  turn  he 
fails  to  return  the  ball  in  play  so  that  it 
shall  drop  in  the  opposite  court. 

The  Hand-in  duly  serves  the  ball  from 
the  right  court  to  the  opposite  right 
court,  between  the  net  and  the  service 
line,  and  the  Hand-out  following  up  the 
game  safely  returns  the  ball  after  it  has 
touched  the  ground,  and  before  it  has  touched 
the  ground  a second  time,  so  that  it  shall 
pass  over  the  net  in  due  course.  After 
the  service  has  been  so  returned,  the 
ball  is  a good  return,  provided  that  it  falls 
anywhere  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  net, 
and  not  outside  the  base  or  boundary 
lines.  After  the  service  has  been  returned 
by  the  servee,  all  distinctions  of  court 
cease,  and  the  ball  is  hit  to  and  fro  until 
either  it  fails  to  pass  over  the  net,  or  it 
goes  over  the  base  line,  or  outside  the 
boundary  lines.  If  it  touch  the  hand,  or 
any  part  of  the  person  or  clothes  of  any 
player,  or  if  a player  shall  strike  the  ball 
more  than  once,  it  shall  also  be  a false 
stroke,  and  count  to  the  opposite  side; 
or  if  a player  either  take  a fault,  or  aim 
at  and  miss  a ball  that  passes  over  the 
base  or  boundary  lines,  it  shall  be  consid- 
ered a false  stroke  and  count  to  the  op- 
posite side.  A ball  which  drops  on  any 
line  is  considered  to  have  dropped  into 
the  court  marked  by  that  line,  and  to  be 
a good  service  or  return  although  the  ball 
touch  the  net  or  either  of  the  posts. 

The  game  is  won  by  the  player  or  side 


422 


LAWS  FOR  ATHLETIC  SPORTS. 


first  scoring  fifteen  aces,  and  an  ace  is 
won  whenever  the  Hand-out  fails  to  return 
the  ball  properly  over  the  net  or  outside 
the  boundaries,  if  it  hits  his  person  or 
clothes,  if  he  aims  at  and  misses  a ball 
passing  outside  the  boundary  lines.  Any 
of  these  failures  gives  an  ace  to  the 
Hand-in , and  he  serves  again  from  the 
opposite  court,  serving  alternately  from 
each  court  until  he  becomes  Hand-out  by 
failing  to  return  the  ball  according  to 
rule.  It  is  worthy  of  remark,  too,  that  if 
both  players  reach  fourteen  the  score  is 
called  “ Deuce.”  Another  point  called 
“Vantage”  is  then  introduced,  and  a 
player,  in  order  to  score  Game,  must  win 
two  points  in  succession , viz.,  Vantage  and 
Game,  otherwise,  though  he  may  have 
won  Vantage,  if  he  should  lose  the  next 
stroke  the  score  returns  to  Deuce. 

Double  matches  are  played  the  same  as 
single,  except  that  there  are  two  players 
on  each  side.  At  the  commencement  of 
a game,  the  Hand-in  or  side  serving  shall 
only  have  one  service,  and  on  that  player 
being  Hand-out,  both  the  opposite  sides 
are  Hand-in , the  same  as  at  Racquet. 
One  member  of  A’s  side  serves  first,  and 
if  either  his  partner  or  he  fail  to  return 
the  ball  properly,  the  Hand-in  goes  to 
B,  to  be  followed  by  B’s  partner,  and  then 
to  A and  his  partner,  and  so  on.  After 
the  first  Hand-in,  when  the  Hand-in  who 
first  serves  shall  have  been  put  out,  his 
partner  shall  serve  so  that  before  the  side 
is  Hand-out,  both  partners  shall  have  been 
put  out.  The  Hand-in  serves  from  the 
right  court  to  the  opposite  right  court, 
and  continues  to  change  from  right  to 
left  as  long  as  he  scores,  the  opposite 
players  maintaining  their  positions  for  the 
service.  When  a player  of  one  side  is 
Hand-out,  and  his  partner  becomes  Hand- 
in,  the  latter  serves  from  the  court  differ- 


ent to  that  occupied  by  his  partner  when 
losing  his  service.  The  Hand-in  serves 
the  ball  under  the  same  provisions  as  in 
single  games;  but  after  the  service  has 
been  properly  returned,  the  partners  on 
either  side  may  occupy  any  positions  in 
their  court  they  may  find  advisable,  and 
either  may  take  the  ball.  If  the  service 
be  delivered  into  the  wrong  court,  it  may 
be  taken  by  either  adversary.  In  other 
respects,  the  same  laws  guide  double  as 
they  do  single  matches.  In  double  games 
the  side  has  the  same  advantages  as  the 
individual,  and  Vantage  and  Game  can 
be  scored  by  the  partners  instead  of  by 
one  of  them,  as  in  single  games. 

There  are  numerous  ways  of  handicap- 
ping players  or  sides  to  make  the  game 
equal.  A player  may  restrict  himself  to 
half-court,  i.e.,  he  may  elect  as  to  which 
half  of  the  opposite  court  he  will  play. 
In  this  case  he  will  lose  the  stroke  if  he 
fail  to  drop  the  ball  into  that  half-court, 
the  same  as  if  he  infringed  the  usual 
rules.  Others  have  a cord  stretched  be- 
tween the  posts  at  a height  of  seven  feet, 
or  any  other  height  agreed  upon,  and  the 
giver  of  odds  has  to  play  every  ball  over 
this  cord  or  lose  a stroke.  A player  may 
give  his  adversary  points,  or  he  may  con- 
cede his  adversary  the  privilege  of  being 
Hand-in  two  or  more  times.  If  one 
player  plays  against  two  adversaries  he 
will  be  Hand-in  twice,  except  at  the  com- 
mencement of  the  game. 

The  following  hints  and  directions  are 
by  Mr.  JOHN  TOMPKINS,  of  the  Tennis 
Court,  Brighton : 

The  racquet  should  lie  in  the  hand  and 
be  grasped  by  the  thumb  and  fingers. 
The  hand  should  be  elongated,  so  that 
the  player  may  have  a free  use  of  the 
wrist.  The  racquet  should  be  held  so  as 
to  be  a continuation  of  the  arm. 


LAWS  FOR  ATHLETIC  SPORTS. 


423 


In  striking  with  the  racquet  the  stroke 
should  come  from  the  shoulder  and  not 
from  the  elbow.  In  holding  the  racquet 
the  face  of  it  should  be  at  an  angle,  the 
bottom  of  the  racquet  forward,  then  when 
it  meets  the  ball  it  will  have  what  is 
called  a cut,  so  that  when  a ball  is  struck 
it  acquires  a natural  rise,  because  in  this 
way  the  ball  is  hit  below  its  centre. 

The  advantage  of  the  cut  is  that  it 
gives  more  time  for  the  ball  to  rise,  be- 
cause it  retards  its  motion. 

There  are  two  twists  that  can  be  given 
to  the  ball  besides  the  cut.  1st.  The 
underhand  twist;  it  is  given  by  the  ball 
being  struck  on  the  left-hand  side  with 
the  head  of  the  racquet,  below  the  hand, 
the  racquet  brought  upward.  The  over- 
hand twist  is  given  by  the  player  striking 
the  ball  on  the  right-hand  side,  with  the 
head  of  the  racquet  above  the  hand.  In 
the  underhand  twist  the  bound  of  the  ball 
is  to  the  right-hand  side,  and  in  the  over- 
hand twist  to  the  left-hand  side. 

The  player  should  stand  easily,  the  left 
leg  advanced  a little  in  front,  and  the 
body  should  be  in  line  with  the  direction 
that  the  ball  is  required  to  go,  as  the 
stroke  is  given  by  the  racquet  passing  in 
front  of  the  body. 

A ball  being  taken  toward  the  right 
hand,  rather  behind  the  player,  will  go 
into  the  backhand  corner  of  his  adver- 
sary’s court ; if  taken  exactly  opposite 
the  body,  it  will  go  in  a straight  line  down 
the  court ; if  taken  a little  more  in  front 
of  the  body,  toward  the  left  hand,  then 
into  the  forehand  court  of  his  adversary. 

When  striking,  the  body  should  be 
moved  to  give  power  to  the  stroke. 

If  the  player  wants  to  know  what  twist 
his  adversary  has  put  on  the  ball,  he 
must  watch  his  racquet  as  he  strikes,  and 
by  its  motion  as  described  above  he  will 


know  what  twist  has  been  put  on  the  ball, 
and  where  to  place  himself. 

When  the  ball  is  played  backhanded, 
the  right  leg  should  be  extended  a little 
in  front  of  the  body,  the  back  of  the  hand 
turned  up  so  as  to  give  the  same  oblique 
direction  to  the  racquet  for  the  backhand 
as  for  the  forehand. 

When  a ball  is  taken  near  the  ground, 
the  body  should  be  dropped  so  that  the 
player  may  get  the  edge  of  his  racquet 
under  the  ball. 

If  half  volley  the  player  must  meet  the 
ball  just  as  it  leaves  the  ground. 

Whatever  the  size  of  the  court  the  ser- 
vice line  should  be  one-third  from  the  end. 

Laws  of  Lawn  Tennis. 

1.  The  choice  of  sides  and  the  right  of 
serving  during  the  first  game  shall  be 
decided  by  toss;  provided  that  if  the 
winner  of  the  toss  choose  the  right  to 
serve,  the  other  player  shall  have  the 
choice  of  sides,  and  vice-versa . The  play- 
ers shall  stand  on  opposite  sides  of  the 
net;  the  player  who  first  delivers  the  ball 
shall  be  called  the  Server , the  other  the 
Striker-out.  At  the  end  of  the  first  game, 
the  Striker-out  shall  become  Server,  and 
the  Server  shall  become  Striker-out ; and 
so  on  alternately  in  the  subsequent 
games  of  the  set. 

2.  The  Server  shall  stand  with  one  foot 
outside  the  Base-Line,  and  shall  deliver 
the  service  from  the  Right  and  Left 
Courts  alternately,  beginning  from  the 
Right.  The  ball  served  must  drop  within 
the  Service-Line,  Half-Court-Line,  and 
Side-Line  of  the  Court,  which  is  diagon- 
ally opposite  to  that  from  which  it  was 
served,  or  upon  any  such  line. 

3.  It  is  a fault  if  the  ball  served  drop 
in  the  net,  or  beyond  the  Service-Line, 
or  if  it  drop  out  of  Court,  or  in  the  wrong 


424 


LAWS  FOR  ATHLETIC  SPORTS. 


Court.  A fault  may  not  be  taken.  After 
a fault,  the  Server  shall  serve  again  from 
the  same  Court  from  which  he  served 
that  fault. 

4.  The  service  may  not  be  volleyed,  i.e., 
taken  before  it  touches  the  ground. 

5.  The  Server  shall  not  serve  until  the 
Striker-out  is  ready.  If  the  latter  at- 
tempt to  return  the  service,  he  shall  be 
deemed  to  be  ready.  A good  service 
delivered  when  the  Striker-out  is  not 
ready  annuls  a previous  fault. 

6.  A ball  is  returned,  or  in-play , when  it 
is  played  back,  over  the  net,  before  it  has 
touched  the  ground  a second  time. 

7.  It  is  a good  service  or  return,  al- 
though the  ball  touch  the  net. 

8.  The  Server  wins  a stroke,  if  the 
Striker-out  volley  the  service ; or  if  he 
fail  to  return  the  service  or  the  ball  in- 
play; or  if  he  return  the  service  or  ball 
in-play  so  that  it  drop  outside  any  of  the 
lines  which  bound  his  opponent’s  Court; 
or  if  he  otherwise  lose  a stroke,  as  pro- 
vided by  Law  10. 

9.  The  Striker-out  wins  a stroke,  if  the 
Server  serve  two  consecutive  faults;  or 
if  he  fail  to  return  the  ball  in-play;  or  if 
he  return  the  ball  in-play  so  that  it  drop 
outside  any  of  the  lines  which  bound  his 
opponent’s  Court;  or  if  he  otherwise  lose 
a stroke,  as  provided  by  Law  10. 

10.  Either  player  loses  a stroke  if  the 
ball  in-play  touch  him  or  anything  that 
he  wears  or  carries,  except  his  racquet  in 
the  act  of  striking ; or  if  he  touch  or  strike 
the  ball  in-play  with  his  racquet  more 
than  once. 

11.  On  either  player  winning  his  first 
stroke  the  score  is  called  15  for  that 
player;  on  either  player  winning  his  sec- 
ond stroke  the  score  is  called  30  for  that 
player;  on  either  player  winning  his  third 
stroke  the  score  is  called  40  for  that 


player;  and  the  fourth  stroke  won  by 
either  player  is  scored  game  for  that 
player,  except  as  below: 

Sec.  I.  If  both  players  have  won  three 
strokes,  the  score  is  called  deuce;  and 
the  next  stroke  won  by  either  player  is 
scored  advantage  for  that  player.  If  the 
same  player  win  the  next  stroke,  he  wins 
the  game ; if  he  lose  the  next  stroke, 
the  score  is  again  called  deuce;  and  so 
on  until  either  player  win  the  two  strokes 
immediately  following  the  score  of  deuce, 
when  the  game  is  scored  for  that  player. 

12.  The  player  who  first  wins  six  games 
wins  a set ; except  as  below : 

Sec . /.  If  both  players  win  five  games, 
the  score  is  called  games-all;  and  the 
next  game  won  by  either  player  is  scored 
advantage-game  for  that  player.  If  the 
same  player  win  the  next  game,  he  wins 
the  set;  if  he  lost  the  next  game,  the 
score  is  again  called  games-all;  and  so  on 
until  either  player  win  the  two  games  im- 
mediately following  the  score  of  games- 
all,  when  he  wins  the  set. 

Note. — Players  may  agree  not  to  play 
advantage-sets,  but  to  decide  the  set  by 
one  game  after  arriving  at  the  score  of 
games-all. 

13.  The  players  shall  change  sides  at 
the  end  of  every  set.  When  a series  of 
sets  is  played,  the  player  who  was  server 
in  the  last  game  of  one  set  shall  be  striker- 
out  in  the  first  game  of  the  next. 

14.  A bisque  is  one  stroke,  which  may 
be  claimed  by  the  receiver  of  the  odds  at 
any  time  during  a set,  except  as  below: 

See.  I.  A bisque  may  not  be  taken  after 
the  service  has  been  delivered. 

Sec.  II.  The  Server  may  not  take  a 
bisque  after  a fault ; . but  the  Striker-out 
may  do  so. 

15.  One  or  more  bisques  may  be  giver 
to  augment  or  diminish  other  odds. 


LAWS  FOR  ATHLETIC  SPORTS. 


425 


1 6.  Half- 1 5 is  one  stroke,  given  at  the 
beginning  of  the  second  and  every  subse- 
quent alternate  game  of  a set. 

17.  15  is  one  stroke  given  at  the  begin- 
ning of  every  game  of  a set. 

18.  Half-30  is  one  stroke  given  at  the 
beginning  of  the  first  game,  two  strokes 
at  the  beginning  of  the  second  game ; and 
so  on,  alternately,  in  all  the  subsequent 
games  of  a set. 

19.  30  is  two  strokes  given  at  the  be- 
ginning of  every  game  of  a set. 

20.  Half-40  is  two  strokes  given  at  the 
beginning  of  the  first  game,  three  strokes 
at  the  beginning  of  the  second  game; 
and  so  on,  alternately,  in  all  the  subse- 
quent games  of  a set. 

21.  40  is  three  strokes  given  at  the  be- 
ginning of  every  game  of  a set. 

22.  Half-Court:  the  players  having 

agreed  into  which  Court  ’the  giver  of 
odds  shall'  play,  the  latter  loses  a stroke 
if  the  ball,  returned  by  him,  drop  outside 
any  of  the  lines  which  bound  that  Court. 

Three-Handed  and  Four-Handed 
Games. 

23.  The  above  laws  shall  apply  to  the 
three-handed  and  four-handed  games,  ex- 
cept as  below: 

Sec.  /.  In  the  three-handed  game,  the 
single  player  shall  serve  in  every  alter- 
nate game. 

Sec.  II.  In  the  four-handed  game,  the 
pair  who  has  the  right  to  serve  in  the  first 
game  may  decide  which  partner  shall  do 
so,  and  the  opposing  pair  may  decide 
similarly  for  the  second  game.  The  part- 
ner of  the  player  who  served  in  the  first 
game  shall  serve  in  the  third ; and  the 
partner  of  the  player  who  served  in  the 
second  game  shall  serve  in  the  fourth; 
and  so  on  in  the  same  order  in  all  the 
subsequent  games  of  a set  or  sets. 


Sec.  III.  The  players  shall  take  the 
service  alternately  throughout  each  game ; 
no  player  shall  receive  or  return  a service4 
delivered  to  his  partner;  and  the  order 
of  service  and  of  striking-out  once  ar- 
ranged shall  not  be  altered,  nor  shall  the 
strikers-out  change  Courts  to  receive  the 
service  before  the  end  of  the  set. 

Alternate  Method  of  Scoring, 

24.  The  above  laws  shall  apply  to  Lawn 
Tennis,  played  by  the  game,  except  as 
regards  the  method  of  scoring.  The 
word  Hand-in  shall  be  substituted  for 
Server , and  Hand-out  for  Striker -out. 

25.  The  Hand-in  alone  is  able  to  score. 
If  he  lose  a stroke,  he  becomes  Hand-out, 
and  his  opponent  becomes  Hand-in,  and 
serves  in  his  turn. 

26.  The  player  who  first  wins  15  points 
Scores  the  game. 

27.  If  both  players  have  won  14  points, 
the  game  is  set  to  3.  The  score  is  called 
Love-all.  The  Hand-in  continues  to  serve  ; 
the  player  who  first  wins  3 points  scores 
the  game. 

28.  In  the  three-handed  or  four-handed 
game,  only  one  partner  of  that  side  which 
is  Hand-in  shall  serve  at  the  beginning  of 
each  game.  If  he  or  his  partner  lose  a 
stroke,  the  other  side  shall  be  Hand-in. 

29.  During  the  remainder  of  the  game, 
when  the  first  Hand-in  has  been  put  out, 
his  partner  shall  serve,  bginning  from  the 
Court  from  which  the  last  service  was  not 
delivered ; and,  when  both  partners  have 
been  put  out,  then  the  other  side  shall  be 
Hand-in. 

30.  The  Hand-in  shall  deliver  the  ser- 
vice in  accordance  with  Laws  2 and  3 ; 
and  the  opponents  shall  receive  the  ser- 
vice alternately,  each  keeping  the  Court 
which  he  originally  occupied.  In  all  sub- 


426 


LAWS  FOR  ATHLETIC  SPORTS. 


sequent  strokes  the  ball  may  be  returned 
by  either  partner  on  each  side. 

31.  One  or  more  points  may  be  given 
in  a game. 

32.  The  privilege  of  being  Hand-in  two 
or  more  successive  times  may  be  given. 

Laws  of  Quoits. 

1.  Distance  from  Pin  to  Pin,  18  yards. 

2.  The  Mot  or  Pin  shall  not  be  more 
nor  less  than  one-half  inch  above  the  clay. 

3.  Measurement  must  be  from  the  cen- 
tre of  the  top  of  Mot  or  Pin  to  the  near- 
est iron  in  sight  without  disturbing  the 
clay. 

4.  In  case  of  a tie,  two  opposing  Quoits 
being  equal,  it  shall  be  declared  a draw. 

5.  In  the  case  of  two  or  four  playing, 
twenty-one  points  shall  constitute  a game. 

6.  In  the  event  of  six  playing,  fifteen 
points  shall  constitute  a game. 

7.  In  the  event  of  eight  playing,  eleven 
points  shall  constitute  a game. 

8.  In  playing,  the  one  getting  the  first 
shot  shall  lead  off  at  the  next  end. 

9.  Each  player  shall  have  the  privilege 
of  selecting  his  own  size  Quoits,  unless 
otherwise  agreed  upon. 

10.  The  Mot  or  Pin  in  all  cases  must 
be  at  an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees. 

BASE  BALL. 

The  laws  of  Base-ball  are  revised  every 
year  at  the  meeting  of  the  National  Con- 
vention of  Base-Ball  Players. 

The  Revised  Laws  are  published  in 
cheap  form  every  year,  before  the  season 
for  playing  commences. 

Fencing. 

The  Art  of  Fencing  comprises  Fencing 
with  Foils,  Broad-Sword,  and  Single  Stick, 
each  of  which  requires  separate  notice. 


FENCING  WITH  FOILS. 

1.  The  foil  shall  be  34  inches  in  length, 
have  a flat  blade,  and  be  unattached  to 
the  hand  or  wrist. 

2.  A free  thrust  must  be  followed  by  a 
pause,  if  this  thrust  has  been  successful. 

3.  Reprisals,  or  double  thrusts,  being 
forbidden,  the  competitor  who  has  lunged 
must  return  on  guard,  to  avoid  or  pre- 
vent hand-to-hand  fight. 

4.  Time  or  stopping  thrusts  delivered 
without  the  lunge  count  only  in  favor  of 
the  giver,  provided  he  is  not  hit  himself; 
if  both  are  hit  simultaneously,  the  count 
must  be  given  to  the  competitor  who  is 
extended ; if  both  are  extended,  neither 
count. 

5.  A disarm  counts  one  point.  If  the 
foil  is  lost  while  making  an  attack  and 
hitting  the  opponent,  the  count  is  not  lost. 

6.  It  is  forbidden  to  parry  or  take  your 
opponent’s  foil  with  the  disengaged  hand. 

7.  The  number  of  points  shall  be  not 
less  than  five  or  more  than  ten,  to  be  de- 
cided by  the  Judges  or  Referee,  the  com- 
petitor first  making  the  full  number  of 
points  to  be  declared  the  winner. 

8.  The  buttons  of  the  foils  must  be 
chalked  before  each  round,  and  competi- 
tors must  wear  a black  body-cover  in 
order  to  distinguish  between  a clean  thrust 
and  a glance  or  passe. 

FENCING  WITH  BROAD-SWORD. 

1.  The  sword  shall  be  34  inches  long, 
have  a flat  blade  three-quarters  of  an  inch 
broad  at  hilt  and  half  an  inch  at  point, 
and  be  unattached  at  hand  or  wrist. 

2.  All  cuts  must  be  made  with  the  edge 
of  the  blade  upon  any  protected  part  of 
the  body  above  the  waist.  No  cuts  with 
the  flat  of  the  blade  allowed. 


LAWS  FOR  ATHLETIC  SPORTS. 


42? 


3.  A cut  must  be  followed  by  a pause, 
if  the  cut  has  been  successful. 

4.  Where  two  cuts  are  delivered  at  the 
same  time,  the  count  belongs  to  the  com- 
petitor who  is  extended ; if  both  are  ex- 
tended, neither  count. 

5.  A disarm  counts  one  point.  If  the 
sword  is  lost  while  making  attack  and 
hitting  the  opponent,  the  count  is  not 
lost. 

6.  Neither  of  the  competitors  must,  in 
any  case,  allow  his  hands  to  come  in  vio- 
lent contact  with  his  opponent’s  body. 

7.  The  number  of  points  shall  be  not 
less  than  five  nor  more  than  ten,  to  be 
deided  by  the  Judges  or  Referee,  the 
competitor  first  making  the  full  number 
of  points  to  be  declared  the  winner. 

FENCING  WITH  SINGLE  STICK. 

1.  The  stick  shall  in  no  way  be  fastened 
to  the  hand  or  wrist.  It  must  be  made 
of  ash  or  hickory,  five-eighths  of  an  inch 
at  the  grip,  and  tapering  at  the  end,  36 
inches  long.  Or  an  ordinary  walking- 
cane  may  be  used,  if  agreed  upon  by  the 
contestants. 

2.  Blows  only  count  on  the  mask  and 
arms. 

3.  A blow  must  be  followed  by  a pause, 
if  the  blow  has  been  successful. 

4.  If  both  contestants  are  hit  simulta- 
neously, the  count  belongs  to  the  compet- 
itor who  is  extended ; if  both  are  ex- 
tended, neither  count. 

5.  A disarm  counts  one  point.  If  the 
stick  is  lost  while  making  an  attack  and 
hitting  the  opponent,  the  count  is  not 
lost. 

6.  Neither  of  the  competitors  must,  in 
any  case,  allow  his  hands  to  come  in  vio- 
lent contact  with  his  opponent’s  body. 

7.  If  a competitor  seize  his  opponent’s 


stick  with  his  hand  (his  own  weapon  be- 
ing free),  it  shall  count  one  point  against 
him. 

8.  The  number  of  points  shall  be  not 
less  than  five  nor  more  than  ten,  to  be 
decided  by  the  Judges  or  Referee,  the 
competitor  first  making  the  full  number 
of  points  to  be  declared  the  winner. 

HINTS  ON  FENCING  OR  SPARRING. 

1.  Never  put  yourself  on  guard  within 
reach  of  your  adversary’s  thrust,  more 
especially  at  the  time  of  drawing  your 
foil,  sword,  or  stick. 

2.  Be  not  affected,  negligent,  nor  stiff. 

3.  Be  not  angry  at  receiving  a touch, 
but  take  all  care  to  avoid  it. 

4.  Do  not  think  yourself  expert,  but 
hope  you  may  become  so. 

5.  Be  not  vain  of  the  hits  you  give,  nor 
show  contempt  to  those  you  receive. 

6.  Do  not  endeavor  to  give  many 
thrusts  on  the  lunge,  running  the  risk  of 
receiving  one  in  the  interim;  and  it  is 
wrong  to  deliver  a second  hit  on  the  lunge 
if  you  are  certain  you  made  a hit  the  first 
time. 

7.  When  you  present  the  foils  to  a 
stranger,  give  the  choice  without  pressing. 

8.  If  you  are  much  inferior  make  no 
long  assaults. 

9.  Do  nothing  that  is  useless — every 
movement  should  tend  to  your  advantage. 

10.  Judge  of  a thrust  rather  by  reason 
than  by  its  success. 

11.  Let  your  play  be  made  as  much  as 
possible  within  the  line  of  your  adver- 
sary’s body. 

12.  It  is  not  enough  that  the  parts  of 
your  body  agree — that  you  are  quick, 
supple,  firm,  and  vigorous — you  must  also  ; 
be  prepared  to  answer  to  your  adversary  V>  * 
movements. 


4.23 


LAWS  FOR  ATHLETIC  SPORTS. 


13.  Endeavor  by  all  fair  means  to  dis- 
cover your  adversary’s  designs  and  con- 
ceal your  own. 

14.  Two  skilful  men  fencing  together 
act  more  with  their  heads  than  their 
hands. 

15.  The  smaller  you  make  your  feints, 
the  quicker  will  your  point  arrive  at  your 
adversary’s  body.  The  same  rule  holds 
good  in  sparring. 

16.  Do  not  make  the  time-thrusts 
too  frequently,  unless  your  adversary  is 
much  your  inferior,  and  that  you  are  not 
likely  to  receive  a hit  at  the  same  time. 
In  sparring,  we  say,  do  not  lead  too 
often. 

1 7.  In  fencing,  if  one  hit  the  body,  and 
the  other  the  face  or  elsewhere  at  the 
same  time,  the  hit  On  the  body  is  counted 
only.  In  sparring,  the  reverse,  head-hits 
having  the  preference. 

18.  If  in  parrying,  or  by  any  means 
your  adversary’s  foil  falls,  the  hit  if  made 
is  good  and  should  count,  because  you 
are  not  obliged  to  know  that  he  will  lose 
the  grasp  of  it ; but  if  the  hit  is  made  after 
you  see  the  foil  is  out  of  his  hand,  or 
partly  so,  you  cannot  count  it ; but  in 
politeness  you  should  pick  up  his  foil  and 
present  it  to  him.  In  sparring,  when  the 
glove  works  loose  the  same  rule  holds 
good. 

19.  Never  attempt  to  hit  your  adver- 
sary while  thrusting  carte  and  tierce  in  the 
salute,  unless  by  mutual  agreement;  and 
it  is  a proper  civility  in  saluting  to  ask 
the  adversary  to  make  the  first  thrust. 

20.  Be  sure,  at  no  time  while  fencing 
with  a skilful  man  to  attempt  to  valte , 
disarm , etc. — these  are  ridiculous  things, 
only  taught  by  the  ignorant,  and  often 
attended  with  danger. 

21.  Never  deny  a hit. 


22.  Do  not  ridicule  another's  manner 
of  fencing  or  sparring. 

23.  Be  sure  never  to  use  the  foils  with- 
out having  the  mask  on. 

ARCHERY. 

Archery  fell  into  disuse  in  England 
after  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  But  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  last  century  it  was  taken 
up  as  a pastime.  As  an  exercise  for  ladies 
it  has  no  superior,  being  in  every  way 
adapted  to  the  habits,  dress,  and  physical 
ability  of  both  ladies  and  gentlemen. 

In  this  exercise  there  should  be  no 
stooping,  but  with  head  erect,  chest  ex- 
panded and  the  lips  so  closed  as  to  breathe 
through  the  nostrils,  the  archer  should 
stand  firm.  Care  must  be  exercised  by 
those  just  beginning  to  practise  Archery 
not  to  overstrain  the  muscles  by  bows 
too  stiff  or  strong  for  them,  or  by  remain- 
ing too  long  at  one  time  at  the  exercise. 
Archery  is  steadily  growing  in  public 
favor,  and  will  no  doubt  soon  become 
very  popular;  but  there  is  as  yet  no  au- 
thorized code  of  laws  for  its  government. 
The  rules  by  which  Archery  meetings  are 
at  present  regulated  are  usually  framed 
by  the  officers  of  each  Meeting,  and  em- 
body the  spirit  of  the  general  laws  which 
govern  out-door  sports,  and  are  founded 
upon  the  universal  principles  of  good 
manners.  They  vary  according  to  cir- 
cumstances and  need ; but  the  lady  or 
gentleman  acting  in  authority  has  the 
power  to  decide  all  disputed  questions, 
and  the  said  lady’s  or  gentleman’s  deci- 
sion shall  be  final. 

The  distance  for  shooting  should  be  50, 
75  and  100  yards,  and  the  3 and  4-feet 
targets  be  used.  The  strength  of  bows 
for  the  use  of  ladies  should  be  from 
twenty-four  to  thirty-four  pounds. 


GAME  BIRDS  AND  THEIR  HAUHTS -QUAIL 


@MI§3i®§  ABIT®  I IB 


GAME  BIRDS  OF  NORTH  AMERICA. 


THEIR  DISTINGUISHING  CHARACTERISTICS,  THEIR  HAUNTS  AND 
MIGRATIONS,  WITH  OTHER  POINTS  OF  INTEREST  TO  SPORTS- 
MEN. 

The  TURKEY. — This  bird  is  a native  of  North  America.  It  was  found  by  the 
first  settlers  in  abundance  in  the  forests  from  the  Isthmus  of  Darien  to  the  woods  of 
Canada.  Even  the  primeval  forests  of  New  England  were  well  fillea  with  them.  After 
the  discovery  of  America  by  Columbus,  the  turkey  became  domesticated  in  Europe. 
It  is  now  found  in  its  wild  condition  in  many  parts  of  the  North  American  Continent. 
Our  common  domesticated  turkey  is  a descendant  of  the  Mexican  form,  and  not  of 
the  wild  turkey  found  in  the  United  States.  The  characteristic  form  of  this  bird  is  a 
large,  upraised  body,  long  neck,  and  small  head.  There  are  no  feathers  on  the  head 
and  neck,  but  scattered  hairs  are  found,  and  a fleshy  excrescence  which  extends  from 
the  forehead.  It  has  a moderate  bill,  and  the  male  is  armed  with  spurs.  The  tail 
is  about  as  long  as  the  wing,  is  truncated,  and  has  more  than  twelve  feathers.  At 
present  the  family  is  limited  to  two  species:  (i)  the  common  turkey,  of  which  there 
are  two  varieties — one  found  in  the  south-western  part  of  the  United  States  and 
Mexico,  the  other  in  the  northern  part  of  the  United  States;  (2)- the  beautiful  and 
rare  turkey  of  Honduras.  The  turkey  belongs  to  the  class  of  gallinaceous  birds,  and 
is  designated  meleagriddae.  The  two  species  are  meleagris  gallipavo,  and  meleagris 
ocellata. 

GROUSE. — This  is  the  common  name  for  birds  belonging  to  the  order  rasores  and 
the  family  tetraonidce.  There  are  numerous  species,  many  of  which  are  distinctly 
American.  The  spruce  partridge  or  Canada  grouse,  the  cock  of  the  plains,  the 
prairie  chicken  or  pinnated  grouse,  the  ruffled  grouse  (incorrectly  called  the  pheas- 
ant) and  others  are  well  known  game  birds. 

The  pinnated  grouse,  or  prairie  chicken,  is  restricted  to  the  United  States.  It 
exists  in  great  numbers  on  the  plains  of  the  West,  where  it  is  an  object  of  sport  for 
the  hunter.  It  is  now  very  rare  in  its  former  eastern  range,  but  a few  are  said  to  be 
found  on  Martha’s  Vineyard  and  the  adjacent  islands.  Its  favorite  haunts  are  the 
prairies  of  the  Wisconsin  Valley,  and  the  open  plains  as  far  south  as  Louisiana. 
This  species  can  easily  be  known  by  the  feathers  which  grow  on  the  legs  and  the 
long  lance-like  feathers  on  the  neck.  The  tail  is  short,  and  in  the  male  there  is  an 
air-sac  or  bladder  by  which,  in  the  mating  season,  he  is  able  to  give  utterance  to  a 
single  note  by  alternately  filling  and  emptying  this  sac  with  air.  The  principal  food 
of  this  species  is  the  berry  of  various  plants  and  buds.  In  some  parts  of  the  country 
it  is  a great  pest  to  the  farmer. 


GAME  BIRDS  OF  NORTH  AMERICA. 


431 


The  spruce  partridge  or  Canada  grouse  is  nowise  related  to  the  partridge  of 
Europe,  but  belongs  to  the  grouse  family.  It  is  found  in  the  New  England  States 
and  Canada  in  considerable  numbers.  The  New  England  quail,  or  the  partridge  of 
the  South  is,  strictly  speaking,  neither  a quail  nor  a partridge,  but  partakes  of  the 
nature  of  both.  Its  length  is  about  nine  inches.  The  upper  part  of  the  body  is  a 
reddish-brown  variously  striped  ; the  lower  portion  is  bluish-white,  striped  and  barred 
with  reddish-brown.  It  makes  its  nest  on  the  ground,  lays  from  twelve  to  eighteen 
eggs,  and  feeds  on  grains,  seeds,  and  berries.  They  live  in  coveys  of  dozen  or  more. 
Their  flesh  is  delicious,  and  the  sport  of  hunting  them  is  great. 

The  ruffed  grouse  is  easily  distinguished  from  the  other  grouse  by  not  having 
feathers  on  the  lower  half  of  the  tarsus.  It  has  a ruff  of  soft  brown  feathers  about 
the  neck.  The  tail  is  about  as  long  as  the  wing  and  has  two  bands  of  gray  with  a 
broad  black  one  between  them.  This  species  is  quite  generally  distributed  through 
the  north-temperate  part  of  America.  It  is  known  in  New  England  by  the  name  of 
partridge,  in  the  Middle  States  as  the  pheasant,  and  in  some  of  the  British  Provinces 
as  the  birch  partridge.  It  is  mostly  found  in  hilly  and  woody  country  and  along  water 
courses,  rarely  in  the  open  plain.  When  disturbed  it  will  run  into  the  bushes  and, 
squatting  low,  remain  close  to  the  ground.  It  is  hard  to  shoot  one  on  the  wing,  as 
its  flight  is  very  unsteady.  Its  flesh  is  considered  very  delicious. 

The  Wild  GOOSE. — This  bird  belong  to  the  family  anatidce  or  web-footed 
birds,  which  includes  the  duck,  the  swan,  the  goose,  and  some  others.  It  grows  to 
thirty  or  thirty-five  inches  in  length.  Its  prevailing  color  is  brown  above,  lighter 
below,  with  black  bill,  head,  neck,  and  feet,  and  a white  patch  on  each  cheek.  Its 
home  is  North  America,  where  it  breeds  in  the  northern  part,  and  passes  the  winter 
in  the  warmer  portions.  During  their  migrations  they  fly  in  the  shape  of  a letter 
“ V,”  with  the  point  in  advance.  They  breed  in  the  northern  latitudes,  and  remain 
there  until  warned  to  seek  a warmer  clime.  They  fly  at  a great  height,  nearly  or 
more  than  one-fourth  of  a mile  above  the  earth.  They  return  in  the  spring — from 
March  20th  to  the  latter  part  of  April,  according  to  the  weather.  The  Canadian 
goose  is  confined  to  this  continent.  The  largest  usually  weighs  ten  pounds.  In 
their  migration  they  seem  to  be  led  by  an  experienced  gander,  who  controls  the 
movement  of  his  column  through  the  air.  Wilson,  the  ornithologist,  is  of  the  opin- 
ion that  the  range  of  the  wild  goose  “ extends  to  the  utmost  polar  point,  amid  the 
silent  desolation  of  unknown  countries,  shut  out  from  the  prying  eye  of  man  by 
everlasting  and  insuperable  barriers  of  ice.” 

Our  domesticated  goose  is  supposed  to  have  sprung  from  the  wild  goose  of  the 
European  continent,  commonly  called  the  gray  lay.  There  are  several  species  of 
wild  goose  not  as  familiar  as  the  others,  to  be  found  in  the  western  portions  of 
North  America. 

The  Wild  Duck. — The  name  comes  from  the  verb  “duck,”  to  dive.  It  is  ap- 
plied to  many  swimming  birds  of  the  family  anatidcz.  The  true  ducks  haunt  the  fresh 
water  and  live  on  both  vegetable  and  animal  food.  They  go  in  flocks,  and  the  male 
bird  is  prettier  than  the  female,  as  well  as  larger.  In  their  wild  state  they  live  in 
pairs,  one  male  and  one  female,  but  when  domesticated,  the  males  are  polygamous. 


432 


GAME  BIRDS  Ov  NORTH  AMERICA. 


Eight  orders  of  true  ducks  are  found  in  North  America.  The  sea  duck  or  scoter  is 
distinguished  by  the  bill  being  much  swollen  at  the  base ; the  feathers  extend  for- 
ward as  far  as  the  nostril,  and  the  color  is  generally  black.  The  common  scoter,  the 
long-billed  scoter,  surf  duck  or  sea  coot,  and  the  velvet  duck  or  white-winged  coot, 
are  varieties  of  the  sea  duck.  The  wood  duck  is  the  most  beautiful  of  our  water- 
fowl.  He  has  a crested  head,  and  is  iridescent,  green  and  purple  in  color,  with  par- 
allel curved  lines  of  white  at  the  side  of  his  head  and  a broad,  forked,  white  patch 
on  his  throat.  The  upper  part  of  the  body  is  dark  reddish-brown,  with  bronze  and 
purplish  reflections ; the  breast  and  belly  are  grayish- white,  and  the  sides  and  lower 
part  of  the  neck  are  reddish-purple,  each  feather  tipped  with  white.  The  feet  are  dull 
orange;  the  bill  red  and  black.  This  beautiful  bird  is  easily  shot,  and  very  palatable 
for  food.  It  makes  its  home  m a blasted  tree  near  the  water,  and  if  it  can  find  a 
hole  where  a limb  has  broken  off,  or  one  made  by  a woodpecker  or  squirrel  into 
which  it  can  squeeze,  a nest  is  made  and  twelve  buff-green  polished  eggs  are  laid.  The 
female  broods  them  and  the  male  goes  away  and  returns  when  the  young  are  able  to 
fly.  This  species  is  the  only  one  seen  in  summer  in  many  parts  of  the  country,  and 
is  therefore  termed  the  summer  duck.  It  is  common  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  to 
Canada. 

The  canvas-back  duck  is  found  only  in  North  America.  It  is  found  in  the  bays 
of  the  sea  and  the  estuaries  of  rivers.  It  has  a fine  plumage  diversified  with  black, 
white,  chestnut-brown,  and  slate  color.  It  returns  from  its  northern  migration  in 
the  month  of  November,  and  may  be  shot  on  Chesapeake  and  Delaware  Bays  during 
the  winter.  The  flesh  is  highly  prized,  and  many  persons  think  that  it  is  the  most  deli- 
cious of  water-fowl.  Those  found  on  the  Chesapeake  Bay  are  regarded  as  the  best. 

The  eider  duck  is  found  in  the  northern  part  of  America  and  of  Europe.  The 
down  from  the  breast  of  this  bird,  with  which  it  fills  its  nest  during  the  period  of 
incubation,  is  taken  by  the  hunter  as  a valuable  article  of  commerce.  It  generally 
has  its  haunts  on  low,  rocky  islets  near  the  coast.  The  king  eider  is  found  in  Green- 
land. 

California  Quail. — There  are  two  species  of  quail  found  in  California,  one  on 
the  mountains  and  the  other  in  the  valleys.  The  latter  is  much  more  common,  and 
is  usually  meant  when  the  California  quail  is  mentioned.  Its  home  name  is  valley 
quail,  and  its  scientific  name,  lophorlyx  calif ornicus. 

Its  size  is  about  that  of  the  eastern  Bob  White.  Lead-gray  is  the  prevailing 
color.  The  wings  and  back  are  glossed  with  olive-brown  and  prettily  streaked  with 
black  and  white.  The  belly  is  orange,  fading  into  buff  and  white,  with  each  feather 
tipped  with  black.  The  head  of  this  bird  is  its  principal  beauty.  The  forehead  is 
brownish-yellow,  with  the  shafts  of  feathers  black ; there  is  a narow  fillet  of  white 
with  its  ends  floating  backward  along  the  sides  of  the  neck,  inclosing  the  light  brown 
back  of  the  head  and  nape,  and  from  the  crown  of  the  head  a bunch  of  tall  plumes, 
two,  four,  or  six,  rises  and  curves  forward.  The  chin  and  throat  are  black  with  a 
white  margin,  which  starts  at  the  eye  and  passes  round  to  the  other  eye.  This  quail 
frequents  the  grain  districts  from  the  Columbia  River  to  Cape  St.  Lucas.  They  be- 
come a nuisance  to  the  farmers.  The  eggs  are  creamy  in  color,  with  drab  and  brown 


GAME  BIRDS  OF  NORTH  AMERICA. 


43: 


spots  and  streaks.  The  California  quail  runs  through  the  tall  grass  when  pursued, 
hence  the  dogs  are  trained  to  rush  forward  and  retrieve  the  game  as  soon  as  it  falls. 
The  older  birds  will  trust  more  to  their  swift  flight  than  the  younger  ones.  They 
are  difficult  to  hit  on  the  wing,  but  their  flesh  is  very  good. 

The  Wild  PIGEON. — It  seems  hard  for  one  who  has  always  resided  east  of  the 
Alleghanies  to  believe  the  stories  told  by  the  early  settlers  in  regard  to  the  vast 
numbers  of  wild  pigeon  in  this  country.  The  whole  eastern  portion  of  the  country 
was  overrun  by  them,  and  their  great  migrations  gave  them  the  name  of  passenger- 
pigeon.  The  change  of  seasons  does  not  wholly  account  for  these  migrations,  for 
certain  parts  of  the  innumerable  flocks  remained  to  breed  in  the  South,  while  others 
went  to  the  very  edge  of  the  Arctic  Zone  and,  after  rearing  their  young,  remained 
till  midwinter.  It  would  seem  that  their  movements  were  determined  by  their  abil- 
ity to  find  food,  and  they  changed  from  one  part  of  the  country  to  another  in  search 
of  subsistence.  They  are  especially  fond  of  the  beechnut  acorn,  and  any  nuts  which 
they  can  crack  and  swallow.  They  are  very  fond  of  rice,  but  they  will  eat  all  kinds 
of  grain  and  berries.  It  is  stated  that  it  now  costs  the  rice  growers  of  the  South, 
$2,000,000  per  year  to  keep  them  off  the  rice  fields.  What  would  be  the  expense  if 
they  were  as  numerous  as  when  the  great  ornithologist,  Audubon,  saw  them  near 
Louisville  in  1813,  when  he  said,  “ The  light  of  the  noonday  sun  was  obscured  as  by 
an  eclipse.”  He  travelled  on  horseback  all  day  without  getting  out  from  under 
them,  and  their  rear  guard  did  not  pass  until  after  midnight.  He  estimated  that 
1,200,000,000  individual  birds  passed  over  in  this  one  migration.  They  seemed 
moved  by  a common  purpose.  The  clearing  away  of  the  forests  and  the  wholesale 
destruction  of  old  and  young  have  diminished  the  number,  and  the  remnant  have 
been  driven  to  the  more  distant  north  to  rear  their  young.  Pigeon  shooting  can  still 
be  enjoyed  in  the  Alleghanies  and  other  less  cultivated  regions,  and  a few  scattered 
flocks  can  be  found  in  every  State  where  there  are  still  left  large  tracts  of  forest. 
The  weapon  should  be  a rifle,  though  the  strong  flight  of  the  bird  taxes  marksman- 
ship. 

The  various  breeds  of  domestic  pigeons  have  come  from  the  wild  pigeon  and  its 
many  varieties.  The  wild  pigeon,  the  Columbia  livia,  belongs  to  a section  of  that 
genus  which  has  a long  tarsus.  The  wings  are  black  at  the  outer  margin  and  have  a 
black  spot  at  the  end  of  the  secondaries  and  another  on  the  great  coverts.  The 
rump  is  ashy.  The  tail  is  bluish-ash  two-thirds  of  the  way  and  black  the  rest.  The 
entire  length  of  the  bird  is  fifteen  inches,  with  a spread  of  wing  of  twenty-seven. 
The  feet  at  the  middle  toe  are  two  and  three-quarter  inches  long.  This  is  the 
description  of  the  wild,  or  passenger-pigeon.  Darwin,  who  made  a study  of  them, 
divides  them  into  eleven  distinct  races,  with  more  than  250  varieties. 

The  Spotted  Sandpiper. — This  is  a bird  of  the  woods  as  well  as  of  the  sea- 
shore. The  riverside  and  mountain  brooks  are  also  his  haunts.  They  are  not  shot 
for  food  but  for  sport  by  those  who  wish  to  practise  upon  their  erratic  flight.  They 
are  by  no  means  shy,  but  are  found  wherever  they  can  procure  water  insects  and  mol- 
lusks.  They  are  found  as  far  north  as  the  Arctic  Zone,  but  these  come  back  to  winter 


434 


GAME  BIRDS  OF  NORTH  AMERICA. 


in  the  Northern  and  Middle  States.  Those  which  spend  the  summer  in  these  States 
migrate  further  south  for  the  winter. 

They  scrape  out  a hollow  in  the  sandy  border  of  a salt  marsh,  or  in  a cornfield 
near  fresh  water,  in  which  they  deposit  four  eggs  much  the  shape  of  a top  and  the 
color  of  clay  blotched  with  sienna-brown.  They  have  a peculiar  method  of  defend- 
ing their  eggs  and  young.  On  the  approach  of  an  enemy  the  bird  throws  herself 
before  the  intruder  and  utters  a scream — peet-weet,  peet-weet — and  flutters  away  with 
one  wing  apparently  broken,  and  one  leg  disabled.  If  you  think  she  is  wounded  and 
give  chase,  she  will  elude  your  grasp  and  lead  you  a safe  distance  from  the  nest, 
when  she  suddenly  recovers  and  shoots  away. 

The  color  of  the  adult  bird  is  a bronzed  or  brownish-green,  the  wings  are  crossed 
with  a narrow  band  of  white,  and  the  outer  feathers  of  the  tail  tipped  also  with  white. 
The  under  parts  of  the  bird  are  white,  with  brown  spots  circular  and  oval  in  shape. 
The  sandpiper  has  a great  many  local  names,  as  “teeter-tail,”  “wag-tail,”  “tip-up,** 
and  others.  These  refer  to  the  amusing  movements  of  the  bird  when  it  alights,  or 
stops  in  its  running  along  the  beach.  It  will  begin  to  teeter  upon  its  legs,  lift  and 
drop  its  tail,  and  rise  and  sink  on  its  elastic  toes  as  if  courtesying  to  some  one.  The 
scientific  name  of  this  little  bird  is  tringoides  macular ius.  Its  flesh  has  a decidedly 
fishy  taste  and  is  not  relished  for  food. 

WOODCOCK,  Snipe,  ETC. — These  form  a family  of  wading  birds  called  by  Lin- 
nseus,  Scolopacidce,  from  the  Latin  name  of  woodcock.  They  have  a long,  slender 
bill,  soft  and  flexible,  with  a blunt  tip.  Their  wings  are  long  and  pointed,  with  a 
short,  even  tail.  Their  legs  are  elongated,  with  naked  thighs.  This  family  is  quite 
an  extended  one,  embracing  the  curlew,  the  sandpiper,  the  snipe,  and  the  woodcock. 
These  differ  in  their  habits  and  characteristics,  but  are  found  quite  extensively  in 
North  America.  The  curlews  of  this  continent  are  the  long-billed  curlew,  the  short- 
billed curlew,  and  the  Esquimau  curlew.  These  are  much  relished  for  food,  and 
sought  for  by  hunters  because  of  their  wild  and  shy  habits.  Their  haunts  are  found 
along  the  seashore  and  open  moorlands,  where  they  can  find  a supply  of  worms,  mol- 
lusks,  insects,  etc.  They  have  long  legs,  slender,  curved  bills,  and  short  tails.  The 
body  of  the  long-billed  curlew  is  twenty-five  inches  and  its  bill  often  eight  inches. 
Its  color  is  a pale  reddish  with  ashy  tints  and  brown-black  marks  and  lines  of  black 
running  lengthwise.  The  short-billed  curlew  is  about  two-thirds  as  large,  with  a bill 
about  four  inches  long.  The  Esquimau  curlew  is  still  smaller. 

The  snipe  belongs  to  the  same  family,  and  has  many  varieties,  among  which  are 
the  American  snipe,  the  gray  snipe,  grass  snipe,  robin  snipe,  and  stone  snipe.  The 
grass  snipe  and  robin  snipe  are  known  as  sandpipers,  which  have  been  described. 
The  flesh  of  the  snipe  proper  is  much  liked  by  many  because  the  bird  is  exceedingly 
fat  when  it  finds  a good  feeding  ground.  It  feeds  upon  the  larvae  and  grubs  of  the 
common  fly  which  destroys  grasses  and  turf.  This  bird  lays  four  olive-brown  eggs. 

GODWIT. — This  is  a popular  name  given  to  various  wading  birds  having  long 
bills.  The  great  marbled  godwit,  the  Hudsonian  godwit,  and  the  tell-tale  godwit, 
are  the  North  Amercian  species.  They  belong  to  the  genus  limosa , and  have  char- 
acteristics in  common  with  the  family  of  waders,  and  are  good  table  food. 


GAME  BIRDS  OF  NORTH  AMERICA. 


435 


PLOVERS. — This  is  also  a family  of  waders  and  includes  many  genera  such  as 
lapwings,  turnstones,  golden  plovers,  kildeer  plovers,  and  others.  They  are  mostly 
found  in  temperate  climates.  Many  of  the  species  are  highly  prized  for  game. 

The  kildeer  plover  is  found  in  summer  on  the  interior  plains  of  North  America, 
but  in  winter  it  frequents  the  sea  coast  from  Massachusetts  to  Texas.  The  name  is 
derived  from  a resemblance  to  its  cry,  which  it  constantly  repeats.  It  is  hunted  for 
sport  rather  than  for  food,  as  its  flesh  is  not  highly  prized.  The  turnstone  is  so 
named  from  his  habit  of  turning  stones  to  obtain  food.  He  is  allied  to  the  plovers 
and  is  a wader.  He  is  commonly  found  on  the  shores  of  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific 
coasts.  On  the  Pacific  he  is  known  as  the  black  turnstone. 

Rail. — This  is  the  common  English  name  for  the  species  of  the  family  rallidce,  but 
especially  to  the  two  branches,  rallus  and  porzana,  found  in  the  United  States.  The 
rails  have  the  bill  slender  and  longer  than  the  head.  This  class  embraces  the  com- 
mon or  marsh  rail,  the  largest  of  which  grows  in  the  United  States,  about  seventeen 
inches  long,  and  the  clapper  or  mud  rail,  whose  length  is  about  fourteen  inches. 

Teal. — This  is  an  English  name  given  to  ducks  of  a small  size.  As  far  as  the 
species  in  North  America  are  concerned,  we  quote  from  Professor  Burd  in  his  work, 
The  Birds  of  North  America.”  (i.)  “ The  blue-winged  teals  have  a rather  broad  or 
moderately  narrow  bill  (about  one-third  or  more  of  the  lower  edge);  the  nail  is 
proportionately  broad  (about  one-third  the  width  of  the  bill);  the  lower  angle  of  the 
bill  extends  rather  farther  back  than  the  lower  edge;  the  colors  are  characteristic  in 
that  the  wing  coverts  and  the  outer  web  of  the  scapulars  are  bright  blue;  the  greater 
coverts  tipped  with  white;  a grass-green  speculum  is  just  below  the  white  of  the 
coverts;  the  scapulars  are  streaked  with  yellowish  buff;  the  top  of  the  head  and  chin 
are  dusky,  and  the  crissam  is  blackish.  (2.)  The  green-winged  teals  have  a narrow 
bill;  the  nail  proportionately  narrow;  the  upper  bill  does  not  reach  as  far  back  as 
the  beginning  of  its  lower  edge ; the  colors  are  distinctive  in  that  head  and  neck  are 
chestnut,  with  a broad  patch  of  green  on  the  side  of  the  head ; the  breast  has  rounded 
black  spots;  the  upper  part  and  sides  are  finely  waved  traversely  with  black  and 
grayish-white;  the  crissam  is  black,  edged  with  creamy  yellow;  the  wing  coverts  are 
plain  olive-gray,  the  greater  with  a terminal  band  of  fulvous;  the  speculum  is  green 
edged  externally  and  internally  with  black.”  These  species  frequent  the  fresh  water 
ponds  and  lakes,  and  are  the  best  for  food.  Those  found  in  America  are  the  blue- 
winged teal,  the  green-winged  teal,  and  the  red-breasted  teal. 

The  species  of  the  porzana  are  the  common  rail  or  sora,  the  little  black  rail,  and 
the  little  yellow  rail.  These  all  have  their  haunts  in  salt  marshes  and  are  much 
sought  after  by  hunters  as  game  birds. 

Heron. — This  name  is  given  to  a part  of  the  birds  belonging  to  the  family 
ardeidee ; they  are  waders  and  are  found  in  North  America  under  the  species  of  the 
Louisiana  heron  of  the  South,  the  snowy  heron,  the  white  heron,  the  great  blue 
heron,  the  night  heron,  and  many  others.  The  great  blue  heron  is  a splendid  bird, 
but  very  dangerous  when  wounded,  for  it  strikes  at  the  eyes  of  its  captor  with  its 
long  bill  and  gives  severe  blows  to  the  last.  Egret  is  the  diminutive  form  of  the  same 
word,  heron,  in  French,  and  is  a name  applied  to  several  species.  It  is  a splendid 


438 


GAME  BIRDS  OF  NORTH  AMERICA. 


bird,  and  its  plumes  are  used  for  ornament.  It  has  a soft,  flowing  plumage  of  pure 
white,  except  the  train,  which  is  of  a creamy  tint.  They  live  in  low  marshy  places 
and  eat  fish,  frogs,  lizards,  and  snakes. 

The  Bittern. — This  bird  is  regarded  by  some  naturalists  as  a species  of  heron. 
It  has  a long,  straight,  sharp  bill,  long  legs  and  neck.  The  latter  has  a loose  plum- 
age or  fringe  which  it  can  erect  at  will.  It  is  a handsome  bird.  It  lies  hidden  in  the 
reeds  of  marshy  fens  and  the  shores  of  lakes  and  rivers  by  day,  and  at  night  goes  out 
for  its  prey — frogs,  fish,  etc.  Its  note  or  cry  is  a peculiar  hollow  and  booming  sound, 
noticed  by  Goldsmith  in  the  lirwe, 

“ The  hollow-sounding  bittern  guards  its  rest.” 

/ 

There  are  two  varieties  in  North  America. 

The  American  Coot. — The  scientific  name  of  this  bird  is  Fulica  Americana , 
and  this  is  the  species  to  which  the  name  “ coot  ” should  be  applied.  But  it  is  com- 
monly applied  to  several  birds,  mostly  of  the  duck  family ; for  example : the  box  coot, 
or  surf  duck ; the  broad-billed  coot,  and  the  white-winged  coot  or  velvet  duck.  In  the 
South  the  name  is  given  to  the  sora  rail.  The  American  coot  resembles  the  water- 
hen.  It  lives  in  lakes  or  large  ponds  or  along  the  banks  of  quiet  rivers.  Its  food 
consists  of  insects,  shell  fish,  and  similar  creatures  which  it  hunts  in  the  water  or  on 
the  land.  It  swims  exceedingly  well,  as  the  broad  membrane  on  each  side  of  the  toe 
presents  a wide  surface  to  the  water.  It  walks  with  some  grace,  and  on  the  perch 
grasps  the  limb  firmly.  In  winter  it  goes  dpwn  to  the  sea. 

Ibis.— The  American  species  of  this  bird  are  the  glossy  ibis,  the  white  ibis  of 
Florida,  and  the  scarlet  ibis.  These  handsome  birds  are  mostly  found  in  the  warm 
regions.  There  is  also  the  wood  ibis.  The  white  ibis  of  Florida  has  been  regarded 
as  a variety  of  the  sacred  ibis  of  Egypt.  This  sacred  bird  of  Egypt  is  often  found 
embalmed  in  that  country.  It  was  thought  to  be  an  incarnation  of  the  god  Thoth. 
These  birds  are  waders,  with  long  legs  and  bills.  The  white  ibis  and  the  scarlet  ibis 
are  game  birds. 

The  CORMORANT. — This  is  a web-footed  bird  of  the  family  pelicanidce.  It  has  a 
compressed  bill,  with  a strong  hook  at  the  point  of  the  upper  part,  wings  moderate 
in  length,  and  stiff  tail-feathers.  These  latter  are  used  in  walking.  These  birds  are 
very  voracious  and  pursue  their  prey  both  by  swimming  and  diving.  The  cormorant 
common  to  the  eastern  coast  of  North  America  is  mostly  black  and  about  thirty- 
three  inches  long.  Other  species  are  also  found  in  the  United  States. 

The  Crane. — Of  these  birds  the  American  species  are  the  whooping  crane,  the 
sand-hill  crane,  the  little  crane,  and  the  common  crane.  The  crane  differs  from  the 
heron  family,  storks,  etc.,  in  having  the  short  hind  toe  placed  much  higher  on  the 
leg  than  the  front  one.  They  are  mostly  large  birds  with  long  necks  and  legs  and 
powerful  wings.  The  wings  are  rounded,  not  elongated.  The  whooping  crane  is 
larger  than  the  common  crane,  with  pure  white  plumage  and  wings  tipped  with  black. 
In  the  winter  it  is  found  in  the  southern  parts  of  the  United  States,  but  in  summer 
it  goes  to  the  North. 

Roseate  Spoonbill. — This  bird  is  named  from  its  color  and  the  shape  of  its 


GAME  BIRDS  OF  NORTH  AMERICA. 


437 


bill.  The  color  is  a delicate  rose  hue,  and  its  bill  is  much  the  shape  of  a spoon-bowl. 
It  belongs  to  the  heron  family  and  lives  in  communities  in  the  southern  United 
Stater  and  Central  America.  It  grows  some  thirty  inches  long  and  is  considered 
good  for  the  table. 

The  PHALAROPE. — This  is  an  aquatic  bird,  resembling  the  plover  in  form. 
The  bill  is  as  long  as  the  head,  nearly  straight;  wings  long  and  pointed;  tail  short 
and  rounded,  and  legs  set  far  back.  G.  R.  Gray  says  of  them : “ The  species  are  in- 
habitants of  the  northern  regions,  but  migrating  to  more  temperate  climes  in  severe 
winters.  They  are  usually  observed  in  pairs  or  in  small  parties,  swimming  about  on 
the  sea,  or  on  lakes,  ponds,  and  streams  of  fresh  water  near  the  margins,  moving 
quickly  in  search  of  floating  seeds,  aquatic  insects,  and  the  small  crustacean  animals 
on  which  they  subsist.  They  swim  with  great  facility  and  swiftness,  and  their  flight 
is  rapid  and  elevated  in  the  air.  The  female  deposits  four  eggs  among  a tuft  of 
herbage  in  the  marshes.”  Only  one  species  is  found  in  North  America. 

The  Rock  Ptarmigan  and  American  Ptarmigan. — This  is  a species  of 
grouse  distinguished  by  having  the  legs  feathered  to  the  claws.  They  have  sixteen 
or  eighteen  tail  feathers.  They  inhabit  the  high  northern  regions  and  assume  a coat 
of  white  in  the  winter,  in  the  summer  changing  to  a reddish  or  buff  color.  In  winter 
they  are  sheltered  in  willows,  birches,  and  when  pursued  dive  into  the  snow  and 
easily  work  their  way  out  of  sight.  In  the  summer  they  frequent  the  plains.  They 
lay  eight  or  ten  eggs  in  May  or  June. 

Hooded  Merganser. — This  is  a beautiful  water  fowl  of  North  America,  also 
called  hairy-head,  water  pheasant,  and  hooded  sheldrake.  They  differ  from  the 
true  ducks  by  their  more  slender  bill,  which  has  a little  hook  at  the  tip.  They  be- 
long to  the  family  anatidce. 

The  Black-necked  Stilt. — This  is  the  only  species  of  stilt  found  in  America. 
It  ranges  from  the  northern  part  of  the  United  States  to  Paraguay.  Its  full  length 
is  fourteen  inches,  of  which  the  tail  is  three  inches,  and  the  bill  three.  The  color  is  a 
glossy  black  on  the  head  above,  the  neck  behind,  the  back,  and  the  wings ; the  bill  is 
black  and  theTegs  red;  the  rest  is  white.  The  legs  are  very  long  and  slender;  the 
bill  is  also  slender. 

It  dwells  on  the  seashore  and  is  found  inland  in  the  United  States  along  the 
lakes  and  rivers  of  the  West.  They  flock  in  numbers  of  twenty  or  thirty.  They 
choose  muddy  flats  with  reedy  margins.  They  breed  in  the  United  States.  They 
lay  four  large  eggs  of  a yellowish  hue,  with  brownish  blotches  and  lines.  They  feed 
on  aquatic  insects,  the  eggs  and  young  of  fish,  and  small  fishes  of  different  kinds. 


NAUTICAL  TERMS  EXPLAINED 

WITH 

A BRIEF  DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF 
CRAFT  USED  ON  OUR  WATERS. 


A Ship  has  three  masts  full-rigged, 
that  is,  with  yard-arms  on  each  mast. 

A Brig  has  two  masts,  one  of  which  is 
full-rigged  and  the  other  with  square  sail 
and  spanker. 

A Bark  has  three  masts,  but  only  two 
of  them  have  yard-arms,  the  third  having 
a spanker  and  a triangular  top-sail. 

A BRIGANTINE  has  only  one  full-rigged 
mast,  the  other  mast  having  a spanker 
and  triangular  top-sail. 

A SCHOONER  may  have  one,  two,  three, 
four,  or  even  five  masts,  but  no  yard-arms. 

A Sloop  has  but  one  mast. 

A Yacht  is  a steam  or  sail  vessel,  used 
for  pleasure;  either  a sloop  or  schooner. 

A Tug  is  a steam  craft  used  for  towing 
other  craft  or  floating  merchandise. 

A Barge  is  a boat  without  masts  used 
for  carrying  passengers  for  pleasure,  or 
to  transport  large  burdens. 

A Scow  is  a flat-bottom  boat  for  car- 
rying heavy  loads  of  merchandise. 

A Yawl  is  a sea  boat  rather  long  and 
usually  rowed  with  four  or  six  oars. 

A Wherry  is  a light  river  boat  having 
a keel,  rowed  with  oars. 

A Skiff  or  Punt  is  a flat-bottomed 
boat  of  light  construction. 

A Catamaran  is  a light  sail  boat  of 
slight  construction  and  used  principally 
for  fast  sailing  in  smooth  water. 

A Long  Boat  is  the  largest  boat  car- 


ried on  a sea-going  craft.  It  is  strongly 
built  and  intended  to  use  in  a heavy  sea. 

A Canal  Boat  is  one  used  on  canals 
to  carry  passengers  or  freight. 

A Whale  Boat  is  large,  strongly  built 
and  equipped  for  chasing  and  taking 
whales. 

A Life  Boat  is  large  and  strong  with 
air-tight  compartments  and  so  built  as 
not  to  sink.  It  is  intended  for  use  at  life- 
saving stations  and  on  the  great  seas  when 
life  is  in  danger. 

A Steamer  is  a generic  term  applied 
to  all  vessels  propelled  by  steam.  A 
screw  steamer  is  propelled  by  one  or 
more  screws  revolving  in  the  water.  A 
side-wheeled  steamer  is  propelled  by  a 
wheel  on  each  side.  A wheelbarrow,  or 
stern  steamer  is  propelled  by  one  wheel 
at  the  stern. 

Different  names  may  be  given  to  the 
same  style  of  craft  in  different  parts  of 
our  country,  but  the  above  are  known 
and  generally  recognized. 

Nautical  Terms  Explained. 

Aback. — A sail  is  taken  aback  if  the 
wind  blows  upon  its  forward  surface. 

Abaft. — The  position,  toward  the  stern, 
or  hinder  part  of  the  vessel,  from  any 
stated  point;  as,  “abaft  the  forecastle,” 
“ abaft  the  mainmast,”  “ abaft  the  cabin.” 

Abeam.  — Any  object  is  said  to  be 


INTERNATIONAL 

CODE. 


Answering 

Pennant 


Assent-Yes, 


N.  York  Canoe 


South  Boston 


Stapleton 


Copenhagen 


Dorchester 


Neenah 


^Williamsburg 


.ong  Island 


INTERNATIONAL 
CODEof  SIGNALS, 

universal  Series. 


Negative-No. 


New  Brunswick 


South  Carolina  Prospect  Park  Model  Knickerbocker 


Chautauqua  Lake 


OF  THE 

UNITED  STATES  AND  CANADA. 


Manhattan 


Genesee 


St.  Augustine 


.land  Model 


Union,  N.  J. 


International 


Rockaway 


Hudson  River 


Warwick 


AMERICAN  VACHT  ENSIGN 


Hoboken 


Columbia 


Royal  Halifax 
(Burgee) 


Royal  Canadian 


Royal  Halifax 


N.  Hamburg  Ice  Boat  American  Model 


Central  Hudson 


Haverhill 


Beverly 


Brooklyn 


Boston 


Royal  Canadian  yRoyal  Bermuda 
(Burgee)  Q 


Jersey  City 


U.S. Storm  Signal 


>ortland  Oshkosh Royal  Bermuda  (Burgee) 


Pougluceepsie  Ice  Yacht 


Madison 


New  Jersey 


Atlantic 


Seawanhaka 


NAUTICAL  TERMS  EXPLAINED. 


439 


abeam  that  bears  at  right  angles  to  the 
line  of  the  keel ; and  an  imaginary  line 
drawn  at  right  angles  across  the  keel, 
equidistant  from  the  bow  and  stern,  di- 
vides the  vessel  into  two  parts.  Any- 
thing bearing  forward  of  this  line  is  said 
to  be  “ forward  of  the  beam,”  and  any- 
thing bearing  behind  this  line  is  said  to 
be  “ abaft  the  beam.” 

Aboard. — In  the  vessel;  as,  “Get  the 
anchor  aboard  ! ” “ Come  aboard  ! ” 

About.— A vessel  is  said  to  “ go  about  ” 
when  tacking,  the  order  to  prepare  for 
which  is,  “ Ready  about!  ” 

Abreast. — Opposite  to,  as  relates  to 
the  sides  of  a vessel;  as,  abreast  of  a 
lighthouse,  when  the  side  of  the  vessel  is 
at  right  angles  to  it,  or  nearly  so. 

Adrift. — Broken  loose  from  moorings; 
or  anything  rolling  about  the  decks  loose 
in  a sea-way  has  broken  adrift. 

Afloat. — Clear  of  the  bottom,  sus- 
tained by  the  water. 

Afore. — That  part  of  the  vessel  near- 
est to  the  stem,  or  head. 

Aft. — Behind ; as,  “ Stand  further  aft,” 
“ Haul  aft  the  main-sheet ! ” i.e.,  bring  the 
boom  nearer  the  line  of  the  keel. 

After. — Hinder,  as  after  sails,  such  as 
the  mainsail,  in  contradistinction  to  for- 
ward-sails, such  as  the  jib. 

AGROUND. — Not  having  water  enough 
for  the  vessel,  which  rests  on  the  ground. 

Ahead. — Before  the  vessel ; anything 
in  advance  of  where  the  vessel  is  being 
directed. 

A-LEE. — The  helm  is  a-lee  when  the 
tiller  is  put  to  the  lee-side;  “hard  a-lee,” 
when  it  is  put  over  as  far  as  it  will  go.” 
All  in  the  Wind. — When  the  sails 
receive  a portion  of  the  wind  on  both, 
surfaces,  and  shake  or  wave  like  a flag. 

All  Hands,  Ahoy. — A summons  to 
call  all  the  crew  on  deck  in  an  emergency. 


Aloft. — Up  above,  at  the  masthead. 

Alongside. — Close  to  the  side  of  the 
vessel. 

Amidships. — Anything  in  a line  with 
the  keel,  viz.;  “Put  the  helm  amid- 
ships ! ” 

To  ANCHOR. — To  let  the  anchor  fall 
overboard  that  it  may  hold  the  vessel; 
order  for  which  is  “ Let  go  the  anchor!  ” 

Anchorage.— Ground  fit  to  anchor  on. 

To  Weigh  the  Anchor.— To  heave 
it  up  from  the  bottom  to  the  bow  of  the 
vessel. 

ASHORE. — On  land,  aground. 

ASTERN. — Behind  the  vessel. 

Athwart.— Across. 

Athwart-Ships.— Anything  lying  at 
right  angles  to  the  line  of  the  keel,  or 
nearly  so. 

Avast.  —To  cease  pulling,  to  stop. 

A-WEATHER. — The  helm  is  said  to  be 
a-weather  when  the  tiller  is  put  over  to 
the  windward  side  of  the  vessel ; and 
“hard  a-weather,”  when  it  is  put  over  as 
far  as  it  will  go. 

Awning. — A canvas  covering  stretched 
overhead,  to  give  protection  from  the 
heat  of  the  sun. 

Back-Stays.— Ropes  fixed  at  the  top- 
masthead,  and  fastened  to  the  sides  of  the 
vessel  to  sustain  the  topmast. 

BALLAST. — A quantity  of  heavy  mate- 
rial placed  in  the  hold  of  the  vessel  to 
give  her  proper  stability. 

Bands. — Pieces  of  canvas  sewn  across 
a sail  to  strengthen  it  to  sustain  the  reef- 
points,  and  called  reef-bands. 

Bar. — A shoal,  usually  found  at  the 
mouths  of  rivers  and  harbors  that  are 
subject  to  much  current. 

Bare  Poles. — Having  no  sail  up,  on 
account  of  the  severity  of  the  wind: 
“ scudding  under  bare  poles,”  that  is,  run- 
ning before  the  wind  with  no  sail  set. 


440 


NAUTICAL  TERMS  EXPLAINED. 


Beams. — Pieces  of  timber  across  the 
vessel  under  the  decks,  bound  to  the  sides 
by  knees.  A vessel  is  said  to  be  on  her 
“ beam  ends  ” when  she  is  hove  down  by 
any  force,  so  that  the  ends  of  the  beams 
point  toward  the  ground. 

Forward  of  the  Beam. — When  the 
object  or  wind  is  at  some  position  be- 
tween abeam  and  ahead. 

Before  the  Beam. — When  the  wind 
or  object  bears  on  some  point  forward  of 
the  beam,  but  within  the  right  angle 
formed  by  the  keel  and  a line  across  the 
middle  of  the  vessel. 

Abaft  the  Beam. — The  opposite  to 
Before  the  Beam. 

BEARINGS. — The  direction  of  any  ob- 
ject by  observation  of  the  compass;  also 
to  any  object,  as  the  lighthouse  bears 
abaft  the  beam. 

Beating  to  Windward. — Advancing 
in  the  direction  from  which  the  wind  pro- 
ceeds by  a series  of  manoeuvres  called 
“ tacking.” 

Becalmed. — Having  no  wind  to  fill  the 
sails.  One  sail  is  also  said  to  becalm 
another  when  the  wind  is  aft. 

Belay. — To  make  fast  a rope  around  a 
cleat  or  pin. 

To  Bend. — To  fasten;  as  to  bend  the 
sails,  bend  on  the  cable  to  the  anchor, 
bend  on  the  colors,  etc. 

Bight.— Any  slack  part  of  a rope  be- 
tween the  ends. 

BILGE.  — The  flat  part  of  a vessel’s 
bottom  where  the  water  that  she  ships, 
or  which  leaks  in,  remains,  and  is  called 
“ bilge-water.” 

Binnacle. — A box,  fitted  with  lights, 
which  contains  the  steering-compass. 

Berth. — An  anchorage;  a bunk  or 
wooden  shelf  used  for  sleeping  in. 

BlTTS. — Large,  upright  pieces  of  tim- 
ber, with  a cross-piece,  to  which  hawsers 


or  large  ropes  are  belayed;  also  called 
“ knight-heads.” 

Blocks.  — Instruments  with  pulleys 
used  to  increase  the  power  of  ropes. 

Block  and  Block  (also  called,  com- 
monly, “ chock-a-block  ”). — When  the  two 
blocks  of  a tackle  have  been  brought  as 
near  together  as  possible. 

To  Make  a Board. — To  tack. 

To  Make  a Stern-Board. — To  move 
through  the  water  stern  foremost. 

Bob-Stays. — Ropes  from  the  cut-water, 
or  stem,  to  the  bowsprit  end,  to  sustain 
and  strengthen  it. 

Bolt-Ropes.  — Ropes  sewn  round  the 
edges  of  sails,  to  prevent  splitting. 

BOOMS. — Round  pieces  of  timber  oil 
which  the  foot  of  sails  are  lashed. 

Bows. — The  round  part  of  the  vessel 
forward,  ending  in  the  cut-water,  or 
stem. 

To  Bouse. — To  haul  upon. 

BOWSPRIT. — A spar  nearly  parallel  with 
the  deck,  extending  out  over  the  stem. 

To  Bring  Up. — To  take  the  bottom 
suddenly,  as  brought  up  by  a shoal;  to 
come  to  an  anchor. 

To  Bring  To. — To  make  the  vessel 
nearly  stationary  by  stopping  her  head- 
way by  means  of  the  sails  set  in  different 
positions,  so  as  to  counterpoise  each 
other  in  connection  with  the  helm. 

Butt  End.  —The  end  of  a plank  in  a 
vessel’s  side ; to  start  a butt ; i.e.,  to  leak. 

By  the  Board. — A mast  is  said  to  go 
by  the  board  when  carried  away  just 
above  the  deck. 

By  the  Head. — When  a vessel  is  deep- 
er in  the  water  forward  than  aft. 

By  the  Stern. — The  reverse  of  “by 
the  head.” 

By  the  Wind. — When  a vessel  is  as 
near  the  wind  as  she  can  be  sailed  with- 
out the  sail  shaking ; called  “ full  and  by.” 


NAUTICAL  TERMS  EXPLAINED. 


441 


CABLE. — The  rope  by  which  the  vessel 
is  secured  to  the  anchor. 

To  Pay  out  the  Cable.— To  allow 
more  of  it  to  pass  outboard,  so  that  the 
vessel  lies  farther  from  the  anchor. 

CABOOSE. — Place  where  the  food  is 
cooked;  also  called  the  “cook’s  galley.” 

Call. — A silver  whistle  used  by  the 
boatswain  to  have  certain  orders  obeyed. 

Capsize. — To  turn  over. 

To  Carry  Away. — A spar  is  carried 
away  when  it  is  broken  by  the  wind. 

To  Cast  Off. — To  untie,  to  allow  to 
go  free,  viz.:  “Cast  off  the  main-sheet!” 
“Cast  off  that  boat’s  painter!  ” 

Casting. — To  pay  a vessel  off  on  the 
desired  tack  when  weighing  anchor,  by 
arranging  sails  so  as  to  be  taken  aback. 

Cat-Boat  Rig. — A vessel  rigged  with 
one  mast  placed  chock  forward  in  the 
eyes,  and  without  stays  or  bowsprit,  and 
fitted  with  one  fore-and-aft  sail. 

Cat’s-Paw. — A light  breeze  or  puff  of 
air  seen  upon  the  water. 

To  Calk. — To  drive  oakum  or  cotton 
into  the  seams  to  prevent  leaking,  and  to 
“ pay  ” the  same  with  pitch  or  tar. 

Centre-Board. — A movable  keel  that 
can  be  lowered  or  hoisted  at  pleasure. 

To  Claw  Off. — To  beat  to  windward 
from  off  a lee-shore. 

Cleat. — A piece  of  wood  with  two 
horns,  fastened  to  the  side  of  the  vessel 
or  to  the  mast  upon  which  ropes  are 
made  fast. 

Clews. — The  corners  of  sails. 

Close  Hauled. — To  sail  as  near  the 
wind  as  possible. 

Coiling. — To  gather  up  a rope  into  a 
circular  form  ready  for  running  out  again 
at  a moment’s  notice;  such  as, “ Coil  up 
the  peak-halliards,  and  have  them  ready 
for  running!  ” 


COURSE. — The  point  of  the  compass 
on  which  the  vessel  sails. 

Cross-Bearings. — The  finding  of  the 
exact  position  of  the  vessel  upon  the  chart 
by  taking  the  bearings  by  compass  of  two 
objects  on  shore. 

CROTCH. — Two  crossed  pieces,  of  wood 
in  which  the  main  boom  is  lashed,  when 
the  vessel  is  at  anchor  or  the  sail  furled, 
to  confine  it  in  place. 

To  CUN. — To  direct  the  helmsman  how 
to  steer. 

Cut-Water. — The  timber  forming  the 
entrance  of  the  vessel. 

BOAT  Davits.- — Pieces  of  strong,  bent 
iron  standing  out  over  the  side  to  hoist 
boats  up  to,  and  secure  them. 

DOWNHAUL. — A rope  used  to  pull  down 
the  jib,  etc. 

DRAUGHT. — Depth  of  water.  Thus  it 
is  said  of  a vessel  her  draught  is  three  feet ; 
i.e .,  she  draws  three  feet  of  water. 

DRIFT. — To  drive  to  leeward ; to  lose 
steerage  way  for  want  of  wind. 

EARINGS. — Small  ropes  used  for  lash- 
ings. 

Ease  Off. — To  slacken. 

Ease  Off  Handsomely. — To  slacken 
very  carefully. 

End  for  End. — To  change  a rope 
that  has  been  worn,  and  use  one  part 
where  the  other  was  formerly  used. 

End  On. — To  advance  bow  or  stern 
on,  or  to  have  another  vessel  approach 
in  a similar  manner. 

ENSIGN.  — The  national  flag,  carried 
always  at  the  gaff-end. 

Fag-End. — The  end  of  a rope  which 
is  frayed. 

Falling  Off. — When  a vessel  moves 
from  the  wind  farther  than  she  ought. 

Fathom. — Six  feet  in  length. 

Fid. — A tapered  piece  of  wood  used 


442 


NAUTICAL  TERMS  EXPLAINED. 


to  splice  ropes  with,  and,  when  made  of 
iron,  called  a “ marline-spike.” 

To  Fill.— To  have  the  wind  strike  the 
inner  or  after  surfaces  of  the  sails. 

Flake. — One  circle  of  a coil  of  rope. 

Flukes. — The  broad,  spade-like  parts 
of  an  anchor. 

Fore. — That  part  of  the  vessel  nearest 
to  the  head. 

Fore  and  Aft. — In  the  direction  of 
the  keel ; also  vessels  without  square 
yards.  Hence  a schooner  is  called  a “ fore- 
and-after ; ” and  a ship,  a “ square-rigger.” 

Foul  Hawse. — When  the  cables  are 
twisted. 

To  Foul. — To  entangle  a rope;  as, 
“The  jib-halliards  are  foul.”  To  run  foul 
of  a vessel  is  to  come  in  collision  with  an- 
other. 

To  Founder. — To  sink. 

Furling. — Making  the  sails  fast  to  the 
booms  and  spars,  and  stowing  them,  by 
means  of  gaskets. 

Gaff.  — The  spar  that  supports  the 
head  of  a fore-and-aft  sail. 

GANGWAY. — The  place  where  persons 
come  on  board. 

Gasket. — A piece  of  rope  used  to  tie 
up  sails  with,  or  lash  anything. 

To  Go  About. — To  tack. 

GORING. — Cutting  a sail  obliquely. 

Granny-Knot. — A foul  knot, — one  not 
tied  in  a proper  manner. 

Griping. — When  a vessel  carries  too 
great  a weather-helm. 

Halliards.  — Ropes  or  pulleys  to 
hoist  up  sails. 

Hands. — The  crew;  i.e.,  “ Send  a hand 
aft  here!”  “All  hands,”  all  the  crew. 
To  “hand  a sail,”  to  furl  it.  “Bear  a 
hand,”  hurry  up  to  help.  Hand  lead,  in- 
strument used  for  sounding. 

Handsomely.— Carefully. 

Hanks. — Oval  rings,  fitted  to  work 


upon  stays,  to  which  the  sail  h lashed  to 
be  hoisted  or  lowered. 

Hatchway.  — A square  hole  in  the 
deck  that  communicates  with  the  hold. 

To  Haul. — To  pull. 

To  Hail. — To  call  out  to  another  ship 
such  as  “ What  shipds  that?” 

To  Heel. — To  incline  to  one  side  ; i.e., 
she  heels  over  too  much  on  account  of  a 
want  of  ballast. 

Helm. — A tiller  or  wheel  which  con- 
trols the  rudder. 

To  Haul  Home. — To  pull  the  clew  of 
any  sail  as  far  as  it  will  go. 

Too  High. — The  warning  given  helms- 
man when  vessel  is  too  near  the  wind. 

To  Hitch. — To  make  fast. 

The  Hold. — The  space  under  deck. 

Hull. — The  body  of  a vessel. 

‘ In  Irons.” — A vessel  is  said  to  be 
“ in  irons  ” when  she  has  lost  steerage 
way  and  will  not  obey  the  helm. 

Jack-Stay. — A small  bar  of  iron,  or 
slat  of  wood,  fastened  to  a spar,  and  to 
which  the  sail  is  bent. 

To  Jam. — A knot  is  said  to  be  jammed 
when  it  cannot  be  untied. 

JUNK. — Old  pieces  of  rope,  canvas,  etc. 

JURY-MASTS. — Temporary  masts  used 
when  others  are  carried  away. 

Jibing. — The  act  of  passing  the  main- 
boom  from  one  side  of  the  vessel  to  the 
other,  while  running  before  the  wind. 

Keel. — That  part  of  the  vessel  lowest 
in  the  water,  and  upon  which  all  her  su- 
perstructure is  erected. 

KINK.— A twist  or  turn  in  the  rope. 

To  Labor. — A vessel  is  said  to  labor 
when  she  pitches  and  rolls  in  a sea-way* 

Land-Fall. — Discovering  the  land. 

Larboard. — The  left  side  of  the  vessel, 
facing  forward,  now  almost  obsolete, 
having  almost  wholly  taken  its  place ; 
larboard  having  been  found  in  practice 


NAUTICAL  TERMS  EXPLAINED. 


443 


to  be  too  near  in  sound  to  its  opposite 
starboard. 

Lay  Aft. — The  command  to  come  aft. 
“ Lay  aloft,”  to  go  up  the  rigging.  “ Lay 
out,”  to  go  out,  on  the  bowsprit,  for  in- 
stance. “ Lay  in,  to  come  in.” 

Leach. — The  perpendicular  border  of 
a fore-and-aft  sail. 

Lee-Lurch. — When  the  vessel  rolls 
heavily  and  suddenly  to  leeward. 

Lee-Shore. — The  coast-line  to  leeward 
of  the  vessel,  on  which  the  wind  is  blow- 
ing. 

Leeward.  — The  direction  toward 
which  the  wind  is  blowing. 

Long  Leg. — A term  used  when  the 
wind  is  not  dead  ahead,  but  so  as  to  cause 
the  vessel  to  make  a long  tack  and  a short 
one.  Hence,  to  make  “a  long  leg,”  and 
“ a short  leg.” 

Log. — The  record  of  the  vessel’s  per- 
formance each  day  of  twenty-four  hours, 
as  concerns  weather,  courses,  etc.,  kept 
in  a log-book.  “ Heaving  the  log,”  to  as- 
certain the  speed  by  means  of  a log-line. 

Looming. — The  appearance  of  a dis- 
tant object,  such  as  another  vessel,  or  the 
land,  especially  in  foggy  or  misty  weather, 
when  it  is  said  to  loom,  i.e.,  look  larger, 
and  appear  nearer,  than  it  really  is. 

Lubber. — A person  who  is  not  a sailor 
— a greenhorn. 

Luff. — An  order  to  have  the  helmsman 
put  the  helm  to  leeward ; the  forward 
part  of  a fore-and-aft  sail  attached  to  the 
mast  by  hoops. 

Lying  To. — Bringing  the  vessel  to  the 
wind  under  small  sail,  and  lashing  the 
helm  a-lee,  so  that  she  may  lie  safely,  and 
ride  out  the  storm. 

To  Moor. — To  secure  the  vessel  by 
more  than  one  anchor. 

Moorings. — The  place  where  the  ves- 
sel is  generally  kept  when  in  harbor,  and 


denoted  by  a buoy,  which  watches  over 
them. 

Neap-Tides. — Those  tides  which  occur 
when  the  moon  is  in  her  quarters;  spring- 
tides  being  much  higher,  and  occurring  at 
the  full  and  change. 

Too  Near. — A warning  to  the  helms- 
man that  the  sails  are  not  quite  full,  and 
that  he  is  steering  a little  too  near  the 
wind. 

Main  Chains. — Place  on  the  vessel’s 
side  where  the  shrouds  and  backstays  are 
fastened. 

Miss-Stays. — The  act  of  failing  to  “ go 
about  ” on  the  other  tack. 

Model. — The  shape  and  form  of  the 
hull. 

Off  and  On. — Approaching  the  land 
on  one  tack,  and  leaving  it  on  the  other. 

OFFING. — Out  to  sea,  clear  of  all  dan- 
gers, yet  near  the  land ; sea-room. 

Overboard. — Out  of  the  vessel ; in  the 
water. 

Overhauling.  — To  haul  a rope 
through  a block;  to  examine  anything 
thoroughly;  to  gain  upon  a vessel  or  ob- 
ject ahead. 

Painter. — A short  rope  in  the  bows  of 
the  boat  by  which  she  is  secured. 

To  Part. — To  tear  asunder;  i.e.,  the 
cable  has  parted;  the  main-sheet  has 
parted. 

To  Pass  a Lashing. — To  wind  a rope 
round  a spar  or  sail. 

Pay. — To  rub  on  pitch  or  tar  with  a 
large  brush. 

To  Pay  Off.  — To  make  a vessel’s 
head  recede  from  the  wind  by  hauling  the 
jib  to  windward,  and  easing  off  the  main- 
boom  to  leeward. 

To  Peak  Up. — To  elevate  the  outer  or 
after  end  of  a gaff,  so  that  the  sail  may 
set  better. 

Plying. — Turning  to  windward. 


<44 


NAUTICAL  TERMS  EXPLAINED. 


POOPING. — A vessel  is  said  to  be  pooped 
when  she  is  struck  by  a sea  that  comes 
on  board  over  the  stern  or  quarter. 

Port. — See  Larboard. 

Preventer. — Anything  to  secure  or 
take  off  the  strain,  as  preventer  jib-sheet. 

Pennant. — A long,  narrow  flag. 

Quarter. — That  part  of  the  vessel's 
side  contained  between  the  beam  and 
stern. 

Rake. — The  sheer  of  masts  from  the 
perpendicular. 

Range  of  Cable. — A sufficient  length 
over-hauled  and  ready  so  as  to  allow  the 
anchor  to  reach  the  bottom  without  foul- 
ing. 

To  Reef. — To  reduce  a sail  by  fasten- 
ing it  down  to  a boom  or  jack-stay  by 
means  of  reef-points. 

To  Reeve. — To  pass  a rope  through  a 
block. 

To  Ride. — To  be  held  at  anchor. 

To  Right. — A vessel  is  said  to  right 
when  she  rises  to  an  upright  position 
again,  after  having  been  thrown  on  her 
beam-ends  by  a sudden  squall. 

To  Right  the  Helm. — To  put  it 
amidships,  so  that  the  rudder  will  be  in  a 
line  with  the  keel. 

To  Run  Down. — When  one  vessel 
sinks  another  by  running  over  her. 

SCANT. — The  wind  is  said  to  be  scant 
when  a vessel  will  barely  lay  her  course. 

SCOPE. — To  pay  out  more  of  the  cable 
when  at  anchor. 

To  SCUD. — To  run  before  the  wind  in 
a storm. 

To  SCUTTLE. — To  make  holes  in  a ves- 
sel’s bottom  to  sink  her. 

To  SERVE. — To  wind  anything  round  a 
rope  so  as  to  save  it  from  chafing. 

To  Seize. — To  make  fast  or  bind. 

To  SHEER. — To  vary  to  the  right  and 
left  from  a direct  course. 


TO  Ship. — To  receive  anything  on 
board ; as,  to  ship  a sea,  to  ship  a crew. 

To  Shiver. — To  make  the  sails  shake 
in  the  wind’s  eye. 

SHOAL. — The  land  beneath  the  water 
that  approaches  near  the  surface,  or  is 
left  bare  at  low  water. 

The  Slack  of  a Rope.— The  part 
that  hangs  loose. 

To  Slip  a Cable. — To  let  it  run  out 
overboard,  and  release  the  vessel  from  the 
anchor,  being  first  generally  buoyed  so 
as  to  be  recovered. 

To  Slue. — To  turn  anything  about. 

Snub. — Used  in  reference  to  the  cables,, 
in  checking  the  vessel,  after  they  have 
been  paid  out. 

To  SOUND. — To  ascertain  the  depth  of 
water  by  means  of  a lead-line. 

To  Take  a Spell. — To  relieve  any 
one  at  any  duty;  as,  to  take  a spell  at  the 
wheel. 

To  Spill. — To  take  the  wind  out  of  a 
sail  by  easing  off  the  sheets  or  otherwise, 
so  as  to  remove  the  pressure  of  the 
wind. 

To  SPLICE. — To  join  two  ropes  to- 
gether by  interweaving  the  strands. 

To  Spring  a Mast.— To  crack  or 
split  it. 

A SPRING. — A rope  made  fast  to  the 
cable,  and  taken  on  board  aft,  in  order  to 
haul  the  vessel’s  side  in  any  direction. 

Spring  Tides.  — The  highest  tides, 
which  occur  at  the  full  and  change  of  the 
moon. 

To  Stand  On. — To  keep  on  in  one’s 
course. 

To  Stand  By. — To  be  ready. 

Starboard. — The  right  side  of  a ves- 
sel, looking  from  aft  forward. 

To  Steer. — To  control  the  vessel  with 
the  rudder  and  tiller. 

Stranded.  — A vessel  is  said  to  be 


NAUTICAL  TERMS  EXPLAINED. 


445 


stranded  when  she  is  so  far  on  shore  that 
she  cannot  be  floated. 

To  Strike. — To  beat  against  the  bot- 
tom; to  hit  suddenly  any  object  below 
the  surface  of  the  water. 

Swig  Off. — To  take  a turn  with  a rope 
at  a cleat,  and  then  pull  upon  it  laterally, 
so  as  to  gather  in  all  the  slack. 

To  Tack. — To  advance  by  a series  of 
angles  toward  the  direction  from  which 
the  wind  proceeds. 

Taut. — Tight. 

Taunt.— Long,  lofty. 

Tender. — A small  boat  or  wherry  used 
to  pass  from  the  vessel  to  the  shore. 

To  Tow. — To  drag  anything  astern 
behind  the  vessel;  as,  to  tow  the  tender. 

Truck. — The  small  ball  at  the  topmast- 
head,  through  which  the  signal-halliards 
reeve. 

Trough  of  the  Sea. — The  level  of 
the  water  between  two  waves. 

Turning  to  Windward. — Tacking. 

Unbend.— To  cast  off,  to  release;  as, 
“Unbend  the  anchor  from  the  cable!” 
“Unbend  the  mainsail!” — roll  it  up  and 
put  it  below. 

To  Unship. — To  take  anything  from 
the  place  where  it  was  fixed ; as,  to  “ un- 
ship the  rudder.” 

Wake. — The  track,  or  furrow,  left  by 
the  vessel  on  the  water  behind  her. 

To  Wear. — To  turn  a vessel  round 
from  the  wind — the  opposite  of  tacking. 

To  Warp. — Moving  vessel  by  hawsers. 


Watch. — A division  of  the  crew  into 
starboard  and  larboard  watch,  who  take 
turns  in  taking  care  of  the  vessel. 

Water-Logged.— The  condition  of  a 
vessel  when  she  is  so  full  of  water  as  to 
be  unmanageable,  and  nearly  submerged. 

Way.  — Progress  through  the  water : 
“She  has  good  way  on.”  To  a boat’s 
crew,  to  cease  pulling,  the  command  is 
given,  “ Way  enough.” 

To  Weather  a Vessel. — To  get  to 
the  windward  side  by  faster  speed,  or 
lying  nearer  the  wind. 

Weather  Beaten.  — Worn  by  the 
weather  and  exposure. 

Well  of  All.  — A command  used 
when  the  several  ropes  of  a sail  have 
all  been  hauled  upon  at  the  same  time, 
and  it  is  perfectly  set,  and  means  to 
belay. 

To  WEIGH. — To  lift  an  anchor  from 
the  bottom. 

Wind’s  Eye.  — The  exact  direction 
from  which  the  wind  proceeds. 

To  Windward. — Toward  that  point 
from  which  the  wind  blows. 

To  Work  to  Windward.— To  tack 
so  as  to  make  progress  in  the  direction 
from  which  the  wind  blows. 

Yacht. — A vessel  used  for  pleasure 
only,  and  not  for  commerce  or  trade; 
built  for  speed  and  comfort. 

To  Yaw. — To  swerve  suddenly  and 
violently  from  the  true  course,  in  spite  of 
the  action  of  the  rudder. 


THE  AMATEUR  TAXIDERMISTS  GUIDE. 


ILLUSTRATED. 

PRESERVING,  STUFFING  AND  MOUNTING  OF  BIRDS,  WITH  NEATNESS, 

TASTE  AND  SAFETY. 


ANY  things  are  required  to  make  anything  of  this  art — such  as  delicacy  of 
hand,  great  practice,  but,  above  all,  patience.  A fair  specimen  being  ob- 
tained, take  common  cotton  wadding,  and  with  an  ordinary  paint-brush 
stick,  plug  the  throat,  nostrils,  and,  in  large  birds,  the  ears,  with  it,  so 
that  when  the  skin  is  turned  no  juices  may  flow  and  spoil  the  feathers  ; 
you  must  then  provide  yourself  with  the  following  articles  : 

THE  INSTRUMENTS  NEEDED. — A knife  of  this  kind,  A,  which  is  very  com* 
mon  ; a pair  of  cutting  plyers,  b ; a pair  of  strong  scissors,  c,  of  a moderate  size ; a but* 
ton-hook,  d ; a marrow-spoon,  e : and  a hand-vice,  f.  With  these,  a needle  and  thread? 
and  a sharpener  of  some  kind  to  give  your  knife  an 
occasional  touch,  you  are  prepared,  so  far  as  im- 
plements go.  Then  provide  yourself  with  annealed 
iron  wire  of  various  sizes  ; some  you  may  buy  ready 
for  use,  some  not  ; but  you  can  anneal  it  yourself 
by  making  it  red-hot  in  the  fire,  and  letting  it  cool 
in  the  air.  Common  hemp  is  the  next  article,  cot- 
ton wadding,  pounded  whitening  and  pounded  alum, 
or  chloride  of  lime  ; as  to  the  poisons  which  are 
used,  they  will  be  spoken  of  by  and  by.  Y ou  should 
also  have  a common  bradawl  or  two,  and  some 
pieces  of  quarter-inch  deal,  whereon  to  stand  the 
specimens  when  preserved,  if  to  be  placed  as  walk- 
ing on  a plane  ; if  not,  some  small  pieces  of  twigs 
or  small  branches  of  trees  should  be  kept  ready  for  use,  oi  various  sizes  according  to  the 
size  of  the  bird  ; something  of  this  form.  Spanish  chestnut,  or  common  laurel  cut  in 

December,  will  be  found  to  answer  best,  but  this  must 
be  regulated  by  fancy  and  the  requirements  of  the  case! 
oak  boughs  are  sometimes  of  a good  shape. 

THE  BEST  TIME  FOR  PRESERVING  SPEC- 
IMENS is  in  spring,  because  then  the  cock  birds  are  in 
the  best  feather,  and  the  weather  is  not  too  warm.  In 
mild  weather  three  days  is  a good  time  to  keep  a bird, 
as  then  the  skin  will  part  from  the  flesh  easily.  If  a specimen  has  bled  much  over  the 
feathers,  so  as  to  damage  them,  wash  them  carefully  but  thoroughly  with  warm  water  and 
a sponge,  and  immediately  cover  them  with  pounded  whitening,  which  will  adhere  to 
them.  Dry  it  as  it  hangs  upon  them  slowly  before  the  fire,  and  triturating  the  hardened 
lumps  gently  between  the  fingers,  the  feathers  will  come  out  almost  as  clean  as  ever.  To 


THE  AMATEUR  TAXIDERMIST'S  GUIDE. 


447 


test  whether  the  specimen  is  too  decomposed  to  skin,  try  the  feathers  about  the  auricu« 
Jars,  and  just  above  the  tail,  and  if  they  do  not  move  you  may  safely  proceed. 

THE  METHOD  OF  PROCEDURE. — Lay  the  bird  on  his  back,  and,  parting  the 
feathers  from  the  insertion  of  the  neck  to  the  tail,  you  will  find  in  most  birds  a bare 
space.  Cut  the  skin  the  whole  length  of  this,  and  passing  the  finger  under  it  on  either 
side,  by  laying  hold  of  one  leg  and  bending  it  forward  you  will  be  able  to  bring  the  bare 
knee  through  the  opening  you  have  made  ; with  your  scissors  cut  it  through  at  the  joint ; 
pull  the  shank  still  adhering  to  the  leg  till  the  skin  is  turned  back  as  far  as  it  will  go  ; 
denude  the  bone  of  flesh  and  sinew,  wrap  a piece  of  hemp  around  it,  steeped  in  a strong 
solution  of  the  pounded  alum,  and  then  pull  the  leg  by  the  claw,  by  which  means  the  skin 
will  be  brought  again  to  its  place. 

After  having  served  both  legs  alike,  skin  carefully  round  the  back,  cutting  off  and 
leaving  in  the  tail  with  that  into  which  the  feathers  grow,  that  is  the  “ Pope’s  nose/' 
Serve  the  wing  bones  the  sameas  the  leg,  cutting  them  off  close  to  the  body,  and  turn  the  skin 
inside  out  down  to  the  head.  The  back  of  the  skull  will  then  appear 
and  you  will  now  find  it  of  advantage,  as  soon  as  you  have  got  the  legs 
and  tail  free,  to  tie  a piece  of  string  round  the  body,  and  hang  it  up  as 
a butcher  skins  a sheep.  Make  in  the  back  of  the  skull  a cut  of  the 
annexed  form,  with  your  knife,  which  you  can  turn  back  like  a trap- 
door, and  with  the  marrow-spoon  entirely  clear  out  the  brains  ; A rep- 
resenting the  neck,  and  B the  skin  turned  back.  Having  done  this,  wash  the  interior  of 
the  skull  thoroughly  with  the  alum,  and  fill  it  with  cotton  wadding.  The  next  operation 
requires  care  and  practice — namely,  to  get  out  the  eyes.  This  is  done  by  cutting  cau- 
tiously until  the  lids  appear,  being  careful  not  to  cut  the  eye  itself,  and  you  can  then  with 
a forceps,  which  you  likewise  will  find  useful,  pull  each  from  its  socket  wipe  the  orifice 
carefully,  wash  it  with  the  alum  solution,  and  fill  it  with  cotton  wadding.  Cut  off  the  neck 
close  to  the  skull,  wash  the  stump,  and  the  whole  of  the  interior  of  the  skin  with  the  alum 
and  the  skinning  is  done. 

NOW  COMES  THE  STUFFING. — Take  a piece  of  the  wire  suitable  to  the  size 
of  the  bird — that  is  as  large  as  the  legs  will  carry — and  bend  it  into  the  following  form,  a , 

representing  the  neck,  b , the  body,  and,  c,  the  junction 
of  the  tail,  allowing  sufficient  length  of  neck  for  the 
b O'  wire  to  pass  some  distance  beyond  the  head,  and  be- 

ing sharpened  at  each  end,  which  may  be  done  by 
obliquely  cutting  it  with  the  plyers.  Wind  upon  this  wire  hemp  to  the  size  of  the  bird  s 
body,  which  you  should  have  lying  by  you  to  judge  from,  and  it  will  present  something  of 
his  appearance.  You  can  shape  it  with  the  hand,  but  be  careful  not  to  make  it  the  least  too 
large-,  and,  after  you  have  finished  it  to  >our  satisfaction,  you  may  singe  it  as  the  poulterer 
would  singe  a fowl,  which  will  make  all  neat ; but  be  particular  to  wind  the  hemp  very  tight, 
Then  take  the  skin,  lay  it  on  the  table  on  its  back,  and  pass  the  wire  at  the  head  into  the 
marrow  where  the  neck  is  cut  off,  through  above  the  roof  of  the  mouth,  and  out  at  one 
nostril,  and  draw  it  up  close  to  the  skull ; turn  the  skin  back  and 
draw  it  down  over  the  hemp  body,  and  pass  the  wire  spike  pro- 
truding at  the  lower  end  through  the  flesh  upon  which  the  tail 
grows,  about  the  center,  and  rather  below  than  above.  The  skin 
may  now  be  adjusted  to  the  hemp  body,  and  sewn  up,  beginning 


448 


THE  AMATEUR  TAXIDERMIST’S  GUIDE. 


from  the  top  of  the  breast,  and  being  particularly  careful  always  to  take  the  stitch  from 
the  inside,  otherwise  you  will  draw  in  the  feathers  at  every  pull.  At  first  sew  it  very 
loose,  and  then  with  the  button-hook,  draw  it  together  by  degrees. 

With  the  plyers  cut  two  lengths  of  wire  long  enough  to  pass  up  the  legs  and  into 
the  neck,  and  leave  something  over  to  fasten  the  bird  by  to  the  board  or  spray  upon 
which  it  is  to  be  placed.  The  next  operation  requires  some  address  and  great  practice, 
namely,  the  passing  the  wire  up  the  legs.  This  is  done  by  forcing  it  into  the  centre  of 
the  foot,  and  up  the  back  of  the  legs  into  the  hemp  body,  through  it  obliquely,  and  into 
the  neck  until  it  is  pretty  firm.  In  doing  this,  you  mus^  remember  the  ordinary  position 
of  a bird  when  alive,  and,  therefore,  instead  of  passing  the  wire  the  whole  way  within 
the  skin  of  the  leg,  when  you  get  to  the  part  where  you  have  cut  off  the  bone — that  is, 
the  knee  joint — pass  it  through  the  skin  to  the  outside,  and  in  again  through  the  skin 
from  the  outside  where  the  knee  would  come  naturally  in  the  attitude  ot  standing  or 
perching.  This  is  essential,  because  if  the  wire  be  passed  the  whole  way  inside  the  skin, 
it  produces  a wrong  placing  of  the  legs.  The  accompanying  cut  will 
illustrate  this,  a representing  the  line  in  which  the  wire  should  run. 
The  bird  is  now  stuffed,  and  you  may  at  once  place  it  upon  a spray 
or  board.  In  placing  a bird  upon  a spray,  the  first  joint  should  be 
bent  almost  on  a level  with  the  foot ; and,  in  placing  a bird  on  a 
board,  one  leg  should  be  placed  somewhat  behind  the  other.  If  the 
wings  are  intended  to  be  closed,  as  is  usually  the  case,  bring  them 
into  their  place,  which  may  be  done  by  putting  the  fingers  under  them 
and  pressing  them  together  over  the  back  ; you  may  then  pass  a needle  or  large  pin 
through  the  thick  part  of  the  upper  wing  into  the  body,  and  so  by  the  lower  wing,  and 
if  you  allow  these  to  protrude,  you  may  fasten  to  one  of  them  a piece  of  thread,  and  wind 
it  carefully  and  lightly  round  the  body,  which  will  keep  the  feathers  in  their  places,  and 
this  thread  should  be  kept  on  for  a fortnight  or  three  weeks,  until  the  bird  is  dry.  The 
tail  should  be  kept  in  its  place  also  for  the  same  time  by  a piece  of  thin  wire  bent  over 

TO  PUT  IN  THE  EYES. — The  only  thing  now  to  do  is  to  put  in  the  eyes. 
The  color  of  course  depends  on  the  bird,  and  these  you  may  buy  at  any  fishing-tackle 
shop.  If  you  do  not  use  eyes  too  large,  you  will  find  little  difficulty  ; the  juice  of  the  lids 
will  act  as  a sufficient  cement. 

THE  FRENCH  METHOD  of  preserving  is  this:  Measuring  from  the  insertion  of 

the  neck  to  the  tail,  make  a wire  frame  in  this  form, 

the  measure  taken  being  from  a to  b.  Upon  this 
wind  hemp  for  the  neck  only,  and  place  in  the  skin  in  the  same  way  as  before  directed, 
only  that  instead  of  one  wire  being  passed  through  that  in  which  the  tail  grows,  it  is  a 
fork  that  is  passed  through  it.  Having  formed  this  frame  fit  onto  it  two  legs,  [See  eng.]  and 
after  the  frame  itself  is  in  the  skin,  pass  these  from  the  inside  down  each  leg,  instead  of 
from  the  outside,  and  fasten  them  on  to  the  frame  with  the  plyers  by  twisting  the  ends, 
B b,  round  the  frame,  c,  in  the  first  figure.  This  will  make  all  firm,  and  you  can  then 
fill  the  body  with  cut  hemp  and  sew  up. 


THE  AMATEUR  TAXIDERMIST’S  GUIDE. 


449 


One  word  as  to  the  other  preparations  used  by  bird-preservers.  These  are  either 
corrosive  sublimate  or  regulus  of  arsenic,  which  is  yellow  and 
of  a consistence  like  butter.  As  we  have  said  before,  in  cold 
weather,  when  there  are  no  flies  about,  alum  will  do  perfectly 
well ; in  warm  weather  either  of  the  two  others  may  be  used. 

We  prefer  the  former — corrosive  sublimate — as  the  other  is 
“ messy,”  and  the  chief  object  is  to  dry  up  anything  which 
can  be  attacked  by  flesh-seeking  insects.  When  you  have 
finished  your  bird,  you  can  lay  the  feathers  with  a large 
needle — it  is  as  well  to  have  one  fixed  in  a handle  and  kept  for 
this  purpose — and,  tying  the  two  mandibles  of  the  bill  together  with  a piece  of  thread 
until  the  whole  specimen  has  hardened  and  dried,  the  work  is  dona 

BIRD  MOUNTING. 

THE  IMITATION  OF  NATURE. — Young  hands  commonly  suppose  that 
a bird  should  stand  bolt  upright,  with  the  legs  almost  perpendicular,  or  at  right 
angles  to  the  perch.  This  is  a great  mistake,  and  never  to  be  found  in  Nature. 
Do  we  stand  rigid,  like  a foot-soldier  on  drill  ? Does  not  a bird,  as  well  as  ourselves, 
accommodate  itself  to  the  thing  upon  which  it  rests  ? Assuredly  it  does  ; for  birds  do 
not,  as  a young  bird-stuffer  endeavors  to  do,  find  always  a perch  to  rest  upon  in  the  plane 
of  the  horizon.  It  therefore  follows  that,  as  he  keeps  himself  upright,  his  legs  must 
accommodate  themselves  to  his  perch.  So  in  the  ground-birds  there  is  a gentle  slope 

backwards  from  the  hind  toe,  the  balance  being  preserved 
in  both  cases  by  throwing  the  body  forward  in  proportion. 
A bird  preserved  is  supposed  to  represent  a bird  in  a 
state  of  repose,  that  is,  not  in  flight.  It  may  be  that  a 
bird,  essentially  aereal,  like  the  wift,  or  perhaps  some 
of  the  terns  or  the  frigate-bird,  may  be  represented  as  ac- 
tually on  the  wing.  In  this  case,  of  course,  the  wings  must  be  spread  ; and  this  is  best 
done  by  passing  a wire,  not  too  thick,  from  the  base  of  the  quill-feathers  on  the  under 
side,  alongside  the  bone  into  the  body  towards  the  tail  ; then  pass  it  under  the  longest 
quill-feather,  and  through  the  back  of  the  case,  and  fasten  it  by  bringing  it  back  again 
through  and  clinching  it,  concealing  it  so  by  the  oblique  position  of  the  bird  that  it  is 
not  detectable.  It  is  obvious  that  by  passing  the  wire  alongside  the  bone,  you  may  bend 
the  wings  to  any  angle  you  please. 

THE  CASES  USED. — One  thing  must  always  be  remembered,  do  not  have  your 
case  a shade  too  large , just  clear  the  object  so  as  not  to  stint  it  for  room  ; and  in  flat  cases 
this  applies  chiefly  to  depth,  for  it  should  have  sufficient  light,  or  it  will  not  not  look  well. 
Wooden  cases  should  be  made  as  slight  (in  thickness)  as  is  consistent  with  firmness ; 
well-seasoned  deal  is  best ; and  the  case  should  be  formed  of  back,  top,  and  bottom, 
open  at  the  front  and  sides,  and  at  each  corner  of  the  front  two  slight  deal  supports,  rab- 
beted on  their  inner  edges,  a [See  engraving  on  the  next  page.]  It  should  be 


450 


HOW  TO  PRACTICE  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


papered  on  the  top  and  back  within,  and  when  the 
paste  is  dry  washed  over  carefully  with  size  and 
whitening,  tinted  with  a little  stone-blue  ; some  add 
some  touches  of  white  subsequently  to  represent 
clouds,  the  ground  representing  the  air ; some  also 
paste  a landscape  on  the  back,  but  this  must  be 
good,  or  you  had  better  have  plain  color.  The  bird 
to  be  placed  in  this  case  is  either  perching,  standing,  or  flying.  After  the  bird  is  fixed, 
the  whole  bottom  should  be  carefully  glued  over  with  thin  glue,  taking  care,  where  the 
bird’s  feet  are  on  the  bottom,  not  to  touch  the  toes 
with  the  glue.  Some  fine  sifted  sand  or  gravel 
should  then  be  sifted  over  it,  and  it  will  adhere  wherever  the  glue  has  touched  ; for  this 
purpose  a small  tin  shovel  is  best,  something  in  this  form,  and  about  two  inches  wide  by 
four  long,  with  a handle  in  proportion,  which  can  be  made  to  order  at  any  tinman’s  for  a 
trifle. 

THE  CARE  TO  BE  USED. — Everything  used  in  “ weeding”  should  be  baked 
in  a slow  oven,  otherwise  spider’s  eggs  and  minute  creatures,  which  are  pretty 
sure  to  be  contained  in  it,  will  make  their  appearance  after  the  case  is  closed  in  the  disa- 
greeable form  of  destroying  your  specimen.  Moss,  & c.,  by  being  slowly  dried,  will  also 
keep  its  color  better.  Yellow  moss,  found  on  the  roofs  of  old  barns,  and  dark  gray  of  the 
same  species,  are  very  generally  useful ; and  where  yellow  moss  cannot  be  had,  the  white 
or  gray  may  be  colored  with  chrome,  and  looks  as  well. 


HOW  TO  PRACTICE  PHOTOGRAPHY, 

Instructions  to  Amateurs. 

THE  OUTFIT,  METHODS  AND  RESULTS— HOW  TO  OBTAIN  A GOOD 

PICTURE. 


HE  invention  of  the  prepared  sensi- 
tive plates,  technically  called  gela- 
tineo  bromide  dry  plates,  has  made  a 
large  demand  from  tourists  and 
others  for  outfits*,  so  that  the  time 
will  soon  come  when  every  family  will  have  its 
photographic  apparatus. 

DIRECTIONS  TO  AMATEURS.  — By 
whichever  process  the  photographic  negative  is 
produced — the  wet  or  dry  process — it  is  the  result 
of  three  distinct  operations.  First,  the  securing 
of  the  image  on  the  sensitized  plate  exposed  to  the 
light  in  the  camera  ; second,  the  developing  of  that 
image  or  picture ; and  third,  the  fixing  or  making 
permanent  the  picture  taken. 

[Note. — Outfits  cost  $10,  at  Anthony  & Co.’s,  N.  Y.,  of 
others  furnish  them.] 


HOW  TO  PRACTICE  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


451 


The  first  operation  is  obtained  by  the  means  of  the  camera  with  its  lenses.  Having 
fastened  the  camera  upon  the  tripod  and  placed  it  in  the  proper  relation  to  the  light  and 
the  object  to  be  taken,  by  the  means  of  the  focusing  screen  or  ground  glass,  adjust  the 
focus.  The  lens  is  capped  and  you  are  prepared  to  expose  a plate.  Remove  the  slide 
with  the  ground  glass  and  replace  it  with  one  of  the  carriers  containing  the  proper  pre- 
pared plate.  Let  this  be  done  carefully.  Then  withdraw  the  slide  quickly,  uncap  the 
lens,  count  one,  two,  three,  recap  the  lens  and  push  back  the  slide.  The  first  opera- 
tion is  then  complete,  and  you  have  the  latent  image. 

The  Second  Operation — The  Development. — There  are  two  distinct  methods  for 
developing  the  dry  plate — one  called  the  alkaline-pyrogallic  and  the  other  the  ferrous- 
oxalate  development.  We  describe  the  latter  method.  The  first  thing  to  be  done  is  to 
make  a saturated  solution  of  the  oxalate  of  potash. 

In  order  to  do  this  take  four  ounces  of  the  oxalate  of  potash  crystals,  put  in  a quart 
wide-mouthed  bottle,  and  pour  over  them  a pint  of  hot  water ; shake  thoroughly  from 
time  to  time,  so  as  to  dissolve  as  much  as  possible — the  more  perfectly  saturated  the 
solution  is,  the  better.  When  cold,  filter  it  into  a clean  bottle  and  test  with  a piece  of 
litmus  paper.  If  the  latter  turns  from  blue  to  red,  the  solution  is  acid,  which  is  the  pro- 
per condition  ; if  not,  add  a drop  or  two  of  oxalic  acid,  though  this  will  seldom  be  neces- 
sary. 

Now  take  the  same  quantity  of  the  C.  P.  sulphate  of  iron,  place  it  in  an  eight-ounce 
bottle,  fill  it  with  hot  water  and  shake  well.  When  the  water  has  taken  up  all  the  sul- 
phate of  iron  possible,  a drop  or  two  of  sulphuric  acid  may  be  added,  and  then  the  solu- 
tion filtered  into  another  clean  bottle.  This  is  now  ready  for  use. 

Now  dissolve  in  a similar  way  ten  grains  of  bromide  of  potassium  in  one  ounce  of 
water,  and  in  still  another  bottle  dissolve  thirty-two  grains  of  rock  candy  in  one  ounce  of 
wTater  and  add  thirty -two  grains  ol  glycerine.  The  above  are  all  stock  solutions,  to  be 
used  as  required,  and  will  keep. 

The  development  must  only  be  attempted  in  a dark  closet,  by  the  light  of  a lamp 
properly  protected  with  a ruby-tinted  chimney  of  the  correct  non-actinic  shade,  or  in  a 
room  where  the  windows  are  entirely  covered  with  non-actinic  paper — an  article  pre* 
pared  expressly  for  the  purpose. 

Before  removing  the  exposed  plates  from  the  carriers  shut  the  door  of  the  closet  or 
room  and  see  that  no  light  enters  from  any  source  ; then  light  the  lamp  and  carefully  re- 
place the  ruby  chimney.  Then  take  the  four-ounce  graduate  and  pour  into  it  three 
ounces  of  the  saturated  solution  of  the  oxalate  of  potash,  from  four  to  six  drams  of  the 
sulphate  of  iron  solution  and  one  dram  of  the  glycerine  and  rock  candy  solution. 

The  developer  being  ready,  pour  it  into  one  of  the  iron  trays  ; carefully  remove  one 
of  the  exposed  plates  from  the  carrier,  lay  the  plate  in  the  tray  with  the  film  side  upper- 
most, and  rock  it  gently  from  side  to  side  and  end  to  end,  allowing  the  solution  to  flow 
over  the  entire  face  of  the  plate  evenly.  In  a short  time  the  outlines  of  the  picture  will 
become  visible,  and  finally  all  the  more  delicate  details.  Allow  the  plate  to  remain  in 
the  tray,  and  soon,  once  more  gently  rocking  it,  the  picture  will  seem  gradually  to  van- 
ish or  sink  into  the  plate  again.  When  it  has  almost  entirely  disappeared  the  plate  is 
fully  developed,  and  an  outline  of  the  subject  may  be  seen  from  the  back.  The  plate  may 
now  be  removed  and  washed  well  under  a gentle  stream  of  water. 


452 


HOW  TO  PRACTICE  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


Now  the  negative  is  all  ready  for  the  final  stage. 

THE  THIRD  AND  FINAL  OPERATION — THE  FIXING.— The  fixing  of 
the  latent  image  is  a simple  operation,  requiring  but  a few  moments.  It  should  be  per- 
formed only  by  non-actinic  light.  Prepare  in  a separate  bottle  a solution  of  water,  one 
ounce,  and  hyposulphite  of  soda,  eight  ounces,  when  dissolved,  pour  some  of  it  into 
another  tray — one  kept  specially  for  the  purpose — sufficient  to  properly  immerse  the 
plate,  which  should  be  laid  in  face  upward,  as  before,  and  allowed  to  remain  until  the 
light  color  on  the  back  of  it  has  entirely  disappeared.  Then  wash  well  again  under  the 
tap,  and  the  negative  is  finished. 

If,  however,  from  over-exposure,  the  plate  comes  up  too  soft,  after  fixing  and  well 
washing  it  can  be  intensified  by  immersing  it  in  a solution  of  bromide  of  copper,  made 
as  follows : 

Sulphate  of  copper, • - io  grains 

Bromide  of  potassium, * * • - io  grains 

Water,  - - - - » ^ loz. 

until  the  negative  is  entirely  bleached  ; then  wash  and  immerse  it  in  the  ferrous-oxalate 
developer  until  it  is  black  ; then  work  as  usual. 

Care  and  cleanliness  are  very  essential  in  all  the  operations  from  the  very  first. 
When  the  plates  are  removed  from  the  original  package  they  should  be  softly  dusted, 
preferably  with  a camel’s  hair  brush,  and  all  dust  should  be  scrupulously  kept  from  the 
carriers,  etc.;  the  floor  should  also  be  washed  thoroughly  clean,  and  by  no  means  should 
any  of  the  hyposulphite  of  soda  be  allowed  to  mingle  with  other  chemicals,  the  slightest 
trace  of*  it  being  sufficient  to  destroy  the  entire  result.  Particularly  be  careful  not  to 
use  the  developing  tray  for  the  fixing  solution,  or  for  any  other  purpose. 

When  the  plate  has  been  fixed  the  door  may  now  be  opened.  The  negative  will  be 
found  to  have  the  opposite  appearance  of  the  ordinary  finished  photograph,  those  parts 
which  should  be  dark  being  light,  and  vice  versa. 

Formerly  there  was  a subsequent  operation,  that  of  varnishing  the  negative,  but 
with  gelatine  plates  this  is  not  essential. 

TIME  OF  DEVELOPMENT. — The  image  or  outline  oi  the  picture  will  require 
about  one  minute  to  begin  to  appear,  and  the  full  development  from  ten  to  twelve  minutes. 
If  not  exposed  enough,  it  will  appear  slowly  and  show  but  a feeble  outline,  and  continue 
so  for  a long  time.  When  this  occurs  a stronger  development  should  be  used  imme* 
diately,  and  this  can  be  done  by  using  three  ounces  of  oxalate  solution  to  an  ounce  of 
iron  solution.  But  should  it  come  out  too  quickly,  as  soon  as  it  begins  to  go  back  into  the 
film,  remove  it  and  finish  in  the  weaker  solution.  Many  have  a practice  of  keeping  two  or 
three  bottles  of  the  developer  of  different  degrees  of  strength,  and  begin  by  testing  the 
one  of  medium  strength  first.  A little  experience  will  be  the  best  teacher. 

APPEARANCE  OF  NEGATIVE. — As  the  negative  is  the  reverse  of  the  photo- 
graph when  finished,  the  places  on  it  which  appear  dark  will  be  light,  and  conversely  the 
light  places  will  appear  dark  in  the  print.  Very  strong  contrasts  in  the  negative  will  be 
the  same  in  the  positive,  and  show  generally  a want  of  detail  in  the  shadow.  The  cause 
of  this  is  a too  quick  development.  To  avoid  this,  remove  the  negative  when  half 


HOW  TO  PRACTICE  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


453 


developed  to  a weaker  solution.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  solution  be  too  weak,  there 
will  be  a thin  lilac  color  throughout,  especially  if  the  action  is  continued  too  long.  If 
the  development  is  stopped  too  quickly  it  may  show  all  the  details,  but  still  will  be  too 
weak  to  make  a good  forcible  print.  If  any  floating  particles  of  dust  adhere  to  the 
plate  they  will  show  as  white  spots  in  the  print,  but  are  opaque  in  the  negative. 

PAPER  POSITIVES. — The  negatives  having  been  produced  the  next  step  to  be 
taken  is  to  print  the  photograph.  This  will  more  clearly  reveal  to  the  novice  the  beauty 
of  his  work.  A piece  of  sensitized  paper  closely  pressed  against  the  negative,  allowing 
no  other  light  than  that  which  passes  through  the  negative  to  act  upon  it,  will  accom- 
plish this.  The  positions  on  the  positive  are  restored  to  their  natural  order.  Albumen 
paper  is  used  for  this  purpose  because  it  reproduces  the  finest  lines  of  the  negative.  But 
before  any  prints  can  be  made  it  must  be  sensitized  with  salts  of  silver.  This  paper  is 
sensitive  to  action  of  light  and  gradually  darkens  when  exposed,  until  eventually  it 
becomes  black.  By  placing  the  negative  between  it  and  the  light,  the  different  grada- 
tions of  light  are  transferred  to  the  paper  but  in  reverse  order.  The  sensitized  paper  should 
be  kept  well  secured  from  the  light  at  all  times,  both  before  the  positive  has  been  printed 
and  after,  until  fixed  as  already  described.  The  dry  plates  can  be  safely  exposed  to  a 
ruby  light,  but  the  sensitized  paper  require  a yellow  or  orange  color.  They  may  be  ex-< 
posed  to  moderate  lamp  or  gas  light  without  injury,  unless  the  exposure  be  too  long  con- 
tinued. 

PRINTING  FRAME. — This  is  an  oblong  frame  with  a ledge  on  the  inside,  and  a 
hinged  door  fitting  into  it  and  covering  all  the  back,  each  part  having  a spring  riveted  to 
it.  These  doors  are  firmly  held  in  place  by  the  springs  and  press  the  paper  firmly 
against  the  film  of  the  negative.  They  are  made  to  fit  all  sizes  of  pictures.  While 
examining  the  print  which  has  to  be  done  from  time  to  time,  to  see  if  it  has  been  suffi- 
ciently exposed,  turn  back  one  of  these  doors  and  raise  the  print. 

TO  PRINT  THE  PICTURE. — Lay  the  printing  frame  on  the  table,  face  down. 
Remove  the  back  and  lay  the  negative  in  the  frame  with  film  side  up.  Lay  several  thick- 
nesses of  newspaper  behind  this,  replace  the  back  and  fasten  down.  Place  the  print  in 
the  sun  and  watch  it  until  printed  enough.  This  will  be  indicated  by  the  white  spots  in 
the  print  beginning  to  show  a slight  discoloration.  This  can  be  discovered  by  turning 
back  the  door  and  examining  the  print  from  time  to  time.  After  the  prints  have  been 
taken,  soak  them  in  the  following  solution  for  ten  minutes  : Water  6 oz.,  Solution  B,  J oz. 

TONING  BATH. — The  print  is  now  ready  for  the  process  of  toning.  The  bath  is 
made  of  the  following  solution : Water  5 oz.  Solutions  A,  B,  and  C 1 oz.  each ; solution 
D i oz.  The  solution  A,  should  be  added  just  before  you  use  the  bath.  Test  the  bath 
with  the  blue  litmus  paper.  If  it  turns  red  add  solution  B till  it  returns  to  its  blue 
color.  Warm  this  bath  till  tepid.  Immerse  the  prints  in  this  until  sufficiently  toned. 
Then  wash  irv  one  change  of  water  and  immerse  in  a solution  of  water  8 oz.,  Hypo.  Soda 
1 oz.  for  a fixing  bath.  Let  them  remain  in  this  solution  until  they  resume  their  original 
tone,  a little  lighter  than  when  they  came  from  the  toning  bath.  After  this  they  must 
be  washed  in  a number  of  changes  until  all  the  hyposulphite  of  soda  is  removed  from  the 
paper.  If  any  of  this  remain  it  causes  yellow  spots. 


454 


HOW  TO  PRACTICE  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


CAUTION  ! — The  sensitized  paper  must  be  kept  in  a dark  place.  The  cutting  of 
it  to  the  desired  size  can  be  done  in  a weak  light,  by  candle  or  gas.  The  print  is  put  in 
the  dark  box  until  it  is  desired  to  tone,  which  can  be  done  when  you  have  a batch 
ready. 

Use  the  same  dishes  for  the  same  solutions  at  all  times,  and  never  change  them. 
More  failures  result  from  carelessness  in  carrying  the  hyposulphite  of  soda  into  the  vari- 
ous dishes  than  from  all  other  causes. 

We  give  descriptions  of  the  mixtures  and  the  prices  of  each,  but  would  advise  all  to 
procure  the  proper  chemicals  and  mix  for  themselves. 

Solution  A is  composed  of  water,  y\  ounces  ; chloride  of  gold,  1 5 grains.  Price 
50  cents. 

Solution  B is  composed  of  water,  8 ounces;  bicarbonate  of  soda,  1 ounce.  Price 
10  cents. 

Solution  C is  composed  of  water,  8 ounces  ; acetate  of  soda,  400  grains.  Price  12c. 

Solution  D is  composed  of  water,  4 ounces  ; chloride  of  sodium,  160  grains.  Price 
10  cents. 

Hyposulphite  of  soda,  per  lb.,  in  paper  bag,  8 cents. 

Sensitized  albumen  paper,  per  sheet,  25  cents. 

Gum  royal  for  mounting,  per  quart,  50  cents. 

Anthony’s  flint  negative  varnish,  per  bottle,  40  cents. 

Printing  Frames,  45  to  75  cents. 

FAILURES. — These  will  occur  at  times,  and  we  will  mention  some,  giving  rea- 
sons, viz. : 

Transparent  Spots : Dust;  bubbles  in  developer  that  prevented  uniform  develop- 

ment. 

Weak  and  Foggy  Image:  Over-exposure  ; white  light  in  the  dark  room ; reflec- 

tions in  the  camera. 

Weak,  with  clear  shadows  : U nder-development . 

Strong,  with  clear  shadows  : Under-exposure. 

Yellow  deposit  on  negative:  Too  much  iron  in  developer. 

MOUNTING. — As  the  prints  naturally  roll  and  curl,  to  mount  them  easily  place 
them  in  a basin  of  water,  allowing  them  to  remain  until  all  become  perfectly  flat.  Now 
lay  them  on  a sheet  of  clean  paper,  face  down,  and  remove  the  excess  of  moisture  with  a 
piece  of  blotting-paper ; cover  smoothly  and  evenly  with  a flat  brush,  using  gum  royal 
or  starch  (preferably  the  former).  Seize  the  print  by  opposite  corners,  turn  it  face  up 
and  lower  it  gently  on  the  cardboard,  allowing  the  central  part  that  is  lowest  to  touch 
first ; then  gradually  let  it  all  down  on  the  card,  taking  care  to  have  it  come  in  proper 
position;  lay  apiece  of  clean,  smooth  paper  on  it  and  rub  well,  to  push  to  the  edges  any 
bubbles  of  air  that  may  have  come  between  the  print  and  the  card.  A circular  motion 
of  the  hand,  beginning  at  the  center  and  finishing  at  the  edge,  is  best ; then  lay  the 
mounted  prints  away  until  dry,  after  which  they  can  be  smoothed  down  with  a warm 
sad-iron. 


The  Effect  of  Dress  in  Photography. 


THE  STYLE  AND  COLOR  OF  DRESS. — There  is  nothing  which  tries 
the  patience  of  the  artist  and  displays  the  want  of  judgment  and  good  taste  in  the  sub- 
ject more  than  the  matter  of  dress  and  combination  of  colors.  Remember  that  fashion  is. 
a fickle  goddess,  and  in  a photograph  which  is  to  last  for  years  it  is  best  to  have  the  dress 
such  as  will  produce  the  highest  artistic  effect.  It  often  happens  that  a person  becomes 
weary  of  a particular  style  of  dress  in  a picture  when  the  face  is  perfectly  satisfactory. 

The  persons  in  the  theatrical  profession  take  the  best  photographs,  because  they 
understand  the  art  of  producing  effect,  and  often  they  come  to  the  studio  with  the  ma» 
terials  for  making  up  the  best  appearance,  and  permit  the  artist  to  select  and  arrange 
them  so  as  to  hide  a defect  here,  and  increase  the  effect  there.  Ladies  should  be  cam 
ful  to  dress  in  those  materials  which  naturally  fall  in  neat  folds,  or  drape  neatly  about  th«. 
person,  such  as  poplins,  silks,  satins  or  reps.  They  should  avoid  that  which  has  too  much 
gloss,  as  this  reflects  the  light,  but  often  the  operator  can  overcome  this  by  a proper  dis- 
position  of  the  light.  Dark  orange,  golden  and  red  brown,  dark  green,  bottle  green, 
cherry  or  wine  color  will  take  dark  but  not  black.  Light  orange,  sea  green,  leather  color, 
slate,  light,  Bismarck,  scarlet,  garnet  and  claret  are  all  good  colors  for  a photograph. 
Pea  green,  pink,  crimson,  magenta,  dark  purple,  pure  yellow,  blue,  navy  blue,  fawn  color, 
dove,  ashes  of  roses,  buff,  plumb  and  stone  color,  will  appear  a pretty  light  gray  when 
photographed.  The  worst  colors  to  take  are  sky  blue,  French  blue,  blue  purple,  laven- 
der and  lilac,  even  more  objectionable  than  pure  white.  Salmon  and  corn  color  are  pre- 
ferable to  these.  Dark  Bismarck  and  snuff  brown  will  take  darker  than  black  silk.  Silk, 
goods  will  usually  produce  a lighter  shade  than  woolens  of  the  same  colors.  Always 
avoid  striped  goods,  or  those  of  a bold  design,  as  they  will  ruin  the  picture.  Do  not  wear 
anything  that  will  take  streaked  or  spotted.  Fine  shadow  pictures  are  produced  with 
white  drapery  in  deep  folds,  having  the  bodies  trimmed  with  laces  and  puffs.  You  will 
(learn  how  to  dress  for  the  best  effect  by  carefully  studying  the  above.  A large  patch  of 
white  on  a dark  dress  in  a picture  destroys  its  beauty,  therefore  do  not  wear  blue,  or  pink 
ribbons,  nor  trimmings.  The  converse  is  also  true. 

THE  EFFECT  OF  THE  HAIR. — Persons  who  have  light  hair  should  select 
lighter  clothing  than  those  who  have  darker  hair,  and  for  this  reason  light  shades  take 
more  quickly  than  dark  ; therefore  if  a person  of  light  complexion  dresses  in  dark  colors 
the  face  of  the  dress  will  be  “ over  done.”  The  converse  holds  true  of  persons  who  have 
dark  hair,  they  should  avoid  too  light  clothing. 

The  subject  of  arranging  the  hair  is  one  that  requires  good  taste.  There  are  many 
who  persist  in  following  the  prevailing  fashion  without  any  regard  to  formation  of  the 


456 


HOW  TO  PRODUCE  THE  BEST  EFFECTS  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


face  and  head.  The  effect  of  arranging  the  hair  may  heighten  the  general  symmetry  of 
the  features,  or  conceal  a defect,  or,  on  the  other  hand,  may  destroy  the  one  and  magnify 
the  other.  The  hair  of  a person  whose  face  is  broad  should  not  be  combed  low  on  the  fore- 
head, or  parted  at  the  side.  If  the  neck  is  long  it  will  appear  at  a disadvantage  if  the 
hair  is  built  up  high,  while  the  skillful  arrangement  of  a few  drooping  curls  would  change 
the  whole  effect  for  good.  If  a lady  has  a high  lorehead  she  may  comb  her  hair  low  and 
it  will  be  an  improvement.  If  you  wish  a profile  good  picture  avoid  combing  the  hair  too 
smooth  or  displaying  too  little  of  it.  To  powder  the  hair  produces  a good  effect. 

FOR  GENTLEMEN. — The  advice  given  above  is  also  applicable  to  gentlemen  as 
far  as  they  apply.  A plain  business  suit  of  good  color  and  material  will  always  take 
good  with  white  linen  and  plain  watch  chain  across  the  vest. 

THE  PERSONAL  BEHAVIOR. — For  the  mutual  benefit  of  both  the  operator 
and  the  subject  we  will  touch  lightly  upon  rather  delicate  matters.  He  has  spent  years 
of  study  and  practice  to  learn  the  best  methods.  How  to  set  the  subject,  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  light  and  all  the  minor  details  of  the  business  have  been  reduced  to  a science. 
Do  not,  therefore,  waste  his  time  and  your  own  patience  by  discussing  the  matter,  nor 
persist  in  your  own  opinion  against  his  judgment,  for  the  result  will  be  dissatisfactory  to 
both.  The  head  rest  must  be  used  to  enable  you  to  preserve  the  position  of  the  body. 
In  spite  of  the  exercise  of  will  power,  there  will  be  a slight  movement  of  the  body, 
caused  by  the  normal  pulsations.  An  economy  of  time  is  gained  by  its  use.  Do  not 
move  the  eyes,  but  wink  to  your  heart’s  content.  Think  only  of  what  is  pleasant  and 
agreeable.  Avoid  a senseless  smirk  on  the  one  hand,  and  a graveyard  solemnity  on  the 
other.  Be  yourself,  and  maintain  a quiet  repose.  Let  your  friends  who  accompany  you 
to  the  studio  remain  outside  the  screen. 

THE  PROPER  TIME  TO  COME. — It  is  not  always  necessary  to  choose  a bright 
day.  In  truth,  when  the  sky  is  clouded  and  the  sun  shines  through  the  clouds,  often 
better.  Persons  with  light  hair  and  eyes  will  take  a better  picture  on  such  days.  If  the 
day  is  slightly  clouded,  but  not  dark,  the  subject  will  obtain  a better  negative,  even  if 
obliged  to  sit  a few  seconds  longer  than  on  a clear  day.  The  morning  of  a clear  day  is 
preferable  for  the  babies,  as  the  picture  is  obtained  quicker,  but  care  should  be  observed 
not  to  interfere  with  their  usual  nap.  They  are  so  much  sweeter,  and  feel  so  much 
better  after  having  their  sleep.  Avoid  a late  hour  of  the  day.  If  you  are  uneasy  and 
flurried  the  blood  rushes  to  the  face,  and  red  takes  black.  Besides,  your  photograph  will 
have  a tired  and  weary  look,  which  will  be  unsatisfactory.  If  your  mind  be  free  from 
domestic  or  business  cares,  from  planning  and  anxiety,  you  may  confidently  expect  to 
obtain  a natural  picture  and  feel  repaid  for  the  time  devoted  to  it.  Ladies  who  have 
planned  to  visit  a photographer  and  do  their  shopping  on  the  same  day  will  do  well  to 
attend  to  their  pictures  first. 

Sitting  pictures  are  to  be  preferred  to  any  others,  because  the  most  graceful  position 
can  be  secured  in  them.  But  permit  the  artist  to  be  the  judge.  An  unskilled  eye  can 
judge  nothing  from  the  negative,  so  do  not  waste  time  by  insisting  upon  a view  of  it 
Wait  until  the  artist  has  a proof  of  the  picture. 

WITH  THE  CHILDREN. — They  are  usually  the  best  subjects,  for  they  are 
natural  and  unaffected  in  their  postures  and  movements,  but  often  are  difficult  to  take. 
Do  not  threaten  a child  nor  coax  him  with  candies.  Leave  the  care  in  the  hands  of  the 
artist,  and  if  he  fails  to  manage  the  child,  go  away  and  come  again  some  other  day.  Use 
good  taste  and  care  in  dressing  the  child,  so  that  he  will  not  appear  prim  and  awkward. 
There  should  be  no  gaudy  colors,  startling  plaids  or  variety  in  color.  Do  not  dress  them 
in  black.  Leave  all  the  arrangement  of  person  to  the  artist.  There  is  an  endless 
variety  of  posture  and  surrounding  that  would  be  proper  for  a child,  that  would  be 
absurd  for  an  adult. 

COPYING  PICTURES. — This  department  of  photography  has  reached  a very 
high  degree  of  perfection,  so  that  the  tiniest  locket  picture  can  be  enlarged  to  life  size. 
The  style  of  dress,  arrangement  of  the  hair  and  all  the  surroundings  can  be  changed 
from  what  they  were  in  the  original  picture. 


Parlor  Entertainments. 

STAGE  CONSTRUCTION.— SCENERY,  COSTUME  AND  MAKE-UP. 

THE  PROMPTER,  HIS  DUTIES.  HOW  TO  PROCURE  PLAYS  AND  AMATEUR  OUTFITS. 


N the  first  place,  we  would  strongly  counsel  amateur  companies  not  to 
attempt  too  much.  The  lamented  Artemus  Ward  used  to  remark,  on 
the  subject  of  his  vocal  powers,  “ I am  always  saddest  when  I sing.  So 
are  those  who  hear  me.  They  are  sadder  even  than  I am  ! ” A theatrical 
performance,  to  be  worthy  of  the  name,  demands  a theatre  of  some  sort  for 
its  due  exhibition. 

PARLOR  STAGE  CONSTRUCTION— FORMING  THE  PROSCENIUM.— 
Where  there  are  sliding  doors,  take  a curtain  pole,  or  gilt  cornice  of  proper  dimensions, 
and  hang  it  over  the  opening  ; trom  this  suspend  a couple  of  ordinary  window  curtains, 
"rep,  damask  or  cretonne.  A piece  of  deal,  six  inches  wide,  and  covered  with  some  dark 
material,  should  be  fastened  in  an  upright  position  on  the  floor  across  the  lower  part  of 
the  opening,  each  end  being  hidden  by  the  drapery.  This  is  designed  to  form  a screen 
to  the  footlights,  a curtain  being-  added  after  the  manner  hereafter  described. 

STAGE  CONSTRUCTION  FOR  A LARGER  THEATRE.— Where  there  are 
nc  folding  doors,  and  one  long  room  has  to  be  divided  into  stage  and  auditorium,  a rather 
more  elaborate  arrangement  must  be  adopted ; but  even  in  this  case,  there  will  be  no 
great  difficulty.  We  will  suppose  that  the  room  or  hall  at  our  disposal  is  thirty  feet  in 


458 


PARLOR  ENTERTAINMENTS. 


length,  twenty  in  width  and  fifteen  in  height.  We  shall  require  two  deal  battens,  each 
one  an  inch  thick,  five  inches  wide  and  a fraction  under  twenty  feet  long.  In  each  of 
these,  at  about  four  feet  from  each  end,  we  cut  a hole  or  mortise,  one  and  a half  inch 
square,  right  through  the  wood.  We  next  procure  two  more  pieces  of  deal,  three  inches 
square  and  a little  less  than  fifteen  feet  long,  and  square  each  end  of  these  so  as  to  form 
a tenon  fitting  the  mortises  already  mentioned.  Then,  having  decided  how  much  of  the 
available  space  is  to  be  devoted  to  the  “ stage,”  we  lay  one  of  our  two  battens  across  the 
floor  at  this  point,  and  nail  it  down  securely.  A couple  of  long  finished  nails  driven 
through  the  wood  into  the  floor  will  be  amply  sufficient,  and  will  pass  through  the  carpet 
(if  any)  without  doing  it  the  smallest  injury.  Next  fit  the  two  uprights  into  their  respect- 
ive holes,  and  on  to  their  upper  ends  fit  the  remaining  cross-piece,  which  must  be  kept 
in  position  by  a couple  of  strong  hooks  driven  into  the  wall  on  each  side,  and  which  hooks 
form  really  the  only  encroachment  on  the  integrity  of  the  original  premises,  constituting^ 
as  will  be  seen,  a regular  framework  right  across  the  room. 

The  side  spaces  may  now  be  filled  up  with  hanging  drapery  nailed  to  the  upper 
cross-bar,  or  canvas  may  be  tacked  over  the  openings,  and  a light  wall  paper  pasted  over 
this.  The  arrangements  of  the  curtains,  already  described,  may  form  the  proscenium. 

It  is  very  desirable  to  have  the  floor  of  the  stage  a foot  or  so  above  the  level  of  that 
of  the  auditorium.  Procure  three  deal  planks,  eleven  inches  by  three,  and  as  long  as  the 
depth  of  the  intended  stage.  Take  a fourth  plank  of  the  same  thickness,  and  cut  it  into 
(say)  twelve-inch  lengths.  Screw  three  of  these  at  right  angles  to  each  of  the  three 
planks  before  mentioned,  one  at  each  end,  and  the  others  at  equal  intervals.  You  will 
thus  have  three  rough  “ benches,”  something  after  the  manner  of  school  forms.  Place 
these  parallel  with  one  another,  as  shown  in  Cut,  and  across  them  lay  nicely  planed  inch 
floor-boards,  of  such  a length  as  to  correspond  with  the  intended  width  of  your  stage. 
Fasten  each  down  with  a screw  at  each  end,  and  you  will  have  a good  solid  stage= 

The  open  space  in  front  must  of  course  be  properly  boarded  in,  and  between  the 
enclosure  and  the  stage  a small  space  may  be  left  for  the  footlights.  These  should  con- 
sist of  a length  of  gas-pipe,  with  burners 
(fitted  with  glass  chimneys)  at  regular 
intervals,  and  connected  by  means  of  an 
india-rubber  tube  with  the  domestic  gas 
supply.  These  burners  should  be  con- 
Stage  Construction.  trolled  by  a single  tap,  which  should  be 

placed  at  the  left  or  “ prompt”  side,  so  as  to  be  within  the  reach  of  the  prompter.  Two 
other  lengths  of  gas-pipe,  fitted  with  similar  burners,  should  be  fixed  in  a vertical  position 
at  each  wing,  so  as  to  throw  a side  light  also  on  the  actors,  whose  bodies,  but  for  this  pre- 
caution, would  cast  dark  heavy  shadows  on  the  scenery  behind  them. 

Just  within  the  proscenium  is  placed  the  curtain.  In  very  small  theatres  this  may 
be  of  green  union  or  tammy,  and  mounted  like  an  ordinary  window-blind,  or  may  be  made 
to  open  in  the  middle,  drawing  off  simultaneously  to  either  side,  after  the  fashion  of  what 
are  known  as  French  curtains.  On  the  side  remote  from  the  audience,  a number  of  rings 
are  stitched  to  the  curtain  in  vertical  rows,  the  rows  being  two  or  three  feet  apart,  the 
rings  at  about  six-inch  intervals.  In  the  cross  batten,  immediately  above  each  row  of 


PARLOR  ENTERTAINMENTS. 


459 


rings,  is  a pulley.  Through  each  of  these  pulleys  a cord  passes,  travels  down  through 
the  rings,  and  is  attached  to  the  lower  edge  of  the  curtain,  in  the  hem  of  which  are  sewn 
bags  of  shot  to  make  it  descend  swiftly  and  steadily.  The  other  end  of  each  cord  travels 
over  the  top  of  the  batten  and  through  another  pulley  at  the  side.  The  various  cords  are 
merely  tied  together,  and  all  drawn  simultaneously  by  hand,  and  secured  by  being  twisted 
round  a cleat.*  Whichever  be  the  plan  adopted,  the  result  is  the  same.  On  the  cords 
being  drawn,  the  curtain  rises,  being  “ reefed  up.” 

SCENERY. — The  scenery  will  be  the  next  consideration.  In  many  cases  this  may 
be  dispensed  with  altogether ; for  example,  where  the  action  is  supposed  to  take  place  in 
an  ordinary  parlor,  which  forms  the  actual  stage. 

Where,  on  the  other  hand,  the  aspirants  have  selected  a piece  involving  out-door  or 
otherwise  elaborate  scenery,  we  should  strongly  recommend  them  not  to  endeavor  to 
paint  it  for  themselves,  but  to  hire  what  they  may  require  from  a theatrical  furnisher. 
This  arrangement  will  be  found  both  less  expensive  and  more  satisfactory. 

COSTUME  AND  MAKE-UP. — One  point  should  always  be  borne  in  mind, 
namely,  that  each  actor,  when  on  the  stage,  forms  a part  of  a living  picture,  and  particu- 
lar care  should  therefore  be  taken,  especially  in  the  case  of  female  characters,  that  the 
prevailing  hue  of  any  costume  does  not  clash,  either  with  that  of  any  other  character 
or  with  the  scene  itself.  Thus  a green  dress  and  a green  grass  plot  will  mutually  “ kill  ” 
each  other ; and  the  same  effect  will  happen  where  one  lady  character  is  habited  in 
red  and  another  in  pink,  although  either  dress,  seen  singly,  may  be  the  perfection  of 
elegance.  Hence  the  necessity  of  a committee  of  taste,  particularly  among  the  ladies, 
at  an  early  period  of  the  rehearsals,  as  a lack  of  mutual  understanding  on  this  point  may 
be  productive  of  disastrous  results. 

Prepared  Fullers  Earth,  to  powder  the  face  before  making  up.  Powdered  Blue , to 
imitate  the  color  of  the  shaven  chin.  Pearl  Powder , to  whiten  the  complexion,  hands, 
arms,  &c.  Rouge , to  give  color.  This  is  absolutely  indispensable  in  the  glare  of  the 
footlights,  however  perfect  the  natural  complexion.  Ruddy  Rouge , for  tanned  or  sun- 
burnt complexions.  Dutch  Pink , for  sallow  complexions.  Mongolian , for  Orientals, 
North  American  Indians,  &c.  Powdered  Antimony , to  produce  the  effect  of  hollows 
under  the  eyes,  cheek  bones,  &c.  Chrome , for  sallow  complexions,  and  for  lightening 
the  natural  color  of  the  moustache,  whiskers,  & c.  Carmine , to  produce  a red  tint  in  the 
same.  Prepared  Whitening , for  clowns’  faces,  statuary,  &c.  Prepared  Burnt  Cork , for 
Christy  Minstrels,  &c.  Email  Noir  (Black  Enamel),  for  “ stopping  out  ” front  teeth. 
Joining  Paste , for  concealing  the  junction  of  a “ bald  ” wig  With  the  forehead,  &c.  Paste 
Powder , for  altering  the  shape  of  the  nose,  &c.  Crape  Hair — Artificial  hair  sold  in  plaits 
for  the  purpose  of  forming  wigs,  moustaches,  eyebrows,  &c.  Spirit  Gum , for  attaching 
crape  hair,  &c.,  to  the  face.  Crayons  d'  I talie,  to  produce  the  appearance  of  veins.  Eye- 
brow Pencils , Camels'  Hair  Brushes , powder  puffs , hares'  feet , cotton  wool ’ pins , needles , 
hairpins , etc. 

HOW  TO  MAKE  UP  TO  REPRESENT  A MAN  OF  20— The  first  step,  as 
indeed  in  all  make-up,  is  to  wash  the  face  thoroughly.  The  face  and  throat  should  be 

* L.  W.  Seavey,  8 Lafayette  Place,  New  York  City,  supplies  curtains,  and  undertakes  all  othei 
mechanical  arrangements  connected  with  the  amateur  stage. 


480 


PARLOR  ENTERTAINMENTS. 


well  powdered  with  pearl  or  violet  powder.  A little  rouge  should  then  be  applied  to  the 
cheeks  and  under  the  eyebrows.  This  is  generally  done  with  a hare’s  foot,  with  which 
the  color  should  be  nicely  shaded  off,  working  it  well  up  towards  the  eyes,  as  a dab  of 
rouge  low  down  on  the  cheek  will  look  more  like  the  flush  of  consumption  than  the 
natural  bloom  of  youth.  Then  with  a camel’s  hair  pencil  draw  a fine  line  of  burnt  um- 
ber just  under  the  lower  eyelash;  this  gives  brightness  to  the  eyes.  The  actor  may 
either  wear  his  own  hair,  a slightly  curled  modern  wig,  or  a midiseval  wig  with  hair  cut 
short  over  the  forehead. 

TO  REPRESENT  A MAN  25  YEARS  OF  AGE. — In  addition  to  the  above  add 
with  the  camel’s  hair  pencil  and  burnt  umber  two  or  three  very  fine  lines  at  the  outer  cor- 
ner of  each  eye.  The  older  the  character,  the  more  marked  should  be  these  lines.  If  the 
personage  represented  is  of  a cheerful  temperament,  these  lines  should  have  a down- 
ward tendency  ; if  the  reverse,  they  should  tend  slightly  upward. 

THE  SAME  FACE  MADE  UP  TO  REPRESENT  MIDDLE  AGE  (say  40  to 
50). — What  is  called  a half-bald  wig  may  be  here  employed.  To  conceal  the  junction 
with  the  forehead,  the  inside  of  the  front  edge  of  the  wig,  and  also  the  forehead  beneath 
it,  are  slightly  rubbed  with  “joining  paste,”  a kind  of  flesh-colored  cosmetic.  The  wig 
should  be  then  worked  down  into  position,  and  a little  more  of  the  joining  paste  rubbed 
on  the  outer  part,  just  where  it  meets  the  forehead.  Powder  the  face  and  throat  with 
prepared  fuller’s  earth  (which  is  used  in  preference  to  pearl  powder  for  other  than  very 
youthful  complexions),  then  with  a hare’s  foot  apply  just  a suspicion  of  rouge  over  the 
whole,  taking  special  care  that  the  tone  of  the  forehead  shall  match  that  of  the  artificial 
scalp.  A little  additional  rouge  may  be  added  on  the  cheeks  and  beneath  the  eyebrows. 
If  a grey  wig  is  used,  the  eyebrows  may  be  made  to  match  it  by  first  rubbing  them  with 
a little  joining  paste  or  cosmetic,  and  then  powdering  them  with  flour  or  prepared 
whitening. 

The  lines  of  the  face  will  in  this  case  be  both  more  numerous  and  more  marked 
than  in  the  previous  figures.  In  addition  to  those  leading  from  the  outer  corners  of  the 
eyes,  as  above  directed,  there  should  be  one  or  two  more  drawn  from  the  inner  corners 
of  the  eyes  towards  the  cheek  bones.  There  should  also  be  one  or  two  short  vertical 
lines  between  the  eyes,  and  two  or  three  more  drawn  horizontally  across  the  forehead. 
These  are  beet  determined  by  frowning  slightly  (not  in  a ferocious,  but  in  a thoughtful 
manner),  and  following  the  lines  thus  indicated.  A line  should  be  drawn  from  each  side 
of  the  nose  down  towards  the  corner  of  the  mouth,  and  a shorter  line  from  the  corner  of 
the  mouth  and  in  the  dimple  of  the  chin.  If  the  actor  wears  no  beard,  a suspicion  of 
powdered  blue  may  be  applied  to  the  shaven  portions  of  the  face.  If  the  artist  should 
at  any  time  chance  to  make  the  lines  a little  too  marked,  they  may  be  toned  down  by 
powdering  them  over  with  pearl  powder  or  fuller’s  earth,  as  the  case  may  be,  according 
to  the  general  tone  of  the  complexion. 

If  the  character  is  of  a sombre  or  melancholy  disposition,  the  hollows  of  the  cheeks 
may  be  shaded  with  powdered  antimony.  Two  or  three  lines  round  the  neck  may  be 
added  when  it  is  desired  to  give  a still  more  marked  appearance  of  age. 

FOR  SAILORS,  COUNTRYMEN,  FARMERS,  ostlers,  and  other  characters 
who  may  be  supposed  to  have  a more  or  less  sunburnt  appearance,  a slight  tint  of  the 


PARLOR  ENTERTAINMENTS. 


461 


dark  or  ruddy  rouge,  toned  down  with  pearl  powder  or  the  prepared  fuller’s  earth,  should 
be  applied  all  over  the  face  and  neck,  then  adding  the  “ lines,”  rouge  on  the  ckeeks,  &c, 

FOR  AMERICAN  INDIANS,  GIPSIES,  and  others  demanding  a red-brown 
complexion,  what  is  called  Mongolian  is  used.  This  may  either  be  mixed  with  water, 
and  so  applied  to  the  face,  the  “ lines  ” being  added  after  it  is  dry,  or  the  lines  may  be 
first  painted,  and  the  Mongolian  mixed  with  cold  cream  and  applied  to  the  face  after- 
wards, carmine  being  added  on  the  cheeks  to  give  the  necessary  color. 

FOR  A VERY  DARK  OR  OLIVE  COMPLEXION,  first  powder  the  face  with 
the  prepared  fuller’s  earth,  then  color  with  a mixture  of  the  ruddy  rouge  and  Dutch  pink, 
using  carmine  to  give  color  to  the  cheeks,  and  making  the  burnt  umber  line  under  the 
lower  eyelashes  rather  stronger  than  usual. 

JEWS  SHOULD  BE  MADE  UP  WITH  RATHER  DARK  COMPLEX- 
IONS. The  effect  of  an  aquiline  nose  may  be  produced  by  slightly  darkening  with 
burnt  umber  that  portion  of  the  bridge  just  between  the  eyes.  This  causes  the  portion 
so  marked  to  (apparently)  recede,  and  so  brings  the  lower  part  of  the  nose  into  greater 
prominence.  There  should  be  a strongly  marked  line  from  each  side  of  the  nose  to- 
wards the  corners  of  the  mouth,  and  the  inside  of  the  nostrils  should  be  darkened  with 
burnt  umber.  The  lower  lip  may  be  made  to  look  fuller  by  the  application  of  grenadine 
or  carmine. 

TO  REMODEL  THE  NOSE. — This  is  done  by  mixing  paste  powder  with  water 
to  the  consistency  of  a stiff  putty,  attaching  it  to  the  nose  with  spirit  gum,  and  then 
moulding  it  into  the  desired  shape,  and  coloring  as  may  be  desired.  The  cheeks  or  chin 
may  be  treated  in  the  same  manner. 

TO  MAKE  UP  DRUNKARDS,  OR  OTHER  CHARACTERS  demanding  a 
bloated,  bulbous  proboscis,  wool,  attached  by  spirit  gum,  may  be  used  in  place  of  the 
paste,  and  cut  and  pressed  into  shape,  then  duly  colored.  Warts  and  pimples  on  the  face 
may  be  simulated  in  like  manner,  and  colored  with  ruddy  rouge  or  Mongolian. 

WHERE  THE  PART  DEMANDS  BUSHY  EYEBROWS,  the  natural  eye- 
brows may  either  be  made  more  prominent  by  rubbing  them  with  dark  cosmetique,  or 
new  eyebrows  may  be  manufactured.  To  do  this,  take  a small  portion,  say  about  an 
inch,  of  the  “ crape  hair  ” (this  is  sold  in  plaits  of  about  half  an  inch  wide,  and  when  un- 
plaited retains  a frizzy,  curly  appearance),  pull  it  apart,  roll  it  between  the  hands  into  a 
rough  resemblance  to  an  eyebrow,  and  stick  it  on  with  spirit  gum.  (This  latter  is  a glu- 
tinous fluid,  which  combines  the  advantages  of  drying  very  rapidly  and  adhering  very 
firmly).  When  dry,  trim  the  eyebrow  with  a pair  of  scissors  to  the  requisite  dimensions, 
and  darken  or  lighten  it  with  cosmetique,  chrome,  or  whitening,  as  the  case  may 
require. 

THE  EFFECT  OF  WEEPING  IS  GIVEN  by  slightly  reddening  the  eyelids 
with  rouge.  Where  it  is  desired  also  to  give  a poverty-stricken,  half-starved  appearance, 
a little  antimony  should  be  rubbed  under  the  eyes  and  on  the  cheeks,  below  the  cheek- 
bones. 

THE  HUE  OF  DEATH  is  given  by  powdering  the  face  well  with  prepared 
whitening,  then  applying  a coloring  of  Dutch  pink,  and  darkening  the  hollows  of  the  eyes* 


462 


PARLOR  ENTERTAINMENTS. 


cheeks  and  temples  with  antimony.  Paint  the  lines  to  indicate  the  age  of  the  character, 
as  already  directed  ; and  lastly,  put  a little  powdered  blue  on  the  lips,  and  a suspicion  o{ 
chrome  on  the  eyelids  and  down  the  bridge  of  the  nose. 

The  directions  we  have  given  for  lining  the  faces  of  male  characters  will  equally  ap- 
ply to  the  make-up  of  females  characters. 

THE  MAKE-UP  OF  FEMALE  CHARACTERS.— In  this  case,  also,  the  ar- 
rangement of  the  hair  will  be  found  of  the  greatest  importance.  A powdered  wig,  a touch 
of  rouge  and  a patch  or  two  will  convert  the  belle  of  a modern  drawing-room  into  a living 
likeness  of  Pope’s  Belinda,  or  of  her  own  great-great-grandmother  at  nineteen  ; while  a 
false  front,  a pair  of  spectacles,  and  a tooth  “ stopped  out,”  will,  as  if  by  magic,  effect  the 
conversion  of  a comely  middle-aged  lady  into  a Gamp-like  harridan  or  toothless  Hecate. 

THE  PROMPTER  not  only  has  to  prompt,  but  on  him  rests  the  responsibility  of  see- 
ing that  each  actor  is  “ called  ” in  time  to  go  on  at  the  right  moment.  He  sees  that  all  the 
necessary  “ properties  ” are  in  readiness,  and  either  on  the  stage  in  the  first  instance,  or 
handed  to  the  actor  who  is  to  take  them  there.  He  further  conducts,  and  in  a great  meas- 
ure performs,  all  “ business  ” off  the  stage,  as  ringing  of  bells,  knocking  at  doors,  tramping 
of  feet,  firing  of  pistols,  &c.  He  has  the  control  (where  there  is  no  gasman)  of  the  gas  an 
rangements,  and  regulates  the  elements,  in  the  shape  of  thunder,  lightning  and  rain.  To 
facilitate  the  discharge  of  his  duties,  in  which  he  is  assisted  by  a junior  known  as  the 
“ call-boy,”  complete  and  orderly  system  is  necessary.  To  ensure,  in  the  first  place,  that 
each  actor  shall  be  ready  at  the  wing  when  it  is  his  turn  to  go  on,  a mark  is  made  in  the 
prompter’s  copy  of  the  piece  at  a point  just  forty-two  lines  (known  as  a “length  ”)  before 
such  actor  is  actually  wanted.  Each  call  is  distinguished  by  a number ; thus,  the  first 
call  in  the  piece  will  be  marked  i,  with  a circle  round  it  thus  (i),  to  render  it  more  con- 
spicuous. The  second  call  will  be  marked  (2),  and  so  on.  Corresponding  numbers  are 
marked  on  a slip  of  paper,  together  with  the  names  of  the  person  or  persons  to  be  in- 
cluded in  the  call,  and  a memorandum  of  any  “ properties  ” they  are  to  bring  on  with 
them.  This  slip  of  paper  is  known  as  the  “ entrance  plot,”  and  is  handed  to  the  call-boy, 
who  may  be  regarded  as  the  movable  portion  of  the  prompter. 

As  soon  as  the  prompter  calls  a given  number,  the  call-boy  refers  to  that  number  in 
the  “ entrance  plot,”  sees  what  actor  is  referred  to,  and  forthwith  goes  and  “ calls  ” him 
accordingly,  at  the  same  time  handing  him  any  “ property  ” which  he  finds  set  against  his 
name,  and  returning  to  the  side  of  the  prompter  as  quickly  as  he  can. 

The  prompter  should  not  prompt  until  he  is  quite  sure  that  help  is  needed ; and 
when  he  does  so,  it  should  be  in  a low  but  distinct  voice,  so  as  to  be  clearly  audible  to 
the  actor,  but  not,  if  he  can  possibly  help  it,  to  the  audience. 

Note. — Mr.  French,  the  popular  publisher  of  Dramatic  Plays  and  amateur  outfits,  on 
Fourteenth  street,  New  York,  will  furnish  a catalogue  of  plays  free  upon  application. 
From  this,  plays  may  be  selected  for  any  number  or  variety  of  characters.  This  house 
also  publishes  an  excellent  manual,  entitled  “The  Amateur’s  Guide,”  which  gives  a great 
many  useful  hints,  suggestions  and  directions  for  those  who  wish  to  go  into  the  extended 
treatment  of  this  subject. 


CHARADES. 


HARADES  may  be  performed  after  a variety  of  different  fashions.  First 
and  foremost,  we  have  the  highly  finished  charade,  with  both  speech  and 
action  carefully  prepared  and  duly  rehearsed.  Secondly,  there  is  the 
spoken  charade,  got  up  on  the  spur  of  the  moment,  words  and  action  being 
alike  extempore.  We  have  seen  a good  deal  of  fun  got  out  of  charades 
of  this  description  ; but  unless  the  actors  are  of  more  than  average  ability,  and  have  had 
some  little  dramatic  experience,  the  chances  are  much  against  any  very  satisfactory  re- 
sult. On  the  whole,  we  should  strongly  recommend  that  where  a charade  is  got  up  ex- 
tempore, it  should  be  acted  in  pantomime  only. 

It  is  of  course  understood  that  whatever  be  the  particular  mode  of  performance,  a 
charade  always  represents  a “word”  to  be  guessed,  with  one  scene  to  each  syllable,  or 
group  of  consecutive  syllables,  and  a final  scene  representing  the  whole  word.  The  suc- 
cessive scenes  are  sometimes  wholly  independent  of  each  other,  but  in  the  more  finished 
class  of  charades  are  made  parts  of  a complete  drama.  The  following  are  good  charade 
words  : 


Knighthood 

Windfall 

Dramatic 

Pigtail 

Penitent 

Sweepstake 

Infancy 

Welcome 

Looking-glass 

Sackcloth 

Snowball 

Friendship 

Hornpipe 

Antidote 

Definite 

Horsemanship 

Necklace 

Antimony 

Bowstring 

Coltsfoot 

Indolent 

Pearl-powder 

Carpet 

Bridegroom 

Light-house 

Kingfisher 

Sunday 

Housmaid 

Hamlet 

Card-sharper 

Shy  lock 

Curlpapers 

Pantry 

Footfall 

Earwig 

Crumpet 

Phantom 

Housekeeping 

Matrimony 

Cowhiding 

It  will  be  obvious  that  in  some  of  these  instances,  as,  for  instance,  “ Card-sharper,n 
**  Housekeeping,”  two  syllables  must  be  taken  together  to  supply  the  motif  for  a single 
scene. 

PANTOMIME  CHARADES. 

We  will  take  the  word  “ Windfall  ” as  affording  a ready  illustration  of  the  panto- 
mime charade,  and  be  it  remembered  that  in  charades  of  this  description,  the  shorter  and 
simpler  the  action  the  better.  Thus  the  first  scene,  Wind,”  may  be  represented  by  a 
German  band  puffing  away  at  imaginary  ophicleides  and  trombones,  with  distended 
cheeks  and  frantic  energy,  though  in  perfect  silence.  The  next  scene,  “ Fall”  may  be  a 
party  of  boys  on  a slide,  who  “keep  the  pot  a-boiling”  for  a moment  or  two  and  then 
exeunt.  Enter  an  elderly  gentleman,  with  umbrella  up  ; walks  unsuspectingly  on  to  the 
slide,  and  falls.  It  should  be  mentioned  that  the  expedient  adopted  in  the  very  early 
days  of  the  drama  of  putting  up  a placard  to  notify,  “ This  is  a street,”  “ This  is  the 
quarter-deck  of  H.  M.  S.  Pinafore,”  is  quite  en  regie  in  the  case  of  a pantomime 
charade.  The  complete  word  “ Windfall  ” may  be  represented  by  a young  man  sitting 


464 


PARLOR  ENTERTAINMENTS. 


alone,  leaning  his  elbows  on  his  hands,  and  having  every  appearance  of  being  in  the  last 
stage  of  impecuniosity.  To  produce  this  effect,  he  may  go  through  a pantomime  oi  ex- 
amining his  purse  and  showing  it  empty,  searching  his  pockets  and  turning  them  one  by 
one  inside  out,  shaking  his  head  mournfully,  and  throwing  into  his  expression  as  much 
despair  as  he  conveniently  can.  A postman  s knock  is  heard  ; a servant  enters  with  a 
legal-looking  letter.  The  impecunious  hero,  tearing  it  open,  produces  from  it  a roll  of 
bank  notes  (these,  if  a due  supply  of  the  genuine  article  does  not  happen  to  be  readily 
obtainable,  may  be  of  the  “ Bank  of  Elegance  ” description),  and  forthwith  gives  way  to 
demonstrations  of  the  most  extravagant  delight,  upon  which  the  curtain  falls. 

ACTED  CHARADES. 

A very  absurd,  but  not  the  less  meritorious,  charade  of  this  class  is  represented  as 
follows : The  curtain  rises  (i.  e.f  the  folding  doors  are  thrown  open),  and  a placard  is 

seen  denoting  “ This  is  Saville  Row,”  or  any  other  place  where  the  professors  of  the  heal- 
ing art  most  do  congregate.  Two  gentlemen  in  out-door  costume  cross  the  stage  from 
opposite  sides,  and  bow  gravely  on  passing  each  other,  one  of  them  saying,  as  they  do 
so,  “ Good  morning,  doctor.”  The  curtain  falls,  and  the  audience  are  informed  that  the 
charade,  which  represents  a word  of  six  syllables,  is  complete  in  that  one  scene.  When 
the  spectators  have  guessed  or  been  told  that  the  word  is  “ met-a-physician,”  the  curtain 
again  rises  on  precisely  the  same  scene,  and  the  same  performance,  action  for  action  and 
word  for  word,  is  repeated  over  again.  The  audience  hazard  the  same  word,  “ metaphy- 
sician,” as  the  answer,  but  are  informed  that  they  are  wrong — the  word  now  represented 
having  only  three  syllables,  and  they  ultimately  discover  that  the  word  is  " metaphor  ” 
(met  afore). 


LAUGHABLE  AND  INNOCENT  AMUSEMENTS 

FOR- 

YOUNG  PEOPLE. 


More  amusement  can  be  had  from  this  game  than  any  other.  Any  number  of  per- 
sons can  play  it.  Anyone  wishing  to  try  his  fortune  will  place  a pencil  or  anything 
else  on  a number  or  square  without  looking  at  the  number,  after  which  refer  to  the  num- 
ber amongst  the  following  list  of  answers,  and  you  will  find  the  answer,  which 
may  be  correct,  false  or  ridiculous,  as  it  always  is  with  professional  fortune  tellers. 


THE  TABLE  OF  SQUARES. 


ii  7 

1 18 

119 

120 

121 

82 

83 

84 

vn 

00 

86 

87 

n6 

78 

79 

80 

81 

50 

5i 

52 

53 

54 

88 

ii5 

77 

47 

48 

49 

26 

27 

28 

29 

55 

89 

1 14 

76 

46 

24 

25  • 

10 

11 

12 

30 

56 

90 

Ii3 

75 

45 

23 

9 

2 

3 

13 

3i 

57 

91 

112 

74 

44 

22 

8 

1 

% 

4 

14 

32 

58 

92 

in 

73 

43 

21 

7 

6 

5 

15 

33 

59 

93 

no 

72 

42 

20 

19 

18 

17 

l6 

34 

60 

94 

109 

7i 

4i 

40 

39 

38 

37 

36 

35 

61 

95 

108 

70 

69 

68 

67 

66 

65 

64 

63 

62 

96 

107 

106 

105 

104 

103 

102 

IOI 

IOO 

99 

98 

97 

466 


PARLOR  ENTERTAINMENTS. 


LIST  OF  ANSWERS. 


1.  A life  full  of  changes,  die  rich. 

2.  Early  marriage  and  prosperous. 

3.  Many  lovers,  but  die  single. 

4.  A speedy  journey  of  great  importance. 

5.  Become  rich  through  a legacy. 

6.  Hours  of  pleasure,  years  of  care. 

7.  Y our  present  lover  is  false. 

8.  You  will  marry  your  present  choice. 

9.  Wed  thrice,  and  die  in  widowhood. 

10.  You  will  travel  over  land  and  sea. 

11.  If  not  already  wed,  you  never  will  be. 

12.  Gaming  will  be  your  ruin. 

13.  You  will  be  very  happy  in  marriage. 

14.  You  will  change  your  love  soon. 

15.  A long  life  and  prosperous. 

16.  A rival  will  cause  you  tears. 

17.  Beware  of  a false  friend. 

18.  Fate  decrees  you  two  partners. 

19.  A large  family  of  prosperous  children. 

20.  You  will  not  wed  your  present  lover. 

21.  You  will  soon  fall  desperately  in  love. 

22.  You  will  soon  be  in  mourning. 

23.  You  will  gain  an  estate  by  industry. 

24.  You  will  better  yourself  by  marriage. 

25.  You  will  soon  lose  by  fraud. 

26.  You  will  marry  an  ill-tempered  person. 

27.  A sudden  rise  attends  you. 

28.  You  will  see  an  absent  lover. 

29.  Many  enemies,  but  finally  triumph. 

30.  A bad  partner,  but  happy  reformation. 

31.  A speedy  proposal  of  marriage. 

32.  A present,  and  a new  lover. 

33.  Invitation  to  a gay  party. 

34.  A serious  quarrel. 

35.  A disgraceful  intrigue. 

36.  A run  of  ill  luck. 

37.  Gifts  of  money. 

38.  A good  partner  in  marriage. 

39.  You  will  become  rich. 

40.  Money  through  love. 

41.  Cash  by  trade. 


42.  A long  journey. 

43.  Important  news  soon. 

44.  Mind  what  you  say  to  a lover. 

45.  A present  from  a distance. 

46.  A dispute  with  one  you  love. 

47.  Visit  from  a distant  friend. 

48.  A lawsuit. 

49.  Advancement  in  life. 

50.  Love  at  first  sight. 

51.  A prize  worth  having. 

52.  Wealth,  dignity,  honor. 

53.  Visit  to  a foreign  land. 

54.  Profit  by  industry. 

55.  A multitude  of  cards. 

56.  Preferment  through  a friend. 

57.  Second  partner  better  than  first, 

58.  Surmount  many  difficulties. 

59.  A false  friend. 

60.  A pleasing  surprise. 

61.  A change  in  your  affairs. 

62.  A ramble  by  moonlight. 

63.  Injured  by  scandal. 

64.  Unpleasant  tidings. 

65.  Great  loss  and  disappointment. 

66.  About  to  attend  a christening. 

67.  Change  of  situation. 

68.  A handsome  present  soon. 

69.  An  invitation  to  a marriage. 

70.  News  from  sea. 

71.  Happiness  or  marriage. 

72.  Pleasant  intelligence  from  abroad. 

73.  An  agreeable  partner. 

74.  You  are  in  love,  though  you  won't 

avow  it. 

75.  A quarrel  with  your  intended. 

76.  Disappointment  in  love. 

77.  You  will  fall  in  love  with  one  who  is 

already  engaged. 

78.  You  will  inherit  an  estate,  shortly. 

79.  An  unexpected  death. 

80.  You  meditate  an  elopement. 


PARLOR  ENTERTAINMENTS. 


46? 


8t.  A dangerous  illness. 

82.  Crosses  and  disappointments  await  you. 

83.  You  have  three  strings  to  your  bow. 

84.  You  long  to  be  married. 

85.  Your  intended  is  in  the  sere  and  yel- 

low leaf. 

86.  A lapful  of  money  and  a lapful  of  chil- 

dren. 

87.  You  will  marry  a widow  or  widower. 

88.  You  will  have  a few  friends. 

89.  You  will  be  married  this  year. 

90.  You  will  be  apt  to  break  your  promise^ 

91.  Marry  in  haste  and  repent  at  leisure. 

92.  You  are  in  danger  of  losing  your 

sweetheart. 

93.  Beware  of  changing  for  the  worse. 

94.  You  shall  have  many  offers. 

95.  You  will  be  happy  if  contented. 

96.  You  will  shortly  obtain  your  wishes. 

97.  An  advantageous  bargain. 

98.  You  will  see  your  intended  next  Sun- 

day for  the  first  time. 

99.  Others  will  covet  your  good  luck. 

100.  Travel  in  a foreign  land. 

10  r.  Venture  freely,  and  you  will  certainly 
gain. 

102.  Y our  present  speculations  will  succeed. 

103.  You  love  one  who  does  not  lo^  you. 


S04.  Wealth  from  a quarter  you  little  sus 
pect. 

105.  You  will  obtain  your  wishes  through 

a friend. 

106.  A fortune  is  in  store  foryou — persevere. 

107.  Alter  your  intention  ; you  cannot  sue. 

ceed. 

108.  Remain  at  home  for  the  present. 

109.  Ill  luck  awaits  you. 

1 10.  Prepare  for  a journey. 

hi.  You  will  succeed  according  to  your 
wishes. 

1 1 2.  Beware  of  enemies  who  seek  to  do  you 

harm. 

1 13.  Misfortune  at  first,  but  comfort  and 

happiness  after. 

1 14.  Prosperity  in  all  your  undertakings 

1 15.  Rely  not  on  one  who  pretends  to  be 

your  friend. 

1 16.  Change  your  situation  and  you  will  do 

better. 

1 17.  It  will  be  difficult  for  you  to  get  a 

partner. 

1 1 8.  Y our  love  is  whimsical  and  changeable. 

1 19.  You  will  meet  sorrow  and  trouble. 

120.  Your  love  wishes  to  be  yours  this 

moment. 

1 2 1.  You  will  gain  nothing  by  marriage. 


CHAPTERS  ON  NATURAL  SCIENCE, 

THEORETICAL  AND  PRACTICAL, 

WITH 


ILLUSTRATED  EXPERIMENTS. 


10  EXPLAINING  HIS  THEORIES. 


THE  SCIENCE  OF  ASTRONOMY. 


SIMPLIFIED  AND  ILLUSTRATED  WITH  EXPERIMENTS. 


I. 

HISTORY  AND  DEFINITION. 


The  study  of  the  heavens  above  us  must  always  prove  to  be  a fascinating  one  to 
all  people  of  reflection  and  observation.  As  we  look  into  the  sky  upon  a clear  night 
in  autumn  or  winter,  and  notice  the  starry  host  that  shine  down  upon  us  with  their 
twinkling  light,  or  behold  the  moon  with  her  silver  disk  riding  across  the  blue  arch* 
we  are  led  at  once  to  ask,  What  are  these  bodies?  The  youngest  child  will  gaze  with 
eager  interest  into  the  clear  blue  depths  and  inquire,  What  is  that  star?  and  with  its 
unformed  mind  ask  a thousand  questions  that  will  puzzle  the  parent  to  answer.  The 


470 


THE  SCIENCE  OF  ASTRONOMY. 


same  principle  of  curiosity  or  desire  to  acquire  knowledge  will  lead  the  young  to  study 
this  the  most  ancient,  and  in  many  respects  the  most  fascinating,  of  all-the  sciences. 
The  few  years  that  have  just  passed  have  marked  rapid  strides  in  the  advancement  of 
this  science  as  well 'as  all  the  natural  sciences.  The  old  estimate  of  distances  which 
prevailed  so  long  has  been  corrected  by  the  establishment  of  a different  base  line. 

This  has  proved  to  us  that  the  sun  is  much  nearer  than  the  older  astronomers 
supposed.  The  velocity  with  which  light  travels  has  been  found  to  be  less  than  the 
commonly  received  opinion,  and  the  use  of  the  spectrum  has  taught  the  present  genera- 
tion of  astronomers  much  valuable  truth.  So  the  science  of  astronomy  to-day  is  far  in 
advance  of  what  it  was  even  one  generation  ago.  These  recent  discoveries  and  the 
corrections  based  upon  them  are  scattered  through  many  volumes,  and  consequently 
beyond  the  reach  of  the  ordinary  reader.  We  therefore  shall  endeavor  in  this  article 
to  present  the  most  interesting  outline  of  the  science,  and  give,  so  far  as  our  space  will 
admit,  the  latest  discoveries  and  the  rational  deductions  from  them.  Our  purpose  is  to 
aid  in  the  instruction  of  those  who  have  that  desire  of  knowledge  which  is  common 
to  the  inspiration  of  youth,  and  not  to  burden  the  mind  with  the  accumulation  of  tables 
•of  distance,  size,  weight,  etc.,  which  it  would  be  useless,  if  not  impossible,  to  retain. 

The  study  of  astronomy  will  lead  one  into  the  realm  of  the  imagination,  and  at  the 
same  time  hold  him  fast  by  the  laws  of  rigid  mathematics.  The  word  itself  is  derived 
from  the  Greek  words  astron,  a star,  and  nomos , a law.  It  deals  with  all  the  heavenly 
bodies,  including  our  earth,  which  is  one  member  of  the  solar  system. 

We  will  stand  upon  some  elevation  where  we  have  a full  view  of  the  whole  horizon 
on  some  cloudless  night,  and  from  this  point  of  vision  gaze  upon  the  clear  blue  expanse 
studded  with  countless  stars.  We  see  that  they  vary  in  color  and  brightness.  There  is 
-another  difference  which  presently  we  notice : some  shine  with  a constant  tranquil 
light  steadily  upon  us,  and  some  with  a twinkling  flash,  while  some  of  them  are  scarcely 
seen  at  all.  If  we  observe  the  same  scene  for  a number  of  evenings  in  succession  we 
cannot  fail  to  notice  that  these  stars  which  shine  with  a steady  clear  light  have  changed 
their  respective  positions.  These  are  called  planets , or  wanderers.  The  others  which 
twinkle  or  shine  with  a changing  light  are  “ fixed  stars,”  which,  although  they  move 
with  greater  velocity  than  the  planets,  are  so  far  away  that  they  seem  to  us  to  be 
stationary.  We  cannot  fail  to  see  a girdle  of  whitish  vapory  color  stretching  across 
the  heavens  in  a diagonal  direction  ; this  is  called  the  milky  way.  This  blue  dome  of 
the  firmament  is  the  book  spread  out  with  its  broad  page  of  light  for  us  to  study. 

i 

THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  SCIENCE. 

The  Chinese  boast  much  of  their  discoveries  in  astronomy.  They  record  an  eclipse 
of  the  sun  which  took  place  two  thousand  one  hundred  and  twenty-seven  years  before 
the  birth  of  Christ.  The  Chaldean  shepherds  became  intelligent  astronomers,  and 
Alexander  found  in  Babylon  a record  of  astronomical  observations  extending  back  quite 
as  far  as  the  Chinese’.  These  people  divided  the  days  into  twelve  hours,  used  the  sun- 
dial, and  discovered  the  “ Chaldean  Period.”  The  Grecians  also  taught  the  principles  of 
astronomy.  Thales,  in  the  seventh  century  B.C.,  asserted  that  the  earth  is  round  and 
that  the  moon  receives  her  light  from  the  sun,  and  many  other  facts.  Pythagoras 
.knew  the  causes  of  eclipses  and  could  calculate  them,  and  he  held  a theory  which  was 


HISTORY  AND  DEFINITION. 


471 


substantially  correct.  He  taught  that  the  sun  was  the  center  of  the  solar  system,  and 
many  other  truths.  Eudoxus,  who  lived  410  B.C.,  taught  an  incorrect  theory.  Hip- 
parchus, who  has  been  styled  the  “Newton  of  antiquity,”  catalogued  the  stars  and 
estimated  the  length  of  the  year,  making  a mistake  of  only  six  minutes.  The  Egyp- 
tians were  celebrated  for  their  knowledge  of  the  natural  sciences  before  they  were  intro- 
duced into  Greece.  At  the  schools  of  Alexandria,  where  was  collected  the  most  mag- 
nificent library  the  world  has  ever  seen,  the  Greek  philosophers  came  to  study  all  the 
sciences.  Ptolemy,  the  Grecian,  wrote  his  great  work  at  this  place.  It  was  called  the 
Almagest , and  was  regarded  as  the  standard  text-book  on  astronomy  for  fourteen  hun- 
dred years.  It  contained  the  exploded  Ptolemaic  theory,  but  also  had  many  scientific 
facts  which  are  still  regarded  as  correct.  The  Ptolemaic  theory  claimed  that  the  earth 
was  stationary  and  the  sun  and  planets  revolved  around  it.  A very  cumbrous  and  com- 
plicated theory  of  “ cycles  and  epicycles  ” was  devised  to  account  for  the  movement 
of  the  heavenly  bodies  around  the  world,  which  it  would  take  too  long  to  illustrate. 
By  this  theory  he  tried  to  explain  how  the  interior  planets — that  is,  those  between  the 
earth  and  the  sun — would  sometimes  appear  to  go  in  front  of  the  sun  and  sometimes 
behind  him.  Every  time  a new  motion  was  discovered  in  the  planets  a new  arrange- 
ment of  the  “ cycles  and  epicycles”  had  to  be  made.  After  the  times  of  Ptolemy  the 
science  of  astronomy  became  debased  into  the  practice  of  astrology.  This  continued 
until  the  middle  ages,  when  the  art  became  extensively  practiced  and  accepted  as  true 
by  all  classes. 

Copernicus,  who  flourished  about  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century,  discarded 
the  Ptolemaic  theory  which  had  been  taught  so  long,  and  substituted  in  its  place  the  old 
system  of  Pythagoras.  The  very  simplicity  of  regarding  the  sun  as  the  center  of  the 
planetary  system  was  fascinating  to  him.  He  knew  how  natural  it  is  to  think  when  we 
are  being  carried  along  rapidly  that  external  objects  are  moving  away  from  us  instead 
of  our  moving  in  the  opposite  direction,  and  applying  this  to  the  stars  and  planets  he 
maintained  that  instead  of  their  revolving  around  the  earth  every  twenty-four  hours 
the  earth  revolved  around  its  own  axis,  producing  the  phenomena  of  the  rising  and  set- 
ting of  the  heavenly  bodies.  While  the  revolution  of  the  earth  once  a year  around  the 
sun  would  account  for  and  simplify  much  of  the  phenomena  connected  with  that  body, 
he  regarded  the  orbits  of  the  planets  as  perfect  circles,  and  this  led  him  to  retain  the 
complicated  theory  of  “ cycles  and  epicycles.”  But  his  system  was  a great  advance 
upon  that  of  Ptolemy,  and  his  book,  first  put  into  his  hands  on  his  death-bed,  has  been 
accepted  as  substantially  correct.  The  next  great  advance  was  made  by  Kepler,  a 
pupil  of  the  astronomer  Tycho  Brahe,  a Danish  nobleman.  This  advance  is  con- 
tained in  what  are  known  as  Kepler’s  Laws.  They  constitute  the  three  fundamental 
principles  of  astronomical  science.  He  adopted  the  Copernican  theory  of  the  sun  as 
the  center,  and  regarding  the  orbits  as  a circle  he  set  to  work  to  account  for  the  move- 
ments of  the  bodies  in  their  orbits,  but  found  that  they  would  not  agree  by  eight  min* 
utes  of  a degree  in  a certain  point  of  the  orbit.  “ From  these  eight  minutes  we  will 
construct  a new  theory,”  said  he,  “that  will  account  for  all  the  movements  of  the  heav* 
enly  bodies.”  He  set  to  work,  as  he  said,  “ to  hunt  it  down,”  and  for  eight  years  hs 
tried  every  hypothesis  that  he  could  devise,  until  he  had  tested  nineteen  in  all  and  each 
one  in  turn  failed.  Then  he  thought  of  the  ellipse. 


472 


THE  SCIENCE  OF  ASTRONOMY. 


FIRST  LAW  : With  this  ellipse  Kepler  set  to  work  again  to  compute  the  orbit  of 
Mars,  but  he  still  regarded  the  sun  as  in  the  center.  Again  he  failed,  but  had  come  nearer 
the  truth.  He  put  the  sun  at  one  of  the  foci  and  traced  the  orbit  of  Mars  for  a whole 
year ; and  lo  ! he  had  discovered  the  first  law,  and  at  once  boldly  announced  it,  viz. : 
Planets  revolve  in  ellipses  with  the  sun  at  one  focus. 

SECOND  LAW  : This  discoverer  was  aware  that  the  planets  moved  in  some  parts  of 
their  orbits  faster  than  in  others,  and  he  set  about  the  discovery  of  the  principle  which 
governed  this  velocity.  He  soon  found  that  the  planet  moved  faster  when  at  perihel- 
ion, or  nearest  the  sun,  and  slowest  when  at  aphelion,  or  farthest  from  the  sun.  Af- 
ter again  tracing  the  planet  Mars  he  discovered,  tested,  and  announced  the  second  law, 
viz.: 

A line  connecting  the  center  of  the  sun  and  the  center  of  the  earth  passes  over  equal 

spaces  in  equal  times. 

Third  law  : These  two  discoveries  were  grand  enough  to  satisfy  any  ordinary 
man  ; but  Kepler  set  about  the  investigation  of  the  relation  of  the  movement  of  the 
heavenly  bodies  around  the  sun  to  their  distance  from  that  center.  He  tried  every 
conceivable  hypothesis  based  on  the  calculations  he  had  already  taken  and  proved. 
First  he  compared  their  squares,  then  their  cubes,  and  then  he  combined  the  two  and 
found  the  secret,  but  a blunder  in  his  mathematical  calculations  puzzled  him  for  months. 
This  mistake  was  detected  and  corrected,  and  then  he  had  discovered,  proved,  and  was 
ready  to  announce  his  third  law,  viz.  : 

The  squares  of  the  times  of  revolution  of  the  planets  about  the  sun  are  proportional  to  the 
cubes  of  their  mean  distances  from  the  sun. 

Explanation  : The  distance  of  the  earth  from  the  sun  is  ninety-one  and  one-half  mill- 
ions of  miles,  its  period  of  revolution  is  three  hundred  and  sixty-five  and  one-fourth  days; 
the  distance  of  Venus  is  sixty-six  million  miles,  her  period  of  revolution  two  hundred  and 
twenty-five  days.  Then  the  proportion  may  be  stated  thus:  365  1-42  : 2252  : : 91  1-23  : 
663,  or  the  square  of  the  earth’s  period  is  to  the  square  of  Venus’  period  as  the  cube  of 
the  earth’s  distance  is  to  the  cube  of  Venus’  distance. 

NEWTON  AND  THE  LAWS  OF  GRAVITATION. 

Sir  Isaac  Newton,  the  English  philosopher,  was  born  the  same  year  Galileo  died 
theory  was  accepted  by  all  the  scientists  and  philosophers  after 
a time,  and  the  Ptolemaic  theory  became  a relic  of  the  dark  ages. 
When  Newton  was  a young  man  he  was  led  to  investigate  the 
subject  of  gravitation,  it  is  said,  by  the  falling  of  an  apple  from 
the  tree  to  the  ground.  Reflecting  upon  the  forces  which  act 
upon  bodies  falling  to  the  earth,  it  occurred  to  him  that  the 
same  force  might  extend  into  space  and  act  upon  the  moon. 
He  knew  something  of  what  we  have  learned  in  our  Natural 
Philosophy,  that  bodies  once  set  in  motion  move  in  a straight 
line  unless  prevented  by  some  external  force.  There  being  no 
friction  in  space  to  retard  the  bodies  there  they  all  ought 
to  move  forever  in  a straight  line  and  with  their  original  velocity ; but  instead  of 


HISTORY  AND  DEFINITION. 


473 


this  they  were  always  moving  in  a curve.  Why  is  this  so?  was  the  question  for  him  to 
solve.  He  began  to  calculate  upon  the  moon’s  orbit,  and  after  toiling  with  a patience 
even  greater  than  that  of  Kepler  at  last  he  made  his  discovery.  It  was  this : Every 
particle  of  matter  in  the  universe  attracts  every  other  particle  with  a force  directly  pro- 
portional to  its  quantity  of  matter , and  decreasing  as  the  square  of  the  distance 
increases. 

APPLICATION  OF  THIS  PRINCIPLE. 

We  are  about  three  millions  of  miles  nearer  to  the  sun  in  the  winter  than  we  are 
in  the  summer  ; but  from  the  more  oblique  or  slanting  direction  of  the  rays  of  the  sun 
during  the  winter  season  we  do  not  derive  any  increased  heat  from  this  greater  prox- 
imity. The  sun,  therefore,  appar- 
ently varies  in  size ; but  this  seeming 
difference  is  so  trifling  that  it  is  of  no 
importance  in  the  discussion ; and 
here  we  may  ask,  Why  does  the  earth 
move  round  the  sun  ? Because  it  is 
impelled  by  two  forces , one  of  which 
is  called  the  centrifugal  power,  and 
the  other,  although  termed  the  cen- 
tripetal force,  is  only  another  name 
for  the  “attraction  of  gravitation.” 

To  show  their  mutual  relations  let 
us  suppose  that,  at  the  creation  of  the 
universe,  the  earth,  marked  A,  was 
hurled  from  the  hand  of  its  Maker ; 
according  to  the  law  of  inertia,  it  would  continue  in  a straight  line,  A C,  through  space 
forever  provided  it  met  with  no  resistance  or  obstruction.  Let  us  now  suppose  the  earth 
to  have  arrived  at  the  point  B,  and  to  come  within  the  sphere  of  the  attraction  of  the 
sun.  Here  we  have  at  once  contending  forces 
acting  at  right  angles  to  each  other ; either  the 
earth  must  continue  in  its  original  direction,  A C, 
or  fall  gradually  to  the  sun.  But  mark  the  beauty 
and  harmony  of  the  arrangement  : like  a billiard- 
ball,  struck  with  equal  force  at  two  points  at  right 
angles  to  each  other,  it  takes  the  mean  between 
the  two,  or  what  is  termed  the  diagonal  of  the 
parallelogram,  and  passes  in  the  direction  of  the 
curved  line,  B D ; having  reached  D,  it  is  again 
ready  to  fly  off  at  a tangent  ; the  centrifugal  force 
would  carry  it  to  E,  but  again  the  gravitating  force  controls  the  centripetal,  and  the 
earth  pursues  its  elliptical  path,  or  orbit,  till  the  almighty  Author  who  bade  it  move 
shall  please  to  reverse  the  command. 

The  mutual  relations  of  the  centripetal  and  centrifugal  forces  may  be  illustrated  by 
suspending  a tin  cylindrical  vessel  by  two  strings,  and  having  filled  it  with  water,  the 


474 


THE  SCIENCE  OF  ASTRONOMY. 


vessel  may  be  swung  round  without  spilling  a single  drop  ; of  course,  the  movement 
must  be  commenced  carefully,  by  making  it  oscillate  like  a pendulum. 

The  cord  which  binds  it  to  the  finger  may  be  compared  to  the  centripetal  force, 
while  the  centrifugal  power  is  illustrated  by  the  water  pressing  against  the  sides  and 
remaining  in  the  vessel.  Upon  the  like  principle  the  moon  revolves  about  the  earth, 
but  her  orbit  is  more  elliptical  than  that  of  the  earth  around  the  sun  ; and  it  is  evident 
from  our  diagram  that  the  moon  is  much  farther  from  the  earth  at  A than  at  B.  As 
a natural  consequence,  the  moon  appears  sometimes  a little  larger  and  sometimes 
smaller  than  the  sun  ; the  apparent  mean  diameter  of  the  latter  being  thirty-two  min- 
utes, while  the  moon’s  apparent  diameter  varies  from  twenty-nine  and  a half  to  thirty- 
three  and  a half  minutes. 

GALILEO,  THE  FLORENTINE. 

This  famous  philosopher  lived  in  the  same  age  with  Kepler,  and  was  also  a great 
discoverer  and  astronomer.  He  adopted  the  theory  of  Copernicus,  and  boldly  an- 
nounced his  adherence  thereto.  The  principle  of  the  pendulum  to  mark  time  was  one 

of  his  important  discoveries,  and  also  the 
laws  of  falling  bodies.  Galileo  was  a pro- 
fessor in  the  University  of  Pisa,  and  at 
first  taught  the  old  theory  of  Ptolemy,  but 
when  the  Copernican  theory  was  brought 
to  his  attention  his  clear  and  discriminat- 
ing mind  comprehended  at  once  its  sim- 
plicity, and  he  advocated  it  with  all  th& 
ardor  of  an  enthusiast.  About  the  same 
time  he  heard  of  the  use  of  a glass  to 
make  distant  objects  appear  nearer,  an  in- 
vention of  a Dutch  watchmaker  named 
Jansen,  and  before  he  had  seen  one  he 
applied  his  knowledge  of  optics  to  the 
construction  of  a telescope  which  could 
magnify  thirty  times.  It  was  a crude 
affair,  but  it  was  the  first  telescope  ever 
used,  and  did  much  to  advance  the 
Copernican  theory,  and  revolutionize 
the  whole  science  of  astronomy.  By 
this  imperfect  instrument  he  discovered 
the  moons  of  Jupiter,  resolved  some  por- 
tion of  the  milky  way  into  nebulous  stars,  and  investigated  the  surface  of  the  moon. 
He  was  denounced  as  a heretic,  and  therefore  he  hastened  to  Rome  to  answer  for  the 
crime  of  teaching  against  the  theories  of  the  Church,  where,  in  1616,  the  pope,  Paul  V., 
interdicted  him  from  teaching  the  pernicious  theory.  But  in  1632  Galileo  published 
his  theories  and  was  cast  into  prison,  where  he  remained  a number  of  years,  and  was 
liberated  only  after  signing  a recantation  of  his  teaching.  After  he  had  signed  the 
required  document  he  said,  “ But  the  world  does  move  for  all  that.”  He  died  1642. 


FIG.  2. 


HISTORY  AND  DEFINITION 


175 


FIG.  6. — EGYPTIAN  IDEA  OF  THE  ZODIAC. 


476 


THE  SCIENCE  OF  ASTRONOMY. 


OUR  VIEW  OF  THE  HEAVENS. 

We  are  standing  upon  a little  speck  in  space,  called  the  earth,  and  moving  at  a 
wonderful  velocity  among  the  stars,  many  of  which  are  hundreds  of  thousands  of  times 
larger  than  the  planet  we  inhabit.  As  we  gaze  into  boundless  space  we  see  innumer- 
able objects  which  attract  our  attention.  We  desire  to  locate  them  and  adopt  some 
system  of  measurement.  But  our  position  is  constantly  changing  as  the  world  revolves 
on  its  axis  and  moves  around  the  sun  in  its  orbit.  The  arch  above  us  is  termed  the 
celestial  sphere,  and  we  can  see  one  half  of  this  at  a time,  for  the  distance  of  this  sphere 
is  so  great  that  we  can  see  as  much  of  it  from  any  point  on  the  same  hemisphere  of  the 

world  as  if  we  were  standing  at  its  center, 
where  our  view  would  be  bounded  by  a 
great  circle  of  the  earth.  On  the  great 
sphere  of  the  heavens  there  are  drawn  im- 
aginary lines  called  circles.  The  meridians 
of  longitude  and  parallels  of  latitude  which 
are  employed  on  the  earth’s  surface  are  ex- 
tended to  the  celestial  sphere  and  imagined 
to  be  drawn  thereon.  Our  young  readers 
fig.  7.  have  learned  in  geography  the  definition 

and  principles  as  applied  to  the  measurement  and  location  of  places  on  the  earth’s  sur- 
face. This  may  be  imagined  as  transferred  to  the  celestial  sphere  and  used  to  locate 
and  measure  the  starry  heavens.  Celestial  longitude  is  the  distance  from  the  vernal 
equinox  measured  on  the  ecliptic  eastward.  Celestial  latitude  is  measured  on  a merid- 
ian from  the  ecliptic  north  or  south. 

DEFINITION  OF  TERMS. 

The  horizon  is  that  circle  which  bounds  our  vision  of  the  celestial  sphere  and 
passes  through  the  center  of  the  earth,  separating  the  visible  from  the  invisible  heavens. 
This  is  called  the  rational  horizon.  The  sensible  horizon  is  the  small  circle  where  the 
earth  and  sky  seem  to  come  together,  and  is  on  a plane  parallel  to  the  rational  hori- 
zon, but  separated  from  it  by  the  semi-diameter  of  the  world.  This  varies  at  every 
point  on  the  earth’s  surface,  but  the  rational  horizon  continues  the  same  for  all  points 
on  the  same  side  of  the  world. 

The  zenith  and  the  nadir. — The  zenith  is  the  point  in  the  heavens  directly  over- 
head, and  the  nadir  is  the  point  in  the  celestial  sphere  beneath  our  feet.  The  verticle 
circles  are  lines  passing  through  the  zenith  and  nadir  at  right  angles  with  the  horizon. 
The  prime  verticle  is  the  line  passing  through  the  east  and  west  points  of  the  horizon. 
The  terms  azimuth , amplitude , altitude , and  zenith  distance  have  reference  to  measure- 
ments on  the  horizontal  system  and  are  used  in  observations  with  mural  circles  and 
transit  instruments,  and  we  refer  our  readers  for  their  explanation  to  more  extended 
works  on  the  subject.  The  equinoctial  is  the  celestial  equator,  or  the  world’s  equator 
extended  to  the  celestial  sphere.  The  hour  circles,  called  right  ascension  circles,  are 
meridians  marking  the  twenty-four  hours  on  the  circle,  and  each  comprises  fifteen  degrees 
of  longitude. 


HISTORY  AND  DEFINITION. 


477 


The  colures  are  two  meridians  dividing  the  celestial  sphere  into  four  equal  parts. 
The  equinoctial  colure  is  the  meridian  passing  through  the  equinox.  The  solstitial  colure 
passes  through  the  solstitial  points. 

The  declination  parallels  are  circles  parallel  to  the  equinoctial,  and  correspond  to  the 
parallels  on  the  earth’s  surface  extended  to  the  heavens. 

The  celestial  poles  are  the  points  where  the  extended  axis  of  the  earth  touch  the 
celestial  sphere.  The  equinoxes  are  the  points  where  the  ecliptic  and  the  equinoctial 
intersect  each  other.  The  measurements  by  this  system  are  right  ascension , declination, 
and  polar  distance.  These  are  used  by  modern  astronomers  to  a great  extent  and  are 
employed  at  the  best  modern  observatories. 

The  ecliptic  is  the  plane  of  the  earth’s  path  around  the  sun,  and  is  inclined  to  the 
plane  of  the  equator  at  an  angle  of  twenty-three  degrees  and  twenty-eight  minutes. 
This  inclination  is  termed  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic.  The  equinoxes  are  the  points 
on  the  ecliptic  where  the  equinoctial  crosses  it,  as  we  have  said.  The  point  crossed  in 
the  northward  movement  of  the  sun,  as  we  say  in  common  language,  is  called  the 
vernal  equinox  and  marks  the  position  of  the  earth  on  the  21st  day  of  March.  The 
point  crossed  by  the  sun  moving  south  is  called  the  autumnal  equinox,  and  is  reached  on 
the  2 1st  day  of  September.  The  solstices  are  the  points  equally  distant  from  the  equi- 
nox, and  mark  the  farthestunorthern  and  southern  points  in  the  sun’s  apparent  path. 
The  summer  solstice  occurs  on  the  22d  of  June.  The  winter  solstice , on  the  22d  of  De- 
cember. The  measurements  in  this  system  are  celestial  longitude  and  celestial  latitude , 
which  have  been  already  explained. 

There  is  a belt  of  the  celestial  sphere  on  each  side  of  the  ecliptic  called  THE 
ZODIAC.  It  extends  eight  degrees  north  and  eight  degrees  south,  and  as  employed  in 
astronomy  is  of  a great  antiquity.  It  has  been  divided  by  the  old  astronomers  into 
twelve  signs  of  thirty  degrees  each,  to  which  fanciful  names  have  been  given. 

SIGNS  OF  THE  ZODIAC. 

The  ancient  Hindoos  and  Egyptians  used  the  zodiac  to  indicate  the  position  of 
the  planets  and  of  the  earth  during  different  parts  of  the  year.  The  same  methods 
have  been  applied  to  the  modern  science.  Our  full-page  illustration,  Fig.  8,  gives  us 
a view  of  the  signs  of  the  zodiac.  In  the  center  is  represented  the  sun.  The  light 
curves  represent  the  equinoctial  and  the  ecliptic , and  the  position  of  the  earth  at  the 
equinoxes  and  the  solstices.  On  the  outer  band  we  represent  the  zodiac.  The  dotted 
line  represents  the  ecliptic,  or  the  apparent  path  of  the  sun  around  the  world.  The 
names  given  and  the  characters  used  to  designate  the  twelve  signs  are  as  follows : 

Aries — The  Ram,  T ; Taurus — The  Bull,  &;  Gemini — The  Twins,  n;  Cancer — • 
The  Crab,  © ; Leo — The  Lion,  SI  ; Virgo — The  Virgin,  ttj2  ; Libra — The  Scales,  =£= , 
Scorpio — The  Scorpion,  TR  ; Sagittarius — The  Archer,  $ ; Capricornus — The  Goat,  V3 : 
Aquarius — The  Waterman,  Pisces — The  Fishes, 

These  names  had  reference  to  certain  stories  in  the  ancient  mythology  of  Greece, 
and  the  characters  were  supposed  to  have  some  crude  reference  to  the  animals  and  ob* 
jects  designated,  or  were  rude  combinations  of  letters  of  the  Greek  alphabet. 


THE  SCIENCE  OF  ASTRONOMY. 


UTO.  2 


II. 


THE  SOLAR  SYSTEM. 

Let  us  imagine  a system  of  worlds  suspended  in  space  and  held  there  by  no  visible 
force,  but  obeying  the  universal  law  of  gravitation,  the  principles  of  which  were  dis- 
covered by  Sir  Isaac  Newton.  Each  planet  attracting  all  the  other  planets  and  in  turn 
held  in  its  orbit  by  the  greater  attraction  of  the  sun,  the  center  of  all.  To  begin  at 
this  center  : The  sun  is  a vast  luminous  globe  large  enough  to  overcome  the  attraction 
of  all  the  planets  that  wheel  around  him  in  space.  Then  in  their  order  come  the 
planets,  each  of  which  revolves  upon  its  own  axis  and  circles  around  its  sun  in  an  ellip- 
tical orbit.  Accompanying  some  of  these  planets  are  moons,  or  satellites,  which  in  turn 
revolving  on  their  axes  whirl  in  their  courses  around  the  grand  luminary.  There  are 
also  comets  which  flash  across  the  immensity  of  space  and  disappear  again  in  orbits 
peculiar  to  themselves.  Shooting-stars  and  meteors  darting  hither  and  thither  fill  up 
the  wonderful  picture.  To  this  add  the  notion  of  the  intense  velocity  with  which  all 
these  bodies  are  pursuing  their  ceaseless  journey  in  the  boundless  realm  and  you  have 
but  touched  the  narrow  inner  circle  of  the  vast  universe  opening  up  to  the  astronomer. 
All  this  is  moving  by  the  unvarying  laws  of  creation  that  appoints  their  times  and 
seasons  with  an  exactness  that  cannot  be  equaled  in  the  most  highly  perfected  mech- 
anism of  man.  In  this  solar  system  there  are  seven  distinct  orders : 

1.  The  Sun,  the  great  center  of  all. 

2.  The  major  planets  in  the  order  named:  Vulcan  (undetermined),  Mercury,  Venus, 

the  Earth,  Mars,  Jupiter,  Saturn,  Uranus,  Neptune.  The  first  three,  which  are 
nearer  the  sun  than  is  the  earth,  are  called  interior  planets.  The  last  three  are 
farther  from  the  sun  than  is  the  earth,  and  are  termed  exterior  planets. 

3.  The  minor  planets,  of  which  there  are  designated  at  present  (1883)  two  hundred  and 

twenty,  are  called  asteroids. 

4.  Moons,  or  satellites,  which  revolve  about  their  planets.  There  are  in  all  twenty  of 

these. 

5.  Meteors  and  shooting  stars. 

6.  Nine  comets  whose  orbits  fcave  been  determined,  and  many  others  of  which  little  is 

known. 

7.  The  zodiacal  light. 

THE  SUN. 

The  sign  is  O,  a buckler  with  its  boss.  This  is  by  tar  the  largest  body  in  the 
solar  system,  but  not  the  largest  with  which  astronomy  has  to  deal.  The  numbers 
with  which  we  are  dealing  are  so  vast  that  we  can  have  but  slight  conception  of  them. 
Take  for  illustration  the  average  distance  of  the  earth  from  the  sun,  which  is  ninety-one 
and  a half  millions  of  miles.  What  does  that  signify  to  our  minds  ? And  yet  this  is  to 
be  the  unit  (one)  of  measure  in  the  computations  of  this  wonderful  science.  The  fastest 
express  train,  at  the  rate  of  sixty  miles  an  hour — a speed  rarely  attained — would  re- 
quire one  hundred  and  seventy  years  and  six  months  to  pass  over  that  distance.  That 
is  to  say,  five  entire  generations  of  human  beings  would  have  passed  away  in  the  time. 
Yet  this  enormous  distance  is  used  by  astronomers  as  a carpenter  uses  a foot  or  an 


480 


THE  SCIENCE  OF  ASTRONOMY. 


inch  to  express  the  distance  measured  by  him.  How  do  they  accomplish  this?  The 
answer  is,  the  same  as  the  surveyor  measures  distances  on  the  earth’s  surface,  by  a scien- 
tific arrangement  of  triangles,  with  one  side  and  two  angles  given  to  find  the  other  sides 
and  angle.  Having  established  a correct  base-line  he  can  go  on  from  that  and  meas- 
ure all  creation  and  the  rest  of  space  if  he  can  only  set  up  his  signal  of  flashing  light. 
This  base  line  is  computed  by  the  aid  the  transit  of  Venus,  and  observations  taken 
December  8,  1874,  led  to  a correction  of  the  distance  from  the  earth  to  the  sun. 

The  sun  is  the  source  of  light  and  heat  to  the  worlds  that  revolve  about  him.  The 
theories  and  investigations  into  the  nature  and  causes  of  these  are  too  extended  and 
complicated  for  us  even  to  mention.  We  must  content  ourselves  with  the  statement 
that  the  light  of  the  sun  is  five  thousand  five  hundred  and  sixty-three  times  that  of  a 
wax  candle  held  a foot  distant  from  the  eye,  or  eight  hundred  thousand  times  greater 
than  that  of  the  full  moon.  We  receive  in  one  year  from  the  sun  heat  enough  to  melt 
a layer  of  solid  ice  around  the  world  thirty-eight  yards  thick.  The  gentle  rays  of  the 
sun  when  they  strike  the  earth’s  surface  are  only  one  three-hundred-thousandth  as 
much  as  when  they  leave  the  sun’s  surface.  Remember  that  only  a very  slight  portion 
of  the  heat  which  emanates  from  the  sun  ever  reaches  the  earth.  The  rest  is  diffused  in 
space.  Sir  John  Herschel  says:  “ If  a solid  cylinder  of  ice  forty-five  miles  in  diameter 
and  two  hundred  thousand  miles  long  were  plunged  end  first  into  the  sun  it  would 
melt  in  one  second  of  time.” 

The  apparent  size  of  the  sun  varies  at  different  times  in  the  year,  because  it  is  a little 
nearer  to  us  in  winter  than  in  summer.  The  real  size  of  the  sun  is  eight  hundred  and 
fifty  thousand  miles  in  diameter.  Its  volume  is  one  thousand  two  hundred  and  forty- 
five  thousand  times  that  of  the  world,  and  its  mass  six  hundred  and  seventy-four  times 
that  of  all  the  rest  of  the  solar  system,  and  its  weight  in  tons  is  the  enormous  amount  of 
1,910,2  7 8, 070*000, 000, 000, 000,000, 000. 

This  number  has  no  meaning  to  us,  but  it  represents  an  amount  of  attraction  which 
holds  the  solar  system  in  its  place  and  prevents  this  world  and  all  the  planets  from 
deviating  a single  second  of  time  from  exact  regularity  in  all  their  movements.  The 
density  of  the  sun’s  mass  is  about  one-fourth  that  of  the  earth,  but  so  immense  is 
its  magnitude  that  a man  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  weight  on  the  earth  would 
weigh  four  thousand  and  eighty  pounds  at  the  sun’s  surface. 

Very  many  discoveries  have  been  made  in  respect  to  the  sun  and  the  materials  of 
which  it  is  composed  by  the  means  of  the  spectroscope,  but  we  cannot  enter  into  a dis- 
cussion of  this.  The  theories  of  the  spots  on  the  sun’s  surface  and  the  causes  are  too 
many  and  too  complicated  for  our  purpose.  The  cause  of  the  sun’s  heat  is  but  little 
understood  as  yet.  Many  theories  have  been  advocated  by  distinguished  philosophers, 
but  none  of  them  have  been  generally  adopted.  Some  account  for  this  great  heat  by 
the  condensation  of  the  sun,  and  others  as  boldly  assure  us  that  it  is  caused  by  the  falling 
of  meteors  into  the  sun,  their  motion  being  converted  into  heat  to  feed  the  central  fire. 
Some  claim  that  the  heat  of  the  sun  is  constantly  becoming  less.  We  may  be  sure 
that  its  power  is  sufficient  to  last  for  millions  of  years  to  come  and  therefore  need 
not  borrow  anxiety  upon  that  score. 


THE  SOLAR  SYSTEM. 


481 


THE  PLANETS. 

We  shall  start  out  from  the  center  to  pursue  an  imaginary  journey  through  space, 
but  before  we  proceed  we  will  mention  some  of  the  characteristics  which  the  planets 
have  in  common.  Then  we  will  visit  each  planet  in  turn,  note  its  distance  from  the 
sun,  size,  length  of  year,  day  and  night,  climate,  seasons,  and  other  phenomena.  In 
this  way  we  shall  show  something  of  what  we  know  of  the  character  of  each,  asking  our 
readers  to  defer  the  natural  question,  “How  can  we  know  this  ? ” till  they  come  to 
study  the  more  advanced  works  on  this  grand  science.  For  the  present  we  will  take 
the  facts  upon  the  statements  of  scientists,  and  when  we  come  to  investigate  more 
fully  hereafter  we  shall  find  that  they  are  all  based  upon  correct  calculation  or  logical 
deduction. 

The  planets  have  six  characteristics  in  common.  First,  they  move  in  the  same  di- 
rection around  the  sun.  If  we  look  from  the  north  side  of  the  ecliptic  the  movement  is  op- 
posite that  of  the  hands  of  a watch.  Second,  they  have  elliptical  orbits,  varying  but  slight- 
ly trom  a circle.  Third,  their  orbits  are  inclined  more  or  less  to  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic, 
which  they  intersect  at  two  points,  and  for  one-half  the  distance  or  time  the  orbit  is  above, 
or  north,  the  ecliptic  and  for  one-half  below,  or  south,  of  it.  The  point  where  the  planet 
crosses  to  the  north  is  termed  the  ascending  node , and  where  it  goes  south,  the  descend - 
ing  node.  The  nodes  are  the  points  where  the  two  planes  intersect,  and  are  represented 
in  Fig.  8 by  the  points  of  the  earth’s  position  on  the  21st  of  March  and  the  2 1st  of 
September,  as  seen  in  the  two  light  lines  which  surround  the  sun.  The  point  crossed 
on  September  2 1st  is  called  the  descending  node  and  the  opposite  point  the  ascending 
node.  The  same  applies  to  all  the  other  planets,  but  their  nodes  come  at  different  times. 
Fourth,  the  planets  are  all  opaque,  and  shine  with  light  reflected  from  the  sun.  Fifth, 
they  turn  upon  their  axes,  and  have  alternate  day  and  night.  Sixth,  they  all  obey 
the  same  law  of  gravitation,  which  causes  them  to  move  fastest  when  nearest  the  sun 
and  slowest  when  farthest  from  him. 

DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  PLANETS. 

I.  VULCAN. — This  is  the  name  given  to  the  supposed  new  planet.  In  1859  it  was 
claimed  by  La  Verrier  that  he  had  detected  errors  in  the  assumed  position  of  Mercury, 
which  could  only  be  accounted  for  on  the  supposition  of  the  presence  of  another  planet 
nearer  the  sun  than  this.  March  26th  of  the  next  year  M.  Lescarbault  stated  that  he 
saw  the  new  planet  crossing  the  sun’s  disk,  and  La  Verrier  visited  him  and  became  sat- 
isfied of  the  truth  of  the  statement  of  his  friend,  the  French  physician,  who  was  an 
enthusiastic  astronomer  and  wonderfully  accurate  in  all  his  calculations.  Mr.  Lummis, 
of  Manchester,  England,  observed,  March  20,  1862,  a dark,  moving  object,  which  he 
regarded  as  the  transit  of  an  inferior  planet  over  the  sun’s  disk,  and  many  other  in- 
stances of  a similar  kind  have  been  observed  by  astronomers.  But  the  presence  of  such 
a planet  has  not  yet  been  conceded  by  most  of  the  scientists.  However,  its  distance 
from  the  sun  has  been  calculated  at  thirteen  million  miles  and  its  periodic  time  at 
twenty  days.  This  little  one  is  called  Vulcan  and  its  sign  is  a hammer.  The  name, 


482 


THE  SCIENCE  OF  ASTRONOMY. 


time,  distance,  and  sign  are  ready  to  be  given  to  the  stranger  when  he  shall  announce 
his  presence.  Vulcan  was  the  god  of  the  Forge.  Observations  and  investigation  made 
by  eminent  astronomers  at  the  time  of  the  total  eclipse  of  the  sun  May  6,  1883,  has 
led  to  very  serious  doubt  as  to  there  being  any  inter-mercurial  planet  whatever. 

2.  MERCURY,  the  fleetest  of  the  gods;  his  sign  is  $ , the  wand. — This  planet 
is  nearest  the  sun  of  all  the  planets  with  which  we  are  acquainted.  In  a clear  sky  we 
are  able  to  discern  it  sometimes  just  after  sunset.  It  is  a bright  star  in  the  western 
sky.  It  appears  here  for  a few  evenings  and  is  then  last  in  the  light  of  the  sun,  but 
afterward  reappears  in  the  east  as  a morning  star.  Its  mean  distance  from  the  sun  is 
thirty-five  million  miles,  but  his  orbit  is  very  elliptical,  at  perihelion  being  only  twenty- 
eight  million  miles  from  the  sun,  and  at  aphelion  forty-three  million.  The  mercurial 
year  is  only  eighty-eight  days,  for  being  so  near  the  sun  it  moves  at  the  rapid  rate  of 
thirty  miles  every  second  of  time.  Its  synodic  period  is  one  hundred  and  sixteen  days, 
for  when  Mercury  gets  around  to  the  same  point  from  which  it  started  to  record  its 
year  the  earth  has  also  been  moving  in  the  same  direction,  and  it  takes  twenty-eight 
days  more  to  overtake  it.  The  distance  of  Mercury  from  the  earth  varies  greatly,  owing 
to  the  relative  positions  of  the  two  planets  from  the  sun.  The  nearest  distance  is  forty- 
seven  million  miles  and  the  greatest  one  hundred  and  thirty-six  million.  The  diame- 
ter of  this  planet  is  three  thousand  miles ; its  volume  is  one-twentieth  that  of  the  world. 
The  seasons  of  Mercury  are  characterized  by  intense  heat  or  cold,  and  each  part  of  the 
planet  changes  from  ten  times  the  heat  of  the  world  to  four  and  one-half  times,  mak- 
ing these  sudden  transitions  from  one  extreme  to  the  other  eight  times  in  one  of  our 
years.  The  length  of  day  and  night  vary  more  on  this  planet  than  on  the  earth. 
Through  the  telescope  it  presents  the  appearance  of  our  moon  at  different  phases. 
Mercury  has  no  moon. 

3.  Venus,  the  queen  of  beauty;  her  sign  was  $,  an  ancient  mirror. — This  planet 
is  next  in  order  to  Mercury,  and  is  the  most  brilliant  of  all  the  planets.  When  it 
appears  before  sunrise  it  is  the  morning  star,  and  was  called  by  the  ancients  Lucifer ; 
when  after  sunset  she  is  the  evening  star,  and  was  then  called  Hesperus.  She  presents 
much  the  same  characteristics  as  the  planet  before  mentioned,  but  is  seen  much  earlier 
in  the  morning  and  much  longer  at  night.  The  orbit  of  this  planet  is  the  most  nearly 
circular  of  any  of  the  planets,  her  mean  distance  from  the  sun  being  sixty-six  mill- 
ion miles,  and  the  variation  from  greatest  to  least  distance  being  only  half  a million 
miles.  The  year  of  Venus  is  two  hundred  and  twenty-five  days,  but  because  she 
moves  only  a little  faster  than  the  earth  it  takes  five  hundred  and  eighty-four  days  for 
her  to  come  into  conjunction  with  the  earth  again.  Her  distance  from  the  earth  varies 
in  the  proportion  of  ten,  eighteen,  and  sixty-five,  and  her  appearance  is  like  that  of 
Mercury  and  the  moon,  changing  from  full  to  half  and  crescent  as  it  reflects  the  light 
of  the  sun.  The  diameter  of  Venus  is  seven  thousand  five  hundred  miles,  its  volume 
four-fifths  that  of  the  earth  ; the  seasons  very  much  like  those  of  Mercury,  as  the 
inclination  of  its  axis  is  seventy-five  degrees,  The  heat  and  light  of  Mercury  is  four 
times  that  of  the  world,  and  the  variation  of  day  and  night  very  unequal.  Venus  has 
no  moon. 


THE  SOLAR  SYSTEM. 


483 


4.  The  EARTH. — The  earth,  ©,  is  the  fourth  planet  from  the  sun.  To  our  young 
readers  who  have  not  been  instructed  on  this  point  it  may  appear  strange  that  the 
world  which  appears  so  large  to  them  in  comparison  with  the  stars  should 
be  regarded  as  one  of  the  planets.  The  world  seems  to  stand  still  and  all 
the  heavenly  bodies  to  revolve  around  it.  It  is  a vast  extensive  mass  of 
high  mountains,  plains,  oceans  and  rivers,  so  it  appears  to  the  uninformed. 

On  this  same  general  belief  Ptolemy  constructed  his  theory,  which  could 
not  stand  the  test  of  scientific  research  and  has  now  become  obsolete.  The  fact  is,  the 
world  is  small  in  comparison  with  some  of  the  other  planets,  and  a mere  speck  com- 
pared to  the  sun. 

The  reason  that  the  stars,  and  even  the  sun  and  moon,  appear  so  small  to  us  is  be- 
cause of  their  gre^t  distance  away.  Pig.  9 will  serve  to  illustrate  this  fact,  and  also 
another.  A person  standing  on  the  fort 
looking  out  to  sea  will  discover  the  steamer, 
b,  at  a distance  and  she  seems  very  small ; 
but  as  she  comes  nearer  she  appears  larger, 
until,  when  she  arrives  close  to  shore,  she 
proves  to  be  of  immense  proportions. 

This  shows  that  the  farther  off  any  object  fig.  9. 

is  the  smaller  it  looks  to  us.  But  this  same  Fig.  9 illustrates  another  fact.  The  world 
is  not  a flat  plain,  broken  only  by  mountains  and  valleys.  It  is  spheroidical ; that  is, 
like  a ball  or  globe.  It  is  slightly  flattened  at  the  poles.  The  “ roundness  ” of  the 
earth  is  proven  from  the  fact  that  we  see  the  top  of  the  masts  of  a steamship  at  sea 
before  we  can  see  any  other  part.  In  Fig.  9 a c is  a horizontal  line  on  the  ocean  level. 
The  steamer,  c , first  presents  the  tips  of  the  mast  because  the  water  “ curves  ” and  hides 
the  rest.  The  shape  of  the  world  is  that  of  an  oblate  spheroid,  flattened  at  the  poles. 
The  diameter  at  the  equator  is  seven  thousand  nine  hundred  twenty-five  and  one-half 
miles,  and  at  the  poles  seven  thousand  eight  hundred  and  ninety-nine.  The  circumfer- 
ence is  about  twenty-five  thousand  miles.  There  are  other  proofs  of  the  rotundity  of 
the  earth  besides  the  one  mentioned.  Ships  have  sailed 
around  it.  The  shadow  of  the  earth,  Fig.  10,  on  the  moon 
is  circular.  The  pole  star  appears  to  rise  higher  as  we  go 
northward,  and  the  horizon  expands  as  we  ascend  to  the 
top  of  a hill  or  mountain.  All  these  prove  that  the  earth 
is  round.  This  curvature  is  eight  inches  for  every  mile. 

Any  one  of  our  readers  can  prove  this  very  easily  by  going 
on  to  a frozen  pond  in  winter,  and  with  a spirit-level  placed 
on  the  ice  find  the  true  level.  At  half  a mile  distance 
this  level  will  be  four  inches  above  the  ice.  The  compres- 
sion at  the  poles  is  about  twenty-six  and  one-half  miles.  If  we  represent  the  earth 
6y  a globe  one  yard  in  diameter,  the  polar  diameter  would  be  one-tenth  of  an  inch  too 
long.  It  has  been  recently  shown  that  the  equator  itself  is  not  a perfect  circle,  but  is 
somewhat  flattened,  there  being  a difference  in  the  diameters  of  two  miles. 


484 


THE  SCIENCE  OF  ASTRONOMY. 


THE  DAILY  REVOLUTION  OF  THE  EARTH. 

The  earth  turns  upon  its  axis  from  west  to  east,  and  this  causes  the  sun  «.o  appar- 
ently rise  in  the  east  and  set  in  the  west.  One-half  of  the  world  is  all  the  time  in  the 

light  and  the  other  half  in  the  dark,  this 
causing  the  alternation  of  day  and  night. 
Fig.  ii  illustrates  this  fact.  The  world 
turning  upon  its  axis  brings  each  meridian, 
represented  by  the  lighter  circle,  directly 
under  the  sun  at  midday,  while  the  oppo- 
site point  is  midnight.  The  unequal  length 
of  day  and  night  for  the  varying  seasons  is 
caused  by  the  inclination  of  the  earth’s  axis 
to  the  ecliptic.  Any  given  point  on  the 
equator  passes  the  meridian  at  twelve  o’clock 
each  day,  and  to  complete  the  circuit  of  its 
fig.  ii.  revolution  has  to  pass  over  twenty-five  thou- 

sand miles  in  twenty-four  hours,  or  more  than  a thousand  miles  an  hour.  At  the  poles 
there  is,  of  course,  none  of  this  motion,  and  consequently  if  the  axis  of  the  earth  was  in 
the  plane  of  the  ecliptic  the  poles  would  be  in  the  light  constantly : but  such  is  far  from 
being  the  case.  The  inclination  between  the  axis  and  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic  is  twenty- 
three  degrees  and  twenty-eight  minutes,  and  this  causes  unequal  day  and  night  as  well 
as  THE  VARIATIONS  OF  THE  SEASONS.  By  reference  to  our  illustration,  Fig.  12,  we 

will  try  to  explain  this.  The  dotted 
line  represents  the  orbit  of  the  earth 
with  the  sun  in  the  center.  The  char- 
acters of  the  zodiac  are  arranged  around 
the  outside.  Here  are  some  things 
which  we  are  to  remember:  first,  the 
obliquity  of  the  ecliptic , that  is,  the  in- 
clination of  the  earth’s  axis ; second, 
in  all  parts  of  the  orbit  the  earth’s  axis 
is  parallel  to  itself ; third,  the  sun’s 
rays  strike  the  various  parts  of  the 
earth  at  a different  angle  in  the  differ- 
ent seasons  of  the  year.  This  can  be 
seen  by  the  cut.  When  the  sun  is  at 
Aries,  the  ram,  March  21st,  and  again  at  Libra,  the  scales,  September  25th,  the  sun 
shines  directly  upon  the  equator.  But  when  at  Cancer,  the  crab,  it  shines  upon  the  Tropic 
of  Cancer  and  brings  the  summer  to  the  northern  half  of  the  world  ; and  when  at  Capri- 
cornus,  the  goat,  it  shines  upon  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn,  and  it  is  summer  in  the  south- 
ern hemisphere.  So  the  direction  of  the  sun’s  rays  on  any  portion  of  the  earth  s surface 
is  changed  every  six  months.  Fourth,  the  two  hemispheres,  north  and  south,  are  un- 
equally illuminated  at  all  points  of  the  year  except  at  the  vernal  and  autumnal  equinoxes. 
Fifth,  the  season  in  the  northern  hemisphere  is  the  opposite  of  that  in  the  southern  hem- 


THE  SOLAR  SYSTEM. 


485 


isphere.  When  it  is  winter  in  one  it  is  summer  in  the  other,  and  vice  versa.  Sixth,  the 
southern  summer  is  warmer  than  the  northern,  because  the  earth  is  then  nearest  the  sun, 
or  in  perihelion.  The  southern  winter  is  colder  than  the  northern,  because  the  world  is 
then  in  aphelion.  Seventh,  the  sun  is  not  in  the  center  of  the  earth’s  orbit,  but  in  one  of 
the  foci ; therefore  the  summer  is  longer  than  the  winter.  This  is  owing,  in  part,  to  the 
difference  in  velocity  of  the  earth  at  the  different  seasons.  The  mean  duration  of  the 
seasons  is  as  follows:  spring,  ninety-two  and  nine-tenths  days;  summer,  ninety-three 
and  six-tenths  days  ; autumn,  eighty-nine  and  seven-tenths  days  ; winter,  eighty-nine 
days.  The  earth  is  seven  and  eight-tenths  days  longer  in  passing  from  Aries  to  Libra 
than  from  Libra  to  Aries. 

THE  MOON. 


Her  mean  distance  from  the  earth  is  two  hundred  and  thirty-eight  thousand  miles  ; 
her  time  of  revolution  is  twenty-seven  and  one-third  days ; this  is,  if  the  earth  remained 
fixed  ; but  since  the  earth  and  moon  are  together  moving  along  the  earth’s  orbit  it  takes 
about  two  days  longer  for  the  moon  to  reach  the  same  apparent  place  in  her  orbit. 
The  diameter  of  the  moon  is  two  thousand  one  hundred  and  sixty  miles.  The  light 
of  the  moon  is  the  reflected  light  of  the  sun,  and  from  this  cause  we  see  a little  more 
than  one-half  of  its  surface  from  one  period  to  the  next.  If  the  sky  were  filled  with  full 


moons  shining  at  their  height  the 
light  would  not  equal  that  of  the 
sun.  The  phases  of  the  moon, 
from  a narrow  crescent  to  the 
full  are  caused  by  the  reflection  of 
the  sun’s  light  on  the  moon  at 
varying  angles.  “ The  old  moon 
in  the  new  moon’s  arms  ” is  caused 
by  the  reflection  of  the  earth  on 
the  moon  being  returned  to  us. 

This  occurs  for  a few  days  before 
and  after  the  new  moon.  This 
is  shown  in  our  illustration,  which 
explains  itself.  The  moon’s  sur- 
face as  seen  through  the  telescope 
presents  very  interesting  features; 
there  are  mountains  and  great 
gray  plains,  or  seas,  with  rills  and 
luminous  bands,  craters  and 
walled  plains.  These  are  seen 
in  the  ideal  landscape  of  the 
moon,  which  we  have  presented 
at  the  beginning  of  this  article. 

The  sun  and  earth,  as  they  appear  fig.  13.— phases  of  moon. 

from  the  moon,  is  also  introduced  in  the  same  illustration.  There  is  one  class  of  phe- 
nomenon connected  with  the  relation  of  the  moon  to  the  earth  which  we  will  endeavor, 
to  explain. 


486 


THE  SCIENCE  OF  ASTRONOMY. 


ECLIPSE  OF  THE  SUN  AND  MOON. 

When  the  moon  comes  between  the  sun  and  the  earth  at  the  time  of  either  of  hei 
nodes  there  is. caused  an  eclipse  of  the  sun,  for  the  three  bodies  are  then  in  a straight 
line  and  the  moon  hides  a large  part  of  the  sun’s  disk. 

The  general  theory  of  an  eclipse 
can  be  presented  in  the  following 
manner,  as  illustrated  by  Fig.  14.  A 
common  bull’s-eye  lantern  may  be 
used  in  a darkened  room  with  a 
three-foot  globe  inclined  at  the 
proper  angle  to  represent  the  posi- 
tion of  the  earth  as  seen  in  the  illus- 
tration. The  lantern  may  be  called 
the  sun,  and,  of  course,  it  is  under- 
stood that  correct  comparative  sizes 
are  not  attempted  in  this  arrange- 
to  the  lantern,  which,  like  the  sun, 
is  self-luminous,  and  is  giving  out  its  own  rays  ; these  fall  upon  the  globe  we  have  desig- 
nated the  earth  and  illuminate  one-half,  while  the  other  is  shrouded  in  darkness,  re 

minding  us  of  the  opacity  of  the  earth,  and  teaching,  in 
a familiar  manner,  the  causes  of  day  and  night. 
Another  globe,  say  six  inches  in  diameter,  and  sup- 
ported by  a string,  may  be  compared  to  the  moon, 
and,  like  the  earth,  is  now  luminous,  and  shines  only 
by  a borrowed  light : the  moon  is  simply  a reflector  of 
light  like  a sheet  of  white  cardboard,  or  a metallic  mir- 
ror. When,  therefore,  the  small  globe  is  passed  be- 
tween the  lantern  and  the  large  globe  a shadow  is 

cast  on  the  earth : it  is  also  seen  that  only  the  half 
of  the  small  globe  turned  toward  the  lantern  is  illumi- 
nated while  the  other  half,  opposite  the  large  globe,  is 
in  shadow  or  darkness.  And  here  we  understand  why 
the  moon  appears  tobe  black  while  passing  before  the 
fig.  15.— earth  and  moon.  sun  ; so  also  by  moving  the  small  globe  about  in 

various  curves  it  is  shown  why  eclipses  are  only  visible  at  certain  parts  of  the  earth’s 
surface ; and  as  it  would  take  (roughly  speaking)  fifty  globes  as  large  as  the  moon  to 
make  one  equal  in  size  to  our  earth,  the  shadow  it  casts  must  necessarily  be 

small,  and  cannot  obscure  the  whole  hemisphere  of  the  earth  turned  toward  it. 

An  eclipse  of  the  sun  is,  therefore,  caused  by  the  opaque  mass  of  moon  pass- 
ing between  the  sun  and  the  earth,  while  an  eclipse  of  the  moon  is  caused  by  the 
the  earth  moving  directly  between  the  sun  and  the  moon : the  large  shadow  cast  by 
earth  renders  a total  eclipse  of  the  moon  visible  to  a greater  number  of  spectator? 
on  that  half  of  the  earth  turned  toward  the  moon.  All  these  fads  can  be  clearly 
demonstrated  with  the  arrangement  already  described  in  Fig.  14. 


THE  SOLAR  SYSTEM. 


487 


All  the  planets  being  opaque  cast  a shadow  opposite  the  sun,  and  this  causes  the 
phenomena  of  the  eclipse,  as  will  be  seen  by  an  examination  of  the  illustration  Fie- 
15*  The  moon’s  shadow  is  ’ s* 

longer  than  its  distance  from 
the  earth,  and  consequently 
she  casts  a dark  shadow  on 
the  earth’s  surface  whenever 
she  comes  between  it  and  the 
sun.  In  the  cut  we  see  that 
the  dark  shadow  of  the  moon, 
termed  umbra , comes  to  a 
point ; in  fact  it  covers  about 
one  hundred  and  forty  miles 
diameter  on  the  earth’s  sur- 
face. The  penumbra , or 
lighter  shadow,  diverges  from 
the  moon.  Now  when  the 
dark  shadow  at  the  time  of 
an  eclipse  falls  upon  the 
earth  there  is  a total  eclipse ; 
but  when  the  penumbra 
falls  on  the  earth  it  is 
a partial  eclipse;  while  in 
the  portions  of  the  world 
outside  of  the  penumbra 
there  is  no  eclipse.  When 
the  eclipse  takes  place  at 
the  time  the  moon  is  the 
farthest  from  the  earth  the 
shadow  cast  by  the  moon  is 
not  of  sufficient  size  to 
cover  the  sun’s  disk;  it  is 

°r  ’I"8''1*6’  eCUpSe-  This  Can  be  Seen  in  FiS-  16.  In  order  to  com- 
prehend the  difference  between  an  annular  and  a total  eclipse  of  the  sun  it  is  necessary 

o mention  the  apparent  sizes  of  the  sun  and  moon  : thus,  the  former  is  a very  large 
o y viz.,  eight  hundred  and  eighty-seven  thousand  miles  in  diameter ; but  then  the 
sun  is  a very  long  way  off  from  the  earth,  and  is  ninety-one  and  a half  millions  ofmiles 
distant  from  us;  therefore  he  does  not  appear  to  be  very  large  : indeed,  the  sun  seems 
about  the  same  size  as  the  moon  ; for,  although  the  sun’s  diameter  is  (roughly  speaking) 
four  hundred  times  greater  than  that  of  the  moon,  he  is  four  hundred  times  farther 
away  from  us,  and,  consequently,  the  sun  and  moon  appear  to  be  the  same  size,  and 
when  they  come  in  a straight  line  with  the  eye,  the  nearer  and  smaller  body,  the  moon, 

or  a tot  I6  3 um°re  d!Stant  maSS’ the  SUn ; and  henCe  We  have  either  “ annuli 

a total  eclipse,  as  the  moon  is  farthest  from  or  nearest  to  the  earth  at  the  time  show- 

.SLT  b"’“"  *'*  'ye  * “r6"  bo<'y'“<,  *ith" 


488 


THE  SCIENCE  OF  ASTRONOMY. 


A TOTAL  ECLIPSE  DESCRIBED. 

If  the  annular  eclipse  of  the  sun  be  a matter  for  wonderment,  the  total  eclipse  of 
the  same  is  much  more  surprising ; no  other  expression  than  that  of  awfully  grand  can 
give  an  idea  of  the  effects  of  totality,  and  of  the  suddenness  with  which  it  obscures  the 
light  of  heaven.  The  darkness,  it  is  said,  comes  dropping  down  like  a mantle,  and  as 
the  moment  of  full  obscuration  approaches  people’s  countenances  become  livid,  the 
horizon  is  indistinct  and  sometimes  invisible,  and  there  is  a general  appearance  of 
horror  on  all  sides.  These  are  not  simply  the  inventions  of  active  human  imaginations, 
for  they  produce  equal,  if  not  greater  effects,  upon  the  brute  creation.  A swarm  of  ants, 
busily  engaged,  stopped  when  the  darkness  commenced,  and  remained  motionless  till 
the  light  reappeared.  A herd  of  oxen  collected  themselves  into  a circle  and  stood  still, 
with  their  horns  outward,  as  if  to  resist  a common  enemy  ; certain  plants,  such  as  the 
convolvulus  and  silk-tree  acacia,  closed  their  leaves.  A “ total  eclipse  ” of  the  sun  has 
always  impressed  the  human  mind  with  terror  and  wonder  in  every  age : it  was  always 
supposed  to  be  the  forerunner  of  evil ; and  not  only  is  the  mind  powerfully  impressed 
as  darkness  gradually  shuts  out  the  face  of  the  sun,  but  at  the  moment  of  totality  a 

magnificent  corona,  or  glory  of  light,  is  visible,  and  prominences,  or  flames,  as  they 

are  often  termed,  make  their  appearance  at  different  points  round  the  circle  of  the  dark 
mass.  This  glory  does  not  flash  suddenly  on  the  eye ; but  commencing  at  the  first 
limb  of  the  sun  passes  quickly  from  one  limb  to  the  other. 

A LUNAR  ECLIPSE. 

An  eclipse  of  the  moon  is  caused  by  the  moon 
passing  through  the  earth’s  shadow  and  can  occur 
only  when  she  is  at  the  full.  This  can  take  place 

only  at  or  near  the  nodes.  Fig.  17  shows  the 

moon  in  the  umbra,  or  shadow,  of  the  earth. 
The  earth  is  so  much  larger  than  the  moon  that 
there  can  never  be  an  annular  eclipse  of  the  moon, 
but  as  the  eclipse  may  occur  a little  before  or  after 
the  nodes  there  may  be  a partial  eclipse.  Total 
eclipses  of  the  moon  are  more  rare  than  those  of 
the  sun,  yet  we  see  them  more  frequently,  because 
when  they  do  occur  they  last  longer  and  cover  a 
larger  part  of  the  earth’s  surface.  From  the  first 
to  the  last  contact  with  the  penumbra  the  time 
may  be  five  hours  and  a half.  We  must  pass  with 
this  explanation  of  the  phenomena  of  eclipses  to 
the  planet  next  outward  from  the  earth. 

5.  Mars,  the  god  of  war;  sign,  $ , shield  and  spear. — This  is  the  first  of  the  supe. 
rior  planets,  and  in  its  structure  most  like  the  earth.  To  the  unaided  eye  it  appears  like  a 
bright  red  star  scintillating  and  shining  with  a steady  light.  This  will  serve  to  distinguish 
it  from  the  fixed  stars.  Its  apparent  size  changes  from  four  seconds  when  it  is  at  conjunc- 
tion to  thirty  seconds  when  it  is  at  opposition  with  the  sun.  Its  mean  distance  from  the 


THE  SOLAR  SYSTEM. 


439 


sum  is  one  hundred  and  forty  million  miles,  but  its  orbit  is  so  elliptical  that  its  nearest 
distance  is  one  hundred  and  twenty-seven  million  miles.  Its  day  is  about  forty  minutes 
longer  than  ours,  and  its  year  is  equal  to  six  hundred  and  eighty-seven  of  our  days. 
The  distance  from  the  earth  varies  the  same  as  that  of  all  the  superior  planets  from 
the  difference  between  the  distance  of  Mars  from  the  sun  and  that  of  the  earth  to  the 
sum  of  these  distances.  When  they  are  on  the  same  side  of  the  sun,  and  in  a line  with 
it,  or  in  conjunction,  the  distance  between  the  two  planets  is  thirty-three  million  miles. 
When  on  opposite  sides,  and  in  the  same  line,  it  is  two  hundred  and  thirty-three 
million.  Its  diameter  is  less  than  five  thousand  miles  ; its  volume  one-fourth  that  of 
the  earth  and  its  density  one-half,  consequently  the  mass  of  Mars  is  only  one-eighth 
that  of  the  world.  Its  axis  is  inclined  28.7  degrees  to  the  ecliptic,  and  on  this  account  the 
seasons  are  very  much  like  our  own,  but  are  twice  as  long.  The  light  and  heat  de- 
rived from  the  sun  is  about  one-half  the  amount  which  comes  to  the  earth.  Mars 
has  at  least  two  moons  and  an  atmosphere  similar  to  ours.  The  telescope  shows 
seas  and  continents  on  the  surface  of  Mars  and  a change  from  a snowy  whiteness  to  a 
ruddy  color,  with  all  the  vicissitudes  of  the  seasons. 

6.  JUPITER,  the  king  of  the  gods;  sign,  2£,  a hieroglyphic  representation  of  an 
eagle. — The  next  planet  going  outward  is  Jupiter,  the  largest  of  the  solar  system.  It 
was  known  to  the  ancients  and  regarded  as  the  ruler  of  storms  and  tempests.  But  all 
such  notions  in  connection  with  the  science  of  astronomy  have  passed  away.  The 
mean  distance  of  this  planet  from  the 
sun  is  four  hundred  and  seventy-five 
million  miles,  and  its  orbit  is  more 
nearly  a circle  than  that  of  any  of  the 
planets  we  have  so  far  visited.  The  '== 
motion  of  Jupiter  among  the  fixed 
stars  is  slow  and  majestic,  and  his  ad- 
vancement along  the  zodiac  is  at  the 
rate  of  one  constellation  a year.  Slow- 
ly as  he  appears  to  move  his  actual 
rate  is  five  hundred  miles  per  minute. 

His  day  is  only  ten  of  our  hours,  but 
his  revolution  around  the  sun  requires 
twelve  of  our  years.  Once  in  thirteen 
months  he  is  opposite  the  sun  from  us, 
and  twice  in  that  time  he  is  in  con- 
junction with  us.  His  least  distance 
from  us  is  three  hundred  and  eighty- 
two  million  miles,  his  greatest  five  = 
hundred  and  sixty-eight  millions.  The 
diameter  of  this  planet  is  eighty-eight 
thousand  miles,  or  one-tenth  that  of 
the  sun,  and  his  volume  is  fourteen  hun-  FIG*  i8-Jupiter  AND  HIS  MOONS- 

dred  times  that  of  the  earth.  The  density  of  its  mass  is  one-fifth  that  of  the  earth,  and 
a.c  a point  upon  its  equator  travels  at  the  rate  of  four  hundred  and  sixty-seven  miles 


490 


THE  SCIENCE  OF  ASTRONOMY. 


per  minute  compared  with  seventeen  miles  per  minute  on  the  earth’s  equator,  the  mass 
of  J upiter  is  immensely  flattened  at  the  poles.  The  equatorial  diameter  is  five  thousand 
miles  greater  than  the  polar.  The  axis  of  this  huge  world  is  but  little  inclined  to  its 
orbit,  and  therefore  the  days  and  nights  are  more  equal  and  the  seasons  are  more  unh 
form  on  all  parts  of  its  surface  than  on  the  earth.  The  appearance  of  Jupiter  and  his 
moons,  of  which  there  are  four,  presents  in  the  telescope  a complete  Copernican  sys- 
tem reduced  in  size  and  number.  These  moons  revolve  about  the  planet,  varying 
from  hour  to  hour.  They  are  of  different  sizes ; one  of  them  larger  than  the  planet 
Mercury,  and  all  larger  than  the  asteroids.  To  an  observer  on  the  surface  of  the 
planet  these  moons  present  all  the  phases  of  our  moon,  with  changes  and  eclipses. 
Names  have  been  given  them,  their  distance  from  the  planet,  their  density  and  periods 
have  all  been  computed.  Their  names  are  /<?,  Europa , Ganymede , and  Castello.  The 
eclipses  of  Jupiter’s  moons  enabled  the  Danish  astronomer,  Romer,  to  compute  the 
velocity  of  light,  and  subsequent  independent  scientific  investigation  proved  him  to  be 
substantially  correct. 

7.  SATURN,  the  god  of  time  ; sign,  h,an  ancient  scythe. — We  now  come  to 
the  seventh  planet  from  the  sun,  the  fifth  and  last  one  known  to  the  ancients.  It  is 


FIG  19. — SATURN  AND  HIS  RINGS. 


smaller  than  the  planet  Jupiter,  but  more  gloriously  attended.  It  has  eight  moons  and 
several  rings.  Its  mean  distance  from  the  sun  is  eight  hundred  and  seventy-two  mill- 
ion miles  and  its  orbit  is  but  slightly  elliptical,  a trifle  more  than  that  of  Jupiter.  It 
moves  at  the  rate  of  twenty-one  thousand  miles  per  hour,  and  yet  it  takes  thirty  years 
like  ours  to  make  one  revolution,  or  twenty-five  thousand  of  Saturn’s  days,  which  are 
ten  and  a half  hours  of  our  time.  The  different  distances  from  the  earth  vary; 
the  least  distance  is  seven  hundred  and  eighty-eight  million,  the  greatest  distance 
is  nine  hundred  and  seventy-two  million  miles.  The  diameter  of  this  planet  is 
seventy-two  thousand  miles,  its  volume  seven  hundred  and  fifty  times  that  of 
the  earth,  its  density  is  less  than  that  of  water,  and  its  seasons  similar  to  those  on 
the  earth,  but  each  one  lasts  seven  of  our  years.  For  fifteen  years  the  sun  shines 


THE  SOLAR  SYSTEM. 


491 


on  the  north  pole  of  Saturn  and  it  is  summer  there,  and  then  fifteen  years  of  summer 
on  the  south  pole.  The  rings  of  Saturn  are  its  most  important  features,  and  have 
long  attracted  the  attention  of  astronomers.  There  are  three  rings  of  unequal  breadth 
surrounding  the  planet  at  the  equator.  The  outer  ring  is  separated  from  the  middle  one 
by  a distinct  break,  while  the  inner  one  seems  joined  to  it.  They  differ  in  brightness  ; 
the  outer  ring  is  of  a grayish  tint,  the  middle  one  is  more  brilliant  than  Saturn  himself, 
and  the  inner  ring  has  a purple  tinge.  These  rings  revolve  around  Saturn  in  ten  and 
a half  hours  in  the  same  direction  as  the  planet  revolves  on  its  axis.  To  us  the  rings 
present  different  phases  as  the  sun  illuminates  the  sides  or  edges.  There  are  dusky  belts 
on  the  surface  like  those  on  Jupiter,  and  the  regions  about  the  equator  are  brighter 
than  the  other  parts  of  the  disk.  There  are  eight  moons  revolving  around  this  planet. 
The  scenery  on  its  surface  must  be  grand  and  lovely  beyond  description. 

8.  URANUS,  the  most  ancient  of  the  gods;  sign,  U,  H,  with  a planet  suspended 
from  the  cross-bar  of  the  letter. — This  planet  was  discovered  by  Sir  William  Herschel, 
March  13,  1781,  and  at  first  was  regarded  as  a comet.  Soon  the  error  as  to  its  character 
was  detected  and  the  astronomical  world  placed  it  where  it  belongs  among  the  planets. 
Its  mean  distance  from  the  sun  is  one  thousand  seven  hundred  and  fifty-four  million 
miles,  its  year  eighty-four  of  our  years.  Its  diameter  is  thirty-three  thousand  miles 
and  its  density  about  that  of  ice,  or  less  than  water.  Nothing  has  been  ascertained  in 
regard  to  its  seasons,  and  it  presents  no  peculiar  telescopic  appearance.  Uranus  has 
four  moons  which  move  opposite  to  the  motion  of  their  primary. 

9.  Neptune,  the  god  of  the  sea;  sign,  his  trident. — This  is  the  farthest  planet 

from  the  sun  as  yet  discovered,  and  in  the  telescope  appears  as  a star  of  the  eighth  mag- 
nitude. The  discovery  of  this  planet  was  one  of  the  most  wonderful  achievements  of 
modern  astronomy.  Herschel  found  that  there  was  some  body  outside  of  Uranus 
which  disturbed  him  in  his  orbit,  and  at  once  concluded  that  it  must  be  another  planet. 
Finally  he  gave  this  difficult  problem  to  two  young  mathematicians,  M.  Leverrier,  of 
Paris,  and  Mr.  Adams,  of  Cambridge,  each  unknown  to  the  oth'er : “ Given  the  disturb- 
ances caused  by  the  attraction  of  an  unknown  planet,  to  find  its  orbit  and  its  place  in 
the  orbit.”  Mr.  Adams  labored  assiduously  for  two  years,  and  then  submitted  his  cal- 
culations to  the  Astronomer  Royal,  Professor  Airy,  in  1845.  The  young  Frenchman 
laid  his  paper  before  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  Paris  announcing  the  position  of  the 
new  planet.  Professor  Challis,  of  Cambridge,  at  the  request  of  Professor  Airy,  turned 
the  large  telescope  to  the  point  of  the  heavens  indicated  in  the  paper  of  Mr.  Adams 
and  saw  a star,  but  failed  to  ascertain  its  true  character.  Doctor  Galle,  of  the  Berlin 
Observatory,  on  the  evening  of  September  23,  1846,  at  the  request  of  M.  Leverrier 
turned  his  great  telescope  at  the  point  of  the  heavens  indicated  and  discovered  the 
unknown  planet,  which  was  called  Neptune.  The  mean  distance  of  this  planet  from  the 
sun  is  two  thousand  seven  hundred  and  fifty  million  miles ; its  year  is  equal  to  one  hun- 
dred and  sixty-five  of  our  years  ; its  velocity  is  only  twelve  thousand  miles  per  hour; 
its  diameter  is  thirty-seven  thousand  miles,  and  its  volume  is  one  hundred  times  that 
of  the  earth,  while  its  density  is  less  than  that  of  water.  The  sun  furnishes  Neptune 
only  one-thousandth  part  the  light  and  heat  which  comes  to  the  earth.  Of  the  seasons 
of  Neptune  we  know  nothing.  It  has  one  moon,  whose  revolution  about  the  planet 
occupies  six  days.  This  moon  is  about  as  near  its  primary  as  our  moon.  We  have 

48 


492 


THE  SCIENCE  OF  ASTRONOMY. 


come  to  the  confines  of  the  solar  system,  and  yet  we  have  touched  only  upon  the  bare 
outlines  which  it  contains.  But  there  are  other  bodies  in  this  system  which  we  must 
briefly  mention. 

THE  MINOR  PLANETS. 

Between  Mars  and  Jupiter  there  is  a wide  interval  of  space  which  for  a long  time 
was  regarded  as  unfilled.  Kepler  boldly  announced  that  there  must  be  a planet  some- 
where in  this  belt.  This  was  corroborated  by  the  discovery  of  Bode’s  law,  which  is 
this:  Take  the  numbers  o,  3,  6,  12,  24,  48,  96,  192,  384,  and  you  will  see  that  after  o 
they  increase  in  twofold  ratio.  Now  if  we  add  4 to  each  term  of  this  series  we  have 
4,  7,  10,  16,  28,  52,  100,  196,  388.  These  numbers  represented  the  position  of  all  the 
planets  at  the  time  of  the  discovery  of  this  law,  with  the  exception  of  28,  which  was  un- 
filled. On  the  14th  day  of  January,  1801,  Peazzi  discovered  a small  planet  at  almost  the 
exact  distance  to  fill  this  gap.  Up  to  the  present  time  (1883)  there  have  been  discov- 
ered more  than  two  hundred  and  twenty  of  these  minor  planets,  called  asteroids.  These 
“ pocket  planets,”  as  Herschel  terms  them,  are  very  small  and  move  in  regular  orbits  with- 
in a zone  of  one  hundred  million  miles’  width,  with  paths  variously  inclined  to  the  ecliptic, 
that  of  one  inclining  only  forty-one  minutes,  and  another  as  great  as  thirty-four  de- 
grees. Some  scientists  account  for  the  great  number  of  these  small  planets  on  the 
hypothesis  of  the  explosion  into  fragments  of  a large  planet  in  remote  ages,  causing  the 
different  portions  to  move  in  variously  inclined  orbits.  Names  and  signs  have  been 
given  to  these  planets  whenever  discovered,  but  the  discoveries  came  so  fast  that  since 
then  they  have  been  designated  by  numbers  within  a circle. 

METEORS,  SHOOTING-STARS,  AND  AEROLITES. 

These  all  seem  to  have  a common  origin  and  to  be  moving  in  space  around  the 
sun.  Whenever  the  earth  in  its  orbit  intersects  their  path  they  are  attracted  out  of 
their  course,  and  either  fall  to  the  earth  as  aerolites,  or  burn  out  in  the  air  as  shooting- 
stars,  or  sweep  across  the  circuit  of  the  atmosphere  and  continue  their  journey  in  space. 
There  are  numbers  of  them  any  night  in  the  year,  but  they  seem  to  have  a periodicity 
which  Arago  has  designated  thus:  April  4th  to  nth;  August  9th  to  nth;  October 
about  15th,  and  November  nth  to  13th,  when  they  are  most  abundant. 

METEORIC  RINGS. 

It  is  supposed  that  these  bodies  revolve  about  the  sun  in  rings  of  immense  num- 
bers collected  together.  Recent  investigations  indicate  that  there  are  distinct  rings 
for  each  of  the  periods,  and  that  they  are  very  elliptical.  The  November  ring  seems 
to  have  its  perihelion  in  the  ecliptic  and  its  aphelion  beyond  the  orbit  of  Uranus,  while 
the  August  ring  extends  much  farther.  Herschel  estimates  the  height  of  the  shooting- 
stars  at  seventy-three  miles  above  the  earth  when  they  enter  the  earth’s  atmosphere 
and  fifty-two  when  they  disappear,  and  Professor  Harkness  estimates  their  weight  at 
one  grain. 

COMETS. 

These  are  perhaps  the  most  fascinating  of  all  the  heavenly  bodies  which  come 
within  our  range  of  vision.  The  suddenness  with  which  they  appear,  the  swiftness  of 


THE  SOLAR  SYSTEM. 


493 


their  flight,  the  varying  forms  they  assume,  the  length  of  their  fiery  tails,  their  remark- 
able character,  and  the  rapidity  with  which  they  disappear  partake  somewhat  of  the 
marvelous.  The  word  comet  signifies  a hairy  body.  They  usually  have  three  parts  : 
the  nucleus,  a bright  spot  in  the  center  of  the  head  ; the  coma  (hair),  a cloud-like  mass 
surrounding  the  bright  spot,  and  the  tail,  a long,  streaming  banner  of  luminous  appear- 
ance. 

Some  comets  have  been  seen  without  a nucleus  and  others  without  a tail.  These 
bodies  appear  in  every  part  of  the  heavens  and  are  not  confined  to  the  zodiac.  Their 
orbit  is  of  every  conceivable  shape  in  which  a curved  line  can  be  constructed.  Kepler 
says  that  there  are  as  many  “ comets  in  the  heaven  as  fish  in  the  sea.”  Some  comets 
return,  since  they  have  elliptical  orbits  ; others  never  can  return,  for  their  orbits  are 
parabolic  or  hyperbolic,  and  the  farther  they  get  from  the  sun  the  wider  the  lines  of 
the  orbit  becomes.  The  comets  have  an  endless  variety  of  form  and  dimension.  Some 
comets  loose  their  tails,  others  are  like  the  comet  of  1843,  which  “exhausted  itself  in 
the  manufacture  of  its  own  tail.”  This  comet  was  visible  in  full  daylight  and  was 
very  near  the  earth.  In  1861  the  earth  passed  through  the  tail  of  a comet.  The  comet 
of  1835  has  a period  of  seventy-five  years.  This  was  the  same  comet  that  appeared  in 
1531,  1607,  1682,  1758.  In  1456  at  its  appearance  the  pope  ordered  this  prayer  to  be 
said  by  everybody:  “ Lord  save  us  from  the  devil,  the  Turk,  and  the  comet.”  The  peo- 
ple of  1223  regarded  it  as  the  forerunner  of  the  death  of  Philip  Augustus,  of  France,  and 
in  1066  the  British  signaled  it  as  the  foreteller  of  victory  for  William  the  Conqueror. 
This  comet  is  known  as  Halley’s  comet,  because  he  predicted  its  return  in  1758  or  1759 
and  computed  its  period.  One  other  comet  will  be  mentioned. 

THE  WONDERFUL  COMET  OF  1 882. 

The  18th  of  September  will  be  memorable  in  the  annals  of  the  year  1882,  for  on 
that  day  a comet  suddenly  blazed  forth  like  a gigantic  meteor  from  the  skies.  It  was 
close  to  the  sun,  three  degrees  west  of  it,  and  a little  to  the  south,  when  first  discov- 
ered, and  large  enough  and  bright  enough  to  be  distinctly  visible  in  near  proximity  to 
the  glorious  luminary.  Lord  Crawford  telegraphed  the  discovery  by  European  ob- 
servers to  Harvard  College  Observatory,  and  at  almost  precisely  the  same  time  the  news 
came  that  Mr.  Miller,  of  Leon,  Kan.,  had  seen  the  celestial  visitor.  A comet  visible  in 
the  full  blaze  of  sunlight  had  not  been  seen  since  1843,  and  'm  the  whole  course  of  astro- 
nomical observation  only  five  or  six  members  of  the  cometic  fraternity  had  deigned  to 
make  a call  in  the  daytime.  Astronomers  eagerly  attacked  the  sky  with  telescope, 
spectroscope,  and  practiced  eye.  The  grand  aim  was  to  obtain  the  three  positions  from 
which  the  elements  could  be  calculated  and  the  orbit  deduced.  For  only  in  this  way 
could  they  find  out  if  the  newcomer  was  making  its  first  visit  to  solar  domains,  or  if  it 
were  an  old  friend,  repeating  its  visit  after  the  lapse  of  many  years.  If  the  comet 
moved  in  a parabola,  an  orbit  that  never  closes,  this  was  its  first  appearance,  and  when 
it  disappeared  it  would  depart  to  return  no  more.  If  it  moved  in  an  ellipse,  unless 
turned  from  its  course  by  the  attraction  of  one  of  the  giant  planets,  it  would  be  sure  to 
renew  its  visit  when  its  revolution  was  completed. 

In  a few  days  the  leading  cometic  observers  had  computed  the  comet’s  elements 
and  marked  the  orbit  in  which  it  was  traveling.  There  was  a general  agreement  on 


494 


THE  SCIENCE  OF  ASTRONOMY. 


some  important  points.  These  were,  that  the  comet  had  passed  perihelion  when  first 
seen,  unless  it  was  identical  with  Crule’s  comet,  discovered  at  Rio  Janeiro  on  the  ioth 
of  September;  that  it  had  passed  very  near  the  sun,  absolutely  grazing  the  solar  atmos- 
phere; that  it  was  one  of  the  largest  comets  on  record;  that  it  was  receding  from 
the  sun  and  the  earth,  and  that  there  was  a surprising  similarity  between  the  orbit  of 
the  present  comet  and  the  orbits  of  the  comets  of  1843  and  1880.  A startling  theory 
is  founded  on  the  correspondence  of  orbits.  A prominent  cometic  observer  an- 
nounced his  belief  that  in  the  newcomer  we  beheld  a return  of  the  comets  of  1843 
and  1880. 

It  was  announced  that,  about  the  30th  of  September,  our  erratic  visitor  would 
cease  to  be  an  object  of  interest  in  northern  skies,  though  its  course  might  be  followed 
in  southern  climes.  But  the  comet  bade  defiance  to  the  calculations  of  mathematicians. 
Nearly  at  that  time  the  storm  ended,  and,  on  the  morning  of  the  30th,  the  eastern  sky 
was  aglow  with  the  most  superb  and  glorious  specimen  of  cometic  splendor  that  had 
occurred  during  the  comet’s  reign.  On  the  5th  of  October  our  gossamer-tailed  visitor 
got  up  a new  excitement.  The  nucleus,  as  seen  in  the  telescope,  seemed  to  break  into 
three  pieces,  though  still  maintaining  its  unity  to  the  unaided  eye.  Again  there  was 
a war  of  opinion,  but  the  prevailing  theory  ascribed  the  appearance  to  the  condensa- 
tion of  the  nebulous  matter  in  the  head  into  concentric  layers,  and  the  threatened 
catastrophe  of  a great  comet  splitting  into  three  parts  ceased  to  be  a cause  of  alarm. 
Those  who  remembered  when  Biela’s  comet  divided  into  twin  comets  that  reappeared 
at  its  next  return,  traveled  harmlessly  side  by  side,  and  then  disappeared  forever, 
did  not  borrow  trouble  on  this  occasion,  and  desired  nothing  better  than  the  split- 
ting apart  of  the  strange  visitor.  On  the  8th  of  October,  Schmidt,  of  Athens,  dis- 
covered a small  comet  following  in  the  exact  track  of  the  more  brilliant  member  of  the 
same  family.  Some  fanciful  theorist  quickly  advanced  the  opinion  that  it  was  a 
piece  of  the  great  comet  broken  off  by  the  brush  with  the  sun’s  corona  and  starting  on 
an  independent  existence.  But  neither  the  little  comet  nor  the  theory  has  attracted 
much  attention. 


THE  PRECESSION  OF  THE  EQUINOXES. 

We  have  treated  the  equinoxes  as  if  they  were  constant;  but  the  fact  is,  that  there 
is  a backward  motion  of  about  fifty  seconds  each  year.  As  the  circle  is  divided  into 
three  hundred  and  sixty  degrees  our  young  readers  can  easily  find  out  how  many  years 
it  will  take  for  a complete  revolution  of  the  equinoxes.  Reduce  three  hundred  and 
sixty  degrees  to  seconds  and  divide  by  fifty  and  you  will  find  that  it  takes  twenty-five 
thousand  eight  hundred  and  sixteen  years.  The  vernal  equinox  has  fallen  back 
thirty  degrees  on  the  zodiac,  and  should  now  be  in  Pisces.  There  are  many  other 
points  connected  with  the  science  of  astronomy  as  applied  to  our  earth,  such  as  the 
refraction  and  aberration  of  light , the  parallax , and  others,  for  the  full  discussion  of 
which  the  reader  must  consult  larger  works. 

THE  ZODIACAL  LIGHT. 

We  may  have  noticed  in  the  western  horizon  during  the  short  twilight  of  March 
or  April  a faint  luminous  light  of  conical  shape  often  as  high  as  the  constellation  Pleiades. 


THE  SOLAR  SYSTEM. 


495 


In  September  and  October  the  same  appearance  may  be  observed  near  the  eastern  horizon. 
But  this  can  be  seen  in  the  temperate  zones  only  on  the  most  favorable  nights,  and  is 
often  liable  to  be  confounded  with  the  milky  way  or  the  auroral  lights.  The  base  has  a 
reddish  hue  and  is  often  quite  bright.  In  the  tropics  it  is  seen  every  night  and  morning, 
and  shines  with  a brilliancy  sufficient,  says  Humboldt,  to  cast  a sensible  glow  on  the 
opposite  part  of  the  heavens.  One  theory  is  that  it  is  caused  by  a meteoric  zone  that 
can  be  seen  only  when  the  sun  is  lost  to  view.  Another  is  that  it  is  a “ nebulous  ring 
that  encircles  the  earth  within  the  moon’s  orbit.”  It  is  an  interesting  object  and 
worthy  the  attention  of  the  scientist. 


FIG.  20. — OBSERVATORY  IN  BENGAL. 


ASTRONOMICAL  CALCULATIONS. 

We  are  quite  well  satisfied  when  the  surveyor  calculates  the  distances  between 
towns  and  cities,  the  dimensions  of  a park,  or  the  height  of  a hill,  and  we  readily  ac- 
cept his  results  as  correct  ; but  when  we  read  the  immense  figures  which  represent  ce- 
lestial distances,  the  dimensions  and  periods  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  we  have  a vague 
idea  of  uncertainty  in  regard  to  the  whole  subject  of  astronomical  calculations.  Many 
people  think  that  these  measurements  involve  principles  which  are  so  mysterious  that 
no  ordinary  mind  can  comprehend  them.  We  will  try  to  illustrate  a few  of  the  prob- 
lems and  show  that  measurements  in  the  heavens  are  as  mathematically  exact  as  the 
lesser  measurements  on  the  earth’s  surface.  Their  accuracy  depends  solely  upon  the 
establishment  of  a correct  “ base-line,”  and  the  properties  and  relation  of  the  sides  and 
angles  of  a triangle. 

ANGLES  AND  THEIR  MEASUREMENT. 

As  even  our  youngest  readers  may  be  aware,  every  circle  is  divided  into  three  hun- 
dred and  sixty  degrees.  These  degrees  are  employed  in  the  measurement  of  all  angles, 
as  can  readily  be  seen  in  the  accompanying  illustrations.  The  circle  contains  four  right 
angles,  as  we  show  in  Fig.  21.  The  two  rulers  are  placed  over  the  point  which  indicates 
the  center  of  a circle  of  any  size  whatever  and  dividing  the  entire  circle  into  four  ec^Tnl 


496 


THE  SCIENCE  OF  ASTRONOMY. 


parts.  Each  one  of  these  is  a right  angle  and  contains  ninety  degrees.  All  angles  less 
than  a right  angle  are  called  acute  angles ; those  greater  than  a right  angle  are  termed 
obtuse  angles.  Of  the  properties  of  angles  and  triangles  the  reader  will  be  referred  to 
the  works  on  trigonometry.  The  measurement  of  angles  is  a very  delicate  matter 
and  requires  a most  careful  adjustment  of  instruments  ; this  is  done  by  means  of  a grad- 


uated scale  moving  on  a vernier,  so  accurately  graduated  as  to  enable  the  astronomer  to 
measure  minutes,  seconds,  and  tenths  of  a second.  Fig.  22  gives  an  illustration  of  the 
comparative  size  of  angles,  and  somewhat  of  an  idea  of  the  difficulties  with  which  the 
astronomer  has  to  contend  in  ascertaining  the  exact  size  of  angles.  The  arcs  of  a cir- 
cle described  on  this  figure  show  that  the  circumference  of  a circle  makes  no  difference 
in  the  angles,  but  the  angle  decides  the  distance  to  be  measured  on  the  arc  of  the  cir- 
cle. The  angles  are  enumerated  from  o,  the  starting-point,  moving  opposite  to  the 
hands  of  a watch  around  to  o again.  The  principle  of  the  vernier  is  described  in  the 
works  on  mathematics.  Now,  as  the  entire  accuracy  depends  upon  the  precise  meas- 
urement of  angles  and  a fixed  base-line,  when  these  two  points  are  gained  all  the 
rest  must  be  mathematically  correct. 

THE  INSTRUMENTS  USED  BY  THE  ASTRONOMER. 

The  first  we  mention  is  the  telescope.  There  are  two  classes  of  this  instrument,  the 
refracting  and  the  reflecting  telescope.  The  principles  of  the  telescope  depend  upon 
the  refracting  powers  of  different  lenses.  The  various  shapes  of  these  lenses — plain, 

double-convex,  plano-convex,  double-con- 
cave, plano-concave,  concavo-convex — are 
shown  in  Fig.  23.  The  properties  of  these 
lenses  will  be  described  in  another  place. 
A correct  application  of  the  use  of  lenses 
CAn  be  obtained,  and  the  idea  of  the  refracting  telescope  illustrated  in  this  way : let  a 


FIG.  23. — LENSES. 


THE  SOLAR  SYSTEM. 


407 


lens  of  any  focal  length  exceeding  six  inches  be  placed  at  one  end  of  a tin  or  card-board 
tube,  which  must  be  six  inches  longer  than  the  focal  length  of  the  lens  ; the  tube 
may  be  in  two  parts,  sliding  one  within  the  other,  and  when  the  eye  is  placed  at  the 
other  end,  an  inverted  image  of  the  object  looked  at  is  apparent.  By  using  two 
double-convex  lenses  a more  perfect  simple  astronomical  telescope  is  obtained.  The 
object-glass — i.e.,  the  lens  next  the  object  looked  at — must  be  placed  at  the  end  of  a tin 
or  pasteboard  tube  larger  than  its  focus,  and  the  second  lens — called  the  eye-glass, 
because  next  the  eye — is  a smaller  tube,  termed  the  eye-tube;  and  if  the  focal  length  of 
the  object-glass  is  three  feet  the  eye-glass  must  have  a one-inch  focus,  and  of  course 
the  eye-tube  and  glass  must  slide  freely  in  the  tube  containing  the  object-glass.  An 
object-glass  of  forty  feet  focus  will  admit  of  an  eye-glass  of  only  a four-inch  focus,  and 
will,  therefore,  magnify  one  hundred  and  twenty  times.  A tube  of  forty  feet  in 
length  would  of  course  be  very  troublesome  to  manage,  and  therefore  it  is  usual  to 
adopt  the  plan  originally  devised  by  Huygens,  viz.,  that  of  placing  the  object-glass  in  a 
short  tube  on  the  top  of  a high  pole  with  a ball-and-socket  joint,  while  the  eye-glass  is 
brought  into  the  same  line  as  the  object-glass  and  focused  with  a tube  and  rack-work 
properly  supported.  In  an  ordinary  terrestrial  telescope  there  are  four  lenses,  in  order 
that  the  object  seen  by  its  assistance  shall  not  be  inverted  ; and  whenever  objects  are 
examined  by  a common  telescope  they  are  found  to  be  fringed,  or  surrounded  with 
prismatic  colors.  This  disagreeable  effect  is  corrected  by  the  use  of  achromatic  lenses, 
in  which  two  kinds  of  glass  are  united  ; and  the  light  decomposed  by  one  glass,  uniting 
with  the  colors  produced  by  the  other,  form  white  light ; thus,  a double-convex  lens  of 
crown  glass  may  be  united  with  a plano-convex  lens  of  flint  glass,  and  the  latter  must 
have  a focus  about  double  the  length  of  that  of  the  crown-glass  lens.  The  concave 
lens  corrects  the  color  or  chromatic  aberration  of  the  other,  and  leaves  about  one-half 
of  the  refracting  power  of  the  convex  lens  as  the  effective  magnifying  power  of  the 
compound  lens.  The  French  opticians  cement  the  lenses  very  neatly  together,  and  use 
them  in  ordinary  spy  and  opera-glasses.  The  reflecting  telescope  shows  an  image  of 
the  object  reflected  to  the  eye  of  the  observer.  The  great  telescope  of  Lord  Rossi, 
at  Parsonstown  in  Ireland,  is  a magnificent  example  of  such  an  instrument,  but  its  expla- 
nation belongs  to  the  subject  of  the  reflection  of  light  rather  than  here. 

The  transit  instrument  is  a telescope  so  constructed  as  to  point  always  to  a meri- 
dian. It  revolves  on  a horizontal  axis  directed  due  east  and  west,  and  is  used  to  indi- 
cate the  exact  time  a star  crosses  the  meridian.  The  axis  must  be  horizontal ; that  is,  it 
must  point  due  east  and  west.  The  optical  axis  of  the  instrument  must  be  at  right  angles 
to  it.  This  telescope  is  placed  between  two  graduated  circles,  such  as  Fig.  23,  so  the  alti- 
tude as  well  as  meridian  time  of  the  star  can  be  determined. 

A mural  circle  is  an  instrument  for  fixing  the  zenith  distance  of  stars,  and  from 
this  their  north  polar  distance  and  its  complement.  It  is  a circle  having  a telescope 
attached,  and  all  secured  to  a solid  wall  of  masonry.  It  revolves  in  the  plane  of  a meri- 
dian. A siderial  clock  is  used  for  accurately  measuring  the  time  of  any  heavenly  body 
during  the  period  of  observation,  and  the  chronograph  for  recording  the  time.  These 
instruments  are  used  in  the  best  observatories  in  connection  with  an  equatorial  telescope  for 
ascertaining  the  right  ascension , declination,  and  polar  distance  of  the  stars.  A full  explana- 
tion of  these  instruments  cannot  be  given  in  our  limited  space.  Suffice  it  to  say  that  they 


498 


THE  SCIENCE  OF  ASTRONOMY. 


are  constructed  with  precision  and  scientific  perfection  that  reduces  the  possibility  ok 
error  to  the  least  fraction.  A vast  amount  of  expense  attends  the  construction  and 
equipment  of  an  observatory,  which  requires  the  aid  of  government  or  the  patronage  of 
men  of  great  wealth.  The  illustration  at  the  head  of  this  article  represents  the  observ- 
atory at  Benares,  a division  of  Bengal-Hindostan,  supported  by  the  English  govern- 
ment. Most  of  the  civilized  countries  have  national  observatories,  under  the  charge 
of  competent  astronomers. 

SOME  OF  THE  PROBLEMS  TO  BE  DETERMINED. 

First. — To  FIND  THE  DISTANCE  OF  THE  PLANETS  FROM  THE  SUN. 

In  Fig.  24  let  S be  the  position  of  the  sun,  V the  position  of  Venus,  and  E the 
position  of  the  earth  when  the  earth  and  the  planet  Venus  are  nearest  together.  The 
angle  S V E is  a right  angle,  and  remains  a right  angle  whatever  may  be  the  relative 
position  of  the  earth  and  Venus.  The  angle  S E V changes  with  the  change  of  posi- 
tion of  those  planets.  When  Venus  is  in  aphelion  and  the  earth  is  in  perihelion  this 
angle  will  be  the  greatest.  We  know  that  in  every  right-angle-triangle  the  hypoth- 
enuse  and  the  opposite  side  change  their  proportion  as  the  angle  S E V changes. 
The  proportion  between  the  hypothenuse  S E and  the  side  S V is  called  the  line  of 
the  angle  S E V.  Now,  by  getting  this  angle  when  Venus  is  nearest  the  earth  and 
when  it  is  farthest  away  we  can  find  the  mean  distance  of  the  line  E V.  The  lines  of 
all  the  angles  are  published  in  tables  of  mathematics.  By  this  the  mean  distance  of 
Venus  is  found  to  be  seventy-two  one-hundredths  of  that  of  the  earth.  So  we  see 
that  the  problem  resolves  itself  into  a very  simple  question  of  mathematics. 


Second. — The  distance  from  the  earth  to  the  moon. 

This  is  taken  by  means  of  the  luna  parallax.  The  parallax  is  the  apparent  posi. 
tion  of  the  same  object  seen  from  different  points. 

In  Fig.  25  let  P P'  represent  the  axis  of  the  earth,  G the  situation  of  the  observa- 
tory at  Greenwich,  England,  and  C the  observatory  at  Cape  Town,  South  Africa.  An 
observer  from  Greenwich  will  see  the  moon  projected  on  the  firmament  at  G'and  the 
one  at  Cape  Town  will  see  the  same  moon  at  C'.  Now  the  distance  from  the  north  pole 


THE  SOLAR  SYSTEM. 


409 

of  the  celestial  sphere  to  Gr  will  be  one  hundred  and  eight  degrees.  The  distance 
from  the  south  pole  to  the  point  C;  will  be  seventy-three  and  one-half  degrees* 
The  sum  of  the  two  is  one  hundred  eighty-one  and  a half  degrees,  but  we  know 
that  there  are  only  one  hundred  and  eighty  between  the  north  and  south  poles. 
Therefore  the  points  G'  and  C'  must  be  one  and  a half  degrees  apart.  This 
is  the  moon’s  parallax.  The  arc  of  the  angle  C'  M Gr  measures  the  oppo- 
site angle  G M C.  This  much  is  found  by  the  observers  at  the  two  points  at  the 
same  time.  Now  the  lines  G E and  C E are  radii  of  the  earth,  which  we  know  to  be 
three  thousand  nine  hundred  and  fifty-six  miles.  The  moon’s  zenith  distance  from  the 
two  points  G and  C is  known,  and  so  the  angles  M G E and  MCE  can  be  easily 
found.  E M,  the  moon’s  distance,  is  then  readily  computed  by  a simple  formula  in 
trigonometry. 

Third.— The  distance  of  the  sun  from  the  earth. 

This  is  the  most  important  problem,  and  one  of  the  most  difficult  to  solve.  This 
difficulty  does  not  arise  from  the  intricate  mathematical  calculations,  but  from  “that 
plague  of  all  astronomical  calculations,”  the  refraction  of  light,  which  increases  when 
the  sun  is  shining.  This  makes  it  extremely  difficult  to  calculate  small  angles  with 
accuracy.  Astronomers  have  therefore  calculated  this  distance  not  only  by  the  solar 
parallax  at  Greenwich  and  Cape  Town,  as  in  the  case  of  the  moon,  but  by  observations 
of  the  planet  Mars  and  the  transit  of  Venus.  These  transits  occur  at  rare  intervals, 
that  are  indicated  by  the  numbers  8,  105  1-2  and  8,  121  1-2,  etc.  The  earth  must  be  in 
one  of  its  nodes  at  the  same  time  with  Venus.  The  nodes  of  Venus  fall  in  that  part  of 
her  orbit  which  we  pass  in  June  or  December,  and  consequently  transits  can  happen 
only  in  these  months. 

Observations  of  the  transit  of  June  3d,  1769,  attracted  a great  amount  of  interest, 
and  observations  were  taken  at  Tahiti,  St.  Petersburg,  Pekin,  Lapland,  California,  and 
other  points,  in  order  that  the  cords  might  be  as  long  as  possible.  By  the  calculations 
based  upon  these  observations,  the  solar  parallax  was  given  as  eight  and  fifty-eight  one- 
hundredth  seconds  and  his  distance  from  the  earth  as  ninety-five  million  two  hundred 
and  ninety-three  thousand  miles.  The  next  transit  of  Venus  occurred  on  December  8, 
1874,  and  attracted  much  attention  from  the  improved  and  more  accurate  instruments 
of  the  times  over  those  of  a hundred  years  before.  Yet  although  the  solar  parallax  was 
found  to  be  different  from  that  given  by  the  previous  calculations  the  astronomers  have 
not  agreed  in  their  statements.  But  American  authorities  state  the  solar  parallax  as 
8.94 ",  which  reduces  the  distance  of  the  sun  from  the  earth  to  ninety-one  million  four 
hundred  and  thirty  thousand  miles.  The  great  difficulty  in  this  matter  is  seen  when  we 
remember  that  the  difference  between  8.58"  and  8.94"  may  be  represented  by  the 
breadth  of  a human  hair  at  a distance  of  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  feet.  The  astro- 
nomical world  awaited  with  deep  interest  the  observation  of  the  transit  of  Venus 
which  occurred  December  9,  1882. 

Fourth. — To  FIND  THE  LONGITUDE  OF  A PLACE. 

I.  By  a solar  observation. — The  sailor  observes  the  sun  when  it  has  reached  its 
highest  point  in  the  heavens.  This  is  the  apparent  noon.  From  this  he  subtracts  or 
adds  the  equation  of  time  as  given  in  his  Almanac,  and  he  obtains  the  true  or  mean 


500 


THE  SCIENCE  OF  ASTRONOMY. 


time.  Comparing  this  time  with  Greenwich  time  kept  by  a chonometer  he  reduces 
the  difference  in  time  to  degrees,  minutes,  and  seconds  of  longitude. 

2.  By  lunar  observation. — The  sailor  with  his  sextant  obtains  the  angular  distance 
of  the  moon  from  a fixed  star,  and  by  referring  to  the  Nautical  Almanac,  which  is  pub- 
lished by  government  three  years  in  advance,  and  gives  the  distance  of  the  moon 
from  any  fixed  star  for  all  the  hours  of  the  day,  he  can  compare  the  local  time  with 
Greenwich  time  and  reduce  to  degrees,  minutes,  and  seconds. 

Fifth. — To  FIND  THE  LATITUDE  OF  A PLACE. 

1.  Find  the  elevation  of  the  pole  above  the  horizon  by  means  of  the  sextant  and 
this  will  be  the  latitude. 

2.  Take  the  height  of  the  sun  above  the  horizon  at  noon,  then  subtract  from  this 
the  sun’s  declination  for  that  day,  as  founed  in  the  Nautical  Almanac.  Then  subtract 
this  remainder  from  ninety  degrees  and  you  have  the  latitude  of  the  place. 

Sixth. — The  circumference  of  the  earth. 

The  degrees  of  latitude  increase  in  statute  miles  as  we  go  north  or  south  of  the 
equator,  because  the  earth  is  not  a perfect  sphere.  Now  it  is  necessary  to  measure  a 
degree  of  latitude  very  accurately  at  different  intervals  on  a meridian  of  longitude  of 
the  earth’s  surface  and  note  the  variations,  and  from  these  compute  the  average  length 
of  a degree  of  latitude.  This  accurate  measurement  has  been  made  at  great  expense 
in  Peru,  nearly  on  the  equator,  in  Lapland,  in  England,  France,  Russia,  and  other  coun- 
tries. So  great  accuracy  has  been  reached  that  two  astronomers  who  have  calculated 
the  problem  independently  of  each  other  have  differed  in  their  estimate  of  the  earth’s 
circumference  by  only  seventy-seven  yards. 

Seventh. — To  FIND  THE  RELATIVE  SIZE  OF  THE  PLANETS. 

The  principle  of  this  problem  is  this  : two  spheres  are  to  each  other  as  the  cubes  of 
their  like  dimensions ; that  is,  their  diameter,  their  radii,  their  circumference,  or  their  semi* 
circumference.  For  example,  the  diameter  of  the  earth  is  seven  thousand  nine  hum 
dred  and  twenty-five  miles,  that  of  Mercury  is  two  thousand  nine  hundred  and  sixty- 
two  miles  ; then  we  would  state  the  proportion  thus : The  volume  of  Mercury  : the 
volume  of  the  earth  : : 29623  : 79253.  The  same  principle  applies  to  any  two  members 
of  the  solar  system  of  which  the  diameters  are  known. 

Eighth. — TO  FIND  THE  SUN’S  DIAMETER. 

1.  A very  primitive  method  is  to  take  a circular  piece  of  card-board  and  hold  it  at 
a sufficient  distance  from  the  eye  to  just  cover  the  sun’s  disk;  then  with  the  diameter 
of  the  paper  and  its  distance  from  the  eye  known  we  have  this  proportion,  viz. : As  the 
distance  of  the  paper  : the  distance  of  the  sun  : : the  diameter  of  the  paper  to  the 
sun’s  diameter. 

2.  The  apparent  diameter  of  the  sun  as  seen  from  the  earth  is  about  thirty-two 
minutes,  and  the  apparent  diameter  of  the  earth  as  seen  from  the  sun  is  twice  the  solar 
parallax,  or  seventeen  and  eighty-eight  hundredth  seconds.  From  this  we  construct 
the  following  proportion,  viz. : The  apparent  diameter  of  the  earth : the  apparent 
diameter  of  the  sun  : : the  real  diameter  of  the  earth  : the  real  diameter  of  the  sun. 


THE  FIXED  STARS. 


501 


3.  With  the  apparent  diameter  of  the  sun  and  its  distance  from  the  earth  given 
we  can  find  the  real  diameter  by  this  simple  problem  in  trigonometry,  viz. : 

The  distance  of  the  earth  : the  sun’s  radius  : : the  sun’s  radius  : the  sine  of  sixteen 
minutes.  That  is,  multiply  the  distance  of  the  earth  from  the  sun  by  the  sine  of  six- 
teen minutes  (or  one-half  the  apparent  diameter  of  the  sun)  and  extract  the  square 
root  and  you  have  the  sun’s  radius,  or  semi-diameter.  By  a similar  method  one  can 
calculate  the  diameter  of  any  of  the  planets. 

III. 


THE  FIXED  STARS. 

In  all  we  have  thus  far  written  upon  astronomy  we  have  been  only  like  the  chil- 
dren who  explore  the  garden  that  surrounds  their  humble  home  while  the  vast  world 
lies  beyond  the  garden-gate,  through  which  they  have  not  yet  passed.  We  had  reached 
the  planet  Neptune,  who  sweeps  around  the  sun  at  a distance  of  two  thousand  seven 
hundred  and  fifty  millions  of  miles.  We  can  see  the  nearest  fixed  star,  but  we  are  ap- 


***■ 
****** 
***4f 


* * * ***** 


FIG.  26. — STAR  CLUSTER. 


*■.  ***  * 


* £ * * ****  ** *  ** 


FIG.  27. — STAR  CLUSTER. 


parently  no  nearer  than  when  we  left  the  sun.  It  twinkles  in  the  same  spot,  and  be- 
tween us  and  it  there  is  still  a vast  chasm,  which  no  imagination  can  measure.  The 
figures  which  we  roll  up  to  designate  this  distance  are  perfectly  meaningless  to  our 
conception,  and  the  finite  mind  fails  to  grasp  them.  Take  that  of  the  star  Alpha  Cen- 
tauri,  supposed  to  be  the  nearest  of  these  innumerable  worlds,  and  its  distance  is  two 
hundred  thousand  times  that  of  the  earth's  distance  from  its  sun,  or,  in  round  figures, 

19,000,000,000,000  miles.  This  is  the  limit  within  which  it  cannot  come,  and  yet  it 
may  be  farther  away  than  that.  Light,  which  travels  at  the  rate  of  one  hundred  and 
eighty-three  thousand  miles  per  second,  would  take  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  years 
to  reach  this  earth  from  the  smallest  star  which  is  visible  to  the  unaided  eye.  But 
stretching  far  beyond  this  are  worlds  and  systems  of  worlds  opened  up  by  the  telescope, 
and  besides  these  there  are  clusters  of  stars  like  those  represented  by  Figs.  31  and  32. 
These  stars  appear  eternally  fixed,  and  present  no  change  from  age  to  age ; yet  *hey 
have  a motion  in  comparison  to  which  the  swiftest  flight  of  any  member  of  our  sola* 
system  sinks  into  utter  insignificance.  Our  sun  is  only  one  of  these  stars  and  has  its 
motion  among  the  rest. 


502 


THE  SCIENCE  OF  ASTRONOMY. 


The  stars  are  catalogued  and  numbered  on  the  charts  of  astronomers.  There  are 
twenty  stars  of  the  first  magnitude,  sixty-five  of  the  second,  two  hundred  of  the  third  • 
of  the  fifth  there  are  eleven  hundred,  and  three  thousand  two  hundred  of  the  sixth 
magnitude.  Very  few  persons  can  distinguish  with  the  naked  eye  stars  below  the  fifth 
or  sixth  magnitude.  Stars  of  the  tenth  magnitude  can  be  distinguished  by  the  use  of 
ordinary  telescopes,  while  those  of  great  power  have  been  employed  to  distinguish 
.wars  of  the  twentieth  magnitude.  Many  of  the  brightest  stars  have  had  names  given 
them.  After  this  the  stars  of  each  constellation  are  designated  by  the  letters  of  the 
Greek  alphabet.  The  brightest  one  is  called  Alpha  ( a ),  the  next  Beta  (/?),  in  connec- 
tion with  the  genitive  case  of  the  name.  For  example  : a , Arietis  ; f3,  Lyrce.  That  is, 
the  brightest  star  in  the  constellation  Aries,  the  second  star  in  Lyra,  and  so  on. 
The  constellations  are  named  from  the  fancied  resemblance  to  animals,  per- 
sons, and  objects  in  the  stories  of  ancient  mythology.  The  old  system  has  be- 
come so  imbedded  in  the  notions  of  astronomy  that  it  is  difficult  to  change  the 
arrangement  now,  although  it  is  an  unscientific  and  crude  one.  There' are  the  twelve 
constellations  of  the  zodiac  with  the  same  names  as  the  signs  ; but  the  signs  and  constella- 
tions do  not  now  agree,  as  we  have  before  said,  for  the  latter  have  moved  back  by  the  pro- 
cession of  the  equinoxes.  The  northern  circumpolar  constellations  are  : Ursa  Majo* 
and  Ursa  Minor  (the  Great  and  Little  Bear),  Perseus,  Cassiopea,  Cepheus,  Draco,  and 
Lynx.  In  the  equatorial  constellations  are  found  Andromeda,  Pegasus,  Aurega, 
Orion,  Cetus,  the  River,  the  Whale,  the  Hare,  the  Dog,  the  Ship,  Berenice’s  Hair, 
Bootes,  Crata,  Crovus,  Hydra,  Hercules,  the  Crown,  the  Serpent-Bearer,  the  Dolphin, 
the  Eagle,  the  Southern  Fish,  the  Wolf,  the  Swan,  and  the  Harp.  The  constellations 
of  the  equatorial  region  are  the  most  numerous,  because  this  belt  is  by  far  the  largest 
and  extends  north  and  south  of  the  equator.  The  first  zone,  or  the  northern  circum 
polar  constellations,  embrace  those  stars  that  we  of  the  north  temperate  zone  see  the 
entire  year.  The  second  zone,  or  equatorial  constellations,  are  those  which  we  see  at 
some  part  of  the  year.  The  third  zone,  or  southern  circumpolar  constellations,  embrace 
those  stars  that  cannot  be  seen  in  this  latitude, — forty-one  degrees  north.  These  con- 
stellations are  Hydrus,  the  Southern  Cross,  the  Centaur,  the  ship  Argo,  the  Crow,  the 
Riticule,  the  Wolf,  the  Southern  Crown,  the  Crane,  and  the  Peacock. 

There  are  also  double  stars,  star  clusters,  and  nebulae,  with  many  other  objects  of 
interest  in  the  heavens.  The  constellations  are  indicated  upon  the  maps  of  the  stars 
and  designated  by  their  old  names,  as  given  above.  The  study  of  astronomy  is  one  of 
the  most  fascinating  and  stimulating  to  the  imagination  of  any  which  comes  within 
the  range  of  man-  We  have  been  able  to  hint  only  at  the  great  wonders  of  creation, 
but  we  trust  we  have  said  enough  to  encourage  all  our  readers  to  study  the  manifolcjl 
wonders  of  God.  At  best  we  are  able  to  know  but  “ a part  of  his  ways/* 


' ILLUSTRATED  EXPERIMENTS 

IN 

NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY. 

The  Principles  of  Natural  Science  Explained  and  Illustrated  with  In. 

TERESTING  AND  AMUSING  EXPERIMENTS,  WITH  FULL  DIRECTIONS  FOR  EN- 
TERTAINING the  Home  Circle  and  Larger  Audiences  with  Rational 
and  Instructive  Diversion. 

INTRODUCTION. 

The  following  illustrated  pages  must  be  regarded  as  a series  of  philosophical  ex- 
periments, detailed  in  such  a manner  that  any  young  person  may  perform  them  with 
the  greatest  facility.  The  author  has  endeavored  to  arrange  the  manipulations  in  a 
methodical,  simple,  and  popular  form,  and  will  indeed  be  rewarded  if  these  experiments 
should  arouse  dormant  talent  in  any 
of  the  rising  generation,  and  lead 
them  on  gradually  from  the  easy  read- 
ing of  the  present  philosophical  ex- 
periments to  the  study  of  the  com- 
plete and  perfect  philosophical  works 
of  scientific  authors. 

Every  boy  should  ride  “ a hobby 
horse  ” of  some  kind ; and  while 
play,  and  plenty  of  it,  must  be  his 
daily  right  in  holiday  time,  he  ought 
not  to  forget  that  the  cultivation  of 
some  branch  of  the  useful  arts  and 
sciences  will  afford  him  a delightful 
and  profitable  recreation  when  sa- 
tiated with  mere  play,  or  imprisoned 
by  bad  weather,  or  gloomy  with  the 
unamused  tediousness  of  a long  win- 
ter’s  evening.  The  author  recollects  with  pleasure  the  half-holidays  he  used  to  devote 
to  chemistry,  with  other  lads,  and  in  spite  of  terrible  pecuniary  losses  in  retorts,  bot- 
tles, and  jars,  the  most  delightful  amusement  was  enjoyed  by  ad  who  attended  and  as- 
sisted at  these  juvenile  philosophical  meetings.  It  has  been  well  remarked  by  a pop- 
ular author  that  bees  are  geometricians ; the  cells  are  so  constructed  as,  with  the 
least  quantity  of  material,  to  have  the  largest  sized  spaces  and  the  least  possible  inter- 
stices. The  mole  is  a meteorologist . The  bird  called  the  nine-killer  is  an  arithmetician , 
also  the  crow,  the  wild  turkey,  and  some  other  birds.  The  torpedo,  the  ray,  and  the 
electric  eel  are  electricians.  The  nautilus  as  a navigator ; he  raises  and  lowers  his 
sails,  casts  and  weighs  anchor,  and  performs  nautical  feats.  Whole  tribes  of  birds  are 
musicians.  The  beaver  is  an  architect , builder , and  wood-cutter  ,j  he  cuts  dcrvo  trees 


FIG.  A. 


504 


PHILOSOPHICAL  EXPERIMENTS. 


and  erects  houses  and  dams.  The  marmot  is  a civil  engineer ; he  does  not  only  build 
houses,  but  constructs  aqueducts,  and  drains  to  keep  them  dry.  The  ant  maintains  a 
regular  standing  army.  Wasps  are  paper  manufacturers.  Caterpillars  are  silk-spinners. 
The  squirrel  is  a ferryman  ; with  a chip  or  a piece  of  bark  for  a boat,  and  his  tail  for  a 
sail,  he  crosses  a stream.  Dogs,  wolves,  jackals,  and  many  others,  are  hunters.  The 
black  bear  and  heron  are  fishermen.  The  ants  are  day-lahorers.  The  monkey  is  a rope- 
dancer.  Shall  it,  then,  be  said  that  any  boy  possessing  the  godlike  attributes  of  mind 
and  thought  with  free-will  can  only  eat,  drink,  sleep,  and  play,  and  is  therefore  lower 
in  the  scale  of  usefulness  than  the  animals?  No  ! no  ! Let  “ Young  America  ” enjoy 
his  manly  sports  and  pastimes,  but  let  him  not  forget  the  mental  race  he  has  to  run 
with  the  educated  of  his  own  and  other  nations ; let  him  nourish  the  desire  for  “ scien- 
tific knowledge  ” not  only  as  a school  lesson,  but  as  a treasure,  a useful  ally  which  may 
some  day  help  him  in  a greater  or  lesser  degree  fight  “ the  battle  of  life.”  With  the 
hope  that  the  following  pages  may  aid  our  young  readers  in  the  development  of  a 
taste  for  rational  and  intellectual  experiment  we  submit  them  to  their  perusal,  trusting 
that  they  may  find  pleasure  and  profit  in  applying  the  principles  and  illustrations  given 
to  successful  experiment.  By  following  the  directions  explicitly  as  we  have  presented 
them  no  one  need  fail  to  perform  any  experiment  to  the  satisfaction  of  himself  and 
friends. 

I. 

NATURAL  PHILOSOPHYc 

THE  PROPERTIES  OF  MATTER. — IMPENETRABILITY. 

In  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge  it  seems  to  be  universally  agreed,  that  we 
cannot  properly  commence  even  popular  discussions  on  astronomy,  mechanics,  and 
chemistry,  or  on  the  imponderables,  heat,  light,  electricity,  and  magnetism,  without 
a definition  of  the  general  term  “ matter which  is  an  expression  applied  by  philoso- 
phers to  every  species  of  substance  capable  of  occupying  space,  and,  therefore,  to 
everything  which  can  be  seen  and  felt. 

The  sun,  the  moon,  the  earth,  and  other  planets,  rocks,  earths,  metals,  glass,  wool, 
oils,  water,  alcohol,  air,  steam,  and  hosts  of  things,  both  great  and  small,  all  solids, 
liquids  and  gases,  are  included  under  the  comprehensive  term  matter.  Such  a numer- 
ous and  varied  collection  of  bodies  must  necessarily  have  certain  qualities,  peculiarities, 
or  properties ; and  hence  we  come  in  the  first  place  to  consider  “ the  general  powers 
or  properties  of  matter.”  Thus,  if  we  place  a block  of  wood  or  stone  in  any  position, 
we  cannot  take  another  substance  and  put  it  in  the  space  filled  by  the  wood  or  stone 
until  the  latter  be  removed.  Now  this  is  one  of  the  first  and  most  simple  of  the  prop- 
erties of  matter,  and  is  called  impenetrability,  being  the  property  possessed  by  all  solid, 
liquid,  and  gaseous  bodies,  of  filling  a space  to  the  exclusion  of  others  until  they  be 
removed,  and  it  admits  of  many  amusing  illustrations,  both  as  regards  the  proof  and 
modification  of  the  property. 

Thus,  a block  of  wood  fills  a certain  space : how  is  it  (if  impenetrable)  that  we  can 
drive  a nail  into  it?  A few  experiments  will  enable  us  to  answer  this  question. 

Into  a glass  filled  with  spirits  of  wine,  a quantity  of  cotton  wool  many  times  the 


NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY. 


505 


bulk  of  the  alcohol  may  (if  the  experiment  is  carefully  performed)  be  pushed  without 
causing  a drop  to  overflow  the  sides  of  the  vessel. 

Here  we  seem  to  have  a direct  contradiction  of  the  simple  and  indisputable  truth, 
that  “two  things  cannot  occupy  the  same  space  at  once.”  But  let  us  proceed  with 
our  experiments : — 

We  have  now  a flask  full  of  water,  and  taking  some  very  finely-powdered  sugar  it 
is  easy  to  introduce  a notable  quantity  of  that  substance  without  increasing  the  bulk  of 
the  water ; the  only  precaution  necessary,  is  not  to  allow  the  sugar  to  fall  into  the  flask 
in  a mass,  but  to  drop  it  in  grain  by  grain,  and  very  slowly,  allowing  time  for  the  air- 
bubbles  (which  will  cling  to  the  particles  of  sugar)  to  pass  off,  and  for  the  sugar  to  dis- 
solve. Matter,  in  the  experiments  adduced,  appears  to  be  penetrable,  and  the  prop- 
erty of  impenetrability  seems  only  to  be  a creation  of  fancy  : reason,  however,  enables 
us  to  say  that  the  latter  is  not  the  case. 

A nail  may  certainly  be  hammered  into  wood,  but  the  particles  are  thrust  aside  to 
allow  it  to  enter.  Cotton  wool  may  be  placed  in  spirits  of  wine  because  it  is  simply 
greatly  extended  and  bulky  matter,  which,  if  compressed,  might  only  occupy  the  space 
of  the  kernel  of  a nut,  and  if  this  were  dropped  into  a half-pint  measure  full  of  alcohol 
the  increase  of  bulk  would  not  cause  the  spirit  to  overflow.  The  cotton-wool  experi- 
ment is  therefore  no  contradiction  of  impenetrability.  The  experiment  with  the  sugar 
is  the  most  troublesome  opponent  to  our  term,  and  obliges  us  to  amend  and  qualify 
the  original  definition,  and  say,  that  the  ultimate  or  smallest  particles  or  atoms  of 
bodies  only  are  impenetrable ; and  we  may  believe  they  are  not  in  close  contact  with 
each  other,  because  certain  bulks  of  sugar  and  water  occupy  more  space  separately 
than  when  mixed. 

If  we  compare  the  flask  of  water  to  the  flask  full  of  marbles,  and  the  sugar  to  some 
rape-seed,  it  will  be  evident  that  we  may  almost  pour  another  flask  of  the  latter  among 
the  marbles,  because  they  are  not 
in  close  contact  with  each  other, 
but  have  spaces  between  them  ; 
and  after  pouring  in  the  rape-seed 
we  might  still  find  room  for  some 
fine  sand. 

The  particles  of  one  body 
may  thus  enter  into  the  spaces  left 
between  those  of  another  without 
increasing  its  volume  ; and  hence, 
as  has  been  before  stated,  “ the 

atoms  only  of  bodies  are  truly  impenetrable,”  so  we  see  the  definition  is  correct. 

This  spreading,  as  it  were,  of  matter  through  matter  assumes  a very  important  func- 
tion when  we  come  to  examine  the  constitution  of  the  air  we  breathe,  which  is  chiefly 
a mechanical  mixture  of  gases:  seventy-nine  parts  by  volume  or  measure  of  nitrogen 
gas,  twenty-one  parts  of  oxygen  gas,  and  four  parts  of  carbonic  acid  vapor  in  every 
ten  thousand  parts  of  air  having  the  following  relations  as  to  weight : nitrogen,  speci- 
fic gravity,  972;  oxygen,  1105  ; carbonic  acid,  1524. 

It  might  be  expected  that  these  gases  would  arrange  themselves  in  our  atmosphere 


506 


PHILOSOPHICAL  EXPERIMENTS. 


in  the  above  order,  and  if  that  were  the  case  we  should  have  the  carbonic-acid  gas  (a 
most  poisonous  one)  at  the  bottom,  and  touching  the  earth,  then  the  oxygen,  and,  last 
of  all,  the  nitrogen  ; a state  of  things  in  which  organized  life  could  not  exist.  The  gases 
do  not,  however,  separate  ; indeed  they  seem  to  act,  as  it  were,  like  vacuums  to  one  an- 
other, and  the  “diffusion  of  gases”  has  become  a recognized  fact,  governed  by  fixed 
laws.  One  of  the  most  elegant  modes  of  showing  the  diffusion  of  gases  is  by  taking  a 
large  round  porous  ceil,  such  as  would  be  employed  in  a voltaic  battery,  and  having  ce- 
mented a brass  cap  with  a glass  tube  attached  to  its  lower  extremity  it  may  then  be 
supported  by  a small  tripod  of  iron  wire,  and  the  end  of  the  glass  tube  placed  in  a tumbler 
containing  a small  quantity  of  water  colored  blue  with  sulphate  of  indigo.  If  a toler- 
ably large  jar  containing  hydrogen  is  now  placed  over  the  porous  cell  bubbles  of  gas 
make  their  escape  at  the  end  of  the  tube,  because  the  hydrogen  diffuses  itself  more 
rapidly  into  the  porous  cell  than  the  air  which  it  already  contains  passes  out.  When 
the  jar  is  removed  the  reverse  occurs  ; hydrogen  diffuses  out  of  the  porous  cell,  and  the 
blue  liquid  rises  in  the  tube. 

This  diffusive  force  prevents  the  accumulation  of  the  various  noxious  gases  on 
the  earth,  and  spreads  them  rapidly  through  the  great  bulk  of  the  atmosphere  surround- 
ing the  globe. 

Although  air  and  other  gases  are  invisible  they  possess  the  property  of  impenetra- 
bility, as  may  be  easily  proved  by  various  experiments.  Having  opened  a pair  of  com- 
mon bellows,  stop  up  the  nozzle  securely,  and  it  is  then  impossible  to  shut  them ; or, 
fill  a bladder  with  air  by  blowing  into  it,  and  tie  a string  fast  round  the  neck  ; you  then 
find  that  you  cannot,  without  breaking  the  bladder,  press  the  sides  together. 

It  is  customary  to  say  that  a vessel  is  empty  when  we  have  poured  out  the  water 
which  it  contained.  Having  provided  two  glass  vessels  full  of  water,  place  each  of  them 
in  an  empty  white  pan  to  receive  the  overflow,  then  lay  an  orange  upon  the  surface  of 


Fig.  2 represents  the  water  over- 
flowing, as  the  glass,  with  the  ori- 
fice closed,  is  pressed  down,  prow 
ing  the  impenetrability  of  air. 


Fig.  3.  The  orange  has  entered  the 
glass  vessel,  and  the  air  having 
passed  from  the  orifice  no  water 
overflows. 


the  water  of  one  of  them,  and  being  provided  with  a cylindrical  glass,  open  at  one  end, 
with  a hole  in  the  center  of  the  closed  end,  place  your  finger  firmly  over  the  orifice, 
and  endeavor,  by  inverting  the  glass  over  the  orange,  and  pressing  upon  the  surface 


NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY. 


507 


of  the  water,  to  make  it  enter  the  interior  of  the  glass  cylinder ; the  resistance 
of  the  air  will  now  cause  the  water  to  overflow  into  the  white  pan,  while  the  orange 
will  not  enter.  The  orange  may  now  be  transferred  to  the  other  vessel  of  water,  and 
on  removing  the  finger  from  the  orifice  of  the  cylindrical  glass,  and  inverting  it  as  before 
over  the  orange,  the  air  will  rush  out  and  the  orange  and  water  will  enter,  while  there 
will  be  no  overflow,  as  in  the  preceding  experiment.  The  comparison  of  the  two  is  very 
striking,  and  at  once  teaches  the  fact  desired. 

Having  sufficiently  indicated  the  nature  and  meaning  of  impenetrability  we  may 
proceed  to  discuss  experimentally  three  other  marked  and  special  qualities  of  matter — * 
viz.,  inertia,  gravity,  and  weight. 

INERTIA,  OR  PASSIVENESS. 

Inertia  is  a power  which  (according  to  Sir  Isaac  Newton)  is  implanted  in  all  mat- 
ter of  resisting  any  change  from  a state  of  rest.  It  is  sometimes  called  vis  inertice,  and 
is  that  property  possessed  by  all  matter  of  remaining  at  rest  till  set  in  motion,  and 
vice  versa ; and  it  expresses,  in  brief  terms,  resistance  to  motion  or  rest. 

A pendulum  clock  wound  up  and  ready  to  go  does  not  commence  its  movements 
until  the  inertia  of  the  pendulum  is  overcome,  and  motion  imparted  to  it.  On  the 
other  hand,  when  seated  in  a carriage,  should  any  obstruction  cause  the  horse  to  stop 
suddenly,  it  is  only  perhaps  by  a violent  effort,  if  at  all,  that  we  can  resist  the  onward 
movement  of  our  bodies.  To  illustrate  inertia,  construct  a metal  tray,  about  three 
feet  long,  two  feet  wide,  and  two  inches 
deep,  with  a glass  bottom,  and  arrange 
it  on  a frame-work  supported  by  legs 
like  a table,  and  having  filled  it  with 
water  let  the  room  be  darkened,  and 
then  place  under  the  tank  a lighted 
candle,  at  a sufficient  distance  from 
the  glass  to  prevent  the  heat  cracking 
it.  If  a piece  of  calico  or  paper, 
stretched  on  a frame-work,  be  now  held 
over  the  water  at  an  angle  of  about 
thirty  degrees,  all  that  occurs  on  the 
surface  of  the  water  will  be  rendered 
visible  on  such  screen.  Attention  may 
now  be  directed  to  the  quiescence,  or 
the  inertia,  of  the  water,  while  the  op- 
posite condition  of  movement  and  formation  of  the  waves  may  be  beautifully  shown  by 
touching  the  surface  of  the  water  with  the  finger;  the  miniature  waves  being  depicted  on 
the  screen,  and  continuing  their  motion  till  set  at  rest  by  striking  against  the  sides  of 
the  tin  tray. 

If  the  above  experiment  should  be  thought  too  troublesome  or  expensive  to  pre- 
pare, inertia  may  be  demonstrated  by  filling  a tea-cup  or  other  convenient  vessel  with 
water,  and  after  rapidly  moving  it  in  any  direction,  if  we  stop  suddenly  the  rigidity  of 

49 


508 


PHILOSOPHICAL  EXPERIMENTS. 


all  parts  of  the  cup  we  hold  brings  them  simultaneously  to  a state  of  rest  ; but  the  mo* 
bility  of  the  liquid  particles  allows  of  their  continuing  in  motion  in  their  original  direc- 
tion, and  the  liquid  is  spilled.  Thus,  carelessness  in  handing  and  spilling  a cup  of  tea 
(though  not  to  be  recommended)  serves  to  illustrate  an  important  principle.  The  inertia 
of  bodies  in  motion  is  further  and  lamentably  illustrated  by  the  accidents  caused  from  the 
sudden  stoppage  of  a railway  train  while  in  rapid  motion,  when  heads  and  knees  come  in 
contact  with  frightful  results.  It  is  more  especially  demonstrated  by  the  earth,  the 
moon,  and  the  other  planets  continuing  their  motion  forever  in  the  absence  of  any 
friction  or  resistance  to  oppose  their  onward  progress.  It  is  the  friction  arising  from 
the  roughness  of  the  ground,  the  resistance  of  the  air,  and  the  force  of  the  earth’s  at- 
traction, which  puts  a stop  to  bodies  set  in  motion  about  the  surface  of  the  earth. 

The  same  principle  of  inertia  is  shown  by  Fig.  5.  The  frame  contains  ten  ivory 
balls  suspended  from  a cross-bar.  The  balls  are  of  equal  size.  If  one  of  the  balls,  as 

B,  be  moved  to  D and  allowed  to  drop  back  to  its 
place,  the  balls  between  B and  A will  remain  sta- 
tionary, but  A will  fly  off  to  C.  If  two  balls  be 
moved  away  then  two  balls  at  the  other  end  will 


9 ly  off  to  C. 


fig.  5. 


GRAVITATION. 

Inertia  represents  a passive  force,  gravitation  an  active  condition  of  matter ; and 
this  latter  may  truly  be  termed  a force  of  attraction,  because  it  acts  between  masses 
at  sensible  and  insensible  distances : it  is  illustrated  by  a stone,  unsupported,  falling  to 
the  ground  ; by  the  stone  pressing  with  force  on  the  earth,  and  requiring  power  to  raise 
it  from  the  ground  : indeed,  it  is  commonly  reported  that  it  was  by  an  accident—"  an 
apple  falling  from  a tree  ’’—that  the  great  Newton  was  led  to  reflect  on  the  universal 
law  of  gravitation,  and  to  pronounce  upon  it  in  the  following  memorable  words  : — 

“ Every  particle  of  matter  in  the  universe  attracts  every  other  particle  of  matter  with 
a force  or  power  directly  proportional  to  the  quantity  of  matter  in  each , and  decreasing 
as  the  squares  of  the  distances  which  separate  the  particles  increase .” 

A falling  body  descends  about  sixteen  feet  in  one  second,  sixty-four  feet  in  two 
seconds,  one  hundred  and  forty-four  feet  in  three  seconds,  two  hundred  and  fifty-six 
feet  in  four  seconds,  four  hundred  feet  in  five  seconds,  five  hundred  and  seventy-six 
feet  in  six  seconds  ; the  spaces  passed  over  being  as  the  squares  of  the  times.  Sup- 
pose a stone  takes  three  seconds  in  falling  to  the  surface  of  the  water  in  a well,  then 
3 x 3 = 9 x 16=  144  feet  would  be  a rough  estimate  of  the  depth.  The  calculation  will 
exceed  the  truth  in  consequence  of  the  stone  being  retarded  in  its  passage  by  the  re- 
sistance of  the  air. 

All  bodies  gravitate  equally  to  the  earth : for  instance,  if  an  open  box,  say  one 
foot  in  length,  two  inches  broad,  and  two  inches  deep,  be  provided  with  a nicely-fitted 
bottom,  attached  by  a hinge,  a number  of  substances,  such  as  wood,  cork,  marble,  iron, 
lead,  copper,  may  be  arranged  in  a row ; and  directly  the  hand  is  withdrawn,  the  move- 
able flap  flies  open,  and  if  the  manipulation  with  the  disengagement  of  the  trap-door  is 
good,  the  whole  of  the  substances  are  seen  to  proceed  to  the  earth  in  a straight  lin<*“ 


NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY. 


509 


If  a heavy  substance,  like  gold,  be  greatly  extended  by  hammering  and  beating  into 
thin  leaves,  and  then  dropped  from  the  hand,  the  resistance  of  the  air  becomes  very 
apparent ; and  a gold  coin  and  a piece  of  gold-leaf  would  not  reach  the  earth  at  the 
same  time  if  allowed  to  fall  from  any  given  height.  The  force  of  gravitation  is  dem- 
onstrated by  the  action  of  the  sun  and  moon  raising  the  waters  of  the  ocean,  and  pro- 
ducing the  tides ; and  also  by  the  earth  and  moon,  and  other  planets  and  satellites 
being  prevented  from  flying  from  their  natural  paths  or  orbits  around  the  sun.  It  is 
also  very  clearly  proved  that  there  must  be  some  kind  of  attractive  force  resident  in 
the  earth,  or  else  all  movable  things,  the  water,  the  air,  the  living  and  dead  matters, 
would  fly  away  from  the  surface  of  the  earth  in  obedience  to  what  is  called  “ centrifu- 
gal force. ” Our  earth  is  twenty-four  hours  in  performing  one  rotation  on  its  axis, 
which  is  an  imaginary  line  drawn  from  pole  to  pole,  and  represented  by  the  wire  round 
which  we  cause  a sphere  to  rotate.  All  objects,  therefore,  on  the  earth  are  moving 
with  the  planet  at  an  enormous  velocity ; and  this  movement  is  called  the  earth’s  di- 
urnal, or  daily  rotation. 

CENTRIFUGAL  FORCE 

Is  that  power  which  drives  a revolving  body  from  a center,  and  it  may  be  illustrated 
by  turning  a closed  parasol,  or  umbrella,  rapidly  round  on  its  center,  the  stick  being 
the  axis ; the  ribs  fly  out,  but  if  there  is  much  friction  in  the  parts  the  illustration  is 
more  certain  by  attaching  a bullet  to  the  end  of  each  rib.  The  same  fact  may  be  illus- 
trated by  a square  mahogany  rod,  say  one  inch  square  and  three  feet  long,  with  two 
flaps  eighteen  inches  in  length,  hanging  by  hinges,  and  parallel  to  the  sides  of  the  cen- 
ter rod,  which  immediately  fly  out  on  the  rotation  of  the  long  center-piece.  The  toy 
called  the  centrifugal  railway  is  also  a very  pretty  illustration  of  the  same  fact.  A 
glass  of  water,  or  a coin,  may  be  placed  in  the  little  carriage,  and  although  it  must  be 
twice  hanging  perpendicular  in  a line  with  the  earth,  the  carriage  does  not  tumble 
away  from  its  appointed  track,  and  the  centrifugal  force  binds  it  firmly  to  the  interior 
of  the  circle  round  which  it  revolves. 

Another  striking  and  very  simple  illustration  is  to  suspend  a hemispherical  cup  by 
three  cords,  and  having  twisted  them  by  turning  round  the  cup  it  may  be  filled  with 
water,  and  directly  the  hand  is  withdrawn  the  torsion  of  the  cord  causes  the  cup  to 
rotate,  and  the  water  describes  a circle  on  the  floor,  flying  off  at  a tangent  from  the 
cup. 

A hoop  when  trundled  would  tumble  on  its  side  if  the  force  of  gravitation  was  not 
overcome  by  the  centrifugal  force,  which  imparts  to  it  a motion  in  the  direction  of  a 
tangent  (tango,  to  touch)  to  a circle.  The  same  principle  applies  to  the  spinning-top — 
this  toy  cannot  be  made  to  stand  upon  its  point  until  set  in  rapid  motion. 

Returning  again  to  the  subject  of  gravitation,  we  consider  it  in  relation  to  other 
and  more  magnificent  examples  which  we  discover  by  studying  the  science  of  astron- 
omy. See  our  article  on  Astronomy. 

These  words  may  appear  very  obscure  to  our  juvenile  readers ; but  when  dissected 
and  examined  properly  they  clearly  define  the  property  of  gravitation.  For  instance, 
“ every  particle  attracts  every  other  with  a force  proportional  to  the  quantity  of  mat 


510 


PHILOSOPHICAL  EXPERIMENTS. 


ter  in  each.”  This  statement  was  verified  some  years  back  by  Maskelyne,  who,  having 
sought  out  and  discovered  a steep,  precipitous  rock  in  the  Schi- 
challion  mountains,  in  Scotland,  suspended  from  it  a metal  weight 
by  a cord,  and  going  to  a convenient  distance  with  a telescope, 
and  observing  the  weight,  he  found  that  it  did  not  hang  perpen- 
dicularly, like  an  ordinary  plumb  line,  but  was  attracted,  or  im- 
pelled, to  the  sides  of  the  rock  by  some  kind  of  attraction,  which, 
of  course,  could  be  no  other  than  that  indicated  by  Newton  as  the 
attraction  of  gravitation. 

This  truly  wonderful  power  of  attraction  pervades  all 
masses;  and  being,  as  before  stated,  proportional  to  the  quan- 
tity of  matter,  if  a man  could  be  transported  to  the  surface  of 
the  sun  he  would  become  about  thirty  times  heavier  : he  would 
be  attracted,  or  impelled,  to  the  sun  with  thirty  times  more  grav- 
itating force  than  on  the  surface  of  the  earth,  and  would  weigh 
about  two  tons.  Of  course,  nursing  a baby  on  the  sun’s  surface 
would  be  a very  serious  affair  with  our  ordinary  strength  ; while 
on  some  of  the  smaller  planets,  such  as  Ceres  and  Pallas,  we 
should  probably  gravitate  with  a force  of  a few  pounds  only,  and 
with  the  same  muscular  power  now  possessed  we  should  quite 
emulate  the  exploits  of  those  domestic  little  creatures  sometimes 
called  “ the  industrious  fleas,”  and  our  jumping  would  be  something  marvelous.  There 
is  no  very  good  lecture-table  experiment  that  will  illustrate  gravitation,  although  at- 
tention may  be  directed  to  the  fact  of  a piece  of  potassium  thrown  on  the  surface  of 
water  in  a plate  generally  rushing  to  the  sides,  and,  as  if  attracted,  attaching  itself  with 
great  force  to  the  substance  of  the  pottery  or  porcelain ; or,  if  a model  ship,  or  lump 
of  wood,  be  allowed  to  float  at  rest  in  a large  tank  of  water,  and  a number  of  light  chips 
of  wood  or  bits  of  straw  be  thrown  in,  they  generally  collect  and  remain  around  the 
larger  floating  mass. 

The  attraction  of  gravitation  decreases  (quoting  the  remainder  of  Newton’s  defini- 
tion) as  the  squares  of  the  distances  which  separate  the  particles  increase — i.e.,  it  obeys 
the  principle  called  “ inverse  proportion  ” — viz.,  the  greater  the  distance,  the  less  grav- 
itating power ; the  less  the  distance,  the  greater  the  power  of  gravitation.  Gravitation 
is  therefore  like  the  distribution  of  light  and  other  radiant  forces. 


Fig.  6. — A represents  ihe 
ordinary  position  of  a 
plumb  line,  while  the  line 
of  the  weight  B indicates 
(of  course  with  some  ex- 
aggeration) the  attractive 
power  of  4the  mass  of  the 
rock  drawing  it  from  the 
perpendicular. 


SPECIFIC  GRAVITY. 

It  is  recorded  of  the  great  Dr.  Wollaston,  that  when  Sir  Humphry  Davy  placed 
in  his  hand  what  was  then  considered  to  be  the  scientific  wonder  of  the  day — viz.,  a 
small  bit  of  the  metal  potassium — he  exclaimed  at  once,  “ How  heavy  it  is,”  and  was 
greatly  surprised,  when  Sir  Humphry  threw  the  metal  on  water,  to  see  it  not  only 
take  fire,  but  actually  float  upon  the  surface.  Here,  then,  was  a philosopher  possessing 
the  deepest  learning,  unable,  by  the  sense  of  touch  and  by  ordinary  handling,  to 
state  correctly  whether  the  new  substance  (and  that  a metal)  was  heavy  or  light ; 
hence  it  is  apparent  that  the  property  of  specific  gravity  is  one  of  importance,  and 


NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY. 


511 


being  derived  from  the  Latin,  means  species , a particular  sort  or  kind  ; and  gravis , 
heavy  or  weight — that  is,  the  particular  weight  of  every  substance  compared  with  a 
fixed  standard  of  water. 

We  are  so  constantly  in  the  habit  of  referring  to  a standard  of  perfection  in  music 
and  the  arts  of  painting  and  sculpture,  that  the  youngest  will  comprehend  the  office  of 
water  when  told  that  it  is  the  philosopher  s unit  or  starting  point  for  the  estimation  of 
the  relative  weights  of  solids  and  liquids.  A good  idea  of  the  scope  and  meaning 
of  the  term  specific  gravity  is  acquired  by  a few  simple  experiments,  thus : if  a cylin- 
drical glass,  say  eighteen  inches  long,  and  two  and  a half  wide,  is  filled  with  water,  and 
another  of  the  same  size  is  also  filled,  one  half  with  water  and  the  other  half  with  a 
saturated  solution  of  common  salt,  or  what  is  commonly  termed  brine,  a most  amusing 
comparison  of  the  relative  weights  of  equal  bulks  of  water  and  brine  can  be  made 
with  the  help  of  two  eggs  ; when  one  of  the  eggs  is  placed  in  a glass  containing  water 
it  immediately  sinks  to  the  bottom,  showing  that  it  has  a greater  specific  gravity  than 
water ; but  when  the  other  egg  is  placed  in  the  second  glass  containing  the  brine  it 
sinks  through  the  water  till  it  reaches  the  strong  solution  of  salt,  where  it  is  suspended, 
and  presents  a most  curious  and  pretty  appearance  ; seeming 
to  float  like  a balloon  in  air,  and  apparently  suspended  upon 
nothing,  it  provokes  the  inquiry,  “ whether  magnetism  has 
anything  to  do  with  it?”  The  answer,  of  course,  is  in  the 
negative  ; it  merely  floats  in  the  center,  in  obedience  to  the 
common  principle,  that  all  bodies  float  in  others  which  are 
heavier  than  themselves  ; the  brine  has,  therefore,  a greater 
weight  than  an  equal  bulk  of  water,  and  is  also  heavier  than 
the  egg.  A pleasing  sequel  to  this  experiment  may  be  shown  by 
demonstrating  how  the  brine  is  placed  in  the  vessel  without 
mixing  with  the  water  above  it ; this  is  done  by  using  a glass 
tube  and  funnel,  and  after  pouring  away  half  the  water  con- 
tained in  the  vessel  (Fig.  9),  the  egg  can  be  floated  from  the 
bottom  to  the  center  of  the  glass  by  pouring  the  brine  down 
the  funnel  and  tube.  The  saturated  solution  of  salt  remains 
in  the  lower  part  of  the  vessel  and  displaces  the  water,  which 
floats  upon  its  surface  like  oil  on  water,  carrying  the  egg 
with  it. 

The  water  of  the  Dead  Sea  is  said  to  contain  about 
twenty-six  per  cent,  of  saline  matter,  which  chiefly  consists  0fFlG-  9— A vessel  half  full  of 
common  salt.  It  is  perfectly  clear  and  bright,  and  in  conse-  poured  down  the  tube  the  egg 
quence  of  the  great  density  a person  may  easily  float  on  its  Siadually  nses- 
surface,  like  the  egg  on  the  brine  ; so  that  if  a ship  could  be  heavily  laden  while  float- 
ing on  the  water  of  the  Dead  Sea  it  would  most  likely  sink  if  transported  to  the  Hudson 
River.  This  illustration  of  specific  gravity  is  also  shown  by  a model  ship,  which  being 
first  floated  on  the  brine  will  afterward  sink  if  conveyed  to  another  vessel  containing 
water.  One  of  the  tin  model  ships  sold  as  a magnetic  toy  answers  nicely  for  this 
experiment,  but  it  must  be  weighted  or  adjusted  so  that  it  just  floats  in  the  brine ; then 
it  will  sink  when  placed  in  another  vessel  containing  only  water. 


512 


PHILOSOPHICAL  EXPERIMENTS. 


Another  amusing  illustration  of  the  same  kind  is  displayed  with  gold-fish,  which 
swim  easily  in  water  floating  on  brine,  but  cannot  dive  to  the  bottom  of  the  vessel, 
owing  to  the  density  of  the  saturated  solution  of  salt.  If  the  fish  are  taken  out  imme- 
diately after  the  experiment  and  placed  in  fresh  water  they  will  not  be  hurt  by  contact 
with  the  strong  salt  water. 

These  examples  of  the  relative  weights  of  equal  bulks  enable  the  youthful  mind 
to  grasp  the  more  difficult  problem  of  ascertaining  the  specific  gravity  of  any  solid  or 
liquid  substance  ; and  here  the  strict  meaning  of  terms  should  not  be  passed  by. 
Specific  weight  must  not  be  confounded  with  absolute  weight ; the  latter  means  the 
entire  amount  of  ponderable  matter  in  any  body : thus,  twenty-four  cubic  feet  of  sand 
weigh  about  one  ton ; while  specific  weight  means  the  relation  that  subsists  between 
the  absolute  weight  and  the  volume  or  space  which  that  iveight  occupies.  Thus  a cubic 
foot  of  water  weighs  sixty-two  and  a half  pounds,  or  one  thousand  ounces  avoirdupois, 
but  changed  to  gold  the  cubic  foot  weighs  more  than  half  a ton,  and  would  be  equal 
to  about  nineteen  thousand  three  hundred  ounces  ; hence  the  relation  between  the 
cubic  foot  of  water  and  that  of  gold  is  nearly  as  i to  19*3  ; the  latter  is  therefore  called 
the  specific  gravity  of  gold. 


Table  of  the  Specific  Gravities  of  the  Metals  in  Common  Use . 


Platinum 21.5 

Gold 19.3 

Mercury 1 3.56 

Lead 11*445 

Silver 10.50 


Bismuth 
Copper 
Iron 
Tin  . 
Zinc 


9-83 

8.96 

7-79 

7.28 

6.5  to  7.2 


Now  a mode  of  taking  the  specific  gravity  of  different  substances — viz.,  by  the 
weight  of  equal  bulks,  whether  cubic  feet  or  inches,  could  not  be  employed  in  conse- 
quence of  the  difficulty  of  procuring  exact  cubic  inches  or  feet  of  the  various  substances 
which  by  their  peculiar  properties  of  brittleness  or  hardness  would  present  insuperable 
obstacles  to  any  attempt  to  fashion  or  shape 'them  into  exact  volumes.  It  is  therefore 
necessary  to  adopt  the  method  first  devised  by  Archimedes,  600  B.C.,  when  he  dis- 
covered the  admixture  of  another  metal  with  the  gold  of  King  Hiero’s  crown. 

This  amusing  story,  ending  in  the  discovery  of  a philosophical  truth,  may  be  thus 
described : King  Hiero  gave  out  from  the  royal  treasury  a certain  quantity  of  gold 
which  he  required  to  be  fashioned  into  a crown  : when,  however,  the  emblem  of  power 
was  produced  by  the  goldsmith  it  was  not  found  deficient  in  weight,  but  had  that 
appearance  which  indicated  to  the  monarch  that  a surreptitious  addition  of  some  other 
metal  must  have  been  made.  It  may  be  assumed  that  King  Hiero  consulted  his  friend 
and  philosopher,  Archimedes,  and  he  might  have  said,  “ Tell  me,  Archimedes,  without 
pulling  my  crown  to  pieces,  if  it  has  been  adulterated  with  any  other  metal.”  The 
philosopher  asked  for  time  to  determine  the  question.  He  went  to  a public  bath  with 
the  problem  still  in  his  mind.  On  entering  the  bath  he  noticed  that  the  water  was  dis- 
placed by  the  bulk  of  his  own  body.  Rushing  from  the  bath  he  ran  through  the  streets 
naked  as  a pair  of  his  own  compasses,  crying  “ EUREKA  ! EUREKA ! ” — I have  found  it , 1 
have  found  it.  The  gold  and  the  alloy  each  had  different  weight  in  the  water  as  com- 


NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY. 


513 


pared  with  its  weight  in  air.  And  by  a mathematical  calculation  he  could  determine 
how  much  gold  and  how  much  alloy  was  in  the  crown  (see  Fig.  A at  the  beginning  of 
this  article).  For  the  sake  of  argument,  let  it  be  supposed  that  the  crown  weighs  seven- 
teen and  ane-half  ounces  avoirdupois,  which  are  duly  placed 
in  the  other  scale-pan,  and  without  touching  these  weights 
the  crown  is  now  placed  in  a vessel  of  water.  It  might  be 
supposed  that  directly  the  crown  enters  the  water  it  would 
gain  weight,  in  consequence  of  being  wetted  ; but  the  contrary 
is  the  case,  and  by  thrusting  the  crown  into  the  water  it  may 
be  seen  to  rise  with  great  buoyancy  so  long  as  the  seventeen 
and  one-half  ounces  are  retained  in  the  other  scale-pan  ; and 
it  will  be  found  necessary  to  place  at  least  two  ounces  in  the 
scale-pan  to  which  the  crown  is  attached  before  the  latter 
sinks  in  the  water;  and  thus  it  is  distinctly  shown  that  the 
crown  weighs  only  about  fifteen  and  one-half  ounces  in  the  water,  and  has  therefore 
lost  instead  of  gaining  weight  while  immersed  in  the  liquid.  The  rule  may  now  be 
worked  out  thus:  Weight  of  crown  in  air,  seventeen  and  one-half  ounces;  weight  of 
same  in  water,  fifteen  and  one-half  ounces;  loss  of  weight  in  water,  two  ounces.  Now 
divide  the  weight  of  the  crown  in  air  by  the  loss  of  weight  in  water,  and  the  quotient, 
eight  and  three-fourths,  demonstrates  that  the  crown  is  manufactured  of  copper, 
because  it  would  have  been  about  nineteen  and  one-fourth  if  made  of  pure  gold. 

The  simple  rule  already  explained  may  be  applied  to  all  metals  of  any  size  or 
weight,  and  when  the  mass  is  of  an  irregular  shape,  having  various  cavities  on  the  sur- 
face, there  may  be  some  difficulty  in  taking  the  specific  gravity,  in  consequence  of  the 
adhesion  of  air-bubbles  ; but  this  may  be  obviated  either  by  brushing  them  away  with  a 
feather,  or,  what  is  frequently  much  better,  by  dipping  the  metal  or  mineral  first  into 
alcohol,  and  then  into  water,  before  placing  it  in  the  vessel  of  water,  by  which  the  actual 
specific  gravity  is  to  be  taken. 


CENTER  OF  GRAVITY. 

That  point  about  which  all  the  parts  of  a body  do,  in  any  situation , exactly  balance  each 

other . 

The  discovery  of  this  fact  is  due  to  Archimedes,  and  it  is  a point  in  every  solid 
body  (whatever  the  form  may  be)  in  which  the  forces  of  gravity  may  be  considered  as 
united . In  our  globe,  which  is  a sphere,  or  rather  an  oblate  spheroid,  the  center  of 
gravity  will  be  the  center.  Thus,  if  a plummet  be  suspended  on  the  surface  of  the 
earth  it  points  directly  to  the  center  of  gravity,  and,  consequently,  two  plummet-lines 
suspended  side  by  side  cannot,  strictly  speaking,  be  parallel  to  each  other.  If  it  were 
possible  to  bore  or  dig  a gallery  through  the  whole  substance  of  the  earth  from  pole 
to  pole,  and  then  to  allow  a stone  or  the  fabled  Mahomet’s  coffin  to  fall  through  it,  the 
momentum — i.e.,  the  force  of  the  moving  body — would  carry  it  beyond  the  center  of 
gravity.  This  force,  however,  being  exhausted,  there  would  be  a retrograde  movement, 
and  after  many  oscillations  it  would  gradually  come  to  rest,  and  then,  unsupported  by 
anything  material,  it  would  be  suspended  by  the  force  of  gravitation,  and  now  enter 


514 


PHILOSOPHICAL  EXPERIMENTS. 


into  and  take  part  in  the  general  attracting  force ; and  being  equally  attracted  on  every 
side,  the  stone  or  coffin  must  be  totally  without  weight.  Momentum  is  prettily  illus- 
trated by  a series  of  inclined  planes  cut  in  mahogany  with  a grooved  channel  at  the  top 
in  imitation  of  the  famous  Russian  ice  mountains,  and  if  a marble  is  allowed  to  run 
down  the  first  incline  the  momentum  will  carry  it  up  the  second,  from  which  it  will 
again  descend  and  pass  up  and  down  the  third  and  last  miniature  mountain. 

In  a sphere  of  uniform  density  the  center  of  gravity  is  easily  discovered,  but  not 
so  in  an  irregular  mass ; and  here,  perhaps,  an  explanation  of  terms  may  not  be  alto- 
gether unacceptable. 

Mass , is  a term  applied  to  solids,  such  as  a mass  of  lead  or  stone. 

Bulk,  to  liquids,  such  as  a bulk  of  water  or  oil. 

Volume , to  gases,  such  as  a volume  of  air  or  oxygen. 

To  find  the  center  of  gravity  of  any  mass,  as,  for  example,  an  ordinary  school-slate, 
we  must  first  of  all  suspend  it  from  any  part  of  the  frame ; then  allow  a plumb-line  to 
drop  from  the  point  of  suspension,  and  mark  its  direction  on  the  slate.  Again,  suspend 
the  slate  at  various  other  points,  always  marking  the  line  of  direction  of  the  plummet 
and  at  the  point  where  the  lines  intersect  each  other  there  will  be  the  center  of  gravity. 
The  equilibrium  of  bodies  is  most  affected  by  the  position  of  the  center  of  gravity. 

The  famous  story  of  Columbus  and  the  egg  suggests  a capital  illustration  of  thii 
fact.  The  methods  of  doing  this  are  two.  The  first  is  that  usually  attributed  to  the 
great  discoverer  and  consists  of  slightly  cracking  the  shell  at  the  large  end  so  that  it 
will  stand  on  a little  flat  surface. 

The  most  philosophical  mode  of  making  the  egg  stand  on  its  end,  and  without  dis- 
turbing the  exterior  shell,  is  to  alter  the  position  of  the  yolk,  which  has  a greater  den- 
sity than  the  white,  and  is  situated  about  the  center.  If  the  egg  is  now  shaken  so  as 
to  break  the  membrane  inclosing  the  yolk,  and  thus  allow  it  to  sink  to  the  bottom  of 
the  smaller  end,  the  center  of  gravity  is  lowered ; there  is  a greater  proportion  of 
weight  concentrated  in  the  small  end,  and  the  egg  stands  erect.  It  is  this  variable 
position  of  the  center  of  gravity  in  ivory  balls  (one  part  of  which  may  be  more  dense 
than  another)  that  so  frequently  annoys  even  the  best  billiard-players ; and  on  this  ac^ 
count  a ball  will  deviate  from  the  line  in  which  it  is  impelled,  not  from  any  fault  of  the 
player,  but  in  consequence  of  the  ivory  ball  being  of  unequal  density,  and  therefore, 
not  having  the  center  corresponding  with  the  center  of  gravity. 

The  toy  called  the  “ tombola  ” reminds  us  of  the  egg-experiment,  as  there  is 
usually  a lump  of  lead  inserted  in  the  lower  part  of  the  hemisphere,  and  when  the  toy 
is  pushed  down  it  rapidly  assumes  the  upright  position,  because  the  center  of  gravity 
is  not  in  the  lowest  place  to  which  it  would  descend. 

After  what  has  been  explained  regarding  the  improvement  of  the  stability  of  the 
egg  by  lowering  the  situation  of  the  center  of  gravity,  it  may  at  first  appear  singular 
that  a stick  loaded  with  a weight  at  its  upper  extremity  can  be  balanced  perpendicu- 
larly with  greater  ease  and  precision  than  when  the  weight  is  lower  down  and  nearer 
the  hand ; and  that  a sword  can  be  balanced  best  when  the  hilt  is  uppermost ; but 
this  is  easily  explained  when  it  is  understood  that  with  the  handle  downward  a much 
smaller  arc  is  described  as  it  falls  than  when  reversed,  so  that  in  the  former  case  the 
balancer  has  not  time  to  readjust  the  center,  while  in  the  latter  position  the  arc  de* 


NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY. 


515 


scribed  is  so  large  that  before  the  sword  falls  the  center  of  gravity  may  be  restored 
within  the  line  of  direction  of  the  base. 

The  leaning-tower  of  Pisa  is  one  hundred  and  eighty-two  feet  in  height,  and  is 
swayed  thirteen  and  a half  feet  from  the  perpendicular,  but  yet  remains  perfectly  firm 
and  secure,  as  the  line  of  direction  falls  considerably  within  the  base.  If  it  was  of 
a greater  altitude  it  could  do  longer  stand,  because  the  center  of  gravity  would  be  so 
elevated  that  the  line  of  direction  would  fall  outside  the  base.  This  fact  may  be  illus- 
trated by  taking  a board  several  feet  in  length,  and  having  cut  it  out  to  represent  the 
architecture  of  the  leaning-tower  of  Pisa,  it  may  then  be  painted  in  distemper,  and 
fixed  at  the  right  angle  with  a hinge  to  another  board  representing  the  ground,  while 
a plumb-line  may  be  dropped  from  the  center  of  gravity ; and  it  may  be  shown  that 
as  long  as  the  plummet  falls  within  the  base,  the  tower  is  safe  ; but  directly  the  model 
tower  is  brought  a little  further  forward  by  a wedge  so  that  the  plummet  hangs  outside, 
then,  on  removing  the  support,  which  may  be  a piece  of  string  to  be  cut  at  the  right 
moment,  the  model  falls,  and  the  fact  is  at  once  comprehended. 

The  principles  already  explained  are  directly  applicable  to  the  construction  or 
secure  loading  of  vehicles ; and  in  proportion  as  the  center  of  gravity  is  elevated  above 
the  point  of  support  (that  is,  the  wheels),  so  is  the  insecurity  of  the  carriage  increased, 
and  the  contrary  takes  place  if  the  center  of  gravity  is  lowered.  Again,  if  a wagon  be 
loaded  with  very  heavy  substances  which  do  not  require  much  space  there  will  be  less 
danger  of  upsetting  than  if  the  load  be  light  and  bulky. 

In  the  one  instance  the  center  of  gravity  is  near  the  ground  and  falls  within  the 
base  ; in  the  other  it  is  higher  than  the  wheels,  and  if  one  side  be  elevated  above  the 
other  it  falls  without  the  base,  and  the  wagon  is  overturned.  The  same  principles 
apply  to  the  human  body  in  its  varying  postures.  To  maintain  an  erect  position  a 
man  must  so  place  his  body  that  the  line  of  direction  of  his  weight  will  fall  within  the 
base  formed  by  his  feet.  The  more  the  toes  are  turned  outward,  the  more  contracted 
will  be  the  base,  and  the  body  will  be  more  liable  to  fall  backward  or  forward ; and 
the  closer  the  feet  are  drawn  together,  the  more  likely  is  the  body  to  fall  on  either  side. 
The  acrobats,  dancing  dogs,  etc., 
unconsciously  acquire  the  habit  of 
accurately  balancing  themselves  in 
all  kinds  of  strange  positions ; but 
as  these  accomplishment^  are  not  to 
be  recommended  to  young  people 
some  other  marvels  (such  as  balanc- 
ing a pail  of  water  on  a stick  laid 
upon  a table)  may  be  adduced,  as  illustrated  in  Fig.  7. 

Let  A B represent  an  ordinary  table,  upon  which  place  a broomstick,  C D,  so  that 
one-half  shall  lay  upon  the  table  and  the  other  extend  from  it ; place  over  the  stick 
the  handle  of  an  empty  pail  ^which  may  possibly  require  to  be  elongated  for  the  experi- 
ment) so  that  the  handle  touches  or  falls  into  a notch  at  H ; and  in  order  to  bring  the 
pail  well  under  the  table  another  stick  is  placed  in  the  notch  E,  and  is  arranged  in  the 
line  G F E,  one  end  resting  at  G and  the  other  at  E.  Having  made  these  preparations 
the  pail  may  now  be  filled  with  water ; and  although  it  appears  to  be  a most  marvel- 


516 


PHILOSOPHICAL  EXPERIMENTS. 


ous  result,  to  see  the  pail  apparently  balanced  on  the  end  of  a stick  which  may  easily 
tilt  up,  the  principles  already  explained  will  enable  the  observer  to  understand  that  the 
center  of  gravity  of  the  pail  falls  within  the  line  of  direction  shown  by  the  dotted  line ; 
and  it  amounts  in  effect  to  nothing  more  than  carrying  a pail  on  the  center  of  a stick, 
one  end  of  which  is  supported  at  E,  and  the  other  through  the  medium  of  the  table 
A B. 

Boat-accidents  frequently  arise  in  consequence  of  ignorance  on  the  subject  of  the 
center  of  gravity,  and  when  persons  are  alarmed  while  sitting  in  a boat,  they  generally 
rise  suddenly,  raise  the  center  of  gravity,  which  falling,  by  the  oscillation  of  the  frail 
bark,  outside  the  line  of  direction  of  the  base,  cannot  be  restored,  and  the  boat  is  upset ; 
if  the  boat  were  fixed  by  the  keel,  raising  the  center  of  gravity  would  be  of  little  con- 
sequence,  but  as  the  boat  is  perfectly  free  to  move  and  roll  to  one  side  or  the  other, 
the  elevation  of  the  center  of  gravity  is  fatal. 

THE  CENTER  OF  PERCUSSION. 

Before  we  dismiss  this  subject  it  is  advisable  to  explain  a term  referring  to  a very 
useful  truth,  called  the  center  of  percussion  • a knowledge  of  which,  gained  instinctively 

or  otherwise,  enables  the  workman  to 
wield  his  tools  with  increased  power,  and 
gives  greater  force  to  the  cut  of  the 
swordsman,  so  that,  with  some  physical 
strength,  he  may  perform  the  feat  of  cut- 
ting a sheep  in  half,  cleaving  a bar  of 
lead,  or  neatly  dividing,  h la  Saladin , in 
ancient  Saracen  fashion,  a silk  handker- 
chief floating  in  the  air.  There  is  a 
feat,  however,  which  does  not  require 
any  very  great  strength,  but  is  suffi- 
ciently startling  to  excite  much  sur- 
prise and  some  inquiry — viz.,  the  one 
of  cutting  in  half  a broomstick  support- 
ed at  the  ends  on  tumblers  of  water 
without  spilling  thh  water  or  cracking 
or  otherwise  damaging  the  glass  supports  {Fig.  8). 

These  and  other  feats  are  partly  explained  by  reference  to  time : the  force  is  so 
quickly  applied  and  expended  on  the  center  of  the  stick  that  it  is  not  communicated 
to  the  supports  ; just  as  a bullet  from  a pistol  may  be  sent  through  a pane  of  glass 
without  shattering  the  whole  square,  but  making  a clean  hole  through  it,  or  a candle 
may  be  sent  through  a plank,  or  a cannon-ball  pass  through  a half-opened  door  with- 
out causing  it  to  move  on  its  hinges.  But  the  success  of  the  several  feats  depends  in 
a great  measure  on  the  attention  that  is  paid  to  the  delivery  of  the  blows  at  the 
center  of  percussion  of  the  weapon  ; this  is  a point  in  a moving  body  where  the  percus- 
sion is  the  greatest,  and  about  which  the  impetus  or  force  of  all  parts  is  balanced  on 
every  side.  When  a blow  is  not  delivered  with  a stick  or  a sword  at  the  center  of  per- 


fig.  & 


NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY. 


517 


cussion,  a peculiar  jar,  or  what  is  familiarly  spoken  of  as  a stinging  sensation,  is  appar- 
ent in  the  hand. 

COHESIVE  AND  ADHESIVE  ATTRACTION. 

In  the  previous  pages  only  one  kind  of  attraction  has  been  illustrated  in  a popular 
manner,  viz.:  the  attraction  of  gravitation.  The  attraction  of  cohesion  will  next  engage  our 
attention.  We  have  a peculiar  satisfaction  in  investigating  such  subjects,  because  every 
step  is  attended  by  a convincing  proof.  In  studying  the  powers  of  nature,  which  the 
most  skeptical  mind  allows  must  exist,  there  is  an  abundant  field  for  experiment  with- 
out attempting  the  exploits  of  Macbeth’s  witches,  or  the  fanciful  powers  of  Manfred ; 
and,  returning  to  the  theme  of  our  present  chapter,  it  may  be  asked,  How  is  cohesion 
defined  ? and  the  answer  may  be  given,  by  directing  attention  to  the  three  physical 
conditions  of  water,  which  assumes  the  form  of  ice,  water,  or  steam. 

In  the  polar  regions,  and  also  in  the  Alpine  and  other  mountains  where  glaciers 
exist,  there  the  traveler  speaks  of  ice  twenty,  thirty,  forty,  nay,  three  hundred  feet  in 
thickness.  Here  the  withdrawal  of  a certain  quantity  of  heat  from  the  water  evidently 
allows  a new  force  to  come  into  full  play.  We  may  call  it  what  we  like  ; but  cohesion — 
from  the  Latin  cum , together,  and  hcereo , I stick  or  cleave — appears  to  be  the  best  and 
most  rational  term  for  this  power,  which  tends  to  make  the  atoms  or  particles  of  the 
same  kind  of  matter  move  toward  each  other,  and  to  prevent  them  being  separated  or 
moved  asunder.  That  it  is  not  merely  hypothetical  is  shown  by  the  following  experi- 
ments. 

If  two  pieces  of  lead  are  cast,  and  the  ends  nicely  scraped,  taking  care  not  to  touch 
the  surfaces  with  the  fingers,  they  may,  by  simple  pressure,  be  made  to  cohere,  and  in 
that  state  of  attraction  may  be  lifted  from  the  table  by  the  ring  which  is  usually  inserted 
for  convenience  in  the  upper  piece  of  lead ; they  may  be  hung  for  some  time  from  a 
proper  support,  and  the  lower  hit  of  lead  will  not  break  away  from  the  upper  one ; 
they  may  even  be  suspended,  as  demonstrated  by  Morvean,  in  the  vacuum  of  an  air- 
pump,  to  show  that  the  cohesion  is  not  mistaken  for  the  pressure  of  the  .atmosphere, 
and  no  separation  occurs.  And  when  the  union  is  broken  by  physical  force  it  is  sur- 
prising to  notice  the  limited  number  of  points,  like  pin  points,  where  the  cohesion  has 
occurred  ; while  the  weight  of  the  lump  of  lead  upheld  against  the  force  of  gravitation 
reminds  one  forcibly  of  the  attraction  of  a mass  of  soft  iron  by  a powerful  magnet,  and 
leads  the  philosophic  inquirer  to  speculate  v^n  the  principle  of  cohesion  being  oniy 
some  masked  form  of  magnetic  or  electrical  attraction. 

A lump  of  lead  six  inches  long  by  four  broad,  and  half  an  inch  thick,  may  be  sup- 
(ported  by  dexterously  taking  off  a thick  shaving  with  a proper  plane,  and  after  pressing 
an  inch  or  more  of  the  strip  on  the  planed  surface  of  the  large  lump  of  lead,  the  cohe- 
sion is  so  powerful  that  the  latter  may  be  lifted  from  the  table  by  the  strip  of  metal. 
The  bullets  projected  from  the  celebrated  steam-gun,  at  the  rate  of  three  hundred  per 
minute,  are  thrown  with  such  violence  that,  when  received  on  a thick  plate  of  lead  backed 
up  with  sheet  iron,  a cold  welding  takes  place  between  the  two  surfaces  of  metal  in 
the  most  perfect  manner,  just  as  two  soft  pieces  of  the  metal  potassium  may  be  squeezed 
and  welded  together.  The  surfaces  of  an  apple  torn  asunder  will  not  readily  cohere, 
but  if  cut  with  a sharp  knife  cohesion  easily  occurs  ; so  with  a wound  produced  by  a 


&18 


PHILOSOPHICAL  EXPERIMENTS. 


jagged  surface  it  is  difficult  to  make  the  parts  heal,  whereas  some  of  the  most  desper- 
ate sabre-cuts  have  been  healed,  the  cohesion  of  the  surfaces  of  cut  flesh  being  very 
rapid  ; hence,  if  the  top  of  a finger  is  cut  off,  it  may  be  replaced,  and  will  grow,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  natural  cohesion  of  the  parts. 

The  art  of  plating  copper  with  silver,  which  is  afterward  gilded,  and  then  drawn 
out  into  flattened  wire  for  the  manufacture  of  gold  lace  and  epaulets,  usually  termed 
bullion,  is  another  example  of  the  wonderful  cohesion  of  the  particles  of  gold,  of  which 
a single  grain  may  be  extended  over  the  finest  plate  wire  measuring  three  hundred 
and  forty-five  feet  in  length.  The  process  of  making  wax  candles  is  a good  illustration 
of  the  attraction  of  cohesion ; they  are  not  generally  cast  in  molds,  as  most  persons  sup 
pose,  but  are  made  by  the  successive  applications  of  melted  wax  around  the  central  plaited 
wick.  Other  examples  of  cohesion  are  shown  by  icicles,  and  also  stalagmites  ; which  lat- 
ter are  produced  by  the  gradual  dropping  of  water  containing  chalk  (carbonate  of  lime) 
held  in  solution  by  the  excess  of  carbonic  acid  gas  ; the  solvent  gradually  evaporates, 
and  leaves  a series  of  calcareous  films,  and  these  cohere  in  succession,  producing  the 
most  fantastic  forms,  as  shown  in  various  remarkable  caverns,  and  especially  in  the 
cave  of  Arta,  in  the  island  of  Majorca. 

In  metallic  substances  the  cohesion  of  the  particles  assumes  an  important  bearing 
in  the  question  of  relative  toughness  and  power  of  resisting  a strain  ; hence  the  term 
cohesion  is  modified  into  that  of  the  property  of  “ tenacity.” 

Adhesion  must  not  be  confounded  with  cohesion,  for  it  refers  not  to  the  clinging 
of  the  particles  of  the  same  or  like  bodies,  but  the  drawing  or  attraction  of  bodies  of  a 
dissimilar  kind.  There  are  numerous  illustrations  of  adhesion,  such  as  mending  china, 
and  the  use  of  glue,  or  paste,  in  uniting  different  surfaces,  or  mortar,  in  building 
with  bricks ; it  is  also  well  shown  by  means  of  a pair  of  scales,  one  scale-pan  of  which 
being  well  cleaned  with  alkali  at  the  bottom  may  then  be  rested  on  the  surface  of 
water  contained  in  a plate  ; the  adhesion  between  the  water  and  the  metal  is  so  perfect 
that  many  grain-weights  may  be  placed  in  the  other  pan  before  the  adhesion  is  broken  ; 
and  after  breakage,  if  the  pan  be  again  placed  on  the  water,  and  a few  grains  removed 
from  the  other,  so  as  to  adjust  the  two  pans,  and  make  them  nearly  equal, 
a drop  of  oil  of  turpentine  being  added  instantly  spreads  itself  over  the  water^ 
and  breaking  the  adhesion  between  the  latter  and  the  metal,  the  scale-pan  is  again 
immediately  broken  away,  as  the  adhesion  between  the  turpentine  and  the  metal  is 
not  so  great  as  that  of  water  and  metal.  The  adhesion  of  air  and  water  is  well  dis. 
played  in  an  apparatus  recommended  for  ventilating  mines,  in  which  a constant 
descending  stream  of  water  carries  with  it  a quantity  of  air,  which,  being  disengaged,  is 
then  forced  out  of  a proper  orifice.  The  same  kind  of  adhesion  between  air  and  water 
is  displayed  in  the  ancient  Spanish  Catalan  forge,  where  the  blast  is  supplied  to  the 
iron  furnace  on  a similar  principle,  only  a natural  cascade  is  taken  advantage  of  instead 
of  an  artificial  fall  of  water  through  a pipe. 

The  adhesion  of  air  and  water  becomes  of  some  value  when  a river  flows  through 
a large  and  crowded  city,  because  the  water  in  its  passage  to  and  fro  must  necessarily 
drag  with  it  a continuous  column  of  air,  and  assist  in  maintaining  that  constant  agita- 
tion of  the  air  which  is  desirable  as  a preventive  to  any  accumulation  of  noxious  air 
charged  with  foetid  odors  arising  from  mud  banks,  or  from  other  causes.  The  fact  of 


NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY. 


519 


adhesion  existing  between  water  and  air  is  readily  shown  by  resting  one  end  of  a long 
glass  tube,  of  at  least  one  inch  diameter,  on  a block  of  wood  one  foot  high.  If  water 
is  allowed  to  flow  down  the  tube,  so  as  to  leave  a sufficient  space  of  air  above  it,  the 
adhesion  between  the  two  anciefit  elements  becomes  apparent  directly  a little  smoke 
is  produced  near  the  top  end  of  the  glass  tube  resting  on  the  block  of  wood.  The 
smoke,  which  has  a greater  tendency  to  rise  than  to  fall,  is  dragged  down  the  glass 
tube,  and  accompanies  the  water  as  it  flows  from  the  higher  to  the  lower  level.  The 
same  principle  is  seen  in  the  horizontal  troughs  through  which  water  flows.  There  is 
so  great  an  adhesion  between  air  and  glass  that  the  mercury  has  to  be  boiled  in  the 
tube  of  the  best  barometers  to  prevent  the  air  from  creeping  up  into  the  vacuum  at 
the  top  of  the  tube.  Even  then  after  a course  of  years  the  air  will  somehow  get  into 
the  tube. 


CAPILLARY  ATTRACTION. 


This  form  of  attraction  is  that  which  causes  fluids  to  rise  in  small  tubes,  some  of 
which  are  as  fine  as  a human  hair.  The  fluid  is  attracted  and  retained  at  a point  higher 
than  the  ordinary  level.  If  you  will  carefully  observe  a goblet  of  water  you  will  readily 
see  that  its  surface  is  not  level,  but  it  rises  up  at  the  sides  of  the  glass.  The  smaller  the 


Two  pieces  of  glass  laid  flat 

IE 

<■  >1 


FIG.  II. 


diameter  of  the  glass  the  higher  on  the  sides  it  will  rise, 
together  in  water  and  then  opened  like  the  leaves  of  a 
book  draw  up  the  water  between  them.  If  you  put  a 
mass  of  salt  or  sugar  upon  a plate  with  a little  indigo 
water  you  will  see  that  the  colored  water  will  rise  in  the 
salt  or  sugar.  Most  kinds  of  wood  possess  this  power  of 
capillary  attraction,  and  will  float  because  the  minute 
pores  are  filled  with  air.  Ebony  and  lignum-vitae  sink 
on  account  of  their  density,  closeness,  and  freedom  from 
air.  One  of  the  curious  illustrations  of  this  kind  of 
attraction  is  seen  in  the  preparation  of  leather  for  the 
market.  This  is  thoroughly  wet  with  water,  and  while 
the  skin  is  damp  oil  is  rubbed  on  and  it  is  then  exposed 
to  the  air ; the  water  evaporates  at  ordinary  temperature,  but  oil  does  not ; the  con- 
sequence is  that  the  pores  of  the  leather  give  ujqthe  water,  which  disappears  in  evapo- 
ration, and  the  oil,  by  capillary  attraction,  is  then  drawn  into  the  body  of  the  leather; 
the  oil  in  fact  takes  the  place  vacated  by  the  water,  and  renders  the  material  very  sup- 
ple, and  to  a considerable  extent  waterproof.  In  paper-making,  the  pores  of  this 
material,  unless  filled  up  or  sized,  cause  the  ink  to  blot  or  spread  by  capillary  attrac_ 
tion.  The  porosity  of  soils  is  one  of  the  great  desiderata  of  the  skillful  agriculturist^ 
and  drainage  is  intended  to  remove  the  excess  of  water  which  would  fill  the  pores  of 
the  earth,  to  the  exclusion  of  the  more  valuable  dews  and  rains  conveying  nutritious 
matter  derived  from  manures  and  the  atmosphere. 

A cane  is  an  assemblage  of  small  tubes,  and  if  a piece  of  about  six  inches  in  length 
(cut  off,  of  course,  from  the  joints)  be  placed  in  a bottle  of  turpentine,  the  oil  is  drawn 
up  and  may  be  burnt  at  the  top ; it  is  on  this  principle  that  indestructible  wicks  of 
asbestos,  and  wire  gauze  rolled  round  a center  core,  are  used  in  spirit-lamps.  Oil,  wax, 


520 


PHILOSOPHICAL  EXPERIMENTS. 


and  tallow,  all  rise  by  capillary  attraction  in  the  wicks  to  the  flame,  where  they  are 
boiled,  converted  into  gas,  and  burnt. 

The  capillary  attraction  of  skeins  of  cotton  for  water  was  known  and  appreciated 
by  the  old  alchemists  ; and  Geber,  one  of  the  most  ancient  of  these  pioneers  of  science, 
and  who  lived  about  the  seventh  century,  describes  a filter  by  which  the  liquid  is  sepa- 
rated from  the  solid.  This  experiment  is  well  displayed  by  putting  a solution  of 
acetate  of  lead  into  a glass,  which  is  placed  on  the  highest  block  of  a series  of  three, 
arranged  as  steps.  Into  this  glass  is  placed  the  short  end  of  a skein  of  lamp  cotton, 
previously  wetted  with  distilled  water ; the  long  end  dips  into  another  glass  below, 
containing  dilute  sulphuric  acid,  and  as  the  solution  of  lead  passes  into  it  a solid  white  - 
precipitate  of  sulphate  of  lead  is  formed  ; then  another  skein  of  wetted  cotton  is 
placed  in  this  glass,  the  long  end  of  which  passes  into  the  last  glass,  so  that  the  deaf 
liquid  is  separated  and  the  solid  left  behind. 

In  this  filter  the  lamp  cotton  acts  as  a syphon  through  the  capillary  pores  which  it 
forms.  The  threads  of  which  linen,  cotton,  and  woolen  cloths  are  made  are  small 
cords,  and  the  shrinkage  of  such  textile  fabrics  is  well  known  and  usually  inquired 
about  when  a purchase  is  made.  Here  again  capillary  attraction  is  exerted  and  the 
fabric  contracts  in  the  two  directions  of  the  warp  and  woof  threads ; thus,  twenty- 
seven  yards  of  common  Irish  linen  will  permanently  shrink  to  about  twenty-six  yards 
in  cold  water.  In  these  cases  the  water  is  attracted  into  the  fibers  of  the  textile  mate- 
rial, and,  causing  them  to  swell,  must  necessarily  shorten  their  length,  just  as  a dry 
rope  strained  between  two  walls  for  the  purpose  of  supporting  clothes  has  been  known 
to  draw  the  hooks  after  being  suddenly  wetted  and  shortened  by  a shower  of  rain. 

In  order  to  tighten  a bandage  it  is  only  necessary  to  wind  the  dry  linen  round  the 
limbs  as  close  as  possible  and  then  wet  it  with  water,  when  the  necessary  shrinkage 
takes  place.  If  a piece  of  dry  cotton  cloth  is  tied  over  one  end  of  a lamp  glass,  the  other 
may  be  thrust  into  or  removed  from  the  basin  of  water  very  easily,  but  when  the  cot- 
ton is  wetted  the  fibers  contract  and  prevent  air  from  entering,  so  that  the  glass 
retains  water  just  as  if  it  were  an  ordinary  gas  jar  closed  with  a glass  stopper. 

A Spanish  proverb,  expressing  contempt,  says,  “ Go  to  the  well  with  a sieve 
but  even  this  seeming  impossibility  is  surmounted  by  using  a cylinder  of  wire  gauze, 
which  may  be  filled  with  water,  and  by  means  of  the  capillary  attraction  between  the 
meshes  of  the  copper-wire  gauze  and  the  water  the  whole  is  retained,  and  may  be 
carefully  lifted  from  a basin  of  water ; the  experiment  only  succeeds  when  the  air  is 
completely  driven  out  of  the  insterstices  of  the  gauze,  and  the  little  cylinder  com- 
pletely filled  with  water.  This  may  be  done  by  repeatedly  sinking  and  drawing  out  the 
cylinder,  or  still  more  effectually  by  first  wetting  it  with  alcohol  and  then  dipping  the 
t^dinder  in  water.  A balloon,  made  of  cotton  cloth,  cannot  be  inflated  by  means  of  a 
pair  of  bellows;  but  if  the  balloon  is  wetted  with  water  then  it  maybe  swelled  out 
with  air  just  as  if  it  had  been  made  of  some  air-tight  material;  hence  the  principle  of 
varnishing  silk  or  filling  the  pores  with  boiled  oil  when  it  is  required  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  balloons.  It  can  be  readily  seen  that  much  of  the  success  attending  the  appli- 
cation n{  the  arts  and  manufactures  of  civilized  life  depends  upon  this  principle. 


NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY. 


521 


EXPERIMENTS  IN  CRYSTALLIZATION. 

The  term  crystal  was  originally  applied  by  the  ancients  to  silica  in  the  form  of 
what  is  usually  termed  rock  crystal,  or  Brazilian  pebble ; and  they  supposed  it  to  be 
water  which  had  been  solidified  by  a remarkable  intensity  of  cold,  and  could  not  be 
thawed  by  any  ordinary  or  summer  heat.  A singular  and  almost  instantaneous  crys- 
tallization can  be  produced  by  saturating  boiling 
water  with  Glauber’s  salt,  of  which  one  ounce  and 
a half  of  water  will  usually  dissolve  about  two 
ounces  ; having  done  this,  pour  the  solution,  while 
boiling  hot,  into  clean  oil  flasks,  or  vials  of  any 
kind,  previously  warmed  in  the  oven,  and  imme- 
diately cork  them,  or  tie  strips  of  wetted  bladder 
over  the  orifices  of  the  flasks  or  vials,  or  pour  into  fig.  12. 

the  neck  a small  quantity  of  olive  oil,  or  close  the  neck  with  a cork  through  which  a 
thermometer  tube  has  been  passed.  When  cold,  no  crystallization  occurs  until  atmos- 
pheric air  is  admitted,  and  it  was  formerly  believed  that  the  pressure  of  the  air  af- 
fected this  object  until  some  one  thought  of  the  oil ; and  now  the  theory  is  modified, 
and  crystallization  is  supposed  to  occur  in  consequence  of  the  water  dissolving  some 
air,  which  causes  the  deposit  of  a minute  crystal,  and  this  being  the  turning  point  the 
whole  becomes  solid.  However  the  fact  may  be  explained,  it  is  certain  that  when  the 
liquid  refuses  to  crystallize  on  the  admission  of  air,  the  solidification  occurs  directly  a 
minute  crystal  of  sulphate  of  soda,  or  Glauber’s  salt,  is  dropped  into  the  vessel.  When 
the  crystallization  is  accomplished  the  whole  mass  is  usually  so  completely  solidified 
that  on  inverting  the  vessel  not  a drop  of  liquid  falls  out.  It  may  be  observed  that 
the  same  mass  of  salt  will  answer  any  number  of  times  the  same  purpose.  All  that  is 
necessary  to  be  done  is  to  place  the  vial  or  flask  in  a saucepan  of  warm  water,  and 
gradually  raise  it  to  the  boiling  point  till  the  salt 
is  completely  liquefied,  when  the  vessel  must  be 
corked  and  secured  from  the  air  as  before. 

When  the  solidification  is  produced  much  heat 
is  generated,  which  is  rendered  apparent  by 
means  of  a thermometer,  or  by  the  insertion  of 
a copper  wire  into  the  pasty  mass  of  crystal  in 
the  flask,  and  then  touching  an  extremely  thin 
shaving  or  cutting  of  phosphorus,  dried  and 

placed  on  cotton  wool.  Solidification  in  all  cases  produces  heat.  Liquefaction  pro- 
duces cold. 

In  order  to  cause  a substance  to  crystallize  it  is  first  necessary  to  endow  the  par- 
ticles with  freedom  of  motion.  There  are  many  methods  of  doing  this  chemically  or  by 
the  application  of  heat,  but  we  cannot  by  any  mechanical  process  of  concentration,  com- 
pression, or  division,  persuade  a substance  to  crystallize,  unless  perhaps  we  except  that 
remarkable  change  in  wrought  or  fibrous  iron  into  crystalline  or  brittle  iron,  by  con- 
tant  vibration,  as  in  the  axles  of  a carriage,  or  by  attaching  a piece  of  fibrous  iron  to 


522 


PHILOSOPHICAL  EXPERIMENTS. 


a tilt  hammer.  If  we  powder  some  alum  crystals  they  will  not  again  assume  their 
crystalline  form ; if  brought  in  contact  there  is  no  freedom  of  motion.  It  is  like  plac- 
ing some  globules  of  mercury  on  a plate.  They  have  no  power  to  create  motion  ; their 
inertia  keeps  them  separated  by  certain  distances,  and  they  do  not  coalesce  ; but  in* 
cline  the  plate,  give  them  motion,  and  bring  them  in  contact,  they  soon  unite  and  form 
one  globule.  The  particles  of  alum  are  not  in  close  contact,  and  they  have  no  freedom 
of  motion  unless  they  are  dissolved  in  water,  when  they  become  invisible  ; the  water 
by  its  chemical  power  destroys  the  mechanical  aggregation  of  the  solid  alum  far  beyond 
any  operation  of  levigation.  The  solid  alum  has  become  liquid,  like  water ; the  parti- 
cles are  now  free  to  move  without  let  or  hindrance  from  friction.  A solution  (from 
the  Latin  solvo,  to  loosen)  is  obtained.  The  alum  must  indeed  be  reduced  to  minute 
particles,  as  they  are  alike  invisible  to  the  eye  whether  assisted  by  the  microscope  or 
not.  No  repose  will  cause  the  alum  to  separate ; the  solvent  power  of  the  water  op- 
poses gravitation ; every  part  of  the  solution  is  equally  impregnated  with  alum,  and 
the  particles  are  diffused  at  equal  distances  through  the  water  ; the  heavy  alum  is  actu- 
ally drawn  up  against  gravity  by  the  water.  How,  then,  is  the  alum  to  be  brought 
back  again  to  the  solid  state?  The  answer  is  simple  enough.  By  evaporating  away 
the  excess  of  water,  either  by  the  application  of  heat  or  by  long  exposure  to  the  at- 
mosphere in  a very  shallow  vessel,  the  minute  atoms  of  the  alum  are  brought  closer 
together,  and  crystallization  takes  place.  The  assumption  of  the  solid  state  is  indicated 
by  the  formation  of  a thin  film  (called  a pellicle)  of  crystals,  and  is  further  and  still 
more  satisfactorily  proved  by  taking  out  a drop  of  the  solution  and  placing  it  on  a bit 
of  glass,  which  rapidly  becomes  filled  with  crystals  if  the  evaporation  has  been  carried 
sufficiently  far. 

THE  NEW  REVELATIONS  OF  A SNOW  FLAKE. 

M.  Tissandier  states  that  by  evaporating  a drop  of  snow  water  in  dry  air  on  a 
glass  slide,  and  examining  subsequently  with  the  microscope,  crystals,  some  needle- 
like, some  prismatic,  and  others  star-shaped,  were  observed  to  form.  During  the  course 
of  one  experiment,  however,  he  remarked  a noticeable  difference  in  the  crystallization. 
The  crystals  appeared  to  ramify,  throw  off  other  needles,  these  last  others  again,  until 
the  slide  under  the  lens  presented  a beautiful  appearance.  Under  the  influence  of  a 
high  temperature  these  new  crystals  evaporated,  but  it  was  not  difficult  to  prove  them 
to  be  the  nitrate  of  ammonia,  the  presence  of  which  chemical  analysis  had  previously 
indicated.  Further  investigations  showed  also  that  among  the  nitrate  of  ammonia 
crystals  were  scattered  others  of  different  form  and  totally  unlike  those  of  the  rhom-( 
boidal  system.  Some  were  cubical,  indicating  them  to  be  probably  sea  salt,  others  re- 
sembled the  sulphate  of  soda  crystals.  The  last  probability  was  rendered  quite  certain 
by  throwing  a few  flakes  into  a supersaturated  solution  of  sulphate  of  soda,  in  which 
they  immediately  caused  crystallization  to  take  place.  All  the  crystals,  it  appears, 
formed  on  the  edges  of  the  drop,  while  the  corpuscles  formed  a dense  group  in  the 
center. 

It  is  difficult  to  believe  that  the  pure  white  flake,  which  settles  noiselessly  upon  the 
earth  nnd  which  seems,  even  when  moderately  magnified,  but  a mass  of  exquisite  white  ice 


NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY. 


523 


crystals,  is,  after  all,  but  a scavenger  of  the  atmosphere.  But  such,  nevertheless,  is  the 
fact,  and  henceforth  we  must  regard  the  snow-drops  but  as  so  many  sponges  which 
absorb  into  their  porous  substance  the  myriads  of  microscopic  bodies  which  form  that 
peculiar  atmospheric  dust,  found  near  the  surface  , of  the  earth,  and  most  largely  in  the 
vicinity  of  cities.  This  dust  is  itself  a queer  mixture  of  heterogeneous  substances.  M. 
Gaston  Tissandier,  who  has  been  making  a 
number  of  very  interesting  investigations  on 
the  snow,  states  that,  in  a drop  of  water  ob- 
tained from  a single  flake  and  magnified  five 
hundred  times,  he  found  pieces  of  coal,  frag- 
ments of  cloth,  grains  of  starch,  sandy  matter, 
and  an  immense  variety  of  other  substances, 
not  a fragment  of  which  exceeded  in  diameter 
three  ten-thousandths  of  an  inch.  Some  idea 
of  the  numbers  in  which  these  infinitesimal 
particles  must  exist  in  the  snow  can  be  gained 
from  Fig.  14,  which  represents  a drop  of  snow 
water  gathered  at  the  summit  of  Notre  Dame 
towers,  in  Paris,  and  magnified  under  the  mi- 
croscope five  hundred  diameters.  The  fibers 
of  fabrics  and  bits  of  coal  are  easily  recognized. 

By  examining  large  volumes  of  snow  water  M. 

Tissandier  has  been  able  to  determine  the 
weights  of  these  corpuscles.  A quart  of  water  collected  in  the  city  and  evaporated 
gave  3.2  grains  of  residue,  and  the  same  quantity  obtained  in  the  country  yielded  about 
half  that  weight.  The  residue  is  an  impalpable  pulverulent  gray  powder,  composed  in 
round  numbers  of  seventy  per  cent,  mineral  and  thirty  per  cent,  organic  substances. 
It  is  very  rich  in  carbon,  burns  brilliantly,  and  contains  certain  chlorides  and  sulphates 
in  appreciable  quantities,  besides  carbonate  of  lime,  alumina,  silex,  and  sufficient  iron 
to  be  readily  recognized  by  reagents.  Nitrate  of  ammonia  is  also  detected  in  the 
proportion  of  about  0.015  grains  per  quart  of  water. 

MECHANICAL  POWERS. 

The  machines  by  which  the  direction  of  power  is  changed  or  made  more  effective 
are  termed  mechanical  powers,  and  are  commonly  regarded  as  six  in  number:  the  lever, 
pulley,  wheel  and  axle,  reducible  to  the  lever ; the  inclined  plane,  wedge,  and  screw, 
which  are  modified  forms  of  the  inclined  plane.  Archimedes,  who  weighed  the  crown 
for  Hiero,  was  the  first  to  explain  these  forces  on  true  philosophical  principles,  although 
the  machines  had  been  known  and  applied  long  before  his  time.  Galileo  wrote  his 
famous  work,  “Della  Scienza  Mechanica,”  in  1592,  in  which  he  described  the  lever,  in- 
clined plane,  screw,  falling  bodies,  and  the  pendulum.  He  was  the  renowned  astrono- 
mer who  said,  “The  earth  moves  for  all  that.” 

We  deem  it  of  importance  to  treat  the  subject  in  this  connection  so  that  our 
young  readers  may  understand  that  the  principles  of  philosophy  apply  even  to  the 
50 


524 


PHILOSOPHICAL  EXPERIMENTS. 


commonest  things  of  life,  for  there  is  not  an  act  of  our  lives,  however  simple,  but  in- 
volves some  one  or  more  of  the  principles  which  underlie  the  basis  of  true  philosophy. 

THE  LEVER. 

The  lever  is  any  straight  bar  acting  over  a fixed  point  called  the  fulcrum,  and 
moving  a body,  the  weight,  by  the  application  of  power  to  the  opposite  arm  of  the 
lever.  The  illustration,  Fig.  15,  represents  a lever  of  the  first  kind.  The  crowbar  is 

the  lever.  The  small  stone  is  the  fulcrum , and  the 
large  stone  is  the  weight,  or  mass  to  be  moved.  The 
power  is  applied  at  the  hand.  The  amount  of  power 
multiplied  by  the  distance  from  the  power  to  the 
fulcrum  is  equal  to  the  weight  that  can  be  moved 
multiplied  by  the  distance  from  the  weight  to  the 
fulcrum.  The  shorter  the  distance  from  the  weight 
to  the  fulcrum  and  the  longer  the  distance  from  the 
fig.  15.  power  to  the  fulcrum  the  greater  the  amount  of 

the  mass  which  can  be  raised  by  the  given  power.  But  what  is  gained  in  this  way  is 
lost  by  the  time  expended,  for  evidently  the  longer  the  arm  of  the  lever  from  the 
power  to  the  fulcrum  the  more  space  will  it  have  to  move,  and  at  the  same  time  the 
shorter  the  arm  from  the  fulcrum  to  the  weight  the  less  space  will  the  mass  be  moved. 
In  a lever  of  the  second  kind  the  resistance  is  between  the  power  and  the  fulcrum.  An 
illustration  of  this  kind  of  a lever  is  seen  in  the  wheel-barrow.  The  axle  is  the  fulcrum, 
the  two  handles  are  the  levers,  the  strength  used  to  lift  them  the  power,  and  the  load  is 

the  weight  or  resistance.  It  is  easily  seen  that  the  power 
must  be  greater  in  proportion  to  the  mass  than  in  the  lever 
of  the  first  kind.  A lever  of  the  third  kind  is  where  the 
power  is  applied  between  the  fulcrum  and  the  resistance,  as 
in  the  tongs  and  the  nut-cracker,  or  the  treadle  of  a lathe  or 
sewing-machine.  In  this  the  power  must  be  greater  than 
the  resistance. 

c The  platform  scales  furnish  an  illustration  of  this  lever. 
A is  the  fulcrum,  e the  power,  and  the  force  acting  upon  b 
fig.  16.  is  the  resistance,  d the  base  of  the  scales,  and  c the  point  of 

the  bar  which  supports  the  platform  on  which  the  load  rests.  The  combination  of 
levers  accurately  adjusted  makes  it  possible  to  weigh  heavy  bodies  with  weights  of 
comparatively  small  size. 


THE  PULLEY. 

A great  mechanical  advantage  is  gained  when  a number  of  wheels  or  sheaves  are 
arranged  in  a block  as  in  the  common  block-and-tackle.  The  pulleys  are  thus  sepa- 
rated and  have  separate  cords.  One  block  is  fixed  and  does  not  move,  the  other  is 
movable  and  the  weight  or  resistance  is  attached  to  it ; one  end  of  the  rope  is  secured 
to  the  fixed  block  and  passes  over  one  pulley  of  the  movable  block,  then  one  in  the 
fixed  block  back  to  another  in  the  movable  block,  and  so  on.  The  amount  of  the 


NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY. 


525 


weight  which  can  be  raised  by  a given  power  depends  upon  the  number  of  ropes  and 
pulleys. 

This  one  of  the  six  mechanical  powers  consists  of  a wheel  with  a groove  in  its 
Mrcumference,  freely  movable  about  either  a fixed  or  movable  pivot ; hence  the  pulley 

is  either  fixed  or  movable  : the  latter  is  termed  a runner^ 
The  principle  on  which  the  pulley  acts  is  the  same  as 
that  of  the  lever,  but  the  mode  of  estimating  its  power 
is  different. 

The  single  pulley — that  is,  a line  passing  over  a 
wheel  which  turns  on  its  axis — is  only  a change  in  the 
direction  of  force  and  requires  as  much  power  as  there 
is  weight  to  be  overcome,  the  arms  of  the  lever  in 
this  case  being  equal,  since  the  semi-diameters  of  the 
wheel  are  all  equal  to  each  other.  Thus,  in  a single 
fixed  pulley  the  weight  and  power  must  be  equal,  be- 
fig.  17.  cause  the  arms  of  the  lever,  a b , are  equal.  There  is 

therefore  no  advantage  in  such  a pulley.  Its  use  is,  in  connection  with 

the  rope,  to  change  the  direction  of  motion. 

But  if  one  pulley  is  fixed  and  the  other  movable  then  it  is  evident  that 
the  weight  will  be  divided  between  the  two  strings,  and  in  this  arrangement 
the  power  and  weight  will  be  in  equilibrium  when  the  power  multiplied  into  the  number 
of  strings  is  equal  to  the  weight : or,  if  a number  of  fixed  and  movable  pulleys  are  ar- 
ranged in  a block,  the  power  will  equal  the  weight  divided  by  twice  the  number  of  mov- 
able pulleys . 

THE  WHEEL-AND-AXLE. 

The  wheel-and-axle  is  a combination  of  a series  of  levers  of  the  first  kind.  The 

radius  of  the  wheel  is  the  long  arm,  and  the  radius  of  the  axle  the  short  arm,  while 

the  axis  is  the  fulcrum.  If,  therefore,  we  can  ascertain  the 
diameter  of  the  wheel  and  of  the  axle,  the  law  of  equilibrium 
is  easily  determined : it  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  lever. 

Fig.  18  is  a common  well  curb  which  represents  the  wheel-and- 
axle.  The  crank  with  the  handle  acts  as  the  longer  arm  of  a 
lever  of  the  first  kind.  The  diameter  of  the  shaft  is  the  short 
arm.  The  amount  of  the  weight  lifted  can  be  calculated  in 
this  way  : by  the  law  of  inverse  proportion  the  power  is  to 
the  weight  as  the  radius  of  the  axle  to  the  radius  of  the  wheel, 
or,  the  power  and  weight  will  be  in  equilibrium  when  the  power 
multiplied  into  the  radius  of  the  wheel  equals  the  weight  multi- 
plied into  the  radius  of  the  axle. 

The  wheel-and-axle  is  a very  useful  machine,  and  as  the 
power  depends  upon  the  relation  of  the  radius  of  the  wheel  to  that  of  the  axle,  if  the  latter 
is  diminished  and  the  former  increased  the  greater,  in  both  cases,  will  the  power  become. 
But  there  is  a limit  to  this  increase  of  power ; the  axle  cannot  be  diminished  beyond 


fig.  18. 


526 


PHILOSOPHICAL  EXPERIMENTS. 


a certain  size  without  breaking,  nor  can  the  wheel  be  enlarged  to  a very  great  extent 
without  becoming  unwieldy.  To  obviate  this  and  to  secure  the  requisite  power  a 

combination  of  wheels  may  be  used  as  in  Fig.  19. 
In  this  case  a very  heavy  weight  may  be  raised, 
but  its  velocity,  compared  with  that  of  the  power, 
is  very  small,  so  that  what  is  gained  in  power  is 
lost  in  time. 

In  the  illustration  a b represents  the  lever  of 
the  first  kind  acting  so  as  to  turn  the  wheel,  d , 
where  cogs  act  upon  the  small  wheel,  e f turning 
on  the  same  axle  the  larger  wheel,  g h , which 
turns  h i on  the  same  axle  as  /.  Around  the 
drum,  /,  a rope  is  wound  which  runs  over  a pulley 
and  lifts  the  heavy  weight.  This  is  a rude  illus- 
tration of  the  action  of  a weight  in  a clock. 


COMMUNICATION  OF  MOTION  BY  WHEEL-WORK. 

By  the  action  of  two  or  more  wheels  upon  each  other  a very  rapid  or  a very  slow 
movement  may  be  given  to  machinery.  If  two  wheels  of  equal  size  touch  each  other 

by  their  circumferences  the  motion  of  the  one,  if  there 
is  considerable  friction,  will  cause  the  motion  of  the 
other ; or,  if  a band  is  made  to  pass  around  two  wheels, 
motion  may  be  communicated  from  one  to  the  other 
and  their  relative  velocities  will  depend  upon  their  size. 
The  smaller  wheel  will  move  as  much  faster  as  its  di- 
ameter is  less.  But  the  most  common  mode  of  com- 
20.  municating  motion  from  one  wheel  to  another  is  by 

means  of  teeth  cut  into  the  circumference  of  one  wheel,  and  corresponding  notches, 
called  leaves , into  the  axle  of  the  other.  This  arrangement  is  called 

THE  WHEEL  AND  PINION  (FIG.  20). 

The  number  of  teeth  in  the  wheel  and  of  leaves  in  the  axle  will  be  in  proportion 
to  their  circumferences,  or  to  their  radii,  and  hence: 

The  product  of  the  power  into  the  number  of  teeth  in  the  wheel  will  be  equal  to  the 
product  of  the  weight  into  the  number  of  leaves  in  the  axle. 

The  velocity  of  each  wheel  and  of  its  pinion  will  be  inversely  as  the  number  of 
teeth  ; that  is,  the  greater  the  number  of  teeth  the  less  the  velocity,  and  the  reverse. 
By  means  of  several  wheels  of  different  diameters  motion  may  be  increased  or  dimin- 
ished to  an  indefinite  extent. 

In  the  pendulum  of  the  common  clock  it  is  necessary  to  add  a slight  force  to  over 
come  the  resistance  of  the  air  and  the  friction  at  the  point  of  suspension. 


THE  INCLINED  PLANE. 

This  is  reckoned  one  of  the  mechanical  powers  because,  by  rolling  it  up  a plane,  a 
man  may  raise  a weight  which  he  could  not  lift.  This  principle  is  extensively  made  us® 


NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY. 


527 


of  chiefly  in  the  raising  of  weights  and  in  road-making.  It  is  here  unnecessary  to  go  into 
a mathematical  investigation  of  the  theory  of  the 
inclined  plane  as  it  may  be  seen  in  the  common 
books  on  mechanics. 

The  inclined  plane  is  much  used  in  practical 
life.  Roads  leading  up  the  sides  of  hills  are  illus- 
trations of  this.  The  force  needed  to  haul  a 
loaded  cart  up  such  a road  is  the  power  needed  to 
overcome  the  friction  and  at  the  same  time  overcome  the  gravitation  of  the  load  acting 
parallel  to  the  plane.  If  the  hill  is  very  steep  the  road  is  made  to  wind  around  it. 
The  stairs  in  a house  furnish  an  example  of  the  same  thing.  The  laws  of  the  inclined 
plane  are  these:  I.  When  the  power  acts  parallel  to  the  inclined  plane  the  power  to 
hold  a weight  in  suspense  is  to  the  pressure  of  the  load  as  the  height  of  the  plane  is  to 
the  base ; 2.  When  this  power  is  parallel  to  the  base  of  the  plane  the  load  is  to  its 
gravity  as  the  base  of  the  plane  is  to  its  length. 

A familiar  illustration  of  the  inclined  plane  is  seen  in  the  common  toy  kite,  Fig.  22. 
The  line  a b is  the  inclined  plane  and  c d the  power  of  gravitation  drawing  against 
the  force  of  the  wind  which  blows  on  the 
kite.  The  pressure  against  the  broad  side 
of  the  kite  would  carry  it  off  in  a straight 
line ; the  power  of  attraction  would  draw 
it  down,  but  the  line  holding  it  takes  a di- 
agonal of  a parallelogram. ' Another  illus- 
tration may  be  seen  in  the  case  of  beveled 
wheels.  The  positions  of  the  inclined 
planes  are  seen  in  the  cut  on  the  right. 

Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  the  inclined  plane 
is  used  in  the  arts,  the  manufactures,  and 
the  sports  of  civilized  life.  The  grading  of  rail  roads  is  upon  the  same  principle.  The 
farmer  rolls  a barrel  of  cider  into  his  wagon  up  an  inclined  plane,  and  we  walk  up  an 
inclined  plane  when  we  ascend  the  stairs. 


STRENGTH  OF  MATERIALS. 

The  important  question  in  all  mechanical  contrivances  is  to  determine  the  strength 
of  the  materials  used.  This  may  be  estimated  in  many  ways.  Absolute  strength  is 
he  amount  of  force  exerted  lengthwise  that 
would  cause  the  wire,  rope,  or  other  substance 
to  part,  and  may  be  applied  as  in  Fig.  23.  The 
strength  of  wire  is  increased  by  drawing  it  out, 
as  there  is  given  to  the  atoms  of  the  surface 
greater  tenacity  than  to  the  atoms  within  the 
wire  ; so  that  if  the  surface  of  a wire  be  removed  fig.  23. 

by  a piece  of  sand-paper  its  strength  will  be  much  diminished  ; hence,  by  twisting 


528 


PHILOSOPHICAL  EXPERIMENTS. 


many  wires  together  increasing  the  surface  the  strength  of  the  metal  is  much 

greater  than  when  it  is  in  one  solid  wire.  Some 
of  the  heaviest  bridges  are  sustained  by  iron 
cables  made  of  small  wire.  The  same  is  true 
of  hemp  and  silk  cords ; the  latter  possesses 
twice  the  strength  of  the  former,  and  their  te- 
nacity is  still  further  increased  by  gluing  the 
F1G-  24-  threads  together.  By  wetting  the  cord  it  is 

also  rendered  stronger. 

The  resistance  which  a body  opposes  to  a force  applied  directly  across  it,  when  one 
or  both  ends  are  supported,  is  called  the  lateral  strength , as  seen  in  Fig.  24,  in  which 
the  strength  of  the  cross-bar  is  tried  by  making  it  fast  to  an  elliptical  link  of  iron  or 
steel.  This  is  generally  much  less  than  the  absolute  strength.  The  strength  of  a 
beam,  supported  at  the  two  ends,  and  weights  applied  at  the  center,  will  depend,  1st, 
upon  its  length  ; the  shorter  it  is,  the  greater  its  power  of  resistance ; 2d,  upon  its 
breadth  and  depth,  the  strength  being  as  the  breadth  multiplied  into  the  square  of  the 
depth;  hence  a board  will  be  strongest  when  placed  on  its  edge.  If  the  beam  is  sup- 
ported at  one  end,  its  strength  is  but  about  one-fourth  as  great. 

The  resistance  to  compression  increases  with  the  thickness  of  the  body  until  it  has 
reached  a certain  diameter,  and  then  diminishes.  In  this  case  the  pressure  may  be 
made  directly  across  the  body,  as  is  the  case  with  a wedge,  or  lengthwise,  as  is  illus- 
trated by  pillars  that  sustain  heavy  structures. 

The  resistance  which  a body  opposes  to  being  twisted  is  called  the  strength  of  tor- 
sion. This  power  varies  very  much,  and  depends  upon  elasticity.  Some  bodies  may 
be  twisted  to  a great  extent  and  return  again  to  their  former  position,  while  others 
are  easily  broken  by  twisting  them,  or  become  permanently  bent.  These  points  are 
the  limits  of  the  force  of  torsion. 

THE  SCREW. 

The  screw  is  an  inclined  plane  wound  round  a cylinder.  This  can  be  illustrated 
by  vinding  a strip  of  paper  cut  in  the  shape  of  a right-angle  triangle  about  a lead  pen- 
cil, commencing  with  the  perpendicular  side  and  wind- 
ing to  the  tapering  point.  It  will  be  seen  at  once 
that  the  edge  of  the  paper  representing  the  inclined 
plane  will  wind  in  a spiral  from  the  point  upward. 
The  screw,  Fig.  25,  is  made  of  a spiral  thread  winding, 
as  seen,  around  a cylinder,  the  nut  which  turns  on 
the  screw  having  a groove  corresponding  to  the  thread. 
This  thread  may  be  flat,  as  seen  in  the  cut,  or  triangu- 
lar and  pointed,  as  in  the  carpenter’s  screw,  for  build- 
ing purposes. 

The  principle  and  law  of  the  screw  is  this : the 
power  is  to  the  weight  as  the  height  of  the  plane  to 
its  base.  We  shall  find  that  an  equilibrium  will  be  pro- 
FIG<  25*  duced  when  (1)  The  power  is  to  the  weight  as  the  dis- 

tance between  two  contiguous  threads  to  the  circumference  of  the  base. 


NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY. 


529 


power, 


elevated 


FIG.  26. 


The  screw,  when  used  as  a mechanical 
being  turned  within  a concave  nut,  Fig.  26, 
and  for  turning  it  a lever  is  usually  employed^ 
so  that  the  screw  combines  the  advantages  of 
the  lever  and  inclined  plane.  Hence  the 
power  which  a screw  is  capable  of  exerting 
will  be  increased  over  that  of  the  inclined 
plane  in  the  ratio  of  the  length  of  the  lever  to 
the  radius  of  the  cylinder.  In  this  case  it  is 
found  that  equilibrium  is  maintained  when 
{2)  The  pozver  is  to  the  weight  as  the  distance  betzveen  two  contiguous  threads  to  the  cir- 
cumference of  a circle  made  by  one  revolution  of  the  power. 

Fig.  27  is  a screw  such  as  is  used  by  cabinet-makers  for  pressing  together  pieces  of 
wood  to  hold  them  firmly  while  being  glued  together,  and  for  other  purposes.  There 
are  two  concave  nuts  for  the  same  screw  through  which  to  work.  The 
strength  of  the  screw  and  the  power  to  be  exerted  depend  upon  the  dis- 
tance between  the  threads  and  the  length  of  the  lever  applied  to  turn  it. 

The  less  the  distance  and  the  longer  the  lever  the  more  weight  can  be  ap- 
plied, but  it  will  be  at  the  expense  of  time. 

The  screw  is  generally  used  for  the  purpose  of  compression  ; but  it  mat- 
ters not  how  the  power  is  applied,  for  a force  that  will  lift  a weight  of  ten 
tons  will  impart  the  same  amount  of  pressure.  The  endless  screw,  Figs. 

28  and  29,  combined  with  the  wheel-and-axle,  is  employed  for  certain  pur- 
poses, and  is  capable  of  exerting  great  pressure  or  lifting  very  heavy  iwiiiiiiiiiiiiibl 
weights.  In  the  Fig.  28  the  crank,  a b,  represents  the  power;  the  axis 
of  the  screw,  b c,  turns  the  cog-wheel  and  the  rope  is  fastened  to  the  heavy 
weight  to  be  raised.  As  a matter  of  course  the  crank  will  have  to  be  turned  FIG  27» 
as  many  times  to  make  one  revolution  of  the  large  wheel  as  that  wheel  is  larger  than 
the  axle,  b c>  and  the  distance  the  weight  is  raised  will  only  be  the  circumference  of  the 


axle  of  the  windlass.  There  is  in  this  a great  gain  of  power  at  an  expense  of  time. 
Fig.  29  shows  the  endless  screw  in  equilibrium. 


530 


PHILOSOPHICAL  EXPERIMENTS. 


In  the  machine  represented  in  Fig.  30  is  a combination  of  the  lever,  the  screw. 

and  the  pulley  ; e h v is  a lever  of  the  first  kind, 
with  its  fulcrum  at  h.  Its  arc  of  movement  is 
b g.  The  pallets,  d and  e , work  on  a cog-wheel 
connected  with  the  pulley  at  a and  f.  The  rope  is 
made  fast  at  one  end.  By  this  machine  a weight 
can  be  raised,  like  the  barrel,  or  a carriage  can  be 
drawn  up  an  inclined  plane,  or  the  two  can  be  com- 
bined. In  this  case  the  weight,  represented  by 
the  barrel,  prevents  the  wheel  from  turning  back 
when  the  lever  is  raised  to  g. 


THE  WEDGE. 


The  wedge  is  the  last  of  the  mechanical  powers,  and,  like  the  screw,  can  be  reduced 
to  an  inclined  plane.  It  consists  of  two  inclined  planes  placed  together  at  their  bases 

with  a common  perpendicular.  It  is 
used  for  cleaving  wood,  rocks,  or  other 
hard  substances  whose  cleavage  will 
permit.  Sometimes  it  is  employed  for 
raising  heavy  bodies,  as  the  hull  of  a 
vessel  for  launching,  and  so  on.  The 
power  of  the  wedge  depends  upon 
friction,  and,  unlike  any  of  the  other 
powers,  it  is  aided  rather  than  retarded 
by  this  property,  which  is  both  a diffi- 
culty to  be  overcome  and  an  aid  in 
applying  force.  All  cutting  and  pierc- 
are  examples  of  the  wedge.  Fig.  32  shows 


fig.  31. 


32. 


ing  tools,  as  knives,  planes,  chisels,  shears,  etc 
how  the  wedge  may  be  reduced  to  the  inclined  plane. 


MODIFICATION  OF  MOTION. 

It  is  often  desirable  to  change  the  direction  of  motion  from  horizontal  to  vertical, 
or  from  circular  to  reciprocating,  and  the  reverse.  For  this  purpose  cog-wheels  and 

joints  are  employed,  called 

Gearing. — Cog-wheels  have  been  already 
noticed,  where  the  object  was  to  increase  or 
diminish  velocity.  They  are  also  used  to 
change  the  direction  of  motion,  in  which  case 
they  occupy  different  positions  in  reference 
to  each  other,  or  else  the  direction  in  which 
the  teeth  are  cut  is  varied. 

1.  If  the  teeth  lie  in  the  same  plane  with 
the  wheels  it  is  called  spur  gearing , in  which 
fig.  33.  case  the  direction  of  the  motion  is  not 

changed.  2.  If  the  teeth  are  cut  obliquely  to  the  axis,  it  is  called  spiral  gearing. 


NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY. 


531 


3.  If  the  teeth  are  so  cut  as  to  prevent  motion  in  one  direction  by  means  of  a catch 
while  it  allows  it  in  the  opposite  direction  it  is  called  a ratchet  wheel . 

4.  If  the  axis  of  motion  is  one  side  of  the  center  of  a wheel,  so  that  the  velocity  of 
the  circumference  varies  at  different  points,  it  is  called  an  eccentric  wheel.  Such 
wheels  are  used  in  orreries,  to  exhibit  the  varying  motions  of  the  planets  in  their  orbits. 

5.  Reciprocating  motion  is  generally  produced  by  means  of  a crank  attached  to  a 
wheel  with  a shaft,  which  rises  up  and  down  as  the  wheel  turns.  This  is  exemplified 
in  the  saw-mill,  steam-engine,  and  some  other  machines. 

HYDROSTATICS. 

Liquids  differ  from  solids  in  the  fact  that  their  atoms  are  less  under  the  influence 
of  cohesion,  and  hence  have  a freer  motion  among  themselves,  in  consequence  of 
which  the  force  of  gravity  draws  each  atom  separately  toward  the  center  of  the  earth. 

Liquids  as  well  as  solids  are  under  the  influence  of 
gravity,  but,  in  consequence  of  the  freedom  of  motion 
among  their  atoms,  each  atom  of  a mass  is  separately  at- 
tracted toward  the  center  of  the  earth.  The  fundamental 
difference  between  a liquid  and  a solid  in  this  respect  de- 
pends upon  the  relative  force  of  cohesion  and  gravity. 

Fig.  34  illustrates  the  law  of  hydrostatic  pressure  and 
the  preservation  of  level.  It  shows  a water  tank  and 
waste-pipe.  A is  the  tank.  B the  syphon  through  which 
the  water  flows  to  the  cup.  The  dotted  lines  show  the 
course  of  the  pipes  which  are  concealed  from  sight.  The 
waste-pipe  carries  off  the  water  through  the  syphon,  E. 

The  water  rising  in  the  pipe,  C,  by  its  upward  pressure  on 
D,  indicates  the  number  of  gallons  contained  in  A.  The 
hydrostatic  press  is  constructed  on  the  principle  that  fluids 
rise  to  the  same  level  in  small  as  in  large  tubes. 

If  the  surface  of  the  bottom  be  made  very  large  and 
the  tube  very  high,  the  pressure  will  be  increased  in  a compound  ratio.  This  is  called 
the  hydrostatic  paradox,  because  a very  small  quantity  of  liquid  may  be  so  applied  as 
to  raise  a very  large  weight.  A single  pound  of  water  may  be  made  to  exert  a pressure 
of  ten,  fifty,  or  a thousand  pounds.  This  force  is  limited  only  by  that  of  capillary  at- 
traction. It  is  obvious  that  there  is  no  limit  to  the  force  which  such  a press  may  be 
made  to  exert  but  that  which  arises  from  the  strength  of  the  material  of  which  it  is 
constructed.  This  press  may  be  used  for  pressing  paper,  books,  cotton,  hay,  and 
many  other  substances  where  great  force  is  required.  By  means  of  a lever  applied  to 
the  cylinder  the  weight  of  one  man  is  sufficient  to  tear  up  the  largest  tree  by  its  roots ; 
in  fact,  to  exert  a pressure  of  more  than  two  millions  of  pound 

HYDRAULICS,  OR  WATER  IN  MOTION. 

We  have  been  dealing  with  water  at  rest.  Now  we  come  W.  water  in  motion. 
Hydraulics  treats  of  the  motion  of  liquids,  and  of  the  machines  which  are  put  in  mo- 
tion by  them.  The  motion  of  liquids,  whether  they  flow  in  pipes,  rivers,  or  canals,  re- 


532 


PHILOSOPHICAL  EXPERIMENTS. 


suits  from  the  attraction  of  gravitation  ; but,  owing  to  the  peculiar  properties  of  a 
liquid,  and  the  action  of  this  force  already  noticed,  page  120,  their  motions  are  subject 
to  special  laws,  different  somewhat  from  those  of  solids,  so  that  the  laws  of  their  mo- 
tion derived  from  theory  must  be  modified  in  actual  experience,  in  order  to  be  fully 
relied  upon.  That  is,  when  we  determine  how  a liquid  should  move  by  the  laws  of 
motion,  we  find,  by  experiment,  a considerable  deviation  from  the  theoretical  law. 

The  principles  of  hydraulics  depend  upon  the 
following  laws : 

The  motion  of  liquids  is  generally  due  to 
gravity,  though  it  often  results  from  other 
forces ; but,  owing  to  the  peculiar  properties 
of  liquids,  the  laws  of  motion,  derived  from 
theory,  are  somewhat  modified  in  practice. 

I.  The  velocity  of  a liquid  spouting  from 
an  orifice  in  the  side  of  a vessel  is  just  equal  to 
that  which  a falling  body  would  acquire  in  de- 
scending through  the  perpendicular  height  of 
the  column  above  the  orifice. 

II.  The  quantity  of  liquid  discharged  from 
any  vessel  is  modified  by  friction  and  the  cross- 
ing of  currents  at  the  orifice. 

III.  The  quantity  is  also  modified  by  con- 
ducting tubes,  which,  if  short,  increase,  and  if  long,  diminish  the  quantity  of  efflux. 

IV.  A jet  of  water  issuing  from  the  side  of  a vessel  describes  the  curve  of  a 
parabola  ; and  a random  from  a jet  at  the  center  of  the  column  is  greatest,  while  those 
at  equal  distances  from  the  center  above  and  below  have  the  same  random. 

V.  When  liquids  flow  in  rivers,  pipes,  and  canals,  the  velocity  of  the  stream,  at 
any  part  of  its  course,  is  inversely  as  the  area  of  the  section  of  that  part. 

VI.  Liquids  resist  the  motion  of  bodies  passing  through  them  in  the  ratio  of  the 
square  of  the  velocity. 

VII.  Liquids  are  practically  applied  to  move  machinery  by  means  of  wheels  which 
are  placed  either  vertically  or  horizontally,  and  are  moved  by  the  force  of  the  stream. 

The  laws  are  illustrated  in  Fig.  35.  The  water  at  the  fairest  would  press  out  with 
velocity  equal  to  the  amount  of  pressure  on  the  surface  h h.  The  pressure  is  reduced 
by  means  of  an  inverted  cup,  a a b,  the  water  level,  b , in  the  cup  exerting  only  the 
pressure  of  its  surface.  This  explains  the  system  of  a water  supply  from  a great  body 
of  water  like  one  of  the  Great  Lakes. 


The  law  of  the  wedge  is : The  power  or  force  applied  equals  the  resistance  multi- 
plied into  half  the  back  and  divided  by  the  length  of  the  wedge.  The  wedge  is  an  instru- 
ment of  much  power,  but  it  depends  solely  upon  the  presence  of  friction.  In  attempt- 
ing to  split  a frozen  log  the  wedge  will  bound  out,  because  there  is  so  little  friction  to 
hold  it. 


THE  SCIENCE  OF  CHEMISTRY, 

WITH  ILLUSTRATED  EXPERIMENTS. 


There  is  hardly  any  kind  of  knowledge  which  has  been  so  slowly  acquired  as  that 
of  chemistry,  and  perhaps  no  othe:  ' * ‘ ‘ 

labor  of  its  votaries  as  the  philoso- 
pher s stone , which  was  to  produce 
an  unfailing  supply  of  gold  ; or  the 
elixir  of  life,  that  was  to  give  the 
discoverer  of  the  gold-making  art 
the  time,  the  prolonged  life,  in 
which  he  might  spend  and  enjoy 
it. 

Hundreds  of  years  ago  Egypt 
was  the  great  depository  of  all 
learning,  art,  and  science,  and  it 
was  to  this  ancient  country  that 
the  most  celebrated  sages  of  an- 
tiquity traveled.  Hermes,  or  Mer- 
curius  Trismegisms,  the  favorite 
minister  of  th  Egyptian  king 
Osiris,  has  been  celebrated  as  the 
inventor  of  the  art  of  alchemy,  and  the  first  treatise  upon  it  has  been  attributed  to  Zosy- 
mus,  of  Chemnis  or  Panopolis.  The  Moors  who  conquered  Spain  were  remarkable  for 
their  learning,  and  the  taste  and  elegance  with  which  they  designed  and  carried  out  a new 
style  of  architecture,  with  its  lovely  arabesque  ornamentation.  They  were  likewise 
great  followers  of  the  art  of  alchemy  when  they  ceased  to  be  conquerors,  and  became 
more  reconciled  to  the  arts  of  peace  ; and  when  all  Europe  was  laid  waste  under  the  iron 
rule  of  the  Goths  they  became  the  protectors  of  philosophy  and  the  promoters  of  its  pur- 
suits ; and  thus  we  come  to  the  seventh  century,  in  which  Geber,  an  Arabian  prince, 
lived,  and  is  stated  to  have  been  the  earliest  of  the  true  alchemists  whose  name  has 
reached  posterity. 

Without  attempting  to  fill  up  the  alchemical  history  of  the  intervening  centuries 
we  leap  forward  six  hundred  years,  and  now  find  ourselves  in  imagination  in  England, 
W1.”P  the  learned  friar,  Roger  Bacon,  a native  of  Somersetshire,  who  lived  about  the 
middle  of  the  thirteenth  century;  and  although  the  continual  study  of  alchemy  had 
not  yet  produced  the  “ stone,”  it  bore  fruit  in  other  discoveries,  and  Roger  Bacon 
is  said,  with  great  appearance  of  truth,  to  have  discovered  gunpowder,  for  he  says  in 
one  of  his  works:  “ From  saltpeter  and  other  ingredients  we  are  able  to  form  a fire 
which  will  burn  to  any  distance  ; ” and  again  alluding  to  its  effects,  “ a small  portion  of 
matter,  about  the  size  of  the  thumb,  properly  disposed , will  make  a tremendous  sound 
and  coruscation,  by  which  cities  and  armies  might  be  destroyed. ’’  The  exaggerated 
style  seems  to  have  been  a favorite  one  with  all  philosophers,  from  the  time  of  Roger 
^a<?n^°  Musschenbroek  of  the  University  of  Leyden,  who  accidentally  discov- 

ered the  Leyden  jar  in  the  year  1746,  and  receiving  the  first  shock,  from  a vial  contain- 
ing a litter  water,  into  which  a cork  and  nail  had  been  fitted,  states  that  “ he  felt  him- 
self struck  in  his  arms,  shoulders,  and  breast,  so  that  he  lost  his  breath,  and  was  t^vfi 


science  has  ottered  such  fascinating  rewards  to  the 


Fig.  A.  — A,  the  finger-glass;  B,  the  violin  bow;  C,  the  ebony- 
ball.  The  dotted  ball  shows  how  it  is  repelled  during  the  vibra- 
tion of  the  glass. 


504 


THE  SCIENCE  OF  CHEMISTRY. 


days  before  he  recovered  from  the  effects  of  the  blow  and  the  terror ; ” adding  that  “ he 
would  not  take  a second  shock  for  the  kingdom  of  France.”  Disregarding  the  numerous 
alchemical  events  occurring  from  the  time  of  Roger  Bacon  we  again  advance  four  hun- 
dred years — viz.,  to  the  year  1662,  when,  on  the  15th  of  July,  King  Charles  II.  granted 
a royal  charter  to  the  Philosophical  Society  of  Oxford,  who  had  removed  to  London, 
under  the  name  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London  for  Promoting  Natural  Knowledge,  and 
in  the  year  1665  was  published  the  first  number  of  the  Philosophical  Transactions ; this 
work  contains  the  successive  discoveries  of  Mayow,  Hales,  Black,  Leslie,  Cavendish, 
Lavoisier,  Priestley,  Davy,  Faraday ; and  since  the  year  1762  has  been  regularly  published 
at  the  rate  of  one  volume  per  annum.  With  this  preface  we  proceed  to  discuss  some  of 
the  varied  phenomena  of  chemical  attraction,  or  what  is  more  correctly  termed 

CHEMICAL  AFFINITY. 

The  above  title  refers  to  an  endless  series  of  changes  brought  about  by  chemical 
combinations,  all  of  which  can  be  reduced  to  certain  fixed  laws,  and  admit  of  a sim- 
ple classification  and  arrangement.  A mechanical  aggregation,  however  well  arranged, 
can  be  always  distinguished  from  a chemical  one.  Thus,  a grain  of  gunpowder  consists 
of  niter , which  can  be  washed  away  with  boiling  water,  of  sulphur , which  can  be  sub- 
limed and  made  to  pass  away  as  vapor,  of  charcoal , which  remains  behind  after  the 
previous  processes  are  complete  ; this  mixture  has  been  perfected  by  a careful  propor- 
tion of  the  respective  ingredients,  it  has  been  wetted,  and  ground,  and  pressed,  granu- 
lated, and  finally  dried  ; all  these  mechanical  processes  have  been  so  well  carried  out 
that  each  grain,  if  analyzed,  would  be  similar  to  the  other;  and  yet  it  is,  after  all,  only 
a mechanical  aggregation,  because  the  sulphur,  the  charcoal,  and  the  niter  are 
unchanged.  A grain  of  gunpowder  moistened,  crushed,  and  examined  by  a high 
microscopic  power,  would  indicate  the  yellow  particles  of  sulphur,  the  black  parts  of 
charcoal,  while  the  water  filtered  from  the  grain  of  powder  and  dried  would  show  the 
niter  by  the  form  of  the  crystal.  On  the  other  hand,  if  some  niter  is  fused  at  a dull 
red  heat  in  a little  crucible,  and  two  or  three  grains  of  sulphur  are  added,  they  are 
rapidly  oxidized,  and  combine  with  the  potash,  forming  sulphate  of  potash  ; and  after 
this  change  a few  grains  of  charcoal  may  be  added  in  a similar  manner,  when  they  burn 
brightly,  and  are  oxidized  and  converted  into  carbonic  acid,  which  also  unites  in  like 
manner  with  the  potash,  forming  carbonate  of  potash  ; so  that  when  the  fused  niter  is 
cooled  and  a few  particles  examined  by  the  microscope ; the  charcoal  and  sulphur  are 
no  longer  distinguishable,  they  have  undergone  a chemical  combination  with  portions 
of  the  niter,  and  have  produced  two  new  salts,  perfectly  different  in  taste,  gravity,  and 
appearance  from  the  original  substances  employed  to  produce  them.  Hence,  chemical 
combination  is  defined  to  be  “ that  property  which  is  possessed  by  one  or  more  substances, 
of  uniting  together  and  producing  a third  or  other  body  perfectly  different  in  its  nature 
from  either  of  the  two  or  more  generating  the  new  compound .” 

A very  slight  and  partial  examination  of  three  simple  bodies  does  not,  however, 
afford  us  any  deep  insight  into  the  principles  of  chemistry ; we  have,  as  it  were,  only 
mastered  the  signification  of  a few  words  in  a language  ; any  number  of  isolated  experi- 
ments with  various  chemical  substances  would  be  comparatively  useless,  and  therefore 
the  “ alphabet  of  chemistry,”  or  “ table  of  simple  elements,”  must  first  be  acquired. 
These  bodies  are  understood  to  be  solids,  fluids,  and  gases,  which  have  hitherto  defied 
the  most  elaborate  means  employed  to  reduce  them  into  more  than  one  kind  of  matter. 
Even  pure  light  is  separable  into  seven  parts — viz.,  red,  orange,  yellow,  green,  blue, 
indigo,  and  violet ; but  the  elements  we  shall  now  enumerate  are  not  of  a compound, 
but,  so  far  as  we  know,  of  an  absolutely  simple  or  single  nature  ; they  represent  the 
boundaries,  not  the  finality,  of  the  knowledge  that  may  be  acquired  respecting 
them. 


THE  SCIENCE  OF  CHEMISTRY. 


535 


The  elements  are  sixty-four  in  number,  of  which  about  forty  are  tolerably  plenti- 
ful, and  therefore  common  ; while  the  remainder,  twenty-four,  are  rare,  and  for  that 
reason  of  a lesser  utility:  whenever  Nature  employs  an  element  on  a grand  scale  it 
may  certainly  be  called  common,  but  it  generally  works  for  the  common  good  of  all. 
and  fulfills  the  most  important  offices. 

CHEMICAL  EXPERIMENTS. 

The  three  gases  which  head  the  list  will  first  engage  our  attention,  beginning  with 
the  element  oxygen — Symbol  O,  combining  proportion  sixteen.  There  is  nothing  can 
give  a better  idea  of  the  enormous  quantity  of  oxygen  pres- 
ent in  the  animal,  vegetable,  and  mineral  kingdoms,  than 
the  statement  that  it  represents  one-third  of  the  weight  of 
the  whole  crust  of  the  globe.  Silica,  or  flint,  contains  about 
half  its  weight  of  oxygen  ; lime  contains  forty  per  cent. ; 
alumina  about  thirty-three  per  cent.  In  these  substances 
the  element  oxygen  remains  inactive  and  powerless,  chained 
by  the  strong  fetters  of  chemical  affinity  to  the  silicium  of 
the  flint,  the  calcium  of  the  lime,  and  the  aluminum  of  the 
alumina.  If  these  substances  are  heated  by  themselves  they  will  not  yield  up  the  large 
quantity  of  oxygen  they  contain. 

Nature,  however,  is  prodigal  in  her  creation,  and  hence  we  have  but  to  pursue 
our  search  diligently  to  find  a substance  or  mineral  containing  an  abundance  of  oxygen, 
and  part  of  which  it  will  relinquish  by  what  used  to  be  called  by  the  “ old  alchemists  ” 
the  torture  of  heat.  Such  a mineral  is  the  black  oxide  of  manganese,  or  more  correctly 
the  binoxide  of  manganese,  which  consists  of  one  combining  proportion  of  the  metal 
manganese — viz.,  55*0,  and  two  of  oxygen — viz.,  16  x 2 = 32. 

There  are  other  solid  oxygenized  bodies  in  which  the  affinities  are  less  powerful, 
and  hence  a lower  degree  of  heat  suffices  to  liberate  the  oxygen  gas,  and  one  of  the 
most  useful  in  this  respect  is  the  salt  termed  chlorate  of  potash.  If  the  substance  is 
heated  by  itself  the  temperature  required  to  expel  the  oxygen  is  almost  as  high  as 
that  demanded  for  the  black  oxide  of  manganese  ; but,  strange  to  say,  if  the  two  substances 
are  reduced  to  powder,  and  mixed  in  equal  quantities  by  weight,  then  a very  moderate 
increase  of  heat  is  sufficient  to  cause  the  chlorate  of  potash  to  give  up  its  oxygen, 
while  the  oxide  of  manganese  undergoes  no 
change  whatever.  It  seems  to  fulfill  only  a 
mechanical  office — possibly  that  of  separating 
each  particle  of  chlorate  of  potash  from  the 
other,  so  that  the  heat  attacks  the  substance  in 
detail,  just  as  a solid  square  of  infantry  might 
repel  almost  any  attack,  while  the  same  body 
dispersed  over  a large  space  might  be  of  little 
use  ; so  with  the  chlorate  of  potash,  which  under- 
goes rapid  decomposition  when  mixed  with  and 
divided  among  the  particles  of  the  oxide  of 
manganese ; less  so  with  the  red  oxide  of  iron 
and  still  less  with  sand  or  brick-dust. 

The  retort  is  heated  over  a slow  fire  and 
the  oxygen  escapes  through  the  water  in  Fig.  2 
and  is  received  in  bubbles  in  the  glass  receptacle.  This  method  of  preparing  oxygen 
is  both  simple  and  inexpensive,  and  can  be  accomplished  with  safety  by  our  young 
scientists  if  care  is  used. 


fig.  2. 


536 


THE  SCIENCE  OF  CHEMISTRY. 


NITROGEN,  OR  AZOTE. 


Composition  of  Atmospheric^ 

Oxygen 20 

Nitrogen 80 

100 


Weight. 

22*3 

777 

IOO* 


The  atmosphere  is  the  great  storehouse  of  nitrogen,  and  four-fifths  of  its  prodig- 
ious volume  consists  of  this  element. 

The  usual  mode  of  procuring  nitrogen  gas 
is  to  abstract  or  remove  the  oxygen  from  a 
gjiven  portion  of  atmospheric  air,  and  the  only 
point  to  be  attended  to  is  to  select  some  sub- 
stance which  will  continue  to  burn  as  long  as 
there  is  any  oxygen  left,  as  will  be  seen  in  the  following : 

Experiment. — To  prepare  nitrogen  gas  it  is  only  necessary  to  place  a little  dry 
phosphorus  in  a Berlin  porcelain  cup  on  a wine-glass,  and  to  stand  them  in  a soup-plate 

containing  water.  The  phosphorus  is 
set  on  fire  with  a hot  wire,  and  a gas  jar 
or  cylindrical  jar  is  then  carefully  placed 
over  it,  so  that  the  welt  of  the  jar  stands 
in  the  water  in  the  soup-plate.  At  first, 
expansion  takes  place  in  consequence  of 
the  heat,  but  this  effect  is  soon  reversed 
as  the  oxygen  is  converted  into  a solid 
by  union  with  the  phosphorus,  forming 
a white  smoke,  which  gradually  disap- 


pears. 


CARBON. 


This  element  has  almost  the  prop- 
erty of  ubiquity,  and  is  to  be  found  not 
only  in  all  animal  and  vegetable  sub- 
tances,  in  common  air,  sea,  and  fresh 
water,  but  also  in  various  stones  and 
minerals,  and  especially  in  chalk  and 
limestone. 

A piece  of  carbon,  in  the  shape  of 
the  Koh-i-Noor,  was  one  of  the  chief  at- 
tractions at  the  first  Exhibition  in  Hyde 
Park.  The  diamond  is  the  hardest  and 
most  beautiful  form  of  charcoal ; how  it 
was  made  in  the  great  laboratory  of 
fig.  3.  nature,  or  how  its  particles  came  to- 

gether, seems  to  be  a mystery  which  up  to  the  present  time  has  not  yet  been  solved, 
at  all  events  no  artificial  process  has  yet  produced  the  diamond. 

Experiment. — Box  and  various  woods,  dried  bones,  and  different  organic  matters, 
placed  in  a nearly  closed  iron  or  other  vessel,  and  heated  red  hot,  so  that  all  volatile 
matter  may  escape,  leave  behind  a solid  black  substance  called  charcoal.  If  that  kind 
obtained  from  bones,  and  termed  bone-black  or  ivory-black,  is  roughly  powdered,  and 
placed  in  a flask  with  some  solution  of  indigo  or  some  vinegar,  or  syrup  obtained  by 
dissolving  common  moist  sugar  in  water,  and  boiled  for  a short  period,  the  color  is 
removed,  and  on  filtering  the  liquid  it  is  found  to  be  as  clear  and  colorless  as  water, 
provided  sufficient  ivory  black  has  been  employed. 


THE  SCIENCE  OF  CHEMISTRY. 


537 


ARTICLES  FOR  USE. 

Figs.  3,  4,  5,  represent  various  vessels  and  articles  which  will  be  of  service  in  the 
laboratory  and  experimenting  room  : the  retort,  glass  tubes  with  closely-fitting  pistons, 

m the  long  tube  with  funnel-shaped  top  for 

JJJ  pouring  liquids  in  long  distances,  and  for  va- 
rious  uses.  The  amount  of  apparatus  for  a 
well-conducted  laboratory  is  quite  considerable  and  involves 
considerable  outlay;  therefore  amusements  based  upon  experi- 
ments in  electricity  are  not  within  the  reach  of  most  families. 
But  we  have  given  the  few,  and  others  can  be  learned  from 
the  school  chemistries. 

PNEUMATICS. 

The  term  pneumatics  is  derived  from  a Greek  word, 
pneuma , the  name  of  the  air.  As  a branch  of  mechanics,  its 
object  is  to  investigate  the  conditions  of  the  equilibrium  and 
motion  of  elastic  or  aeriform  fluids.  Aeriform  fluids  differ  in 
some  respects  from  liquids , and  hence,  in  these  respects,  pneu- 
matics is  distinguised  from  hydrostatics.  When  certain 
solids  and  all  liquids  are  heated  they  become  vapors , or  elastic 
fluids,  which  differ  from  gases  in  being  more  easily  reduced  by 
cold  or  pressure  to  the  liquid  or  solid  state.  Only  two  elastic 
fluids  are  generally  treated  of  in  natural  philosophy:  steam , 
which  is  the  vapor  of  water,  and  common  air,  which  is  a perma- 
nently elastic  fluid,  because  it  has  never  been  reduced  to  the  liquid  or  solid  state  by  cold  or 
pressure.  Caloric  always  pervades  the  particles  of  bodies,  and  overcomes,  to  a greater 
or  less  extent,  the  force  of  cohesion.  The  latter  power  is  predominant  in  solids,  nearly 
in  equilibrium  with  caloric  in  liquids,  and  entirely  destroyed  in  gases,  the  particles 
being  removed,  in  the  last,  beyond  the  reach  of  their  mutual  attraction. 

The  following  facts  must  be  borne  in  mind  in  regard  to  the  atmosphere.  It  is 
material  and  has  all  the  properties  of  matter:  first,  it  is  impenetrable  ; second,  it  is  ex- 
tended in  space  , third,  it  has  weight  ; fourth,  it  has  inertia  ; fifth,  it  is  a fluid.  These 
points  are  all  capable  of  demonstration,  but  first  we  will  explain 

Hydrostatic  Balloon . — If  the  ball  is  made  a little  heavier  than  the  water,  so  as  to 
remain  at  the  bottom  of  the  jar,  and  the  cloth  removed,  on  placing  the  whole  under 
the  receiver  and  exhausting  the  air,  the  bubble  in  the  ball  will  expand,  drive  the  water 
out,  and  the  ball  will  rise  to  the  surface.  On  admitting  the  air  the  balloon  will  sink, 
because  the  air  within  is  condensed,  and  the  water,  being  forced  in,  renders  the  balloon 
specifically  heavier  than  water.  The  elasticity  of  the  air  may  be  employed  to  produce 
a beautiful  jet  of  water  by  using  an  instrument  called  the  transferer. 

The  Sucker. — The  pressure  of  the  air  is  often  illustrated  by  a circular  piece  of 
leather  with  a string  passed  through  the  center.  When  this  is  moistened  and  pressed 
down  on  any  smooth  surface,  a weight  of  many  pounds  may  be  raised  by  the  string  in 
the  center,  in  consequence  of  the  pressure  of  the  air  upon  its  surface.  Boys  often  use 
this  to  lift  smooth  stones  and  drag  them  along.  Insects  are  enabled  to  walk  upon  the 
ceiling  of  a room  because  their  feet  are  formed  like  the  sucker,  and  the  upward  press- 
ure of  the  air  holds  them  firmly  to  the  ceiling.  Animals  drink  and  draw  their  milk  by 
forming  a vacuum  with  their  lips,  and  the  atmosphere  forces  the  liquid  into  their 
mouths.  What  is  called  suction  is  nothing  but  the  pressure  of  the  air  exerted  upon 
the  surface  of  a liquid,  forcing  it  into  a partial  vacuum,  which  is  formed  by  the  mouth 
or  by  some  othe*  mechanism. 


538 


THE  SCIENCE  OF  CHEMISTRY. 


THE  AIR-GUN. 

In  this  instrument  the  air  may  be  compressed  in  it  about  one  thousand  six 

hundred  times  its  volume,  and  when  al- 
lowed to  exert  its  elasticity  upon  the  ball 
it  will  propel  it  with  the  force  of  gunpow- 
der. A ball  is  driven  from  the  ordinary 
gun  by  the  elastic  force  of  the  gases  which 
fig.  6.  are  formed  by  igniting  the  powder. 

CALORIC,  OR  HEAT. 

The  subject  of  caloric  belongs  to  chemistry,  but,  as  heat  is  a powerful  mechani- 
cal agent,  there  is  one  branch  of  it  which  comes  appropriately  under  the  notice  of  the 
natural  philosopher. 

Caloric  exists  in  two  states:  i.  Sensible , in  which  state  it  produces  the  sensation  of 
heat,  and  tends  to  expand  all  bodies  into  which  it  is  introduced.  2.  Insensible , in  which 
condition  it  does  not  affect  the  temperature  of  bodies,  but  exists  in  them  in  greater  or 
less  quantities,  and  gives  rise  to  the  liquid  and  gaseous  forms  of  matter. 

I.  Sensible  caloric  has  one  fundamental  property,  which  is  a tendency  to  diffuse  itself 
equally  through  all  bodies  ; i.  e.,  to  bring  all  bodies  to  an  equilibrium  of  temperature.  This 
is  effected  in  two  ways : i.  By  conduction , in  which  case  it  passes  from  particle  to  par- 
ticle through  any  body.  The  rapidity  with  which  it  passes  varies  greatly  in  different 
substances.  Solids  are  almost  the  only  bodies  which  conduct  heat  at  all.  In  liquids 
the  power  is  very  slight.  In  gases  it  is  wholly  wanting.  Solids  are  heated  by  conduc- 
tion, but  liquids  and  gases  are  heated  by  convection , that  is,  by  contact  of  their  particles 
against  the  surface  of  some  heated  solid.  2.  By  radiation , in 
which  case  caloric  is  thrown  off  in  all  directions  from  the  surface 
of  a heated  body  in  right  lines,  and  passes  through  air  and  other 
gases  without  heating  them.  When  radiant  caloric  falls  upon  solid 
or  liquid  surfaces  it  is  either  reflected — that  is,  thrown  back  from 
the  surface  in  the  same  manner  as  a solid  would  be ; or  it  is 
absorbed — that  is,  passes  into  the  body  and  heats  it ; or  trans- 
mitted— that  is,  passed  directly  through  the  body. 

II.  Sensible  caloric  produces  one  generic  effect , expansion.  It 
expands  all  bodies,  solids,  liquids,  and  gases.  In  solids  and 
liquids  the  degree  of  expansion  varies  in  different  substances, 
and  in  the  same  substance  at  different  temperatures ; but  all 
gases  are  equally  expanded  by  heat,  whatever  their  temperature 
may  be. 


THE  STEAM-ENGINE. 

The  steam-engine  owes  its  present  perfection  to  Mr.  James 
Watt.  In  order  to  understand  the  principle  by  which  steam 
is  applied  in  the  engine,  it  is  only  necessary  to  take  a glass 
tube,  with  a bulb  and  solid  piston  capable  of  working  up  and 
down  in  the  tube,  Fig.  7.  By  heating  the  water  with  a spirit- 
lamp  the  steam  formed  will  raise  the  piston  to  the  top  ; then, 
FIG-  7*  by  immersing  the  bulb  in  cold  water  it  will  condense  the  steam, 

and  the  force  of  the  atmosphere  will  drive  the  piston  to  the  bottom.  Now  if,  by 
means  of  a tube  connected  with  a steam  boiler,  the  steam  be  admitted  at  the  bottom 
below  the  piston,  it  will  raise  it  up  as  before ; but,  in  order  to  condense  it,  its  tempera- 
ture must  be  reduced.  This  may  be  effected  by  stopping  the  supply  of  steam  ; and, 


THE  SCIENCE  OF  CHEMISTRY. 


539 


by  means  of  a tube  in  the  side,  introducing  a small  jet  of  cold  water,' the  pressure" of 
the  atmosphere  will  again  force  the  piston  to  the  bottom  ; on  readmitting  the  steam 
it  will  be  forced  up.  This  may  illustrate  one  form  of  the  low-pressure  engine.  It  will 
be  seen  that  the  piston  must  be  forced  up  against  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere,  and 
hence  the  steam  must  have  considerable  tension  ; but  if  the  piston-rod  is  made  to 
move  through  a steam-tight  collar,  and  the  steam  introduced  and  condensed  at  the  top 
of  the  cylinder  as  well  as  at  the  bottom,  the  same  motion  may  be  produced  with  much 
less  power ; as  the  whole  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  is  removed  the  piston  will  be  forced 
up  by  a force  less  by  fifteen  pounds  to  the  square  inch,  but  when  it  is  at  the  top  we  must 
apply  thd/same  force  to  press  it  to  the  bottom.  Hence,  as  the  engine  is  worked  with  a 
lower  power  of  steam,  it  is  called  a low-pressure  engine,  and  the  improvement  of  Watt 
consisted  chiefly  in  condensing  the  steam  in  a separate  vessel  called  a condenser,  so  that 
the  temperature  of  the  cylinder  was  kept  uniform. 

If  a Florence  flask  is  first  fitted  with  a nice  soft  cork,  and  this  latter  removed,  and 
the  former  half  filled  with  water,  which  is  then  boiled  over  a gas  or  spirit  flame,  the 
same  fact  already  mentioned  and  illustrated  on  a 
preceding  page  may  be  rendered  apparent  when  the 
flask  is  corked  and  removed  from  the  heat.  If  it  is  now 
inverted,  and  cold  water  poured  over  it,  an  ebullition 
immediately  commences,  because  the  cold  water  con- 
denses the  steam  in  the  space  above  the  hot  water  in 
the  flask,  and  producing  a vacuum,  the  water  boils  as 
readily  as  it  would  do  under  an  exhausted  receiver  on 
an  air-pump  plate  {Fig  8). 

LIGHT  AND  ITS  RAPIDITY  OF  MOTION. 

“ A cannon-ball  moving  uniformly  at  its  greatest 
velocity  would  require  seventeen  years  to  reach  the  sun. 

Light  performs  the  same  distance  in  about  seven  minutes 
and  a half.  The  swiftest  bird,  at  its  utmost  speed,  would 
require  nearly  three  weeks  to  make  the  tour  of  the 

earth  supposing  it  could  proceed  without  stopping  topiG  8._The  paradoxical  experiment  of 
take  food  or  rest.  Light  performs  the  same  distance  in  boiling  by  the  application  of  cold  wa- 
less  time  than  is  required  for  a single  stroke  of  its  wing.”  ter. 

Perfection  admits  of  no  addition,  and  it  is  just  this  feeling  that  might  check  the 
most  eloquent  speaker  or  brilliant  writer  who  attempted  to  offer  in  appropriate  language 
the  praises  due  to  that  first  great  creation  of  the  Almighty,  when  the  spirit  of  God  moved 
upon  the  face  of  the  waters  and  said,  “ Let  there  be  light.” 

It  is  understood  that  light  is  produced  by  an  emanation  of  rays  from  a luminous 
body.  If  a stone  is  thrown  from  the  hand,  an  arrow  shot  from  a bow,  or  a ball  from  a 
cannon,  we  perfectly  understand  how  either  of  them  may  be  propelled  a certain  dis- 
tance, and  why  they  may  travel  through  space  ; but  when  we  hear  that  light  travels 
from  the  sun,  which  is  ninety-five  millions  of  miles  away  from  the  earth,  in  about  seven 
minutes  and  a half,  it  is  interesting  to  know  what  is  the  kind  of  force  that  propels  the 
light  through  that  vast  distance,  and  also  what  is  supposed  to  be  the  nature  of  the  light 
itself. 


THE  EFFECTS  OF  LIGHT. 

Light  issues  from  the  sun,  passes  through  millions  of  miles  to  the  earth,  and  as  it 
falls  upon  different  substances  a variety  of  effects  are  apparent.  There  is  a certain 
class  of  bodies  which  obstruct  the  passage  of  the  rays  of  light,  and  where  light  is  not,  a 
shadow  is  cast,  and  the  substance  producing  the  shadow  is  said  to  be  opaque.  Wood, 
51 


54* 


THE  SCIENCE  OF  CHEMISTRY. 


stone,  the  metals,  charcoal,  are  all  examples  of  opacity ; while  glass,  talc,  and  horn 
allow  a certain  number  of  the  rays  to  travel  through  their  particles,  and  are  therefore 
called  transparent.  Nature,  however,  never  indulges  in  sudden  extremes,  and  as  no 
substance  is  so  opaque  as  not  (when  reduced  in  thickness)  to  allow  a certain  amount  of 
light  to  pass  through  its  substance,  so,  on  the  other  hand,  however  transparent  a body 
may  be,  a greater  or  lesser  number  of  the  rays  are  always  stopped,  and  hence  opacity 
and  transparency  are  regarded  as  two  extremes  of  a long  chain  ; being  connected 
together  by  numerous  intermediate  links,  they  pass  by  insensible  gradations  the  one  into 
the  other. 

Light  is  thrown  out  on  all  sides  from  a luminous  body  like  the  spokes  of  a cart- 
wheel, and  in  the  absence  of  any  obstruction  the  rays  are  distributed  equally  on  all 
sides,  diverging  like  the  radii  drawn  from  the  center  of  a circle.  As  a natural  conse- 
quence arising  from  the  divergence  of  each  ray  from  the  other,  the  intensity  of  light 
decreases  as  the  distance  from  the  luminous  source  increases,  and  vice  versa. 

That  which  transmits  light  is  called  a medium.  Gases,  liquids,  and  transparent 
solids  impede  its  passage  more  or  less,  and  are  therefore  imperfect  media.  A vacuum 
is  a perfect  or  free  medium.  A ray  of  light  is  a line  of  luminous  particles  proceeding 
from  a luminous  point;  a beam  of  light  is  a number  of  parallel  rays  ; and  a pencil  of 
light  is  a collection  of  rays  radiating  from  a luminous  point. 

REFLECTION  OF  LIGHT. 

I.  When  a ray  of  light  is  reflected — i.  The  angles  of  incidence  and  of  reflec* 
tion  are  equal ; 2.  When  rays  of  light  fall  upon  plain  mirrors  the  reflected  rays  have 
the  same  inclination  as  the  incident  rays  have ; and,  3.  The  images  formed  by  plain 
mirrors  correspond  with  the  objects,  being  at  the  same  distance  from  the  mirror,  and 
like  situated  in  every  respect.  A.  When  two  mirrors  are  placed  at  an  angle,  two  or 
more  images  of  the  object  are  formed. 

II.  Rays  of  light  falling  on  curved  surfaces  observe  the  same  law  ; hence,  1.  Par- 
allel rays  falling  upon  a concave  mirror  are  reflected  to  a point  called  the  focus  of 
parallel  rays,  which  is  half  way  between  the  center  of  curvature  and  surface  of  the  mir- 
ror. Concave  mirrors  give  rise  to  images,  whose  position  and  magnitude  will  depend 
upon  the  position  of  the  objct.  2.  Rays  of  light  falling  upon  a convex  mirror  are 
rendered  diverging ; and  hence  the  images  of  such  mirrors  are  less  than  the  object  be*' 
hind  the  mirror,  and  nearer  to  it  than  the  object. 


THE  WONDERFUL  MAGIC  MIRROR. 

HOW  TO  ENTERTAIN  AN  AUDIENCE  AND  ASTONISH  THE  LEARNED. — THE  GHOST 

MYSTERY  EXPLAINED. 

One  of  the  most  startling  effects  that  can  be  displayed  to  persons  ignorant  of  the 
common  laws  of  the  reflection  of  light  is  called  the  “ magic  mirror,”  and  is  described 
by  Sir  Walter  Scott  in  his  graphic  story  of  that  name.  The  apparatus  for  the  purpose 
must  be  well  planned  and  fixed  in  a proper  room  for  that  purpose,  and  if  carefully  con- 
ducted may  surprise  even  the  learned.  A long  and  somewhat  narrow  room  should  be 
hung  with  black  cloth,  and  at  one  end  may  be  placed  a large  mirror,  so  arranged  that 
it  will  turn  on  hinges  like  a door.  The  magician’s  circle  may  be  placed  at  the  other 
end  of  the  chamber  in  which  the  spectators  must  be  rigidly  confined,  and  there  is  very 
little  doubt  that  the  arrangement  about  to  be  described  was  formerly  used  by  clever 
astrologers  who  pretended  to  look  into  the  future,  and  to  hold  communication  with 
the  supernatural  powers.  Theatrical  effects  were  not  disdained,  such  as  suppressed 
io  d dismal  groans,  sham  thunder,  and  the  wizard  usually  heightened  his  own  inspiring 


THE  SCIENCE  OF  CHEMISTRY. 


541 


personal  appearance  by  wearing  of  course  a long  beard  and  flowing  robe  trimmed  with 
hieroglyphics,  and  with  the  assistance  of  a ponderous  volume  full  of  cabalistic  signs,  a 
few  skulls  and  cross-bones,  an  hour-glass,  a pair  of  drawn  swords,  a black  cat,  a char- 
coal fire,  and  sundry  drugs  to  throw  into  it,  a very  tolerable  collection  of  imps,  famil- 
iars, and  demons,  might  be  expected  to  attend  without  the  modern  practice  of  spirit- 
rapping.  As  before  stated,  the  delusion  must  be  carefully  conducted,  and  a confede* 
ate  is  necessary  in  order  to  use  the  phantasmagoria,  or  magic  lantern.  The  slides  of 
course  were  painted  to  suit  the  fortune  to  be  unfolded — an  easy  road  to  riches  for  the 
gentlemen,  a tale  of  love,  ending  in  matrimony,  for  the  ladies. 

The  spectators,  being  placed  in  the  magic  circle,  are  directed  to  look  into  the  mir- 
ror; they  may  even  be  ordered  singly  to  fetch  a skull  off  the  mantle-shelf  beside  the 
mirror  and  while  doing  so  to  look  full  into  the  mirror,  and  then  return  to  the  circle. 
Absolute  silence  is  enjoined,  and  soft  music  is  now  heard. 

The  confederate  may  remove  the  mirror  from  its  frame  and 
place  it  at  an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees,  then  throw  on  a Ij 
picture  from  a magic-lantern.  No  end  of  amusement  can  be 
afforded  by  judicious  and  careful  management. 

A combination  of  mirrors  will  produce  the  amusing 
changes  of  the  popular  “ ghost  show  ” and  the  beheaded 
man.  The  effect  produced  is  the  result  of  these  laws. 

If  a plane  mirror  be  placed  at  an  angle  of  forty-five 
degrees  to  the  horizon,  an  erect  object  placed  before  it  will 
appear  horizontal,  and  a horizontal  object  erect,  because 
the  image  will  have  the  same  inclination  to  the  mirror  as 
the  object ; and  as  each  is  forty-five  degrees,  taken  together 
they  will  amount  to  ninety  degrees.  When  the  object  is 
twice  the  length  of  the  mirror,  and  placed  parallel  to  it, 
its  image  will  be  distinctly  seen,  for  the  angle  of  reflection 
is  equal  to  the  angle  of  incidence,  and  these,  taken  together, 
are  double  the  angle  of  incidence.  The  surface,  therefore, 
which  reflects  the  rays  from  the  object  will  be  but  half  as 
long  or  as  broad  as  the  object ; hence  a person  may  see 
his  whole  length  in  a mirror  which  is  but  half  of  his  height. 

The  distinctness  or  brightness  of  the  image  increases  as  the 
angle  of  incidence  increases.  For  example,  if  the  light  of  a 
lamp  fall  nearly  perpendicularly  upon  ground  glass,  polished 
wood,  or  varnished  paper,  we  cannot  distinguish  any  flame  ; 
but  if  the  rays  fall  obliquely,  the  image  will  be  distinctly 
seen  ; that  is,  the  intensity  of  the  reflected  rays  is  least 
at  perpendicular  incidence,  and  increases  with  the  angle 
of  incidence.  The  intensity  of  the  reflected  rays  is  modified,  also,  by  the  medium  in 
which  they  move,  and  the  nature  of  the  surface  against  which  they  impinge. 


Fig.  9.  — Plan  of  room.  A A,  tha 
frame  of  the  looking-glass;  A B, 
mirror  put  back  to  an  angle  of  forty, 
five  degrees;  C,  the  confederate* 
who  manages  the  lantern  and  shuts 
the  glass  to  the  frame  after  each  for. 
tune  is  told ; D,  the  magic  circle,  to 
which  the  rays  are  reflected. 


FIRE  BALLOONS. 

These  balloons  are  a good  example  of  the  expansion  of  gases,  and  the  lightness  of 
the  air  thus  increased  in  bulk  was  taken  advantage  of  by  a Frenchman,  Montgolfier,  in 
the  construction  of  a famous  balloon  which,  with  an  arrangement  containing  various 
animals,  ascended  in  the  presence  of  the  king  and  royal  family  of  France  at  Versailles  ; 
it  ascended  to  the  height  of  ten  thousand  two  hundred  feet,  and  descended  without 
injury  to  the  animals  or  himself.  The  gallant  aeronaut,  Pilate  de  Rcgier,  offered  him- 
self to  be  the  first  aerial  navigator,  and  having  joined  Montgolfier  they  made  three 
successful  ascents  and  descents  with  an  oval-shaped  balloon-  forty-eight  feet  in  diam- 


j'42 


THE  SCIENCE  OF  CHEMISTRY. 


eter,  and  seventy-four  feet  high.  On  the  fourth  occasion  he  ascended  to  a height  of 

two  hundred  and  sixty-two  feet,  but  in  the  descent 
a gust  of  wind  having  blown  the  machine  over  some 
large  trees  of  an  adjoining  garden,  the  situation  of  the 
brave  aeronaut  was  extremely  dangerous.  On  de- 
scending again,  he  once  more,  and  without  the  slight- 
est fear,  raised  himself  to  a considerable  height  by 
feeding  his  fire  with  chopped  straw.  Some  time  after 
he  ascended,  in  company  with  M.  Giroud  de  Vilette, 
to  the  height  of  three  hundred  and  thirty  feet,  hover- 
ing over  Paris  at  least  nine  minutes,  in  sight  of  all  the 
inhabitants,  and  the  machine  keeping  all  the  while  per- 
fectly steady. 

The  danger  in  using  this  method  of  inflating  the 
balloon  arises  from  the  possibility  of  generating  gas, 
which  escaping  unburnt  into  the  body  of  the  balloon 
may  accumulate  and  blow  up,  or  burn  afterward. 

Fire-balloons,  as  usually  made,  are  very  dangerous 
toys,  and  may  sometimes  prove  rather  costly  to  the 
person  who  may  send  them  off,  in  consequence  of  their 
being  blown  by  the  wind  on  a hay  or  corn  rick,  or  other 
combustible  substances.  The  safest  mode  of  using 
fire-balloons  is  to  fill  them  with  hot  air  from  a lighted 
Fig.  ii.— a gas  stove,  with  ring  of  gas  gas  stove;  the  balloons  may  then  be  used  in  large 
jets  lighted  inside ; the  air  rushes  in  the  r00ms,  or  out  in  the  air,  without  fear  of  doing  any 

direction  of  the  arrows,  C C,  and  escaping  , • i , • , r ,u  y 

at  the  top  Of  the  chimney,  D D,  soon  fill!  harm  to  neighboring  property,  as  of  course  the  stove 
the  air  or  fire-balloon,  which  is  usually  and  the  fire  remain  behind,  and  will  fill  any  number 
made  of  paper.  Qf  air-balloons. 


WAVES  AND  THEIR  MOTION. 

Water-Waves. — Water-waves  are  generally  produced  by  the  combined  agency  of 
air  and  gravity ; but,  whatever  the  disturbing  cause  may  be,  any  elevation  or  depres- 
sion of  the  surface  of  a liquid  is  propagated  to  a con- 
siderable distance  from  the  point  of  disturbance. 
Thus,  if  a stone  be  thrown  into  a pond  of  water,  cir- 
cular waves  will  be  formed,  which  consist  of  eleva- 
tions and  depressions,  that  follow  each  ^ 
other  with  considerable  rapidity,  and 
spread  themselves  with  uniform  veloc- 
ity to  a greater  or  less  distance  over  the  surface  of  the 
pond.  Such  waves  have  a progressive  motion ; the 
water  does  not  move  in  the  direction  of  the  wave,  but 
only  rises  up  and  down  in  a vertical  plane.  That  there 
iHI  is  no  progressive  motion  of  the  water  is  shown  by  the 
fact  that  light  bodies  floating  upon  its  surface  do  not  advance 
with  the  wave,  but  only  rise  and  fall  in  a vertical  line  as  the 
vave  elevations  and  depressions  pass  under  them.  The  force 
which  propels  the  wave  is  gravity.  The  particles  on  the  top  of 
the  wave  are  drawn  down  by  this  force  with  such  velocity  that 
they  sink  below  the  general  level  of  the  surface,  and  cause  the 
particles  which  are  adjacent  in  the  advance  of  the  wave  to  rise  0 

up  and  form  another  elevation,  and  gravity  again  draws  them  down  and  makes  a 
second  depression. 

The  theory  of  waves  is  illustrated  by  Fig.  ii,  a glass  dish  of  water  with  an  arrange- 
ment of  balls  that  strike  the  edge  and  cause  a slight  undulation  in  the  water. 


FIG.  II. 


SEX  IN  THE  VEGETABLE  WORLD. 


What  IS  Life? — The  distinction  between  the  organic  and  inorganic  worlds  is 
very  marked  when  you  rise  in  the  scale  of  created  things,  but  on  its  lower  border  it 
seems  difficult  to  define  the  line  of  demarkation.  It  may  be  summed  up  in  one 
word — Life.  This  is  the  principle  which  separates  the  two  realms,  organic  and  in- 
organic. What  is  life  in  its  broadest  sense?  This  question  has  puzzled  the  philoso- 
phers who  have  spent  their  lives  in  an  attempt  to  solve  the  problem. 

Man  possesses  life  in  common  with  an  almost  infinite  variety  of  other  creatures. 
The  hugest  monster  of  any  age  and  the  tiniest  insect  revealed  by  the  microscope; 
the  giants  of  the  forest  and  the  minute  species  of  moss  that  clings  to  the  rock,  are  all 
imbued  with  life.  All  nature  teems  in  myriad  forms  and  endless  variety  with  that 
strange  thing  or  principle  we  call  life. 

Animal  and  Vegetable  Life. — If  the  distinction  between  organic  and  inor- 
ganic nature  is  so  difficult,  that  between  the  animal  and  vegetable  is  more  so.  While 
it  is  comparatively  easy  to  point  out  the  general  characteristics  of  each,  still  at  the 
lower  confines  of  the  two  kingdoms  they  seem  strangely  to  interblend  and  thus  mys- 
tify the  scientific  observer.  All  organic  beings  have  life,  and  this  term  refers  to  the 
phenomena  which  arise  from  organization.  This,  however,  is  not  a definition,  but 
a repetition  of  terms. 

Life  FORCE  a MYSTERY. — Observation  proves  to  us  that  this  force  is  convert- 
ible into  heat  and  mechanical  force.  Very  delicate  instruments  have  demonstrated 
that  life  force  is  changed  into  electricity.  The  electric  eel  and  some  other  fish  have 
such  an  amount  of  this  as  to  discharge  a shock  which  paralyzes  larger  animals.  The 
firefly  and  other  insects  have  the  power  of  converting  vital  heat  into  light. 

How  life  is  produced  is  a question  of  mystery  as  yet  unsolved  by  the  science  of 
to-day.  That  it  is  reproduced  is  the  experience  common  to  animals  and  vegetables 
alike. 

REPRODUCTION. — This  is  a function  and  a distinct  characteristic  of  plants  and 
animals.  By  this  method  they  increase  or  multiply.  Every  organic  being  seems  to 
have  its  cycle  of  birth,  growth,  decadence,  and  death.  The  great  variety  in  every 
rank  of  animal  and  plant  life,  and  the  difference  of  condition  and  circumstance  at- 
tending these,  make  it  apparent  that  there  must  be  a corresponding  variety  in  their 
modes  of  reproduction  as  to  general  character  and  detail.  But  there  is  a unity  in  all 
this  seeming  diversity.  That  unity  may  be  expressed  by  the  word  sex. 

The  law  may  be  stated  thus : Every  living  organism  originates  with  some  previ- 
ously existing  living  being  or  beings. 

Sex. — We  find  that  reproduction  comes  from  the  uniting  of  two  very  dissimilar 
elements.  The  exceptions  to  this  are  very  rare  indeed.  These  elements  do  not,  in 
the  higher  forms  of  life,  exist  in  the  same  individuals,  but  are  generated  by  them. 
Since  they  are  unlike,  there  are  special  organs  which  produce  them,  each  organ  able 
to  furnish  the  particular  element  needed.  As  these  exist  in  separate  beings,  it  gives 
rise  to  the  distinction  of  sex — male  and  female.  In  many  species  the  difference  is  so 
great,  that  for  a long  time  it  was  not  known  that  they  were  of  different  genders,  or 


544 


SEX  IN  THE  VEGETABLE  WORLD. 


even  kinds.  An  individual  plant  or  animal,  possessing  both  male  and  female  organs 
of  reproduction,  is  termed  a hermaphrodite.  This  combination  is  not  so  rare 
among  plants  as  among  the  higher  order  of  animals,  although  the  snail,  the  oyster, 
the  earth-worm,  and  the  barnacle,  are  examples  of  true  hermaphrodites  in  the  animal 
world. 

VEGETABLE  Organs  OF  Sex. — The  sexual  organs  of  plant  life  are  found  in  the 
flower.  The  wonder,  adaptation,  variety,  and  loveliness  of  these  are  worthy  of  study. 
It  may  seem  strange  to  the  ordinary  reader  to  ascribe  sexuality  to  plants.  The 
science  of  botany  has,  however,  established  the  truth  that  these  organs  may  be  as 
readily  distinguished  in  the  vegetable  as  in  the  animal  world. 

The  parts  of  the  flower  which  develop  the  seed  correspond  to  the  female 
organs,  and  the  parts  which,  though  they  do  not  bear  seeds,  are  necessary  to  their 
fecundation,  are  the  male  organs.  These  flowers  are  in  some  cases  found  on  separate 
individuals  of  the  species,  and  in  many  cases  upon  separate  stocks  of  the  same  plant 
or  tree.  To  this  latter  class  belong  the  oak,  walnut,  and  other  forest  trees,  as  well 
as  the  Indian  corn.  In  this  familiar  illustration,  in  the  last  mentioned,  the  “tassel  ” 
exhibits  the  male,  and  the  “ silk  ” the  female  flowers  on  the  same  stock,  but  in  sepa- 
rate parts.  There  are  a large  number  of  plants  which  are  true  hermaphrodites,  com- 
bining both  elements  in  the  same  flower.  But  in  all  there  must  be  a normal  com- 
bination of  the  two  to  reproduce  the  species. 

The  Structure  of  the  Flower. — Perfect  flowers  consist  of  four  parts.  Two 
of  these  are  essential,  namely,  the  stamen  and  the  pistil . The  others  are  accessory 
and  helpful  to  these,  namely,  the  calyx  and  the  corolla.  That  portion  of  the  flower 
which  surrounds  it  at  the  outer  or  lower  part  is  called  the  calyx.  It  is  of  different 
form  and  color  in  the  different  species,  but  usually  it  is  some  tinge  of  green.  The 
corolla  forms  the  most  attractive  and  showy  part  just  within  the  calyx.  The  divi- 
sions of  the  corolla  are  called  petals , those  of  the  calyx  are  called  sepals.  Within  the 
calyx,  the  outer  envelope,  and  the  corolla,  the  inner  envelope,  are  found  the  essential 
organs,  the  stamen  and  pistils.  The  first  are  the  proper  male  organs,  and  the  second 
the  proper  female  organs. 

The  Sexual  Organs. — The  stamens  consist  of  a stem  or  filament,  on  top  of 
which  are  found  two  little  sacs.  This  is  called  the  anther , and  is  filled  at  maturity 
with  a fine  dust,  seen  under  the  microscope,  called  the  pollen . This  contains  the 
male  element  for  reproduction.  One  writer  has  termed  this  part  of  the  flower  the 
vegetable  husband.  Some  flowers  have  many  stamens.  From  this  circumstance  the 
great  Linnaeus,  the  investigator  of  organic  life,  based  his  scientific  classification  of 
flowers.  A flower  with  but  one  stamen  he  called  monandria,  or  one  husband ; those 
with  two  stamens,  diandria,  or  two  husbands ; those  having  a number,  polyandria , or 
many  husbands. 

The  female  organs  are  the  pistils  which  grow  in  the  very  centre  of  the  flower. 
This  bears  a cell  which  contains  the  female  element  of  reproduction,  termed  an  ovule. 
Above  it  grow  the  style  and  the  stigma . 

In  some  plants  these  sexual  organs  of  both  kinds  are  invisible  to  the  unaided 
eye.  Such  are  called  cryptogamia,  or  hidden  marriages.  We  cannot  fail  to  be  im- 


SEX  IN  THE  VEGETABLE  WORLD. 


545 


pressed  by  this  brief  outline  of  an  interesting  study  with  the  wonderful  correspond- 
ence in  the  reproduction  of  life  in  animals  and  vegetables.  There  is  a striking  anal- 
ogy at  every  step  in  the  structure  as  well  as  the  function  of  the  sexual  apparatus  in 
both  forms  of  life. 

How  Flowers  FECUNDATE. — The  renowned  naturalist,  Linnaeus,  was  the  first 
to  make  known  these  interesting  facts  and  explain  them  upon  a scientific  basis. 
There  is  found  in  one  of  his  productions  a passage  of  marvellous  beauty  showing  the 
analogy  of  the  process  in  both  the  great  realms  of  nature,  the  animal  and  the  vege- 
table. This  displays  the  steps  of  the  process  in  language  which  may  be  too  scientific 
for  our  purpose.  He  has  been  styled  the  father  of  the  modern  science  of  botany, 
and  we  mention  this  to  prove  how  early  in  the  history  of  this  subject  the  fact  of 
which  we  are  now  treating  was  known.  The  correspondences  in  nature  are  as  mar- 
vellous as  they  are  widely  extended.  Nowhere  is  this  more  strikingly  illustrated  than 
in  the  mystery  which  lies  at  the  beginnings  of  life.  In  this  common  and  vital  process 
we  see  the  thread  which  runs  through  all  forms  of  life  and  binds  all  together  in  one 
infinite  series,  from  the  lowest  form  of  plant  to  the  highest,  and  from  the  tiniest 
insect  up  to  man,  the  crowning  piece  of  creation. 

Something  almost  akin  to  intelligence  may  be  observed  in  the  action  of  plants. 
When  the  proper  development  has  arrived,  the  corolla  of  the  plant  contracts  in  such 
a way  as  to  bring  the  essential  organs  nearer  together,  or  even  in  contact.  In  cer- 
tain water  plants  the  flowers  raise  themselves  above  the  surface  while  the  process  is 
being  effected,  and  at  once  sink  again  beneath  the  water. 

Some  flowers  present  curious  changes  at  this  season.  The  stamen  grows  moist, 
and  is  perceptibly  odorous.  Often  it  becomes  greatly  congested  with  the  sap  of  the 
plant,  and  sometimes  has,  in  a remarkable  degree,  the  power  of  contraction.  The 
tulip  presents  an  example  of  this  kind,  and  also  one  variety  of  the  sensitive  plant. 
This  condition  is  assumed  not  only  by  the  normal  action  of  the  pollen  upon  the 
stamen,  but  under  other  means  of  stimulation.  There  is  in  some  flowers  a percepti- 
ble increase  of  heat.  This  is  said  to  be  the  case  with  the  arum  of  Italy.  In  those 
species  where  the  stamen  is  longer  than  the  pistil,  the  latter  is  observed  to  bend  over 
and  thus  come  in  contact  with  the  stamen  at  the  right  time.  In  many  cases  the 
fecundation  of  plants  is  merely  a mechanical  action  of  the  parts  to  the  conditions 
required,  but  through  it  all  we  can  readily  trace  the  law  of  adaptation. 

Practical  Bearings. — This  subject  is  not  only  very  interesting,  but  it  is  one 
that  the  horticulturist  and  nurseryman  should  understand  in  all  its  relations  to  be 
successful.  And  the  farmer,  too,  will  find  it  greatly  to  his  advantage  to  understand, 
that  he  may  not,  through  want  of  information,  plant  his  cereal  grains  or  other  crops 
in  such  a way  as  “to  mix”  with  other  kinds,  to  his  great  detriment.  On  the  other 
hand,  these  men  may  learn  the  secret  of  nature,  which  is  an  open  one  to  the  intelli- 
gent observer,  and  so  cross  his  grains  or  fruit  trees  as  to  improve  them.  Many  fields 
of  corn  have  been  spoiled  for  the  market  by  having  been  planted  too  near  to  some 
other  variety  in  the  vicinity,  and  the  farmer  did  not  see  how  they  could  mix.  The 
pollen  carried  by  the  feet  or  wings  of  the  busy  insect,  or  wafted  by  the  wind  from 
the  one,  has  fecundated  the  silk  of  the  other. 


SCIENTIFIC  EDUCATION 


APPLICATION, 


Interior  View, 


Showing  the  Weston  Dynamo-Electric  Machines  at  the  Central  Station. 


THE  SCIENCE  OF  ELECTRICITY 

AS  APPLIED  TO  THE  TRADES. 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  THE  SCIENCE. 

The  subject  of  electricity  has  occupied  the  public  attention  to  a great  extent  dur- 
Mg  the  past  few  years,  and  has  come  to  be  applied  to  so  many  of  the  arts  and  manu- 
factures of  the  present  age  that  it  is  important  to  give  our  readers  some  insight  into 
the  wonderful  science.  The  force  of  magnetism  and  electricity  are  so  closely  allied 
that  they  must  be  explained  together. 

The  word  electricity  is  derived  from  a Greek  word  which  signifies  amber.  It  was 
given  to  this  subtile  fluid  because  its  effects  were  first  observed  from  the  use  of  amber 
as  an  electric.  It  had  been  found  that  if  a piece  of  amber,  glass,  sealing-wax,  resin,  or 
of  some  other  substances  were  rubbed  with  a cloth,  or  the  skin  of  a cat,  it  acquires  the 
remarkable  property  of  attracting  other  substances.  The  substance  that  has  this 
power  which  was  first  seen  in  the  amber  is  called  an  electric.  The  power  of  attracting 
or  repelling  fight  substances  was  called  electric  attraction  or  repulsion.  The  discovery 
of  electricity  was  first  made  by  chance,  as  has  been  the  case  with  many  other  important 
scientific  discoveries.  The  first  electric  machine  was  invented  by  Otto  Guericke,  who 
was  the  inventor  of  the  air-pump.  There  is  no  question  but  that  his  machine,  which 
consisted  of  a globe  of  sulphur  so  arranged  as  to  be  turned  with  a crank  while  the  rub- 
ber was  pressed  against  it  by  the  hand,  was  the  first  of  its  kind.  After  the  time  of 
Guericke  another  philosopher  substituted  a glass  cylinder  for  the  globe  of  sulphur. 

THE  ELECTRIC  MACHINE. 

The  purpose  of  this  machine  is  to  obtain  for  experimental  purposes  a larger  sup- 
ply rf  electricity  than  can  be  obtained  by  rubbing  any  of  the  substances  which  have 

been  mentioned  above.  Fur,  wool,  resin,  glass,  silk, 
metals,  sulphur,  india-rubber,  gutta  percha,  and  collodion 
are  electrics,  but  are  excited  only  to  a limited  degree 
when  the  power  of  the  hand  only  is  applied.  This  ma- 
chine consists  of  a glass  cylinder  mounted  on  a frame- 
work and  turned  by  a crank,  as  shown  in  the  illustration. 
Against  the  surface  is  pressed  a pad  of  leather  stuffed, 
with  horse-hair,  having  its  surface  covered  with  powdered 
amalgam  of  zinc  or  tin.  A flap  of  silk  covers  the  top. 
On  the  side  of  the  central  cylinder  is  a smaller  elongated 
cylinder  with  globe-like  ends  mounted  on  a glass  stand. 
These  are  the  “ prime  conductors,”  and  upon  the  end. 
not  seen  in  the  cut  usually  carries  a rod  terminating  in  a 
brass  ball  or  knob.  When  the  crank  is  turned  the  friction  between  the  glass  and  the 
amalgam-coated  pad  produces  a powerful  electrical  separation.  The  positive  current 


FIG.  i. 


548 


ELECTRICITY  AS  APPLIED  TO  THE  TRADES. 


\s  carried  around  the  surface  of  the  glass  and  negative  electricity  is  produced  in  the  pad 
The  currents  are  carried  into  the  prime  conductors  on  the  side.  The  negative  is 
tnarked  N , and  the  positive  P.  A metallic  chain  runs  from  each  prime  conductor,  which 
is  also  of  metal.  When  the  two  chains  are  grasped  one  in  either  hand  the  electric  cur 
rent  passes  through  the  body.  There  is  another  style  of  electrical  machine,  which  con- 
sists of  a circular  wheel  of  plate-glass  or  ebonite,  which  revolves  between  two  pair  ot 
rubber  cushions  made  of  double  pads  placed  at  the  highest  and  lowest  points.  The 
principle  on  which  it  works  is  the  same  as  the  one  described  above. 

EXPERIMENTS  WITH  THE  ELECTRICAL  MACHINE. 

An  amusing  little  experiment  can  be  tried  with  the  machine,  as  shown  in  the  ac- 
companying cut.  A circular  metallic  plate  is  suspended  from  the  rod  of  the  prime  con- 
ductor. A second  flat  plate  is  placed  about  two  inches  from  the 
upper  one  and  connected  with  the  .floor,  so  that  no  non-conductor 
can  cut  the  earth  circuit.  Little  figures  cut  in  the  shape  of  hu- 
man beings  can  be  made  to  stand  erect  by  holding  them  between 
the  plates  and  turning  the  machine  ; the  figures  are  made  of  tissue 
paper,  pith,  or  any  light  substance.  This  can  be  carried  on  in- 
definitely by  keeping  up  the  electric  current. 

THE  ELECTRIC  CHIME. 

This  experiment  was  first  introduced  by  Dr.  Franklin 
in  1725,  for  the  purpose  of  warning  him  of  the  presence  of  at- 
mospheric electricity,  which  was  drawn  from  the  air  by  a pointed 
It  consists  of  three  bells  suspended  from  a metallic  rod.  The  two  outer  bells  are  hung 
on  metallic  wire,  while  the  center  is  hung  by  a silk  cord,  and  from 
this  bell  a metallic  chain  hangs  to  the  ground  or  floor.  The  small 
brass  balls  hang  on  silk  thread  between  them.  This  arrangement 
is  suspended  to  the  knob  of  .the  electric  machine  the  same  as  Fig.  2. 

When  the  machine  is  charged  the  balls  will  be  attracted  to  the 
outer  bells,  and  when  they  have  been  charged  will  be  repelled 
and  attracted  to  the  center  bell,  and  thus  continue  to  oscillate 
from  side  to  side.  This  is  an  amusing  and  instructive  experi- 
ment, and  will  interest  any  one,  young  or  old. 

HENLEY’S  QUADRANT  ELECTROSCOPE. 

This  little  instrument  is  used  to  measure  the  degree  of  electricity 
with  which  an  electric  is  charged.  It  consists  of  an  electric  of  some  kind 
suspended  to  an  arm,  moving  on  the  graduated  arc  of  a circle,  and  when 
attracted  by  the  electric  current  flies  out,  as  seen  in  the  engraving.  It  is 
seldom  used  except  to  show  whether  an  electrical  machine  or  Leyden 
ar  is  sufficiently  charged.  It  is  not  intended  to  measure  the  amount, 
out  to  indicate  the  presence  of  a large  charge.  It  can  show  us  by  the 
i odicator  standing  at  one  point  when  the  electric  potentiality  of  the  machine 
the  same  at  one  time  as  another. 


FIG.  2. 

rod  above  his  house. 


ELECTRICITY  AS  APPLIED  TO  THE  TRADES. 


549 


THE  LEYDEN  JAR. 

The  two  kinds  of  electricity  have  been  shown  to  repel  each  other  and  attract  their 
opposite.  Electricity  cannot  flow  through  glass,  because  it  is  a non-conductor,  and  yet 
it  can  act  across  glass,  as  we  will  presently  show.  The  Leyden 
jar  was  named  after  the  city  where  it  was  first  discovered.  It 
consists  of  a glass  jar,  covered  on  the  outside  and  inside  with  tin- 
foil  to  within  two  or  theee  inches  of  the  top.  A brass  knob  at* 
tached  to  a stout  wire  passes  downward  below  the  tin-foil,  and  com* 
municates  by  a little  chain  with  the  inner  coating  of  tin-foil.  This 
jar  is  charged  by  holding  the  knob  to  that  on  the  end  of  the  prime 
conductor.  When  a charge  of  positive  electricity  is  thus  impart- 
ed to  the  inner  coating  it  acts  inductively  upon  the  outer  coating) 
attracting  a negative  charge  to  the  face  of  the  coating  nearest  the 
glass,  and  repelling  a positive  charge  to  the  outer  side  of  the  same 
surface,  and  then  to  the  earth.  After  a few  moments  the  jar  will  be  charged  with  pos- 
itive electricity  on  the  inner,  and  negative  on  the  outer  coating.  If  the  glass  be  of 
good  quality,  and  perfectly  dry,  the  charge  within  will  remain  until  discharged  by  the 
means  of  bringing  the  two  electricities  together.  This  is  done  by  the  discharging-tongs 
seen  in  the  cut.  The  two  knobs  of  the  discharging-tongs  are  brought  at  the  same  time 
in  contact  with  the  outside  coating  of  tin-foil  and  the  knob  on  the  top  of  the  jar. 
A bright  snapping  spark  leaps  from  one  to  the  other  knob  of  the  discharger 

THE  LIGHTNING-ROD. 

A little  experiment  shows  the  principle  of  the  common  lightning-rod.  Fig.  6 
represents  the  gable  end  of  a toy  house,  with  a rod  extending  from  A to  the  block 

C D,  and  a rod  from  the  block  to  the  ground.  With  the 
charged  Leyden  jar  touch  the  knobs  together  and  the 
charge  will  pass  off  from  A to  B across  the  block,  fob 
lowing  the  dotted  lines.  Then  remove  the  lower  half  of 
the  block  C D and  the  rod  B,  again  touch  the  knob 
with  the  charged  Leyden  jar,  and  the  toy  house  will  be 
demolished.  This  shows  the  necessity  of  connecting  the 
lightning-rod  with  the  earth,  for  if  this  connection  is 
broken  the  rod  is  more  dangerous  than  if  no  rod  was  used* 
A Leyden  jar  is  sometimes  covered  with  spangles  of 
tin-foil,  and  the  light  from  the  discharge  is  seen  from  each  one.  The  illustration, 
Fig.  y,  represents  a Leyden  jar  covered  with  tin-foil,  except  the  circular  spots,  which 
are  of  clear  glass.  This  will  produce  a greater  discharge  than  the  ordinary  jar. 

ANIMAL  ELECTRICITY. 

A number  of  the  species  of  animals  which  inhabit  the  water  have  the  power  of 
producing  an  electric  discharge,  such  as  the  torpedo , gymnostus , and  silurus.  The  elec, 
trie  eel  is  well  known  to  most  of  our  readers.  But  it  is  not  our  purpose  to  go  into  an  ex- 
tensive resume  of  this  subject,  and  we  therefore  only  mention  the  fact.  In  fact  there 


FIG.  7. 


550 


ELECTRICITY  AS  APPLIED  TO  THE  TRADES. 


is  an  electric  current  running  through  everything  in  nature,  animate  and  inanimate, 
organic  and  inorganic.  The  earth  itself  is  an  immense  magnet,  with  well  defined 
electric  currents  and  its  opposite  poles,  as  demonstrated  by  the  use  of  the  magnetic 
needle. 

PYRO-ELECTRICITY. 

There  are  certain  crystals  which,  while  being  heated  or  cooled,  have  the  property 
of  exhibiting  electrical  charges  at  certain  points  or  poles.  Crystals  thus  electrified  are 
said  to  be  pyro-electric.  The  chief  of  these 
is  the  tourmaline , whose  power  of  attracting 
light  bodies  to  its  ends  has  been  observed  for 
centuries.  The  tourmaline  is  hard,  semi- 
transparent when  cut  into  slices,  and  of  a 
dark  green  or  brown  color,  but  in  its  natural 
state  it  looks  perfectly  black  and  opaque. 

It  also  possesses  the  power  of  polarizing  light. 

It  is  usually  found  in  hexagonal  or  six-sided 
prisms  having  the  alternate  sides  only  partly 
developed.  When  the  prism  is  perfect  it  has 
both  ends  pointed.  Its  approximate  form  is 
shown  in  the  cuts  under  Fig.  8.  The  two 
ends  are  slightly  different  from  each  other. 

While  this  crystal  is  rising  in  temperature 
one  end  is  positive  and  the  other  negative, 
and  when  falling  in  temperature  the  positive 
becomes  negative  and  the  negative  becomes 
positive.  This  phenomenon  is  not  observed 
above  three  hundred  and  two  degrees  Fahrenheit.  A heated  crystal  of  tourmaline  sus- 
pended by  a silk  fiber  will  be  attracted  and  repelled  by  electrified  or  another  heated  tour- 
maline.  The  similar  poles  repel  and  the  opposite  poles  attract  each  other.  Even  when 
a crystal  is  broken  up  each  fragment  has  the  same  property.  Besides  the  tourmaline, 
there  are  other  crystals  which  are  more  or  less  pyro-electric.  We  mention  among 
others  silicate  of  zinc,  beracite,  sugar-cane,  quartz,  tartrate  of  potash,  sulphate  of 
quinine.  A peculiar  half-symmetry  is  exhibited  by  all  the  crystals  mentioned,  which 
are  termed  hemihedrical ; that  is,  half  of  their  sides  are  regular,  and  half  irregular. 
This  is  doubtless  due  to  their  singular  electric  property,  and  which  in  many  cases  deter- 
mines the  optical  phenomenon  of  the  crystal  called  polarization  of  light. 

THE  HORSE-SHOE  MAGNET. 

Magnetism  is  not  only  the  result  of  a current  of  electricity  through  any  good  con- 
ductor, but  there  are  certain  oxides  of  iron,  called  magnetic  iron  ores,  which  have  the 
property  of  attracting  iron  filings,  and  are  mostly  found  in  primitive  rocks,  being  abun- 
dant at  Roslagen,  in  Sweden,  and  called  the  loadstone,  from  its  always  pointing,  when 
freely  suspended,  to  the  Polar,  North,  or  Load  Star.  If  a tolerably  large  specimen  of 
this  mineral  is  examined,  there  will  be  found  usually  two  points  where  the  iron  filings 
45 


FIG.  8. 


ELECTRICITY  AS  APPLIED  TO  THE  TRADES. 


551 


are  attracted  in  larger  quantities  than  in  other  parts  of  the  same  specimen.  These 
attractive  points  are  called  poles,  and  the  loadstone  being  properly  mounted  with  soft 
iron  bars,  termed  cheeks,  bound  round  it  has  its  magnetic  power  greatly  increased,  and 
is  then  said  to  be  endowed  with  magnetic  polarity ; and  to  prevent  the  loss  of  power, 
a soft  piece  of  iron,  called  the  armature,  is  placed  across  and  attracted  to  the  poles  of 


fig.  9. 


the  loatTstone.  If  the  horse-shoe  magnet  is  placed  on  a sheet  of  paper,  and  some  iron 
filings  are  dusted  between  the  poles,  a very  beautiful  series  of  curves  are  formed, 
called  the  magnetic  curves,  which  indicate  the  constant  passage  of  the  magnetic  power 
from  pole  to  pole.  The  magnetic  force  exerted  by  a horse-shoe-shaped  piece  of  soft 
iron,  surrounded  with  many  strands  of  covered  copper  wire  in  short  lengths,  is 
extremely  powerful,  and  enormous  weights  have  been  supported  by  an  electro-magnet 
when  connected  with  a voltaic  battery.  Supposing  a man  were  dressed  in  complete 
armor,  he  might  be  held  by  an  electro-magnet,  without  the  power  of  disengaging  him- 
self, thus  realizing  the  fairy  story  of  the  bold  knight  who  was  caught  by  a rock  of  load- 
stone, and,  in  full  armor,  detained  by  the  unfriendly  magician.  The  natural  magnet 
or  loadstone  is  an  ore  of  iron  known  as  magnetite,  and  is  found  in  large  quantity  in  Swe- 
den, Spain,  and  the  State  of  Arkansas,  on  the  Isle  of  Elba,  and  other  parts  of  the  globe. 
Artificial  magnets,  like  Fig.  9,  are  made  by  rubbing  a piece  of  iron,  or,  better  still,  of 
steel,  upon  the  loadstone.  It  will  then  attract  small  bits  of  iron  or  steel,  and  if  suspended 
by  a thread  they  will  point  due  north  and  south.  The  horse-shoe  magnet  is  made  in 
the  form  of  Fig.  9.  The  illustration  shows  five  magnets  united,  with  the  central  one 
longer  than  the  rest.  The  armature  or  keeper  is  also  a horse-shoe  magnet. 

THE  METHOD  OF  MAGNETIZING. 

The  steel  or  iron  to  be  magnetized  can  be  rubbed  upon  the  natural  magnet  until 
the  power  is  applied,  but  in  this  case  the  last  spot  touched  on  the  magnet  will  be  the 
pole  of  the  magnetized  metal  and  opposite  to  that  touched.  The  better  way  is  to  mag- 
netize by  the  divided  or  double  touch.  In  the  divided  touch  the  bar  to  be  affected  is 
laid  down  and  two  magnets  with  their  opposite  poles  together  are  laid  upon  it.  They  are 


552 


ELECTRICITY  AS  APPLIED  TO  THE  TRADES. 


then  drawn  asunder  toward  the  end  of  the  iron  several  times.  The  bar  to  be  magnet- 
ized is  turned  over,  and  the  same  operation  is  repeated  on  the  other  side  and  on  the 
edges.  The  magnetization  by  double  touch  differs  slightly  from  this,  by  laying  the  two 
magnets  upon  the  unmagnetized  iron,  as  before,  with  a bit  of  wood  or  cork  between 
the  ends,  and  then  rubbing  them  both  back  and  forth  on  the  bar  under  them.  A steel 
bar  cannot  be  magnetized  beyond  a certain  point  by  either  of  these  methods.  The 
magnetic  field  is  the  space  around  a magnet  in  which  it  has  a perceptible  power  of 
attraction.  When  the  armature  is  placed  upon  the  poles  of  a horse-shoe  magnet  the 
field  is  lessened.  A closed  magnet  has  no  field  of  power. 

LAWS  OF  MAGNETIC  FORCE. 

The  reader  all  along  will  find  in  his  perusal  of  the  subject  that  the  two  great  laws 
hold  good.  First  law  : Like  magnetic  poles  repel  one  another  and  unlike  attract. 
SECOND  LAW  : The  force  exerted  between  two  magnetic  poles  is  proportional  to  the  pro • 

duct  of  their  strength,  and  inversely  proportional  to  the  square  of  the  distance  between  them » 

MAGNETIZING  BY  ELECTRICITY. 

A strong  current  of  electricity  carried  in  a spiral  wire  around  a bar  of  steel  or  iron 
magnetizes  it  much  more  powerfully  than  any  of  the  methods  we  have  mentioned.  If 
the  bar  be  of  soft  iron  it  remains  a magnet  only  as  long  as  the  current  continues  to 
flow.  It  is  then  called  an  electro-magnet.  Elias,  of  Haarlem,  first  proposed  to  mag- 
netize steel  bars  by  passing  them  through  a wire  coiled  up  in  a ring  of  many  turns, 
through  which  a strong  current  was  sent  by  a voltaic  battery.  Bar  magnets  are  made 
of  hardened  steel  for  scientific  purposes,  but  for  many  purposes  a horse-shoe  magnet  is 
preferred.  The  armature,  or  keeper,  is  a magnet  by  induction  when  placed  across  both 
poles  of  the  horse-shoe,  and  will  then  attract  with  greater  force  than  when  connected 
with  only  one  pole. 

The  power  of  the  magnet  may  be  illustrated  by  means 
of  Fig.  io,  which  consists  of  little -steel  knots  upon  the  end 
of  slender  wires  set  in  a frame.  By  placing  the  magnet  in 
certain  positions  the  wires  will  be  bent  as  indicated,  because 
the  steel  knot  is  attracted  to  the  magnet,  and  in  its  attempt 
to  touch  it  the  wires  are  bent  as  shown  above. 

FIG.  IO. 

CURRENT  ELECTRICITY. 

After  it  had  become  established  that  electricity  could  be  transmitted  from  a charged 
body  by  any  conducting  substance,  a wire  or  wetted  string,  it  became  a problem  how  a 
continuous  current  could  be  produced.  It  was  discovered  that  this  could  be  done  by 
the  voltaic  cells,  or  batteries  of  such  cells,  most  satisfactorily,  although  there  were  other 
means. 

CHEMICAL  ELECTRICITY. 

The  first  and  most  simple  experiment  that  can  be  adduced  in  proof  of  electrical  ex- 
citation by  chemical  means,  is  to  take  a bit  of  clean  zinc  and  a clean  silver  coin,  and 
placing  one  on  the  tongue  and  the  other  below  it,  as  long  as  they  remain  separate  no 


ELECTRICITY  AS  APPLIED  TO  THE  TRADES. 


553 


effect  is  observed,  but  directly  they  are  made  to  touch  each  other,  while  in  that  posi- 
tion, a peculiar  thrill  is  rendered  evident  by  the  nerves  of  the  tongue,  which  in  this 
case  answers  the  same  purpose  as  the  electroscope  already  described,  and  in  a short 
time  a peculiar  metallic  taste  is  perceptible. 

It  has  been  stated  over  and  over  again  that  it  was  to  a somewhat  similar  circumstance 
we  owe  the  discovery  of  voltaic  electricity,  and  the  story  of  the  skinned  frogs  agitated 
and  convulsed  by  an  accidental  communication  with  two  different  metals,  or,  as  some 
say,  with  the  electricity  from  an  ordinary  machine,  has  been  repeated  in  nearly  every 
work  on  the  science.  Professor  Silliman,  however,  asserts  that  the  galvanic  story  is 
doubtful,  and  is  a fabrication  of  Alibert,  an  Italian  writer  of  no  repute,  and  that  greater 
merit  is  due  to  Galvani  than  that  of  being  merely  the  accidental  discoverer  of  this  kind 
of  electricity,  because  he  had  been  engaged  for  eleven  years  in  eletcro-physiological  ex- 
periments, using  frogs’  legs  as  electroscopes. 

THE  DISCOVERY  OF  VOLTA. 

The  theory  of  Galvani  had  several  opponents,  one  of  whom,  the  celebrated  Volta, 
succeeded  in  pointing  out  its  fallacy  ; he  maintained  that  the  electrical  excitement  was 
due  entirely  to  the  metals,  and  that  the  muscular  contractions  were  caused  by  the  elec- 
tricity thus  developed  passing  along  the  nerves  and  muscles  of  the  dead  animal.  To 
him  we  are  indebted  for  the  first  voltaic  battery. 

He  showed,  first,  that  the  contact  of  two  dissimilar  metals  produced  the  opposite 
kinds  of  electricity  on  the  two  surfaces,  one  negative  the  other  positive.  Second,  that 
by  placing  a pair  of  disks  of  copper  and  zinc  with  a pair  of  zinc  and  copper,  having  a 
moist  conductor  between  them,  and  so  on  in  pairs  thus  separated,  a very  perceptible 
shock  would  be  produced  by  touching  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  pile  at  the  same  time. 
The  power  of  the  shock  will  be  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  the  pairs.  Third,  he 
constructed  “ the  crown  of  cups,”  which  consisted  of  a number  of  cups  filled  with  brine, 
or  diluted  acid,  into  which  were  dipped  strips,  half  zinc,  half  copper,  the  zinc  in  one 
cup,  the  copper  in  another,  and  so  on  around  the  circle  of  cups.  He  found  that  a cur- 
rent was  thus  generated,  strong  enough  to  ring  an  electric  bell. 

A SINGLE  VOLTAIC  CELL. 

Our  young  readers  can  easily  see  how  this  works  by  taking  an  ordinary  glass  jar  or 
tumbler  filled  with  water,  into  which  a few  drops  of  sulphuric  acid  have  been  put.  Let 
two  clean  pieces  of  zinc  and  copper  be  placed  into  this  diluted  acid  without  touching 
each  other,  and  you  will  have  a cell  of  the  galvanic  or  voltaic  battery.  The  wire  of 
copper  connecting  the  two  strips  of  dissimilar  metal  will  at  once  render  one  positive 
and  the  other  negative.  In  fact  there  is  a continuous  current  of  electricity  flowing 
through  the  cell  from  the  zinc  to  the  copper  by  means  of  the  connecting  wire  back  to 
the  zinc. 


THE  ELECTRIC  LIGHT. 


THE  MOST  WONDERFUL  APPLICATION  OF  ELECTRICITY  TO  THE  PRACTICAL  DEMANDS 

OF  CIVILIZED  LIFE. 

The  most  wonderful  application  of  electricity  to  the  purpose  of  lighting  large 
towns  and  cities  has  marked  a great  advance  in  the  practical  workings  of  the  science, 
and  promises  to  revolutionize  the  whole  system  of  illumination.  The  luminous  effect 
produced  by  the  electric  current  had  been  observed  first  by  Faraday  long  before  any- 
one thought  of  applying  it  to  any  practical  use.  If  the  terminals  from  a powerful  bat- 
tery are  joined  and  then  slightly  separated  the  current  will  pass  through  the  air, 
causing  the  most  intense  light  and  heat.  This  flame  is  called  the  voltaic  arc,  and  is 
best  produced  between  two  pencils  of  carbon,  which  are  heated  to  a white  heat  by  the 
electric  current.  This  was  first  observed  by  Sir  H.  Davy  in  1809,  since  which  time  it 
has  been  the  problem  of  scientists  and  inventors  to  make  some  practical  application 
of  this  important  principle.  It  has  remained  for  the  inventors  of  the  last  half  of  the 
nineteenth  century  to  discover  this  practical  method,  and  it  has  been  done  within  the 
past  few  years.  Many  pieces  of  self-adjusting  mechanism  have  been  devised  by  Du- 
boscq,  Foucault,  Serrin,  Siemens,  Brush,  and  others.  That  devised  by  Mr.  Brush,  and 
known  as  the  Brush  machine,  is  the  one  used  at  the  present  writing  (1883)  by  the  com- 
panies now  doing  the  most  extensive  business  in  this  country.  This  instrument,  used 
for  generating  the  electricity,  is  called  a Dynamo-electric  Machine,  a good  repre- 
sentation of  which  is  seen  in  our  full-page  illustration.  In  1867  the  suggestion  was 
made  simultaneously,  but  independently,  by  two  men,  Siemens  and  Wheatstone,  that  a 
coil  rotating  between  the  poles  of  an  electro-magnet  might,  from  the  feeble  amount  of 
magnetism  remaining  in  it,  induce  a small  current,  which,  if  transmitted  through  the 
coils  of  the  electro-magnet,  increase  its  magnetism  and  thus  induce  a stronger  current. 
In  these  machines  the  coils  of  the  field  magnet  are  placed  in  circuit  with  the  coils  of  the 
revolving  armature,  so  as  to  be  crossed  by  the  whole,  or  a part  of  the  induced  current, 
which  is  due  to  magneto-electric  induction.  The  dynamical  power  is  produced  by 
the  steam-engine,  or  other  motor,  which  causes  the  rotating  coils  of  wire  to  revolve  in 
the  magnetic  field,  the  force  generated  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  turns  of  wire 
in  the  rotating  armature  and  the  speed  of  revolution.  The  dynamo-electric  machines 
in  use  differ  chiefly  in  the  means  used  to  obtain  the  practical  continuity  of  the  current. 
When  the  force  needed  is  small,  like  that  required  in  electro-plating  and  electrotyping, 
a few  turns  of  stout  wire  or  ribbon  of  copper  are  sufficient ; but  for  procuring  currents 
of  high  power,  such  as  is  needed  for  the  electric  light,  the  armature  must  be  driven 
very  fast,  and  must  consist  of  many  turns  of  wire.  This  may  be  very  thin,  as  its  resist- 
ance is  not  of  great  moment  in  a long  circuit  where  there  are  considerable  resistances 
already. 


THE  ELECTRIC  LIGHT. 


555 


THE  WESTON  DYNAMO-ELECTRIC  MACHINE. 

The  illustration  we  give  presents  a highly  improved  and  perfected  dynamo- 
electric  machine  of  the  Weston  patent.  The  field  magnets  are  situated  in  a hori« 
zontal  position  on  each  side  of  the  armature.  Their  cores,  pole-pieces  and  yoke-plates 
are  arranged  in  a rectangle  of  cast  iron,  which  constitutes  the  framework  of  the 
machine.  The  yoke-plates  at  each  end — the  one  in  view  having  the  lettering  on  it 
—come  down  to  form  the  feet  on  which  the  machine  rests,  while  the  supports  for 
the  armature  bearings  are  cast  in  one  piece  of  iron  with  the  frame.  The  form  of  the 
armature  is  cylindrical  and  the  iron  core  is  built  up  of  a series  of  iron  disks  placed 
side  by  side,  but  slightly  separated  from  each  other. 

The  armature  is  thus  constructed  of  a large  number  of  separate  portions  or  sec- 
tions, insulated  from  each  other  by  spaces  of  air  at  every  point  except  near  the  center. 
Induced  currents  in  the  core  of  the  armature  are  thus  almost  entirely  prevented,  and  the 
difficulty  so  commonly  encountered  in  other  machines  of  this  kind  is  avoided.  At  the 
end  of  the  armature,  as  seen  in  the  illustration,  there  is  an  arrangement  which  causes  a 
rapid  circulation  of  air  from  the  center  to  the  circumference  of  the  armature,  thus 
cooling  the  conductors  and  keeping  their  resistance  much  lower  than  if  this  were  not 
used.  The  greatest  efficiency  is  attained  by  the  peculiar  winding  of  the  coils  of  wire 
on  the  armature,  and  they  are  so  perfectly  balanced  electrically  that  the  spark  on  the 
commutator  can  scarcely  be  discovered. 

The  coils  which  excite  the  field  magnets  are  situated  in  a branch  circuit  of  high 
resistance  instead  of  being  in  the  main  circuit,  as  is  the  usual  way,  and  only  a small 
proportion  of  the  entire  current  passes  over  them.  This  is  of  great  advantage  in 
many  ways.  The  great  efficiency  of  the  Weston  dynamo-electric  machine  is  seen  in 
the  fact  that  more  than  ninety  per  cent,  of  the  power  applied  at  the  driving  pulley  is  avail- 
able as  useful  current  in  the  working  or  lamp-circuit. 

HOW  THE  WINDING  IS  DONE. 

As  will  be  seen,  the  grooves  for  holding  the  wire  are  made  somewhat  shallower 
than  before,  in  order  to  bring  the  coils  up  nearer  to  the  pole-pieces  of  the  field,  and 
the  end  plates  have  been  changed  in  shape.  The  armature  core  is,  as  shown  in  Fig.  i. 
built  up  of  iron  disks,  of  the  form  shown  in  the  upper  part  of  the  figure,  at  the  left. 

These  are  secured  together  upon  the  armature  shaft,  but  separated  somewhat 
from  each  other  so  as  to  leave  spaces  between  them.  These  spaces  serve  to  break  up 
the  continuity  of  the  core,  and  thus  prevent  the  formation  of  induced  currents,  and 
also  form  ventilating  spaces.  By  a very  ingenious  arrangement,  the  armature  is  made 
to  act  as  a centrifugal  blower,  to  maintain  a circulation  of  air  through  the  core  and 
about  the  coils,  which  dissipates  whatever  heat  may  be  generated  in  them.  The  coils 
are  spread  apart,  where  they  pass  across  the  heads  of  the  armature,  by  flanged  plates 
(shown  somewhat  removed  from  the  head  of  the  armature  in  Fig.  i),  so  as  to  leave  an 


WESTON  DYNAMO-ELECTRIC  MACHINE. 


THE  ELECTRIC  LIGHT- 


557 


opening  about  the  shaft  for  the  admission  of  air,  which  is  taken  into  the  interior  of 
the  armature  and  thrown  out  between  the  coils  by  centrifugal  force.  With  a sectional 
armature  and  this  system  of  ventilation  no  trouble  whatever  is  experienced  from 
heating  of  the  core  or  coils,  although,  as  is  well  known,  such  heating  was  so  great  with 


FIG.  I. — SECTION  ARMATURE  AND  SINGLE  DISK. 


machines  of  this  type  having  solid  armature  cores  as  to  be  an  almost  insuperable  ob- 
stacle to  their  use.  The  armature  complete,  with  the  coils  connected  to  the  commuta- 
tor, is  shown  in  Fig.  2. 


FIG.  2. — ARMATURE  AND  COMMUTATOR. 


As  will  be  seen,  the  number  of  sections  in  the  commutator  has  been  very  greatly 
increased,  in  order  to  reduce  the  spark  and  prevent  any  tendency  of  the  current  to  dis- 
cnarge  across  from  one  brush  to  the  other.  The  number  of  sections  formerly  used  was 
eight ; in  the  present  machines,  from  forty-eight  to  one  hundred  and  forty  are  used. 

As  the  amount  of  spark  at  the  commutator  depends  largely  upon  the  method  in 
which  the  armature  coils  are  wound  and  connected  to  the  commutator,  Mr.  Weston 
has  bestowed  much  attention  upon  different  systems  of  winding  as  applied  to  cylindri- 
cal armatures.  The  continuous  winding  of  the  coils  in  a single  closed  circuit,  with 
loops  taken  out  to  the  commutator  sections,  which  was  introduced  by  Gramme,  was 
undoubtedly  a very  great  improvement  upon  any  system  which  had  before  been  used ; 
but  this  winding  cannot  be  applied  to  a cylindrical  armature  without  considerable 
modification,  since  in  winding  coils  upon  a cylinder  each  coil  fills  up  two  diametrically 
opposite  spaces,  and  the  entire  surface  of  the  cylinder  is  covered  in  winding  half  way 
round,  while  only  half  as  many  loops  are  taken  off  at  the  junctions  of  the  coils  as 


558 


THE  ELECTRIC  LIGHT. 


FIG.  3. — DIAGRAM  OF  WINDING. 


there  should  be  sections  in  the  commutator.  To  overcome  this  difficulty  Mr.  Weston 
devised  the  system  of  winding  of  which  a diagram  is  given  in  Fig.  3. 

For  the  sake  of  simplicity  only  eight  coils 
are  shown,  but  it  is  obvious  that  the  same  prin- 
ciple may  be  applied  to  any  other  number. 
Supposing,  for  instance,  that  the  winding  com- 
mences at  a , the  coils  follow  the  course  indi- 
cated by  the  full  lines,  and  at  every  place 
where  the  wire  passes  from  one  coil  to  another 
a loop  is  taken  off  for  connection  with  a corre- 
sponding segment  of  the  commutator.  After 
winding  four  coils  it  will  be  observed  that  all 
of  the  spaces  on  the  armature  have  been  occu- 
pied ; while  there  are  only  four  loops  for  at- 
tachment to  the  commutator,  there  should  be 
eight  ; to  supply  the  remaining  loops  a second 
set  of  coils  is  wound,  as  shown  by  the  broken 
lines,  and  loops  are  taken  off  in  the  same  way 
until  the  entire  surface  of  the  armature  has 
again  been  covered,  when  the  last  terminal  of  the  second  set  of  coils  is  connected  to 

the  entering  terminal  of  the  first  set  at  a • 
Supposing  now  that  the  brushes  are  in  con- 
tact with  commutator  plates  connected  with 
m m , the  course  of  the  current  through  the 
coils  may  be  traced  by  following  the  direction 
indicated  by  the  arrows,  and  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  current  divides  and  passes  through 
the  coils  on  each  side  of  the  dividing  line  from 
m at  the  right  to  m on  the  other  side.  If  any 
other  diametrically  opposite  loops  be  taken 
the  current  will  be  found  to  follow  a similar 
course.  By  covering  the  entire  surface  of  the 
armature  with  the  first  set  of  coils  and  then 
winding  the  second,  the  second  coils  are  su- 
perposed upon  the  first  in  the  manner  shown 
in  the  diagram,  Fig  4,  which  represents  a cross 
section  of  the  armature. 

The  white  circles  indicate  the  wires  of  the  second  set  of  coils,  and  the  black  ones 
those  of  the  first.  This  was  found  to  be  objectionable,  as  the  coils  of  the  second  set 
were  not  only  longer  than  those  of  the  first,  but  were  brought  up  nearer  to  the  poles  cf  the 
field,  and  moved  faster,  being  further  from  the  shaft.  In  consequence,  the  two  sets 
were  not  electrically  balanced,  and  an  objectionable  spark  was  produced  at  the  com- 
mutator. This  difficulty  was  overcome  by  winding  the  coils  of  the  two  sets,  side  by 
side,  as  shown  in  the  diagram,  Fig.  5.  With  this  winding  all  of  the  coils  occupy  the,  same 
relative  position  with  respect  to  the  armature  core  and  the  field  ; and  a perfect  electrical 


Fig.  4. — section  of  weston  armature 

POSED  WINDING. 


SUPER. 


THE  ELECTRIC  LIGHT. 


559 


balance  is  obtained,  by  which  the  spark  at  the  commutator  is  reduced  to  a minimum. 
A modification  of  this,  which  is  shown  in  diagram,  Fig.  6,  has  been  found  simpler  to 
wind,  and  in  some  respects  more  efficient.  In  this,  the  coils  of  the  two  sets  are  alter- 
nately superposed,  so  that  both  sets  are,  as  a whole,  under  precisely  the  same  condi- 


tions, and  are  electrically  balanced.  With  machines  of  the  improved  type  wound  in 
this  way  the  spark  on  the  commutator  is  hardly  perceptible.  In  Fig.  7 is  shown  an 
ingenious  system  of  connecting 
the  coils  with  the  commutator, 
for  use  in  machines  in  which  the 
electro-motive  force  is  high.  Coils 
are  sometimes  burned  out  in  ma- 
chines having  commutators  of 
this  general  type  by  accidental 
short  circuiting  of  two  adjacent 
commutator  sections.  In  the 
armature,  of  which  Fig.  7 is  a 
diagram,  there  are  two  distinct 
sets  of  coils,  represented  by  the 
white  and  the  black  lines,  which 
alternate  about  the  circumfer- 
ence ; and  they  are  connected  to 
alternate  plates  of  the  commutator,  as  shown.  It  is  obviously  impossible  to  short  cir- 
cuit any  coil  by  connecting  adjacent  sections  of  the  commutator,  and  the  chances  of 
accidental  connection  between  three  consecutive  sections  are  very  slight.  Machines  of 
various  sizes  are  manufactured,  which  run  from  one  to  twenty  arc  lamps  in  the  same 
circuit.  There  is  a device  for  preventing  sparks  and  shocks  while  establishing  or  break- 


FIG.  7. — WESTON  ARMATURE,  SHOWING  ADJACENT  COILS  CON- 
NECTED TO  ALTERNATE  STRIPS  OF  THE  COMMUTATOR 


560 


THE  ELECTRIC  LIGHT. 


ing  the  circuit  between  the  machine  and  the  field  conductors.  This  consists  of  a coil 
of  high  resistance  in  the  field  circuit  in  combination  with  a switch  which  closes,  and  thus 
cuts  off  the  resistance  coil.  On  opening  this  switch  when  the  machine  is  at  work  the 
current  is  reduced  to  such  an  extent  that  the  line  connection  may  be  broken  without 
the  least  danger  to  the  person  or  the  machine.  It  consists  of  the  rheostat,  which  is 
shown  in  Fig.  8,  interposed  in  the  field  circuit.  The  contact  plates  shown  in  front  are 

connected  with  the  terminals  of  resistance  coils,  of 
German  silver  wire,  enclosed  in  the  box.  The  resist- 
ance of  the  field  circuit,  and  consequently  the  amount 
of  current  passing  through  it,  may  be  varied  by  turn- 
ing the  handle  of  the  rheostat  so  as  to  adjust  the 
machine  for  running  any  number  of  lights,  from  one 
up  to  its  full  complement.  This  system  of  regulation 
does  not  at  all  disturb  the  proper  operation  of  the  ma- 
chine, as  is  the  case  where  the  commutator  brushes 
are  turned,  or  the  field  partially  shunted  out  of  the 
circuit.  The  twenty-light  or  thirty-light  machine 
works  as  well  with  one  lamp  as  with  its  full  comple- 
ment. The  same  form  of  rheostat  is  used  with  ma- 
chines for  running  incandescent  lights  for  the  pur- 
poses we  have  stated  above,  but  unless  it  is  desired 
fig.  8.— regulator.  to  vary  the  illuminating  power  of  all  the  lights,  it  is 

not  used  after  the  first  adjustment  is  made. 


ARC  LAMPS. 

The  automatic  cut-off  for  the  arc  lamp  is  exhibited  in  Fig.  9.  This  diagram  indi- 
;ates  the  electral  connections.  About  the  coil  of  the  magnet  are  wound  a few  convo- 


lutions of  insulated  German  silver  wire,  which  are  included  in  the  shunt  circuit.  The 
current  in  this  supplementary  coil  flows  in  the  same  direction  as  in  the  main  coil,  and 
the  object  of  the  supplementary  coil  is  to  cause  the  electro-magnet  to  act  more  quickly 
to  open  the  shunt  circuit  when  the  lamp  is  lighted.  The  resistance  of  the  shunt  coil  is 
very  slight  (about  the  same  as  that  of  the  lamp  with  the  carbons),  and,  with  the  shunt 


THE  ELECTRIC  LIGHT. 


561 


closed,  and  the  lamp  circuit  open,  it  is  obvious  that  the  entire  current  must  pass  through 
the  resistance,  but  there  being  few  convolutions,  and  these  at  a distance  from  the  core 
of  the  magnet,  too  little  magnetism  is  developed  to  lift  the  armature.  Whenever  the 
lamp  circuit  is  closed,  however,  the  current  at  first  divides  between  the  two  coils  on  the 
magnet,  and  both  co-operating  lift  the  armature  very  quickly.  As  soon  as  the  armature 
is  lifted  the  shunt  is  broken,  and  the  entire  current  passes  through  the  lamp.  This  form 
of  cut-off  has  been  found  very  efficient  under  ordinary  circumstances. 

The  feeding  mechanism  of  the  single  lamp  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  duplex  lamp, 
omitting,  of  course,  the  duplicate  parts  and  the  shifting  mechanism.  Its  construction 
and  operation  are  too  well  known  to  require 
detailed  description.  The  extraordinary  sen- 
sitiveness and  certainty  of  operation  of  this 
feeding  mechanism  are  probably  due,  princi- 
pally, to  the  peculiar  arrangement  of  the  arma- 
ture of  the  electro-magnet,  D , and  to  the  con- 
struction of  the  clutch.  It  will  be  observed 
that  the  armature,  D , which  controls  the 
movements  of  the  clutch  and  upper  carbon- 
carrier,  is  suspended  in  front  of  the  poles  of 
the  electro-magnet,  but  somewhat  below  a 
symmetrical  position,  with  respect  to  them,  by 
the  flexible  strips  e e,  which  admit  of  only  a 
vertical  movement  of  the  armature.  When 
the  magnet  is  excited  the  armature  tends  to 
come  to  a symmetrical  position  with  respect 
to  the  poles,  and  rises  into  a more  intense  part 
of  the  field  of  the  magnet.  Of  course  the  sen- 
sitiveness of  the  feeding  mechanism  in  the 
lamp  depends  largely  upon  the  amount  of 
force  which  is  necessary  to  lock  or  unlock  the 
feeding  mechanism,  as  this  force  is  derived  solely  from  variations  in  the  strength  of  the 
current,  due  to  fluctuations  in  the  length  of  the  arc. 

In  our  next  illustrations,  Figs,  n and  12,  we  show  a new  form  of  feeding  mechan- 
ism. The  feeding  of  the  carbons  is  controlled  by  a brake-wheel,  to  the  shaft  of  which 
the  upper  carbon-carrier  is  attached  by  a cord  and  pulley,  or  rack  and  pinion  move- 
ment. The  shaft  of  the  wheel  is  mounted  upon  a swinging  lever,  My  which  is  pivoted 
to  a fixed  support  at  m,  and  at  its  other  end  is  linked  to  an  oscillating  lever,  K.  Two 
solenoids,  A and  B , of  peculiar  form,  are  used  for  controlling  the  position  of  the  oscil- 
lating lever.  One  of  these  solenoids  is  included  in  the  main  circuit,  and  the  other  in  a 
derived  circuit  about  the  arc  ; and  they  are  attached  to  the  ends  of  the  lever  by  flexible 
metallic  straps,  / and  b.  The  wheel,  W,  is  controlled  by  a brake,  A,  which  is  pivoted  to 
the  lever,  M,  just  outside  of  the  periphery  of  the  wheel,  and  has  a short  arm  at  the  right 
to  which  the  lifting  link,  a , is  attached  at  a . It  also  has  a long  tail-piece,  L,  extending 
over,  and  resting  upon,  the  frame  of  the  lamp  at  n.  The  construction  of  the  solenoids 


562 


THE  ELECTRIC  LIGHT. 


used  is  shown  at  the  left,  in  Fig,  1 1,  where  the  shell  and  part  of  the  coil  are  cut  away  to 
show  the  construction.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  solenoid  has  the  ordinary  core,  and,  in 
addition,  an  iron  shell  surrounding  the  coil,  and  made  in  one  piece  with  the  core.  Mr. 
Weston  has  found  that  with  a solenoid  constructed  in  this  way  an  extremely  long 
range  of  movement  is  obtained  with  very  uniform  power;  and  that  the  solenoid  is  about 


FIG.  II. — WESTON  ARC  LAMP,  FRONT  VIEW.  FIG.  12. — WESTON  ARC  LAMP,  SIDE  VIEW. 


as  powerful  as  an  ordinary  bi-branched  electro-magnet,  having  double  the  amount  of 
wire  upon  it.  The  great  disadvantage  of  ordinary  solenoids  is  their  comparative  feeble- 
ness in  proportion  to  their  size. 

The  lamps  used  with  the  machines  of  which  we  have  been  speaking  are  of  various 
sizes  and  patterns.  We  present  an  illustration  of  the  “ Plain  Open-frame  Duplex  Arc 
Lamp  ” and  “ Enclosed-frame  Arc  Lamp.”  In  the  first  there  is  a single  pair  of  carbons ; 
the  lower  one  is  permanent  and  the  upper  carbon  is  moved  downward  as  the  two  are 


THE  ELECTRIC  LIGHT. 


563 


consumed.  The  clock-work  mechanism  which  “ feeds  ” the  upper  carbon  is  covered  by 
the  metallic  case  on  top  of  the  frame. 

The  frame  of  both  lamps  is  made  of  brass  and  iron,  and  the  electrical  connec* 


FIG.  13. — WESTON  DUPLEX  LAMP.  FIG.  I4. — WESTON  ENCLOSED-FRAME  ARC  LAMP. 

tions  are  placed  inside  and  completely  insulated  from  it.  In  the  duplex  arc  lamp 
there  are,  as  seen,  two  pairs  of  carbons,  so  arranged  that  when  one  pair  has  been  coiv 


564 


THE  ELECTRIC  LIGHT. 


sumed  the  second  pair  is  automatically  brought  into  use,  and  the  clock-work  in  the  case 
moves  the  upper  one  of  the  second  pair  as  it  did  the  first.  This  lamp  will  burn  from 
sixteen  to  eighteen  hours  with  the  two  pairs  of  carbons. 

We  have  shown  the  mechanism  for  feeding  the  duplex  lamp  in  Figs,  io,  15,  16. 
There  is  one  electro-magnet  to  control  both  pair*  of  carbons,  D D.  It  is  wound  with  two 


sets  of  coils,  one  of  heavy  wire  and  the  other  of  light  wire,  in  a derived  circuit  of  high 
resistance.  This  adapts  the  lamp  for  use  in  a series. 

The  electric  connection  is  made  with  both  upper  carbon-carriers  so  that  the  current 
and  the  clock-work  can  change  from  one  to  the  other  at  the  same  instant.  This  is  done 
by  the  changing  magnet  M,  also  included  in  a downward  circuit  of  high  resistance. 
The  lever,  C , carries  wedge-shaped  sides,  h h' , inserted,  so  connected  with  one  or  the 
other  clutch  in  such  a way  as  to  trip  it  and  prevent  it  from  connecting  with  its  rod. 

The  circuit,  M,  is  open  during  the  time  the  first  pair  of  carbons  is  burning.  The 
one  marked  R'  is  held  by  the  hook  L while  the  other  is  burning.  When  this  is  con- 
sumed the  circuit  of  M is  completed  by  the  stop,  H,  coming  in  contact,  with  K ; at  the 
same  time  the  magnet  draws  up  its  armature,  G,  lifting  the  detent  from  C , and  allows  the 
whole  to  swing  over  to  the  second  set  of  carbons.  This  is  done  so  quickly  as  to  cause 
scarcely  a flicker  in  the  light. 


THE  ELECTRIC  LIGHT. 


665 


THE  INCANDESCENT  LIGHT — FIG.  1 7. 

Our  explanation  so  far  applies  to  the  light  produced  by  the  voltaic  arc,  but  there 
is  still  another  method  of  the  application  of  electricity  to  lighting  purposes,  called  the 
incandescent  light.  In  this  the  light  is  pro- 
duced by  the  incandescence  of  a slender  car- 
bon conductor  inclosed  in  a vacuum  within 
a small  glass  globe.  This  gives  a steady  and 
uniform  light.  It  has  all  the  excellences  of 
the  arc  light  as  regards  convenience  and  secu- 
rity, and  is  superior  to  it  on  account  of  its 
steadiness  and  the  softness  of  color,  which  is 
more  agreeable  to  the  eyes.  This  is  espe- 
cially convenient  for  the  interior  of  buildings 
where  small  lights  are  needed.  Although  it 
cannot  be  made  so  economically  as  the  arc 
light,  nor  so  powerfully,  it  can  compete  suc- 
cessfully in  both  particulars  with  the  produc- 
tion of  gas. 

The  Weston  machine  for  the  purpose  of 
incandescent  lighting  is  similar  in  its  general 
construction  to  what  we  have  already  de- 
scribed. The  winding  of  the  armature  and 
field  magnets  is  somewhat  modified,  that  it 
may  produce  the  quality  required.  It  also 
has  the  power  of  self-regulation.  The  number 
of  lamps  in  a circuit  vary,  and  of  course  the 
quantity  of  the  current  generated  must  vary 
correspondingly  to  prevent  any  accident,  and 
to  keep  the  lamps  at  uniform  brilliancy.  It 
has  been  demonstrated  by  practical  experi- 
ment that  on  a circuit  of  one  hundred  lamps, 
if  ninty-nine  of  them  be  extinguished  at  the 
same  instant  the  remaining  one  will  continue 
to  burn  with  uniform  brilliancy.  This  ma- 
chine is  the  only  one  as  yet  discovered  that 
has  ever  produced  this  very  desirable  result. 


THE  MAXIM  INCANDESCENT  LAMPS. 

The  M-shaped  carbon  is  enclosed  in  a glass 
globe  in  vacuo.  The  globe  is  about  two  and  a 
half  inches  in  diameter.  This  carbon  is  made 
by  Mr.  Maxim  by  a peculiar  process  devised 
by  himself,  which  renders  it  very  durable,  strong,  and  capable  of  resisting  the  effects  o 
powerful  currents.  This  incandescent  light  was  run  at  the  Paris  Exposition  for  a shor 
46 


FIG.  1 7. — MAXIM  INCANDESCENT  LAMP. 


506 


THE  ELECTRIC  LIGHT. 


time  at  an  illuminating  power  of  eleven-hundred  candles.  The  average  “ life  ” of  the 
lamps  run  for  a year  was  over  one  thousand  hours,  while  many  have  been  burning  two 
or  three  times  as  long.  This  system,  the  first  one  ever  put  to  any  practical  use,  was  first 
introduced  in  the  fall  of  1880,  and  has  been  in  constant  operation  in  the  vaults  of  the 
Mercantile  Safety  Deposit  Co.  of  New  York  since  that  time.  Each  lamp  has  a socket 
or  holder,  which  is  so  constructed  that  the  lamp  is  held  firmly  when  in  position  and  is 
complete  in  electric  connection.  It  may  be  easily  removed  for  renewal  and  another 
placed  in  position.  They  are  made  with  switches  or  without  them,  and  of  various  tasty 
designs  and  patterns.  The  light  for  an  ordinary  apartment  is  equal  to  eight  candles. 

In  Figs.  18  and  19  is  shown  an  indicator,  for  use  in  central  stations,  and  other 
places  where  the  lamps  are  at  a considerable  distance  from  the  machine.  The  coils  of 


FIG.  l8. — INDICATOR 


FIG.  19. — INTERIOR  OF  INDICATOR. 


the  magnet,  shown  in  Fig.  19,  are  included  in  the  circuit  with  the  lamps,  and  the  retract- 
ible  spring  of  the  zT-shaped  armature  is  so  adjusted  as  to  bring  the  needle,  which  is 
attached  to  the  shaft,  to  zero  on  the  scale,  when  the  current  is  of  normal  strength. 
Should  the  current  exceed  or  fall  below  the  normal  strength,  however,  either  the  mag- 
net or  the  spring  would  preponderate,  and  the  needle  would  swing  in  one  direction 
or  the  other,  indicating  the  direction  of  the  change  ; and  in  case  of  any  considerable  va- 
riation, one  of  the  contact  springs  on  the  lever  would  close  the  battery  circuit,  by  making 
contact  with  a stop-screw  in  the  upper  part  of  the  box,  and  ring  a bell  at  the  top  to  call 
the  attention  of  the  attendant.  By  means  of  this  indicator  the  attendant  at  the  cen- 
tral station  can  see,  upon  starting  the  machine,  that  the  normal  current  is  sent  to  the 


THE  ELECTRIC  LIGHT. 


567 


lamps,  and  is  informed  at  once  when  any  accident  occurs  to  the  circuit,  or  when  lamps 
are  put  into  circuit  or  cut-out,  and  can  immediately  adjust  the  machine  to  compem 
sate  for  the  change. 

The  automatic  cut-out,  time  meter,  indicator,  and  other  appliances  used  in  connec 
tion  with  the  electric  light,  are  recent  inventions  of  great  interest  and  value  to  be  in 
spected  personally  to  obtain  a correct  idea  of  them. 

In  Fig.  20  we  show  a device,  designed 
by  Mr.  Maxim,  for  automatically  cutting 
the  carbon  out  of  circuit  at  the  proper  time. 

An  electro-magnet,  R,  is  included  in  the 
same  circuit  with  the  carbon  in  course  of 
treatment,  which  is  represented  at  C.  The 
surrounding  vessel,  B,  contains  a rarefied  at- 
mosphere of  hydro-carbon  gas.  The  wires, 

A A,  lead  to  a generator,  which  should  be 
worked  under  the  same  conditions  with  all 
the  carbons  treated.  It  is  obvious  that  as 
the  resistance  of  the  carbon,  C,  decreases, 
owing  to  the  deposition  of  carbon  upon  it, 
more  current  flows  through  the  coils  of  the 
magnet ; and  the  retractile  spring,  M , is  fig.  20.— -automatic  cut-out  for  treating  carbons. 
so  adjusted  that  the  magnet  will  draw  down  its  armature  when  the  resistance  of  the 
carbon  has  fallen  to  the  standard  fixed.  When  this  occurs,  the  hammer,  G,  is 
released,  and,  falling  upon  F,  breaks  the  circuit  suddenly  at  T,  and  cuts  out  the  car- 
bon ; the  spring,  F,  is  prevented  from  rising  again  by  a detent,  R.  In  a modification 
of  this  device,  which  is  somewhat  more  sensitive,  instead  of  the  retractile  spring,  M, 
another  electro-magnet,  included  in  a derived  circuit  about  the  carbon  in  course  of 
treatment,  is  made  to  pull  down  the  other  end  of  the  armature  lever,  A . By  this  ap- 
paratus the  carbons  are  made  of  very  uniform  resistance. 

SAFETY  DEVICES. 

In  order  to  prevent  any  accident  arising  from  overheating  the  connecting  wires 
an  automatic  cut-out  has  been  devised  which  is  placed  in  every  branch,  and  interrupts 
the  circuit  if  from  any  reason  it  becomes  too  strong.  This  consists  of  some  kind  of  an 
alloy  which  fuses  at  alow  temperature  below  two  hundred  and  twelve  Farenheit.  This 
cut-out  is  placed  in  the  lamp-holders  and  fixtures,  where  they  will  be  easy  of  access. 
The  strips  of  alloy  are  made  of  different  sizes,  according  to  the  current  they  are  intend- 
ed to  carry.  There  can  be  no  danger  of  combustion  to  the  most  flamable  material  from 
any  of  the  melted  alloy,  for  the  temperature  at  which  it  fuses  is  too  low  to  cause 
ignition. 

THE  PROBLEM  REMAINING  TO  BE  SOLVED. 

The  applicability  of  using  the  electric  light  for  general  illuminating  purposes  has 
become  established  beyond  the  realm  of  doubt  and  experiment.  The  remaining  ques- 
tions to  be  solved  resolve  themselves  into  two  very  important  ones.  They  have  refer 


568 


THE  TELEPHONE. 


ence  solely  to  the  economic  production  of  electricity.  The  power  to  generate  th« 
electric  current  must  now  be  applied  constantly  while  the  lights  are  burning,  and 
this  power  must  be  exerted  upon  every  circuit  by  a separate  machine.  The  two 
problems  are,  first,  to  provide  for  a storage  of  electricity  for  consumption  in  the 
future,  and  second,  to  procure  the  generation  of  electricity  by  the  aid  of  less  power, 
or  the  application  of  power  which  will  act  on  more  than  one  circuit  at  the  same  time. 
There  are  indications  that  a successful  solution  of  these  questions  will  be  reached  at  no 
distant  day.  In  fact  it  is  stated  that  their  demonstration  has  already  passed  beyond 
the  period  of  successful  experiment,  and  we  await  the  public  announcement  of  the  fact 
with  patient  interest. 


THE  TELEPHONE  AND  ITS  USES. 

The  announcement  that  it  is  actually  possible  to  transmit  the  sounds  of  the  human 
voice  through  a telegraphic  wire  is  perhaps  the  most  startling  information  which  any 
one  ignorant  of  the  march  of  physical  science  could  conceive. 

Up  to  the  year  1876  no  instrument  had  been  devised  for  transmitting  speech 
except  a little  toy  called  the  thread  telephone,  which  was  sold,  I believe,  some 
twenty  years  ago,  and  forgotten,  but  revived  within  the  last  year  or  two.  It  is, 
however,  something  more  than  a mere  toy,  for  it  teaches  us  how  wonderfully  sounds, 
and  even  articulate  speech,  can  be  converted  into  motion,  and  again  produced  at  a dis- 
tance as  speech.  It  consists  of  two  little  boxes  made  of  wood,  card,  or  metal,  open  at 
one  end,  and  closed  at  the  other  with  a diaphragm  of  parchment.  To  the  center  of 
each  diaphragm  is  knotted  the  two  ends  of  a piece  of  twine.  With  this  simple  com 
trivance  people  a hundred  yards  apart  can  keep  up  a conversation  without  difficulty. 
The  action  of  the  instrument  is  as  follows  : — the  speaker  into  one  box  throws  the  dia- 
phragm into  vibration  by  the  vibration  of  his  voice  ; these  vibrations  constitute  so 
many  pulls  upon  the  cord  leading  to  the  other  diaphragm,  and  so  the  latter  is  made 
to  describe  similar  movements,  and  the  sounds  become  audible  to  the  listener  there. 
It  is  evident,  then,  that  if  we  can  find  some  means  of  throwing  a diaphragm  into  mo- 
tion at  a distance,  so  as  to  correspond  with  the  movements  of  a diaphragm  agitated  by 
the  voice,  we  can  reproduce  the  original  sounds  given.  Twine  will  of  course  only 
answer  the  purpose  for  a few  yards;  and  although  experiment  has  shown  that  this  dis- 
tance can  be  greatly  increased  by  the  use  of  fine  copper  wire,  still  such  distance  is  lim- 
ited to  a few  hundred  yards.  It  was  reserved  for  Professor  Graham  Bell  to  solve  the 
problem  by  the  use  of  magnetism. 

Professor  Bell's  first  form  of  articulating  telephone  made  its  appearance  at  the 
Philadelphia  Centennial  Exhibition  of  1876,  but  the  instrument  then  shown  has  since 
been  considerably  modified.  Want  of  space  will  compel  me  to  leave  out  many  inter 
esting  details  as  to  the  manner  in  which  Professor  Bell,  step  by  step,  surmounted  ever\ 
difficulty  until  the  end  which  he  had  in  view  was  attained.  And  I must  content  my 
self  by  simply  describing  the  instrument,  and  by  briefly  explaining  to  my  readers  the 


THE  TELEPHONE. 


569 


principles  involved  in  its  construction.  The  principal  part  of  the  instrument  is  the 
bar-magnet  which  passes  through  its  center,  the  north  pole  of  which  is  surrounded  by  a 
coil  of  silk-covered  copper  wire.  This  end  of  the  magnet  almost  touches  the  iron  dia* 
phragm ; its  outer  end  is  fitted  with  a screw,  by 
which  its  exact  position  can  be  regulated  to  a 
nicety.  The  ends  of  the  coil  are  carried  down 
to  the  back  of  the  case,  where  they  are  .connected 
with  two  binding-screws,  to  which  the  line  wires 
can  be  readily  adjusted. 

The  patents  of  the  Alexander  Graham  Bell 
telephone  in  the  United  States  cover  all  the  forms 
of  communication  by  telephone  now  in  use,  and 
the  other  forms  are  claimed  by  him  to  be  an  in- 
fringement upon  his  patent. 

It  is  quite  impossible  to  notice  here  the  vari- 
ous forms  of  telephones  which  have  been  devised 
since  Professor  Bell  pointed  out  how  articulation 
could  be  reproduced  at  a distant  point.  Their 
name  is  legion. 

So  far  as  the  telephone  itself  is  concerned  it 
requires  no  battery  whatever,  its  action  being  dependent  upon  the  magnet  contained 
within  it.  The  sonorous  vibrations  set  up  in  the  air  by  the  voice  are  projected  upon 
the  diaphragm,  which  also  vibrates  in  sympathy.  These  vibrations,  by  constantly 
varying  the  distance  between  the  center  of  the  iron  disk  and  the  magnet  behind  it, 
cause  variations  in  the  current  of  electricity  which  is  induced  in  the  coil  of  wire,  and 
such  variations  are  telegraphed  to  the  distant  telephone,  where  the  corresponding  dia- 
phragm is  brought  into  similar  movements,  and  gives  out  the  sounds  conveyed. 

SETTINC  TYPE  BY  TELEPHONE. 

The  London  Times  contained  an  article  describing  the  system  of  telephonic  reports 
adopted  by  that  journal,  in  order  to  have  the  latest  and  fullest  report  of  the  speeches 
made  in  the  Houses  of  Parliament.  Permission  having  been  obtained  from  the  Metro- 
politan Board  of  Works  to  lay  down  the  necessary  wires  in  the  subway  of  the  Embank- 
ment, a new  connection  between  the  House  of  Commons  and  the  Times  office  was 
formed,  and  one  of  Edison’s  loud-speaking  telephones  placed  at  either  end.  The  im- 
mediate result  of  this  arrangement  has  been  to  bring  the  compositor  at  the  machine 
into  direct  communication  with  the  Parliamentary  reporter  at  the  House,  and  to  enable 
the  debates  to  be  reported  and  printed  from  half  to  three-quarters  of  an  hour  later  than 
had  previously  been  possible.  The  notes  made  by  the  reporter  can  be  read  directly 
into  the  telephone  receiver  in  a room  adjoining  the  gallery,  either  by  the  reporter 
himself  when  relieved  or  by  another  person  employed  for  the  purpose  ; and  the  com- 
positor, at  his  machine  in  the  office,  sits  with  his  ears  in  juxtaposition  with  the  other 
terminal  of  the  instrument.  The  plan  which  has  been  found  the  most  efficacious  for 


570 


THE  TELEPHONE. 


the  purpose  of  shutting  out  distracting  sounds  of  other  kinds  is  to  place  the  disk  of 
the  telephone  above  and  behind  the  compositor,  and  then  to  arrange  two  tubes,  each 
with  two  trumpet-shaped  extremities,  in  such  a manner  that  these  extremities  are  ap- 
plied at  one  end  of  the  two  sides  of  the  telephone  disk,  and  at  the  other  end  to  the  two 
ears  of  the  compositor.  The  compositor  is  also  furnished  with  a speaking  instrument, 
with  a key  for  ringing  a bell,  and  with  a bell  which  is  rung  from  the  House,  a simple 
code  of  bell  signals,  consisting  of  one,  two,  or  three  strokes,  sufficing  for  the  ordinary 
requirements  of  each  message.  The  compositor  announces  by  the  bell  that  he  is  ready,, 
receives  a sentence,  strikes  the  bell  to  indicate  that  he  understands  it,  sets  up  the  type 
with  his  machine,  strikes  the  bell  again  for  the  reader  to  continue  his  dictation,  and  so 
on  until  the  work  is  carried  as  far  as  time  will  allow.  If  there  is  any  doubt  or  difficulty 
about  the  words,  a bell  signal  will  cause  them  to  be  repeated,  or  explanations  can  be 
sought  and  received  by  direct  vocal  communication. 

THE  EDISON  LOUD-SOUNDING  TELEPHONE. 

The  latest  form  of  telephone  produced  by  this  fertile  inventor  is  that  known  as  the 
“ loud-speaking  telephone.  ” The  instrument  has  more  than  once  been  called  “ the  shout- 
ing telephone,  ’ and  that  term  by  no  means  conveys  an  exaggerated  idea  of  its  capa- 
bilities. The  action  of  the  instrument  is  entirely  different  to  every  telephone  which 
preceded  it,  and  is  three-fold — namely,  electrical,  chemical,  and  mechanical. 

We  will  now  explain  how  the  Edison  telephone  system  is  adapted  to  the  wants  of 
every-day  business  life.  At  a central  station  in  the  city  is  situated  the  telephone  ex- 
change, to  which  the  various  wires  connected  with  different  offices  where  the  telephone 
has  been  adopted  are  carried.  These  wires  are  joined  up  to  what  is  called  a switch- 
board, in  front  of  which  sits  the  clerk  in  charge.  We  will  stand  by  his  side  for  a few 
minutes  and  notice  how  the  work  is  carried  on.  Presently  a bell  rings,  and  a little  disk, 
one  of  a number  on  the  upper  part  of  the  board,  drops  down  and  exposes  a number, 
say,  No.  12.  The  clerk  immediately  switches  his  telephone  on  to  the  line  denoted  by 
this  figure,  and  asks  the  applicant  what  he  wants.  The  reply  comes  audibly  through 
the  telephone  as  the  clerk  turns  the  little  handle,  “ Put  me  on  to  number  27.”  By  the 
simple  insertion  of  a little  metallic  peg  in  a particular  hole  in  the  board,  the  clerk 
places  No.  12  and  No.  27  into  communication.  Now  No.  12  may  represent  some  mer- 
chant at  the  west  end  of  the  city,  and  No.  27  may  be  his  agent  at  the  east  end,  and 
possibly  they  may  be  three  or  four  miles  apart ; but  by  the  insertion  of  that  little  peg 
in  the  switch-board  they  converse  as  easily  as  if  they  were  in  the  same  room.  In  the 
mean  time  the  clerk  at  the  exchange  is  unable  to  hear  a single  word  they  say  to  each 
other.  When  they  have  finished  speaking  they  ring  the  exchange  bell,  and  both  their 
numbers  drop,  as  a signal  to  the  clerk  that  they  have  done  talking.  In  this  wonderful 
manner  is  conversation  carried  on  between  two  distant  people. 


ELECTROPLATING. 


The  britannia  ware  is  prepared  for  the  electroplating  room  by  being  first  brushed 
clean  from  all  dust  and  washed  in  a strong  solution  of  soft  water  and  alkali,  which  re- 
moves any  oily  substance  that  may  have  come  from  the  machinery  or  hands  of  the 
workmen.  An  electro-magnet  of  great  force  is  used.  A wire  is  carried  from  each  pole 
of  the  battery  into  a trough  holding  a solution  of  copper,  silver,  or  gold,  according  to 
the  metal  he  wishes  to  deposit.  The  article  to  be  plated  is  attached  in  the  trough  to 
the  wire  coming  from  the  zinc  of  the  battery,  and  opposite  to  it  is  a plate  of  the  metal 
dissolved  in  the  liquid  of  the  trough.  Now,  as  soon  as  all  this  is  properly  arranged, 
the  electricity  of  the  battery  travels  from  the  silver  plate  to  the  plate  of  metal  by 
means  of  the  wire,  and  reaching  the  liquid  dissolves  off  a portion  of  the  plate.  This 
part  dissolved  off  is  carried  to  the  article  which  is  to  be  plated,  and  is  there  thrown 
down  again  as  a metal  to  any  thickness  that  may  be  desired.  Thus  as  much  is  dis- 
solved off  one  plate  as  is  thrown  down  on  the  article,  and  all  this  is  due  to  electricity 
now  chiefly  produced  by  what  is  called  the  magneto-electric  machine. 

The  electro-plater  first  carefully  cleans  the  article  from  all  dirt,  brushing  it  so  as  to 
remove  everything  from  the  surface.  If  it  be  a metal  body  he  dips  it  into  an  acid 
solution,  so  as  to  remove  a small  portion  of  the  metal,  and  thus  to  get  a perfectly  clean 
surface.  The  object  is  then  hung  by  means  of  a wire  in  the  trough  holding  silver  dis- 
solved by  a salt  called  cyanide  of  potassium  and  facing  a silver  plate,  the  latter  being 
connected  with  the  silver  plate  of  the  battery,,  while  the  object  is  in  connection  with 
the  zinc  plate.  Silver  is  instantly  deposited ; and  after  a sufficient  thickness  has  been 
thrown  down  the  article  is  removed,  washed,  polished,  and  burnished,  when  it  presents 
even  a finer  and  more  brilliant  appearance  than  a common  silver  object,  because  the 
electro-plated  surface  is  of  perfectly  pure  silver. 

If  a gold  plate  and  solution  are  employed,  the  article  becomes  gilded,  the  entire 
process  being  precisely  similar  to  'that  of  electro-plating,  except  in  the  metal  and 
solution.  The  article  is  said  to  be  single-plated,  double-plated,  or  triple-plated,  accord- 
ing to  the  amount  of  silver  deposited.  This  depends  upon  the  length  of  time  the 
article  remains  in  the  bath.  After  it  has  been  plated  to  the  desired  amount  it  is 
removed,  washed  in  clean  water,  and  buffed.  It  then  is  ready  for  the  packing-room. 

Some  articles  are  partly  silver-plated  and  partly  gilded,  which  is  effected  in  this 
way.  The  parts  that  are  to  be  silver-plated  are  covered  with  a black  paint,  which  is  a 
non-conductor  of  electricity,  and  then  the  article  is  suspended  in  a solution  of  gold, 
where  the  gilding  is  accomplished.  When  taken  out  the  black  paint  is  removed  from 
the  parts  to  be  silvered  and  the  gilding  covered  with  the  same  kind  of  paint ; the  article 
is  then  suspended  in  the  bath  of  silver.  Or  the  latter  operation  is  performed  first.  The 
description  we  have  given  may  appear  very  simple  and  tame,  but  in  all  the  many  thou- 
sand articles  now  made  of  britannia  ware  the  same  processes  have  to  be  employed,  and 
the  detail  does  not  differ  much.  The  use  of  machinery  and  the  introduction  of  many 
operations  by  this  means  has  given  the  American  manufacture  of  these  goods  the  ad- 
vantage in  the  markets  of  the  world.  The  plating  will  last  for  a long  time,  and  when 
worn  out  can  be  renewed  ; but  the  styles  and  designs  are  changed  from  year  to  year. 


572 


ELECTROTYPING. 


and  in  this  way  the  manufacture  has  created  a constant  demand  for  new  articles,  and 
thus  finds  a ready  market  for  the  immense  supply  which  he  turns  out.  The  Meriden 
Britannia  Company,  the  largest  establishment  of  its  kind  in  the  world,  turns  out  an 
infinite  variety  of  articles,  from  an  elaborate  water  tank  of  eight  gallons  to  the  tiniest 
little  article  for  ornament  on  the  table.  This  company  manufacture  a great  variety  of 
articles  for  ornament  and  use,  which  are  combined  with  fancy  glass-ware.  For  this 
purpose  an  especial  department  is  devoted  to  the  imported  glass  of  every  conceivable 
shape  for  castors,  toilet-sets,  table  ornaments,  ink  stands,  etc.,  etc. 

A visit  to  the  show-rooms  of  this  establishment  in  Meriden,  Connecticut,  or  to  their 
ware-rooms  in  New  York  City,  is  well  worth  the  time  and  expense  of  a long  journey. 
The  eye  would  be  dazzled  by  the  rich,  exquiste,  and  artistic  display.  At  the  Cen- 
tennial Exhibition  at  Philadelphia,  in  1876,  the  display  made  by  this  company  was 
unsurpassed  by  any.  There  were  artists  present  throughout  the  entire  exhibition,  tak- 
ing sketches  in  every  department  for  the  use  of  the  designers,  engravers  and  pattern- 
makers of  this  company.  The  benefit  of  their  labors  have  in  part  been  given  to  the 
public  in  new  designs  and  ornamentations,  and  much  more  lies  in  reserve  for  future 
use  in  the  same  direction. 


ELECTROTYPING. 

WHEN  the  demand  for  a given  publication  requires  a number  of  editions  of  the  book 
the  pages  are  electrotyped  ; that  is,  a copper-faced  metal  impression  of  each  is  taken,  and 
this  plate,  properly  “ backed,”  is  used  instead  of  the  movable  type.  This  avoids  the  set- 
ting up  of  copy  a second  time  or  the  locking  up  of  type  so  that  it  cannot  be  used  for 
other  purposes.  At  the  same  time  a less  amount  of  type  is  required  for  the  book,  for 
when  the  pages  have  been  electrotyped  the  type  may  be  “ distributed  ” and  used  for 
setting  up  the  subsequent  pages.  Let  us  now  visit  the  factory  of  the  electrotyper  and 
see  him  at  his  work.  The  process  of  electrotyping  begins  with  the  page  of  metal  type 
properly  corrected  and  locked  in  its  “ chase.”  The  most  suitable  type  for  this  purpose 
is  that  which  has  high  instead  of  low  spaces.  That  is  to  say,  the  “ quads  ” come  up 
even  with  the  letter  on  the  end  of  the  type,  or,  as  the  printers  call  it,  to  the  “shoulder’' 
of  the  type.  This  prevents  the  wax  from  being  pressed  between  the  type.  The  pages, 
then  surrounded  with  guard  rules,  are  covered  with  molding  pans  about  one-fourth  of 
an  inch  thick,  filled  with  a perfectly  smooth  surface  of  common  beeswax.  The  type 
is  pressed  into  this,  when  the  wax  is  heated  from  ninety  to  one  hundred  degrees.  This 
wax,  being  a non-conductor  of  electricity,  a term  explained  in  Natural  Philosophy, 
is  rendered  a conductor  by  passing  through  the  “ black-leading  ” or  “ metalicizing  ma- 
chine,” which  deposits  a metal  surface  upon  it.  This  plate  is  then  ready  for  the  “ bat- 
tery,” or  “ precipitating  room.”  Here  a thin  coating  of  copper,  about  eight  one-thou- 
sandths of  an  inch  thick,  is  deposited  by  means  of  the  electro-machine.  This  process 
takes  the  place  of  the  old-fashioned  acid  battery  and  requires  about  two  and  a half  hours 
to  complete  it.  The  electro-machine  is  described  in  the  chapter  on  Natural  Philosophy* 
and  need  not  be  described  here.  When  the  shell  becomes  thick  enough  it  is  removed 
trom  the  wax  by  a jet  of  hot  water.  It  is  then  ready  for  the  “ casting  room.”  Here 


ELECTROTYPING. 


575 


it  is  first  covered  with  “ soldering  acid.”  Then  a sheet  of  soldering  foil  is  laid  ovef 
it  and  placed  upon  the  “ casting  pans.”  These  pans  are  placed  upon  the  metal, 
and  then  heated  until  the  solder  melts.  The  pans  must  then  be  removed  to  a per- 
fectly level  place,  and  the  metal  poured  upon  them  to  about  one-fourth  of  an  inch  in 
thickness.  When  this  becomes  sufficiently  cool  the  “ cleaner  ” removes  all  refuse  wax 
and  other  material  from  the  plate  by  the  use  of  benzine,  and  it  is  ready  for  the  “ finish- 
ing room.”  Here  it  passes  under  a planer,  which  makes  the  under  surface  perfectly 
level.  The  pages  are  sawed  apart  from  each  other  and  the  finisher  then  takes  them 
in  charge  to  remove  all  the  shrinkages  that  may  appear  upon  the  plate.  They  then 
pass  under  the  shaving  machine  and  the  edges  are  then  beveled.  The  electrotype 
plates  are  now  ready  for  the  printer,  who  secures  them  upon  patent  blocks  of  uniform 
thickness  the  height  of  the  metal  type.  This  is  done  with  clamps  prepared  for  that 
purpose. 

Cuts  for  catalogues,  or  to  be  used  in  connection  with  movable  type,  are  prepared  in 
the  same  way,  except  that  instead  of  beveling  the  edges  of  the  finished  plate  it  is 
mounted  on  a block  of  wood  the  thickness  of  type  and  secured  there  by  riveting. 

It  is  much  better  that  the  movable  type  used  in  electrotyping  should  never  be 
used  for  taking  printed  impressions,  for  by  this  means  the  type  can  be  kept  clear  and 
distinct,  whereas  if  subjected  to  constant  inking  and  pressure  it  gradually  becomes  worn 
and  indistinct. 

We  have  now  taken  our  readers  upon  a tour  through  the  establishment  of  the 
electrotyper  and  shown  them  the  methods  of  the  work  there  done. 

There  is  much  to  interest  the  thoughtful  observer  in  such  a visit.  The  battery 
room,  the  casting  room,  and  the  finishing  room  are  each  places  of  interest,  where  hours 
might  profitably  be  spent  in  observation  and  study. 

The  process  of  electrotyping  has  to  a great  measure  taken  the  place  of  stereotyp- 
ing, which  is  done  on  much  the  same  principle.  The  process  is  as  follows:  thin  sheets 
of  dampened  paper  are  placed  upon  the  type  and  an  impression  of  each  character  and 
letter  driven  into  the  paper  by  beating  the  surface  with  a hard  brush.  The  paper  is 
then  carefully  removed  and  forms  a mold,  into  which  the  metal  is  poured.  The  paper 
has,  previous  to  taking  the  impression,  been  covered  with  a peculiar  kind  of  paste,  and 
then  fitted  into  a frame  which  keeps  it  level.  The  metal  is  composed  of  lead  and  an- 
timony, and  makes  an  exact  copy  of  the  mold  and  preserves  it  in  solid  form,  from 
which  any  number  of  impressions  can  be  taken.  From  the  nature  of  the  case  and  the 
amount  of  work  that  must  be  “ done  by  hand  ” the  result  of  stereotyping  cannot  be  so 
perfect  as  that  of  electrotyping.  In  the  latter  the  wax  is  pressed  upon  the  surface  of 
the  type  by  the  power  of  machinery,  which  crowds  it  down  so  hard  as  to  make  an  even 
and  exact  mold  of  every  letter,  and  the  powerful  agent  of  electricity  makes  a perfect 
copy  of  that  mold.  This  cannot  be  done  so  well  by  the  stereotyper,  for  very  obvious 
reasons.  The  latter  process  is  rarely  used  except  in  the  offices  of  the  great  daily  papers, 
or  in  periodicals  which  are  in  demand  only  for  a limited  time. 

We  are  indebted  to  the  gentlemanly  courtesy  of  Mr.  C.  S.  Butler,  of  the  firm  of 
E.  B.  Sheldon  & Co.,  New  Haven,  Conn.,  for  the  information  contained  in  the  article 
on  electrotyping. 


PHONOGRAPH  OR  AUDOPHONE 


This  curious  and  ingenious  instrument  is  very  simple  in  its  construction,  but  it  seems 
destined  to  become  of  permanent  commercial  as  well  as  scientific  value.  It  was  invented  by 
Thomas  A.  Edison  in  1877,  and  has  since  been  improved  by  him.  It  is  designed  to  make  an  exact 

copy  of  articulate  and  other  sounds  upon  a cylinder 
of  metal  by  means  of  impressing  upon  a stretched 
membrane  the  undulations  of  air  produced  by  sound. 

To  operate  the  machine  the  cylinder  is  first  coated 
with  a sheet  of  tin-foil,  and  the  stylus  is  brought  to  bear 
against  the  foil,  so  that  on  turning  the  cylinder  a furrow 
is  made  by  the  stylus.  The  mouth  is  then  placed  to  the 
opening  in  the  vulcanite  disk,  and  the  machine  is  talked 
to  while  the  cylinder  is  turned  with  a steady,  uniform 
motion.  The  impression  made  upon  the  stretched 
membrane  re-acts  very  much,  as  the  bow  acts  upon 
the  strings  of  a violin,  and  thus  the  vibrations  are  re- 
corded upon  the  tin-foil  about  the  cylinder.  We  now 
have  a record  of  the  sound-waves  made  upon  the  foil. 

To  reproduce  this  record,  or  to  make  the  instrument 
talk  back,  the  point  of  the  stylus  is  removed  from  the  cylinder,  and  it  is  reversed  to  its  original 
position.  Then  the  stylus  is  brought  again  to  the  cylinder,  and  by  turning  the  crank  travels  over 
the  same  groove  which  was  before  made.  Thus  the  same  vibration  of  sound  are  reproduced  from 
the  traces  which  were  recorded  on  the  tin-foil. 

This  instrument  has  been  successfully  used  to  reproduce  the  exact  inflection,  accent  and 
modulation  of  the  human  voice  of  all  ages  and  both  sexes,  as  well  as  the  sounds  of  musical 
instruments  and  the  cries  of  animals.  In  this  way  the  very  conversation  of  absent  friends  and 
the  rendition  of  famous  musical  artirts  can  be  preserved  for  reproduction  at  any  time.  The 
immense  value  of  this  invention  to  science  and  commerce,  as  well  as  to  the  social  life  and  musical 
art,  is  hard  to  estimate. 


PHONOGRAPH. 


It  may  be  made  the  means  of  recalling  the  tones  of  deceased  friends,  or  of  noted  orators  and 
singers,  long  after  they  have  departed  this  life.  It  may 
become  a practical  aid  in  the  detection  of  crime  and 
advancement  of  science.  It  is  already  something  more 
than  a scientific  toy,  for  it  has  found  its  uses  in  the 
office  and  counting-room  of  the  busy  merchant.  The 
Audophone  and  Graphophone  readily  record  the  words 
of  any  communication,  letter,  instruction,  or  speech 
made  into  it,  and  then  the  amanuensis  or  type- writer 
can  write  it  out  at  leisure  when  the  busy  merchant, 
lawyer,  editor,  or  publisher,  is  otherwise  engaged  or 
absent.  It  may  be  used  to  reproduce  the  music  of  an 
entire  orchestra  or  band,  the  programme  of  an  evening 
concert,  or  the  lecture  of  a famous  orator.  In  fact,  so  simple  are  the  conditions  of  increasing  the 
sounds,  that  there  is  practically  no  limit  to  the  capacity  of  the  invention  in  this  direction. 


GRAPHOPHONE. 


Medical,  and  Physical. 


The  Family  Physician  in  the  Home  of  H is  Patients. 

HE  writer  of  the  following  article  does  not  share  the  prevalent  senti- 
mentality, which  excludes  from  the  elementary  works  on  human  physiol- 
ogy, or  those  designed  for  home  reading,  the  consideration  of  the  most 
important  physical  functions  connected  with  our  human  life.  The  re- 
sponsibility of  parents  to  rightly  educate  their  own  children  in  this  branch 
of  knowledge  has  been  too  long  neglected,  or  shirked  upon  irresponsible  parties.  This 
education  should  commence  as  soon  as  the  child  has  discovered  the  fact  that  there  is  a 
separation  of  the  sexes  in  the  social  relations  for  which  he  cannot  account.  This  will 
occur  at  a much  earlier  age  in  some  children  than  in  others.  If  such  a system  of  edu- 
cation were  pursued  in  all  intelligent  families,  a vast  amount  of  misery,  evil  and  sin,  con- 
sequent upon  ignorance,  would  be  avoided.  Otherwise  the  information,  which  should 
have  been  afforded  by  the  judicious  and  conscientious  parent,  will  be  imparted,  little  by 
little,  in  his  association  with  older  people  of  vicious  tendencies. 

Too  often,  the  child  has  thus  been  left  to  the  baneful  influences  by  which  he  inno* 
cently  contracts  those  pernicious  habits  which  are  harmful  alike  to  body  and  mind,  and 
of  the  consequences  of  which  he  knows  nothing.  The  parent  finds  too  late  that  a false 
delicacy  upon  this  subject  has  left  the  opportunity  for  sowing  the  seeds  of  a dangerous 
harvest  in  the  fertile  soil  of  body  and  mind  which  are  difficult  to  eradicate  or  prevent 
from  bearing  their  fearful  fruitage  of  evil  in  the  years  to  come.  Then  let  the  parent  dare 
to  perform  his  whole  duty,  by  instructing  his  offspring  in  these  important  matters,  and 
warning  his  child  of  the  evil  consequences  of  ignorance  and  vice.  If  this  were  done. 


576 


MEDICAL  AND  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION. 


the  purity  of  home  and  the  sanctities  of  the  social  relations  would  not  be  violated,  for  it 
holds  true  in  this  as  in  every  thing  else,  “ He  who  is  warned,  is  thrice  armed.” 

THE  DESIRE  FOR  THE  SOCIETY  OF  THE  OPPOSITE  SEX.— When  the 
Author  of  all  good  said  “ It  is  not  good  for  man  to  be  alone,”  he  uttered  a truth  that  has 
been  proven  in  all  grades  of  society  since  the  creation.  There  is  a mutual  adaptation 
and  correspondence  in  the  mental  as  well  as  physical  constitutions  of  the  sexes  which 
render  them  helpful  and  necessary  each  for  the  other.  The  male  and  female  elements 
run  through  all  the  domain  of  animal  and  vegetable  life.  As  we  ascend  the  scale  to 
the  human  family,  we  discover  specimens  of  men  and  women  who  are  but  little  elevated 
above  the  brute,  and  in  whom  the  animal  wholly  predominates.  On  a higher  grade  of 
spiritual  and  mental  development,  we  find  those  characteristics  of  physical  organization 
and  impulse  which  lead  to  a mutual  attraction  that  calls  for  considerable  interchange  ot 
social  and  personal  contact.  Among  those  who  were  created  in  the  divine  image  we  find 
a higher  grade  of  moral,  intellectual  and  spiritual  advancement,  where  the  lower  nature 
is  subjected  to  the  domination  of  the  higher.  Even  here  the  refining  and  elevating  in- 
fluences of  social  interchange  among  the  sexes  are  recognized.  The  one  is  a comple- 
ment of  the  other,  and  each  requires  the  presence  and  association  of  the  other  to  rise  to 
the  highest  type  of  perfection  in  manhood  or  womanhood.  Society  is  formed  upon  this 
basis,  and  recognizes  the  necessity  of  our  nature.  The  forced  separation  of  the  sexes 
either  for  educational  or  supposed  religious  advancement,  has  always  resulted  in  pre- 
senting a dwarfed  intellectual  and  physical  development  in  each,  producing  an  impair- 
ment of  power  in  both.  Ample  illustration  of  these  facts  can  be  seen  in  the  various  re- 
ligious societies  and  those  institutions  where  the  male  or  female  members  are  precluded 
from  association  with  the  opposite  sex  for  a long  time.  There  is  an  undefined  and  subtle 
attraction,  which,  for  want  of  a better  term,  we  call  sexual  magnetism,  which  is  demanded 
by  the  physical  and  mental  welfare,  and  without  which  each  would  alike  suffer.  By  all 
means,  then,  allow  the  sexes  to  be  educated  together,  and  together  enjoy  the  amenities 
and  bear  the  responsibilities  of  social  life. 

WHAT  TO  TEACH  YOUR  BOY. — The  boy  should,  at  an  early  age,  be  taught 
that  he  must  treat  his  mother  and  sisters,  and  all  females,  with  a respect  and  considera- 
tion different  from  that  which  he  shows  to  males  ; that  good  breeding  and  etiquette  re- 
quire him  to  show  them  attentions,  and  for  them  sacrifice  his  own  convenience  and  com- 
fort when  he  would  not  be  expected  to  do  so  for  one  of  his  own  sex.  Teach  him  why  he 
must  do  this.  Tell  him  plainly  and  in  language  which  he  can  understand  whatever  he 
should  know  of  the  physical  relation  of  the  sexes.  Do  not  say  that  your  parents  left 
you  to  find  this  out  for  yourself.  Perhaps  they  did — more  shame  to  them.  Do  not  pre- 
varicate or  mislead  your  child,  when  his  principle  of  curiosity,  by  which  he  acquires  all 
knowledge,  leads  him  to  innocently  ask  you  questions  upon  what  are  regarded  as  indeli- 
cate subjects.  It  is  better  for  you  to  tell  him  plainly  and  in  simple  language,  than  for 
him  to  learn  of  vicious  companions  later  in  life,  or  grow  up  in  lamentable  ignorance.  If 
you  tell  him  that  he  is  not  old  enough  to  understand,  and  you  will  tell  him  when  he  is 
old  enough,  be  sure  and  keep  your  promise  before  he  has  been  misled,  and  his  imagina- 
tion influenced  by  others  who  are  misinformed  or  debased.  Teach  him  that  he  is  not  to 
neglect  the  “ demands  of  nature  ” at  the  instant  they  are  felt,  using  all  becoming  secrecy 


MEDICAL  AND  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION. 


577 


from  observation  and  publicity.  Tell  him  of  the  laws  of  health  upon  this  matter.  Ware 
him  of  the  evil  consequences  of  vile  habits  and  associations,  and  the  results  of  low  lan- 
guage and  immodest  stories  upon  both  body  and  mind. 

WHAT  TO  TEACH  YOUR  DAUGHTER. — -Let  the  pure  minded  mother 
teach  her  daughter,  as  early  as  she  can  comprehend,  the  physical  difference  between  her- 
self and  brothers  ; why  she  cannot  safely  engage  in  the  romping  sports  and  violent  exer- 
cises which  are  common  to  boys.  Teach  her  the  virtue  of  modesty  of  behavior  and  lan- 
guage. Let  her  be  told  of  the  true  sphere  of  woman,  to  become,  like  her  own  mother, 
the  parent  of  well  developed  and  healthy  children.  Tell  her  plainly  the  value  of  a good 
reputation,  and  the  evil  consequences  of  promiscuous  habits  on  body  and  mind.  Tell 
her,  before  she  learns  it  elsewhere,  or  her  imagination  becomes  perverted  by  ill-informed 
companions,  the  true  idea  of  courtship,  marriage  and  maternity.  Let  her  be  able  to  say 
to  her  companions  who  would  excite  her  curiosity  or  misinform  her  about  these  import- 
ant matters,  “ My  mother  has  told  me  all  that  I care  to  know  about  it.”  Above  all,  let 
her  be  informed  and  her  mind  prepared  for  the  wonderful  change  in  body  and  mind  that 
comes  at  the  close  of  her  girlhood.  The  mother  who  will  permit  her  child  to  remain 
ignorant  of  this,  or  trust  to  schoolmates  or  older  persons  of  vicious  tastes  to  tell  her,  and 
then  laugh  at  the  alarm  of  the  daughter  who  first  makes  the  discovery  when  the  unmis- 
takable evidence  has  come  upon  her  own  person,  is  derelict  in  duty  and  unworthy  of  her 
position.  Tell  her  of  the  irreparable  injury  that  may  arise  from  carelessness  and  want  of 
methodical  habits  in  regard  to  the  demands  of  nature.  Inform  her  plainly  of  the  unut- 
terable suffering  and  misery  of  body  and  mind  occasioned  by  the  secret  vice  and  the  im- 
proper care  of  her  person.  She  should  be  taught  how  to  avoid  that  bane  of 
American  women,  the  contraction  of  those  difficulties  which  are  peculiar  to  her  sex. 

The  time  in  life  when  the  procreative  organs  assume  their  peculiar  functions  differs 
in  different  individuals.  It  occurs  at  a much  earlier  age  in  warm  countries  than  in  cold. 
In  the  female  this  is  the  period  when  the  entire  being  of  the  girl  undergoes  a change  so 
marked  and  radical  as  to  affect  every  department  of  her  nature.  The  emotional  nature 
is  awakened  to  new  life,  the  mind  assumes  a strength  before  unknown,  and  the  develop- 
ment of  physical  beauty,  in  rotundity  of  form  and  grace  of  outline,  is  rapid  and  conspicu- 
ous. This  is  the  important  crisis  which  perchance  is  to  determine  the  condition  of 
her  health  for  a lifetime.  She  now  requires  the  attention  and  advice  of  a well-informed 
and  judicious  mother.  Alas  for  the  unfortunate  daughter  whose  mother  is  misinformed 
or  who  shirks  her  sacred  responsibility  behind  the  retreat  of  a false  delicacy.  To 
establish  the  health  of  the  daughter  upon  a firm  basis,  and  direct  her  natural  instincts 
in  the  proper  channels  at  this  critical  point,  is  an  important  trust  that  can  devolve  upon 
no  other  human  being.  It  is  most  lamentable  that  there  is  such  an  utter  disregard  and 
apathy  concerning  the  maternal  duty. 

A FALSE  DELICACY. — Whatever  may  be  said  of  the  modesty  which  should  be 
observed  in  social  society  in  regard  to  the  relation  of  the  sexes,  that  undue  sentimentality 
which  veils  the  eyes  of  the  mother  from  the  physical  functions  which  nature  is  about  to 
establish  in  her  own  daughter,  is  both  pernicious  and  unnatural,  for  at  this  time  many 
of  those  peculiar  diseases  which  shatter  the  constitution  of  woman  and  make  her  life  one 


578 


MEDICAL  AND  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION. 


continued  burden  of  suffering  and  agony,  are  laid.  This  might  have  been  avoided  by  the 
proper  care  of  the  individual  at  this  period.  While  Nature  would  establish  the  function 
of  womanhood  upon  a natural  and  healthful  basis,  it  is  the  mother’s  duty  to  intelligently 
aid  her  in  this  important  work,  and  to  prevent  her  daughter,  through  ignorance  or  false 
delicacy,  from  obstructing  or  interfering  with  it.  But  how  often  the  mother’s  own  want 
of  information  or  false  sense  of  modesty  prevents  her  doing  this  needful  service. 

A WORD  OF  WARNING. — It  is  utterly  useless  to  moralize  upon  this  subject. 
When  the  alternative  arises  between  the  question  of  social  etiquette  and  personal  suffer- 
ing, followed  by  disease,  dispense  with  the  mock  sentimentality  of  etiquette.  Because 
the  penalty  of  the  first,  second  or  third  abuse  of  these  delicate  organs  does  not  speedily 
follow,  the  thoughtless  persistently  disregard  the  warning  of  physicians  until  the  fearful 
penalty  must  be  paid  in  untold  suffering.  Chronic  inflammation  of  the  kidneys  or 
the  bladder,  paralysis  of  the  bladder,  gravel,  stone  in  the  bladder,  stricture  and  other 
evils  are  sure  to  follow.  A prominent  clergyman  of  New  England,  whose  name  would  be 
familiar  to  a vast  majority  of  our  readers,  when  advanced  in  life,  and  suffering  great  mis- 
ery from  this  cause,  told  his  physician  : “ If  I was  a young  man,  and  intended  to  follow 
the  ministry,  knowing  what  I do  now,  I would  attend  to  the  demands  of  nature  whenever 
there  was  the  slightest  intimation,  even  if  I had  to  interrupt  a wedding  or  a sermon.” 

CATHARINE  BEECHER’S  OBSERVATION.— It  is  confidently  affirmed  that 
“ Catharine  Beecher  goes  from  one  village  to  another  in  New  England  and  reports  that 
there  are  to  be  found  no  healthy  women  within  their  limits,  though  the  oldest  inhabitant 
remembers  one,  his  grandmother.”  Now  if  this  be  so,  and  to  a great  extent  it  appears  to 
be  the  fact,  there  must  be  some  cause  for  it.  It  is  no  argument  to  say  that,  while  our 
grandmothers  were  more  healthy  than  their  posterity,  they  were  quite  as  destitute  of 
physiological  information.  If  the  advancement  of  material  prosperity  and  civilization 
has  carried  in  its  train  pernicious  evils  dangerous  to  the  race,  then  the  voice  of  science 
and  religion  alike  should  unite  to  sound  the  alarm,  and  avert  the  danger.  That  the  cus- 
toms of  society  in  regard  to  dress,  mode  of  living  and  social  intercourse  are  at  fault, 
and  chargeable  with  this  deterioration  of  physical  strength  in  American  women,  none 
can  deny.  The  hardy  stock  which,  from  necessity,  lived  more  in  accord  with  natural 
laws,  were  a law  unto  themselves.  Their  degenerate  posterity  have  neither  the  good 
sense  nor  simple  habits  of  their  grandmothers,  and,  in  consequence,  suffer  from  an  igno- 
rant or  willful  disregard  of  physical  laws. 

ADVICE  TO  MEN. — All  the  natural  appetites  of  our  being  were  given  us  by  the 
great  Creator  for  wise  and  beneficent  purposes,  and  nature  requires  a legitimate  gratifi- 
cation of  them.  The  mysterious  and  complicated  organism  which  has  for  its  object  the 
perpetuation  of  the  species  was  designed  to  contribute  to  the  happiness  and  health  of  man. 
But  this  must  be  held  under  the  restraint  of  judgment  and  moral  obligation.  No  man  has 
a right  to  supply  the  demands  of  his  own  nature  at  the  expense  of  violating  the  rights  of 
another  or  the  rights  of  society.  Much  less  has  he  the  right  to  break  the  physical  laws  of 
his  being,  since  the  consequences  which  follow  and  the  penalty  which  Nature  exacts  are 
so  fearful  and  so  sure  to  result. 


MEDICAL  AND  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION. 


579 


The  teachings  of  the  Bible  are  upon  the  plain  of  the  highest  philosophy  as  well  as 
the  highest  morality  ; and  no  sophistry  or  plausible  argument  of  physical  necessity  can 
overthrow  them.  Let  every  man  who  would  regard  his  own  welfare,  physical  and  moral, 
and  the  good  of  society,  regard  the  standard  of  morality  presented  in  Scripture  as  the 
guide  of  his  personal  conduct  in  all  the  relations  of  life.  “ Drink  waters  out  of  thine 
own  cistern,  and  running  waters  out  of  thine  own  well.  * * * Let  them  be  thine  own, 
and  not  a stranger’s  with  thee.  Let  thy  fountain  be  blessed  ; and  rejoice  with  the  wife 
of  thy  youth.” — Prov.  v.,  15,  17,  18.  It  is  true  of  the  harlot,  “Her  home  is  the  way  to 
hell,  going  down  to  the  chambers  of  death.” — Prov.  vii.,  27. 

COUNSEL  TO  THE  UNMARRIED.— “ God  setteth  the  solitary  in  families,” 
is  the  utterance  of  divine  inspiration.  The  plainest  teaching  of  revelation,  of  nature  and 
of  history  is  that  the  great  Author  of  our  being  intends  that  one  man  and  one  woman 
shall  constitute  the  golden  link  of  which  all  human  society  is  formed.  The  highest  type 
of  bliss  is  represented  in  the  union  of  a single  pair  in  an  indissoluble  bond  of  affection, 
cementing  the  interests,  desires,  inclinations  and  lives  ?f  both.  The  highest  civilization, 
the  best  specimens  of  physical  and  mental  development,  and  the  most  refined  culture 
are  found  in  those  countries  where  monogamic  marriage  is  recognized  as  the  only  mar- 
riage. The  choice  of  a life  companion  is  one  that  should  not  be  made  hastily,  unadvis- 
edly, or  without  a proper  regard  for  its  vast  importance.  The  temperament  of  the  parties, 
condition  of  health,  tastes  and  inclinations  should  be  carefully  considered  before  any  ad- 
vances are  made  in  this  direction.  It  is,  perhaps,  unfortunate  that  under  the  customs  of 
society  the  male  alone  is  expected  to  make  the  advances  ; but  such  is  the  fact.  Since 
this  is  true,  the  man  should  bring  the  same  credentials  of  purity  and  correct  living  that 
he  expects  to  find  in  his  bride.  The  subsequent  happiness  of  the  home  and  the  health 
of  the  offspring  demand  this.  Let  the  man  cultivate  the  society  of  ladies  who  are  pure 
and  noble,  and  none  other.  When  the  object  of  his  choice  has  been  found,  let  him  allow 
good  judgment  rather  than  sentiment  to  govern  him.  That  there  should  be  an  affection 
between  the  pair  surmounting  every  other  consideration,  is  true.  But  let  this  be  awak- 
ened only  after  good  sense  has  given  her  verdict.  Young  women  should  cultivate  their 
minds  and  surround  their  persons  with  those  adornments  of  modesty  which  will  attract 
the  best  elements  of  manhood,  nor  be  satisfied  with  the  empty  admiration  and  vapid  sen- 
timentality which  pass  in  so-called  good  society.  The  highest  type  of  mental  and  physi- 
cal female  development  is  the  one  great  demand  of  the  age.  There  can  be  found  a sup- 
ply to  this  demand  if  the  young  women  of  the  present  day  rise  to  the  possibility  which 
is  theirs. 

A SOUND  OF  ALARM. — It  is  a rule  that  men  know  more  about  women  than 
women  know  about  men.  This  is  due  to  the  system  of  education  and  social  requirements 
of  the  time.  The  innocent  girl  is,  therefore,  placed  at  a continual  disadvantage  in  he* 
intercourse  with  gentlemen. 

Unless  she  be  upon  her  guard,  the  plausible  flattery  and  the  hollow  compliments  per- 
mitted in  social  intercourse  will  turn  her  head,  and  too  late  she  will  find  that  what  she 
regarded  as  sincere  expression*  love,  were  only  the  empty  pretensions  of  a libertine. 


580 


MEDICAL  AND  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION. 


PHYSICAL  CULTURE. — The  undue  attention  which  has  been  paid  in  this 
country  to  intellectual  culture  ta  the  expense  of  the  physical,  has  produced  its  effect  upon 
the  present  generation,  in  impaired  bodily  power,  weakened  constitution,  nervous  irrita~ 
bility,  and  want  of  mental  strength  That  there  are  other  causes  for  this  we  acknowl- 
edge ; but,  while  in  no  other  country  and  no  other  age  has  there  been  so  rapid  strides  in 
mental  culture,  this  other  department  has  been  too  much  neglected,  and  ought  to  claim 
the  attention  of  those  who  have  the  good  of  the  rising  generation  at  heart.  In  the  great 
hurry  and  bustle  of  commercial  and  professional  life  there  has  been  danger  that  physical 
exhaustion  would  tell  upon  the  youth  of  the  nation,  but  latterly  there  has  been  awakened 
a new  interest  in  athletic  sports  among  students  and  others  that,  if  not  carried  to  the  ex- 
treme of  excess,  will  be  beneficial  in  the  future.  The  leading  educators  have  been 
aroused  to  the  peril,  and  a new  era  has  dawned.  Pedestrian  contests,  out-of-door  spcrts, 
bowling,  base  ball  playing,  aquatic  sports,  and  all  forms  of  exercise  which  tend  to  develop 
the  physical  powers  and  promote  the  health,  without  exciting  the  passions,  are  proper  for 
the  American  youth.  More  than  this,  we  contend  that  all  families,  schools  and  institu- 
tions should  make  provision  for  the  physical  culture  of  its  members,  by  supplying  all 
needed  appliances  to  that  end.  In  the  public  schools  ample  time  should  be  afforded 
during  each  session  for  systematic  exercise  of  all  the  pupils,  male  and  female.  A simple 
system  of  calisthenics  should  be  introduced  under  a competent  teacher,  introducing  exer- 
cises with  the  dumb  bells,  rings,  Indian  clubs,  bean  bags  and  wands.  For  out -door 
sports  provision  should  be  made  for  croquet,  lawn  tennis,  base  ball  and  other  games.  The 
use  of  the  bicycle,  parlor  skates  and  other  appliances  should  become  common  among  all 
classes. 

Those  exercises  which  call  into  play  the  muscles  of  the  human  body  and  develop 
their  strength,  are  always  healthful  when  not  carried  to  excess,  or  engaged  in  when  the 
physical  conditions  are  not  such  as  to  warrant  it. 

THE  GROWTH  IN  BODY. — Nature  demands  that  the  years  of  childhood  shall 
be  devoted  to  growth  of  body  and  mind,  and  that  these  should  keep  pace  with  each  other- 
To  this  end  she  has  implanted  in  the  young  the  love  of  athletic  sports  and  vigorous  exer- 
cise. The  parent  and  teacher  should  make  provision  for  this,  as  we  have  indicated  in  the 
preceding  section.  To  attain  the  highest  benefit,  this  exercise  must  be  uniform  and  sys- 
tematic. Nor  need  the  judicious  mother  feel  unnecessary  alarm  if  the  sports  of  her  boys 
appear  to  her  to  be  hazardous  and  inimicable  to  life  or  limb,  for  nature  has  wisely  provided 
in  a wonderful  manner  against  such  an  emergency  by  giving  the  bones  of  the  young  an 
elasticity  which  they  lose  in  after  life.  The  girl  may  seem  to  be  gaining  the  epithet  of 
tom-boy,  but  elasticity  of  step,  quickness  in  circulation,  roundness  of  form  and  brightness 
of  eyes  that  indicates  good  health,  more  than  compensates  for  all  that.  Then  allow  your 
children,  by  all  means,  to  engage  in  the  proper  sports  of  youth.  Nor  chide  them  it  the 
physical  growth  outstrips  the  mental,  for  th^e  is  time  enough  for  Nature  to  do  her  luii 
work  under  judicious  attention- 


MEDICAL  AND  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION. 


581 


THE  FIVE  SENSES. 

TOUCH  : — All  we  know  of  the  outer  world  comes  to  us  through  the  medium  of 
the  five  human  senses.  They  are  those  of  Touch,  Taste,  Smell,  Sight  and  Hearing- 
Each  has  its  especial  organ  for  the  transmission  of  the  effect  to  the  brain.  Through  all 
the  body  there  is  an  intricate  system  of  nerves  transmitting  their  effect  to  the  seat  of 
all  feeling,  the  human  brain  ; but  the  principal  organ  which  is  used  is  the  hand.  This  is 
the  first  of  the  senses,  used  by  the  child.  By  it  we  gain*our  notion  of  solidity,  and 
throughout  all  the  life  rectify  the  other  sensations.  In  the  palm  of  the  hand  there  are 
twelve  thousand  nerves  to  the  square  inch,  and  we  can  see  the  small,  fine  ridges  along 
which  they  are  arranged.  In  the  finger-tips  they  are  very  sensitive  and  capable  of  great 


cultivation.  The  physician  can  acquire  a learned  touch , which  is  of  inestimable  value  in 
his  profession.  The  blind  usually  have  a delicacy  of  touch,  which  makes  up  in  a great 
degree  for  the  loss  of  sight.  There  seems  to  be  a wonderful  amount  of  sympathy  be- 
tween the  different  senses,  and  when  one  is  lost  or  impaired,  the  others  appear  to  com- 
pensate in  a great  degree  for  the  lack.  The  Englishman,  Cuthbert,  was  blind  ; but  by 
the  sense  of  touch  he  became  the  best  polisher  of  telescopic  mirrors  in  London.  Saun- 
derson,  a blind  man,  who  followed  Newton  as  Professor  of  Mathematics  in  Cambridge 
University,  could  tell  the  difference  between  real  and  spurious  coin  by  the  touch  alone. 
We  have  known  a blind  lady  who  could  tell  when  she  was  approaching  any  object  by  the 
change  in  the  air.  We  show  the  hand  with  skin  removed  in  Figure  1. 


Cavity  occupied 


Lens 

i its  Capsule 


by  Vitreous  Humour 


Figure  3. 

vitreous  humor  of  the  back  chamber,  and  throws  the  image  of  the  object  upon  the  retina, 
from  which  the  sensation  is  sent  to  the  brain  by  the  optic  nerve.  The  image  produced 
on  the  retina  is  the  reverse  of  that  of  the  object  represented.  The  study  of  optics  is  a 
science  by  itself,  and  can  only  be  understood  after  studying  physiology. 


MEDICAL  AND  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION. 


SIGHT  : — The  eye  is  the  organ  of  vision 
and  in  its  arrangement  and  delicate  mechan- 
ism, is  the  most  wonderful  of  all  the  organs 
in  the  body.  It  is  a globe  of  an  inch  in  diame- 
ter, and  is  covered  by  three  coats.  On  the 
outside  is  the  sclerotic  coat,  a tough,  hard  cas- 
ing, which  gives  the  shape  to  the  organ ; 
within  this  is  the  choroid,  a black  lining  that 
absorbs  the  light,  and  inside  of  this  is  the 
retina,  an  expansion  of  the  optic  nerve.  The 
retina  is  shown  in  Figure  3.  The  Figures 
2-3  are  perfect  representations  of  the  eye, 
and  explain  themselves.  In  the  front  of  the 
eye,  Figure  2,  is  the  pupil,  surrounded  with 
the  iris.  The  iris  is  of  different  color  in 
various  persons.  The  iris  is  surrounded  with 
the  white  of  the  eye,  that  part  of  the  sclerotic 
coat  which  appears  in  sight  when  the  lids  are 
open.  The  eye  is  divided  into  two  chambers.  Figure  2. 

The  front  chamber  takes  up  about  one-fifth  of  the  eye,  and  is  called  the  cornea.  This  is 
filled  with  a limpid  liquid,  termed  aqueous  humor.  Back  of  this  is  a crystaline  lense  and 
a chamber  filled  with  virtreous  humor.  The  light  is  admitted  by  the  pupil,  and  passes 

through  the  aqueous  humor,  and  the  lense  concentrates  the  rays  which  pass  through  the 

Sclerotic 

Choroid <Nr-  Tendon  rf  bxctus 

Retina  - 


Hyaloid  Membrane 


Ciliary  Muscle 
and  Ligament 


Circular  Slnut 
Canal  of  Petit 


MEDICAL  AND  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION. 


583 


How  We  See  : — The  usually  received  theory  of  light  is  that  there  is  a universal 
atmosphere,  termed  ether,  which  extends  to  all  space.  This  is  infinitely  more  subtile 
than  the  air,  and  fills  all  its  pores.  As  sound  is  produced  by  waves 
of  air,  so  the  light  is  caused  by  waves  of  ether.  These  light-waves 
pass  through  the  iris  and  lenses  to  the  retina,  and  thus  send  their 
pulsations  to  the  optic  nerve  and  thence  to  the  brain.  This  is  the 
most  satisfactory  theory  to  explain  the  presence  and  operation  of 
light,  and  has  been  very  generally  accepted  by  learned  men.  Figure 
4 shows  how  the  light  is  gathered  to  a focus  in  the  eye. 

Figure  4. 

HEARING  : — The  ear  is  the  organ  of  hearing,  and  is  divided  into  the  external,  the 
middle,  and  internal  ear.  The  external  ear  is  the  sheet  of  cartilage  of  a peculiar  shape 
for  catching  sounds,  and  transmitting  them  to  the  internal  ear.  The  tube  which  con- 
nects this  outer  ear  with  the  inner  is  about  an  inch  in  length.  Across  the  lower  end  of 
this  canal,  called  the  auditory  canal,  there  is  a membrane,  or  drum,  which  is  kept  very 
soft  by  a kind  of  wax.  The  middle  ear  has  a tube  leading  to  the  mouth,  and  contains 
three  tiny  bones,  called  from  their  shape,  the  hummer , the  anvil ' and  the  stirrup.  These 
tiny  bones  have  all  the  properties  of  other  bones  ; one  has  a ball-and-socket  joint  and 
one  a hinge-joint.  The  internal  ear'  is  hollowed  out  of  the  solid  bone,  and  consists  of  an 
intricate  arrangement  called  a labyrinth.  There  are  the  vestibule,  about  the  size  of  a 
grain  of  wheat ; three  semi-circular  tubes  open  from  this  and  connect  with  the  cochlea , or 
snail-shell.  There  is  inside  of  this  snail-shell  a delicate  harp  arrangement  coiled  up,  and 
so  placed  that  the  longest  string  comes  first  and  the  shortest  last. 

How  We  Hear  : — Sound-waves  are  made  in  the  air  by  one  body  striking  against 
another.  These  waves  of  air  strike  the  membrane,  which  vibrates  and  sends  the  motion 
along  the  three  tiny  bones  to  the  internal  ear,  where  the  sound  is  reproduced  in  the  snail- 
shell  by  the  fibers  and  stony  appliance,  which  send  it  to  the  nerves  that  carry  it  to  the 
brain. 

Great  care  should  be  taken  of  the  ear  on  account  of  its  delicacy  and  intricate  ar- 
rangement. Cold  water  should  never  be  allowed  to  enter  the  auditory  canal.  The  wax 
should  not  be  removed  with  any  hard  substance,  nor  should  the  hair  around  the  ear  be 
left  wet,  for  this  may  chill  the  organ.  Avoid  shouting  in  the  ear  of  another  person,  for 
the  severe  shock  may  produce  bad  results.  Soldiers  who  fire  heavy  guns  and  men  who 
work  where  large  trip-hammers  are  kept  in  motion  by  machinery,  put  cotton  or  some  soft 
substance  in  their  ears  to  deaden  the  concussion  of  the  air.  Otherwise  they  would  be- 
come deaf  by  the  overstraining  of  the  delicate  parts  of  the  ear. 

SMELL: — The  nose  is  the  seat  of  this  sense,  and  is  composed  of  cartilage  covered 
with  muscle  and  skin.  It  is  connected  with  the  skull  by  small  bones.  The  nostrils  open 
at  the  back  and  are  covered  with  mucuous  membrane.  The  olfactory  nerves  passthrough 
a sieve-like,  bony  plate  at  the  root  of  the  nose.  The  object  to  be  smelled  need  not 
always  touch  the  nose,  but  tiny  atoms  are  brought  to  it  on  the  air  and  come  in  contact 
with  these  nerves. 


584 


MEDICAL  AND  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION. 


TASTE  : — This  sense  is  seated  in  the  nerves  of  the  tongue  and  palate.  The  nerves 
end  in  the  skin  in  a slight  projection  called  papillae.  These  start  up  when  tasting,  as  you 
can  see  for  yourself  by  putting  a drop  of  vinegar  upon  your  tongue  as  you  stand  before  a 
mirror.  The  velvety  appearance  on  the  surface  of  the  tongue  is  caused  by  hair-like  pro- 
jections, which  absorb  the  liquid  from  the  article  and  convey  it  to  the  nerves.  The  back 
of  the  tongue  is  sensitive  to  salt  and  bitter  substances,  and  the  edge  of  the  tongue  to  sour 
and  sweet.  The  use  of  the  taste  was  originally  to  aid  in  the  selection  of  food,  but  it  has 
become  perverted  by  habit  and  the  use  of  high  seasoning. 

THE  TEETH  AND  THEIR  CARE, 

We  have  purposely  left  the  subject  to  appear  in  an  article  by  itself,  for  we  deem  it 
:»f  especial  importance  to  our  young  readers  to  impress  upon  their  minds  the  necessity 
of  keeping  these  beautiful  portals  to  the  mouth  in  the  best  condition. 

There  are  thirty-two  teeth  in  an  adult  person,  sixteen  in  each  jaw.  The  four  in  the 
center  have  wide,  sharp  edges,  like  a chisel,  for  the  purpose  of  cutting  the  food,  and  are 
called  insisors.  The  next  tooth  on  each  side  resembles  the  tearing  or  holding  tooth  of  a 
dog,  and  they  are  called  canine  teeth.  The  next  two  have  broader  crowns  or  tops,  with 
two  points,  and  are  called  bicuspids.  The  other  three  on  each  side  are  grinders  or 
molars.  The  incicors  and  canine,  or  eye  teeth,  have  one  fang  or  root,  and  the  other  twe 
or  three  which  are  firmly  set  into  the  jaw,  and  each  root  has  its  nerve  running  to  a com- 
mon nerve,  which  leads  to  the  brain. 

The  First  Teeth  or  Milk  Teeth  : — Nature  has  provided  us  with  two  sets  of  teeth. 
The  first  are  fewer  in  number  and  smaller  in  size  than  the  permanent  teeth.  They  are 
called  the  milk  teeth,  and  are  only 
twenty  in  number.  In  each  set  of  five 
(Figure  5)  on  one-half  of  the  jaw  there 
are  two  incisors,  one  canine  and  two  mo- 
lars. The  middle  incisors  usually  make 
their  appearance  in  the  infant  at  seven 
months  of  age,  the  others  at  nine  months, 
and  the  canine  teeth  at  eighteen  months. 

Two  molars  in  each  jaw  at  a year  old, 
and  the  others  at  from  two  to  three 
years  old.  As  a rule,  the  lower  teeth 
come  before  the  corresponding  upper 
ones.  The  time  often  varies,  but  this  is 
the  natural  order  in  which  they  come. 

These  teeth  remain  in  health  until  the 
child  is  about  six  years  of  age,  when  the  crowns  of  the  permanent  teeth  begin  to  work  up 
against  the  roots  of  the  first  set,  and  absorbing  these  roots,  leave  the  teeth  to  fall  out, 
while  the  new  ones  push  up  to  fill  their  places.  The  central  incisors  appear  when  the 
child  is  seven  years  of  age,  the  other  two  at  eight.  The  first  bicuspids  come  at  nine,  the 


MEDICAL  AND  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION. 


585 


rest  at  ten  years  of  age.  The  canines  are  seen  later,  and  then  the  first  molars  and  the 
last  molars  at  twelve  or  thirteen.  The  wisdom  teeth  do  not  appear  until  after  maturity. 

Figure  6 gives  a good  view  of 
the  permanent  teeth,  which  are 
more  regular  in  form  and  longer 
than  the  milk  teeth,  and  show  the 
natural  form  of  the  different  teeth. 
They  shut  closely  and  evenly  upon 
each  other,  and  tear  or  grind  the 
food  by  the  action  of  the  jaws  in 
chewing.  The  bone  is  removed  to 
show  the  roots  of  the  teeth  and 
their  nerves.  The  interior  of  a tooth 
is  composed  of  a dense  substance 
resembling  bone  called  dentine , 
which  in  the  elephant  we  know  as 
ivory.  The  cr#wn  of  the  tooth 
which  is  exposed  to  view  by  fric- 
Figure  6.  tion  is  covered  with  a hard,  white, 

glistening  material,  termed  enamel.  This  contains  a very  small  proportion  of  animal 
matter.  The  root  is  covered  with  a thin  layer  of  real  bone.  In  the  center  of  the  tooth 
there  is  a hollow  cavity,  filled  with  blood-vessels  and  nerves,  which  makes  a pulpy  mass, 
and  is  very  sensitive.  Any  irritation  of  this,  causes  the  toothache. 

The  tooth  is  fitted  into  the  jaw  in  a most  wonderful  way.  The  socket  is  lined  with 
a soft  membrane,  which  acts  as  a cushion  and  deadens  the  force  of  any  sudden  jar  or 
blow.  When  this  becomes  diseased,  or  inflamed,  it  is  the  seat  of  the  most  severe  pain. 
The  decay  of  the  teeth  is  caused  by  some  part  of  the  food  which  remains  between  them 
and  quickly  decomposes  by  the  action  of  the  moisture  and  heat  of  the  mouth,  or  the 
saliva  leaving  on  the  teeth  a sediment  called  tartar.  The  organic  matter  collects  on  this 
and  a fungus  appears,  which  is  injurious  to  the  teeth.  These  two  causes  give  an  offen- 
sive oder  to  the  breath,  and  destroy  the  teeth.  The  excessive  use  of  confectionary,  the 
cracking  of  nuts  with  the  teeth,  drinking  the  tea  or  coffee  too  hot,  and  many  other  things 
we  might  mention  are  injurious,  and  lead  to  an  early  decay  of  the  teeth. 

Preservation  of  the  Teeth  : — Our  young  readers  should  bear  in  mind  that  the 
preservation  of  the  teeth  by  proper  care  and  attention  is  of  great  importance.  The 
enamel  of  the  tooth  can  never  be  restored  after  it  has  once  been  injured,  and  the  tooth 
once  removed  can  never  be  replaced  by  a natural  one.  However  much  the  skill  of  mod- 
ern dentistry  can  do  to  make  up  the  loss,  it  still  remains  true  that  the  natural  teeth  are 
far  superior  to  any  that  the  skill  of  man  can  devise.  By  all  means,  then,  use  every  method 
that  is  healthful  to  preserve  the  natural  teeth  as  long  as  possible.  You  should  brush 
your  teeth  every  morning  with  lukewarm  water,  and  at  least  twice  a week  with  soap  and 
powdered  orris-root.  After  every  meal  the  least  particle  of  food  should  be  removed  from 
between  the  teeth  by  a quill  or  wooden  toothpick.  Let  the  teeth  be  examined  by  a com- 
petent dentist  once  a year,  to  detect  if  there  be  any  small  openings  in  the  enamel,  which 


586 


MEDICAL  AND  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION. 


ought  to  be  filled  as  soon  as  they  appear.  Avoid  the  use  of  any  gritty  tooth-powder,  of 
metal  picks  of  any  kind.  Do  not  bite  thread,  crack  hard  nuts,  or  any  solid  substance 
with  the  teeth,  for  by  so  doing  you  wear  away  the  enamel  or  crack  it.  Regular,  even 
and  pearly-white  teeth  add  very  much  to  the  beauty  of  the  face  and  go  far  in  compensa- 
ting for  a lack  at  some  other  point.  The  cleanliness  of  the  teeth  is  conducive  to  health 
and  comfort,  and  these  will  more  than  repay  for  the  trouble  of  taking  good  care  to  keep 
the  teeth  clean  and  sound.  Some  kinds  of  medicine  are  harmful  to  the  teeth,  turning 
them  black  and  causing  decay. 


THE  SKIN  AND  ITS  CARE. 

The  skin,  that  thin,  tough  and  close-fitting  garment  which  covers  and  protects  the 
tender  flesh  of  the  body,  is  most  wonderfully  fitted  for  the  use  to  which  it  is  designed. 
It  is  so  elastic  as  to  conform  to  every  movement  of  the  limbs  or  body,  and  has  an  import- 
ant part  to  do  to  keep  it  in  health  and  vigor.  It  oils  itself  to  keep  its  smoothness,  re- 
place its  waste,  worn-out  matter  as  fast  as  it  is  removed,  and  shows  at  the  same  time  the 
perfection  of  beauty  and  use.  That  part  we  call  the  skin, — that  is  the  part  which  rises 
in  a blister, — is  only  the  covering  of  the  true  skin.  This  outer  skin  is  called  the  cuticle , 
and  the  inner  the  cutis . The  first  does  not  bleed,  give  rise  to  pain,  or  fell  the  heat  and 
cold,  but  the  second  is  full  of  delicate  nerves  and  blood-vessels.  The  outer  skin  is  com- 
posed of  flat  scales,  which  are  thrown  off  from  the  surface  and  as  constantly  renewed  from 
the  skin  below.  In  this  cutis , or  second  skin,  there  are  immense  numbers  of  little  cells, 
beyond  the  conception  of  the  mind.  These  are  flattened  and  hardened  as  they  come  to 
the  surface.  The  cuticle,  or  outer  skin,  becomes  thicker  and  harder  by  contact  with  for- 
eign substances,  as  on  the  hand  or  foot.  The  boy  who  goes  bare-foot  for  the  first  time 
finds  that  the  pebbles  and  briers  hurt  his  tender  feet,  while  the  country  lad  who  has  gone 
unshod  all  summer  can  run  where  he  chooses  over  the  thistles  and  stones.  The  black- 
smith has  hard  and  horny  hands  which  can  grasp  a heated  iron  that  would  burn  an  or- 
dinary man,  and  the  mason  can  handle  brick,  stone,  and  mortar  without  being  scratched 
or  injured.  This  is  because  the  cuticle  becomes  thick  and  callous. 

The  Complexion  : — There  is  a coloring  matter  between  the  outer  and  inner  skin  com- 
posed of  tiny  grains.  In  the  tints  of  this  pigment  lies  all  the  difference  in  complexion 
between  the  lightest  blonde  and  the  darkest  brunette,  the  European  and  the  Negro. 
The  Jewish  complexion  has  some  of  this  coloring  matter  in  it.  The  sun  has  a powerful 
effect  upon  it,  causing  “ tan,”  or  a browning  of  the  skin.  When  this  browning  of  the 
skin  does  not  spread  over  all  the  skin,  but  gathers  in  spots,  these  are  called  freckles. 

The  hair  and  nails  are  modified  forms  of  the  cuticle. 

The  Perspiration  : — There  are  an  infinite  number  of  fine  tubes  which  run  through 
the  cutis,  or  inner  skin,  and  this  coils  up  in  little  balls.  They  are  found  in  every  part  of 
the  body.  The  mouths  of  these  glands, — or  pores,  as  we  call  them, — may  be  seen 
through  a pocket  lense  along  the  ridges  which  cover  the  skin.  A vapor  exudes  from 
these  pores,  forming  what  we  call  insensible  perspiration.  This  goes  on  all  the  time,  but 
when  excited  by  heat  or  exercise  it  flows  out  more  freely  in  drops  of  moisture,  commonly 
called  sweat.  This  is  composed  of  ninety -nine  parts  water,  and  one  part  animal  matter. 
On  the  average,  an  adult  person  throws  off  two  pounds  of  this  every  day.  We  have  told 
of  two  offices  which  the  skin  performs,  namely,  to  protect  the  flesh  and  to  .cast  off  the 
waste  matter  in  perspiration  ; there  is  another  : — 


MEDICAL  AND  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION. 


587 


The  Absorbing  Power  : — This  is  not  so  easy  of  notice  as  the  others,  but  we  can 
prove  that  the  skin  does  absorb  or  take  up  material  from  the  outside.  Contagious  dis« 
eases  are  contracted  in  this  way.  Poisons  are  sometimes  acquired  by  the  touch. 

Care  of  the  Skin  : — The  pores  of  the  skin  ought  to  be  kept  open  and  free  to 
work.  Therefore,  the  clothing  should  be  of  such  a nature  as  to  permit  a free  passage  to 
the  perspiration,  and  the  waste  material  and  dirt  should  be  removed  from  the  skin  to 
allow  this  to  go  on  unobstructed.  Baths  should  be  taken  with  regularity.  The  best 
time  for  this  is,  according  to  some  writers,  in  the  morning  on  rising  from  bed.  The  body 
is  warm  and  relaxed  and  needs  bracing  up.  It  can  then  sustain  the  gentle  shock  of 
moderately  cool  water.  If  the  system  is  strong  enough  to  cause  reaction,  cold  water  is  most 
invigorating.  After  the  bath  the  body  should  be  rubbed  dry,  and  the  circulation  stimu- 
lated by  a gentle  friction.  At  first  this  may  be  unpleasant  to  the  sensitive  skin,  but  the 
lively  glow  that  follows  will  more  than  make  up  for  this.  Avoid  taking  a bath  just  after 
a hearty  meal,  as  it  will  impede  the  digestion.  Soap  and  ungeants  should  be  used 
sparingly,  and  followed  by  the  use  of  clear  water.  When  cold  water  is  used  the  surface 
is  chilled  and  the  blood  is  driven  to  the  heart,  which  increases  its  action  and  causes  it  to 
send  the  blood  back  to  the  surface,  where  it  reddens,  warms  and  stimulates  the  skin. 
This  is  termed  reaction.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  warm  water  is  used,  the  blood  is  drawn 
to  the  surface,  and  less  goes  to  the  heart,  and  languor  results.  After  a warm  bath  a dash 
of  cold  water  over  the  body  will  prevent  this.  When  the  circulation  of  the  blood  is  not 
vigorous  enough  a cold  bath  leaves  the  person  chilly  and  depressed,  but  the  general 
effect  of  a cold  bath  is  exhilarating  and  beneficial,  while  that  of  a warm  bath  is  depress- 
ing. The  latter  should  not  be  taken  oftener  than  once  a week,  while  the  former  may  be 
taken  every  day  without  harm,  if  a proper  reaction  follows  it. 

A sea-water  bath  is  very  stimulating,  on  account  of  the  action  of  the  salt  and  the  ex- 
citing surroundings.  No  one  should  swim  in  salt  or  fresh  water  over  twenty  minutes  or 
naif  an  hour  at  a time.  Gentle  exercise  after  a bath,  either  at  home  or  in  the  air,  is  very 
beneficial.  Great  care  chould  be  taken  to  keep  all  parts  of  the  person  neat  and  clean  sit 
all  times,  both  on  account  of  personal  health  and  comfort 


TREATMENT  OF  THE  DROWNED. 

TWO  THINGS  TO  BE  DONE. 


RESTORE  BREATHING: RESTORE  ANIMAL  HEAT. 


Fig.  I 


RULE  i. — Unless  in  dan- 
ger of  freezing,  never  move 
the  patient  from  the  spot 
where  first  rescued,  nor  allow 
bystanders  to  screen  off  the 
fresh  air,  but  instantly  wipe, 
clean  the  mouth  and  nostrils, 
rip  and  remove  all  clothing 
to  a little  below  the  waist, 
rapidly  rub  dry  the  exposed 
part,  and  give  two,  quick? 
smarting  slaps  on  the  stom 
ach  with  your  open  hand.  If 
this  does  not  succeed  imme- 
diately, proceed  to  perform  artificial  breathing  according  to  the  following  directions  : 

RULE  2. — Turn  the  patient  on  his  face  as  seen  in  Cut  i,  a large  bundle  of  tightly 
rolled  clothing  being  placed  beneath  his  stomach,  and  press  heavily  over  it  upon  the 
spine,  for  half  a minute. 


RULE  3.— 

Turn  the  pa- 
tient quickly 
again  on  his 
back,  as  seen  in 
Cut  2,  the  roll 
of  clothing  be- 
ing so  placed 
beneath  as  to 
make  the  short 

ribs  bulge  prominently  forward,  and  raise  them  a little  higher  than  the  level  of  the 
mouth.  Let  some  bystander  hold  the  tip  of  the  tongue  out  of  one  corner  of  the  mouth 
with  a dry  handkerchief,  as  shown,  to  keep  it  from  falling  back  into  the  throat  and  block- 
ing up  the  air  passages  to  the  chest,  and  hold  both  hands  of  the  patient  together,  the 
arms  being  stretched  forcibly  above  the  head. 

RULE  4. — Kneel  astride  the  patient’s  hips,  and  with  your  hands  resting  on  his 
stomach  spread  out  your  fingers  so  that  you  can  grasp  the  waist  about  the  short  ribs. 
Now  throw  all  your  weight  steadily  forward  upon  your  hands,  while  you  at  the  same  time 
squeeze  the  ribs  deeply,  as  if  you  wished  to  force  everything  in  the  chest  upwards  out  of 
the  mouth.  Continue  this  while  you  can  slowly  count  one — two — three — then  suddenly 
let  go,  with  a final  push,  which  springs  you  back  to  your  kneeling  position.  Remain 
erect  upon  your  knees  while  you  can  count  one — two — then  throw  your  weight  forward 


POISONS  AND  THEIR  ANTIDOTES. 


589 


again  as  before,  repeating  the  entire  motions — at  first  about  4 or  5 times  a minute,  and 
continuing  with  the  same  regularity  of  time  and  motion  as  is  observed  in  the  natural 
breathing  which  you  are  imitating. 

RULE  5. — Continue  this  treatment  though  apparently  unsuccessful,  for  two  hours, 
until  the  patient  begins  to  breathe  ; and  for  awhile  after  this  help  him  by  well-timed 
pressure  to  deepen  his  first  gasps  into  full,  deep  breaths  ; while  the  friction  of  the  limbs 
which  should  if  possible,  have  been  kept  up  during  the  entire  process,  is  now  further 
increased. 

AFTER  TREATMENT. 

EXTERNALLY. — As  soon  as  the  breathing  has  become  perfectly  natural  strip  the 
patient  rapidly  and  completely.  Enwrap  him  in  blankets  only.  Put  him  in  bed  in  a room, 
comfortably  warm,  but  with  a free  circulation  of  fresh  air,  and  except  for  the  administra- 
tion of  internal  treatment,  let  him  have  perfect  rest. 

INTERNALLY. — Give  a little  hot  brandy  and  water,  or  other  stimulant  at  hand, 
every  10  or  15  minutes,  for  the  first  hour,  and  as  often  thereafter  as  may  seem  expedient1 

POISONS  AND  THEIR  ANTIDOTES. 

A few  practical  suggestions  to  the  laity  on  medical  and  surgical  emergencies, 
and  hygiene : 

It  is  often  important  that  there  should  be  in  the  possession  of  every  family  a work 
containing  in  a concise  and  comprehensive  form,  within  the  understanding  of  the  peo- 
ple, a few  practical  suggestions  in  regard  to  certain  cases  of  emergency  where  inexperi- 
enced persons  are  called  upon  to  act.  Such  a work  will  often  enable  one  to  do  what  is  right 
when  otherwise  he  would  be  helpless,  or  worse,  do  what  is  absolutely  wrong.  This 
article  then  is  not  intended  to  make  every  man  his  own  doctor,  but  simply  to  give  a few 
practical  ideas  required  in  emergencies  where  health  or  life  is  at  stake. 

Emergency  cases  requiring  the  prompt  administration  of  medicine  are  more  com- 
monly found  in  persons  who  have  accidentally  or  intentionally  swallowed  some  form  of 
poison,  here  it  is  necessary  to  do  the  right  thing  as  soon  as  possible,  and  in  all  cases 
where  poisons  have  been  known  to  have  been  swallowed  within  one  to  two  hours,  an 
emetic  should  be  given  at  once,  and  ordinarily  the  most  convenient  will  be  one  of  a table- 
spoonful of  mustard  in  water,  followed  by  the  free  use  of  warm  water,  or  salt  and  water. 
For  the  special  antidotes  to  the  more  common  poisons  the  following  table  will  guide 
the  reader : 

For  the  sake  of  order  we  will  divide  the  poisons  into  what  are  termed  narcotic,  cor- 
rosive, irritant,  and  external. 

The  more  common  poisons  of  the  first  class  are  the  various  preparations  of  opium, 
belladonna,  hyoscyamus,  stramonium,  chloral,  tobacco,  lobelia,  aconite,  alcohol, 
strychnine,  and  prussic  acid. 

Of  the  second  class  only  arsenic,  corrosive  sublimate  and  the  mineral  acids  need  be 
mentioned. 

Of  the  third  class  only  the  asphyxiating  gasses,  coal  gas  and  common  illuminating 
gas  will  be  spoken  of. 


590 


POISONS  AND  THEIR  ANTIDOTES. 


Of  the  fourth  class  we  will  mention  poison  oak,  or  poison  ivy  ; poison  sumac  of 
poison  dogwood,  and  the  bites  of  poisonous  reptiles,  rabid  animals,  and  stings  of  insets. 

In  all  cases  where  the  poison  is  discovered  within  an  hour  or  two  of  its  administration, 
unless  specially  contraindicated  under  the  head  of  the  treatment  of  the  special  poison 
give  an  emetic  at  once. 

The  common  poisons,  with  their  symptoms  and  antidotes  : 

1.  Poisons. — Opium,  laudanum,  morphine  and  paregoric.  Symptoms  : Drowshiessj 

becoming  more  and  more  profound,  breathing  becomes  heavy  and  snoring,  face  flushed 
and  dusky,  pupils  contracted  to  mere  points,  cessation  of  the  respiration,  finally  causing 
deadly  suffocation.  Treatment : Vomit,  if  possible,  with  tablespoonful  of  mustard  in 

water,  followed  by  copious  draughts  of  warm  water  or  salt  and  water,  then  counteract  the 
tendency  to  sleep  by  cold  effusion,  strong  coffee,  tickling  of  the  skin,  walking  the 
patient. 

2.  Poisons. — Belladonna,  atropia,  stramonium,  hyoscyamus.  Symptoms : Pupils 

largely  dilated,  a period  of  delirious  excitement,  followed  by  convulsions  and  later  by 
profound  stupor.  Treatment : As  chemical  antidotes,  fresh  animal  charcoal,  tannin, 

teaspoonful  dose  of  ammonia  in  water.  Mustard  and  ipecac  should  be  used  as 
emetics.  Symptom  of  drowsiness  should  be  combatted  by  cold  douches,  irritants  to  the 
skin,  alcoholic  stimulants. 

3.  Poison. — Chloral.  Symptoms  : Drowsiness,  diminished  frequency  of  respiration, 

weakening  of  heart’s  action.  Treatment : Warmth  to  the  body,  stimulation  with  strong 

coffee,  irritation  of  the  skin,  galvanism. 

4.  Poison. — Lobelia.  Symptoms  : Causes  giddiness  and  headache,  nausea,  symptoms 
of  intense  prostration.  The  danger  is  greater  and  symptoms  more  pronounced  if  nausea 
does  not  exist,  when  stupor  may  be  followed  by  convulsions  and  death.  Treatment 
Stomach  should  be  washed  out  with  warm  water  and  tannic  acid,  and  symptoms  of 
depression  treated  by  stimulants  ; counter  irritants  and  friction. 

5.  Poison.  Aconite.  Symptoms.  May  kill  rapidly  by  direct  failure  of  the  heart’s 

action,  or  if  the  action  be  less  rapid  respiratory  failure,  great  muscular  weakness  is  noted 
the  heart’s  action  becomes  weak  and  irregular,  the  face  pale,  a cold  sweat  covers  the  body. 
Treatment : Stimulants  to  sustain  the  action  of  the  heart;  keep  the  patient  most  rigidly 

in  the  recumbent  position  for  fear  of  fatal  syncope  by  suddenly  setting  up. 

6.  Poisons . Alcohol.  Symptoms : This  is  sometimes  difficult  to  distinguish  from 

concussion  or  compression  of  the  brain  or  apoplexy,  but  ordinarily  the  friends  will  rec- 
ognize the  symptoms.  Treatment : The  stomach  should  be  emptied  at  once  by  table- 

spoonful  of  mustard  in  warm  water,  followed  by  copious  draughts  of  warm  water,  and  the 
patient  should  be  roused  from  his  perilous  condition  of  coma  by  dashing  cold  water  upon 
his  head. 

7.  Poison. — Strychnia.  Symptoms  : Violent  convulsions  leading  to  death  by  exhaus- 
tion or  suffocation.  Treatment:  Tannin  should  oe  administered  at  once,  to  make  an 

insoluble  compound  of  that  which  had  not  been  absorbed.  Then  evacuate  the  stomach 
and  administer  fifteen  grain  doses  of  chloral  to  antagonise  its  action. 

8.  Poison. — Tobacco.  Symptoms:  In  large  doses  it  produces  nausea,  giddiness, 

disorder  of  vision,  relaxation  of  the  muscles,  coldness  of  the  skin,  and  prostration. 
May  be  followed  with  convulsions.  Treatment:  Give  an  emetic,  and  afterwards  stimu- 

lants. 


POISONS  AND  THEIR  ANTIDOTES. 


591 


9.  Poison. — Prussic  Acid.  Symptoms : If  the  dose  does  not  kill  at  once,  symptoms 

of  suffocation  supervene,  convulsive  action  may  occur,  followed  by  great  muscular  prostra- 
tion, dilatation  of  the  pupils  and  quite  feeble,  irregular  pulse.  Treatment:  Cold  effu- 

sion, and  the  inhalation  of  ammonia,  artificial  respiration. 

1.  Poison. — Arsenic  and  soluble  arsenites.  Symptoms:  Burning  pain  in  the 

stomach,  vomiting,  diarrhoea,  headache,  fever  and  disturbed  sleep,  followed  by  prostration 
and  death  from  collapse.  Treatment : Hydrated  sesqui-oxide  of  iron  in  teaspoonful  doses, 
and  calcined  magnesia  may  be  administered  in  milk.  Also  give  decoction  of  barley  or 
oily  mixture  to  soothe  the  stomach. 

2.  Poison. — Salts  of  mercury  and  corrosive  sublimate.  Symptoms : Same  as  for 

arsenic,  only  more  acute  and  violent,  as  the  poison  is  more  soluble.  Treatment : Albu- 

men (or  white  of  egg,  flour  and  water).  Milk  may  be  freely  drank  and  vomiting  en- 
couraged. Iron  filings  form  a chemical  antidote. 

3.  Poison. — Mineral  acids,  nitric,  muriatic,  sulphuric,  nitro  muriatic.  Symptoms: 

Violent  burning  pain  in  the  stomach  and  intestines,  vomiting,  purging,  intense  prostra- 
tion and  death  by  shock  or  the  results  of  secondary  inflammation.  Treatment:  Magne- 

sia mixed  with  water  or  milk,  carbonate  of  lime,  chalk,  soda,  potash,  and  the  fixed  oils. 

4.  Poisons. — Cantharides,  Spanish  Fly.  Symptoms:  Burning  sensation  in  the 

throat,  violent  pain  in  the  stomach  and  bowels,  nausea,  vomiting  and  purging,  the  de- 
jections being  frequently  bloody,  great  heat  and  irritation  of  the  urinary  organs.  Con- 
vulsions, lockjaw,  delirium  and  syncope.  Treatment : Promote  vomiting  by  warm 

drinks  freely  administered,  flaxseed  or  slippery  elm  tea,  or  mucilage  water,  warm  baths. 

1.  Poison. — Coal  gas,  illuminating  gas,  choke  damp,  charcoal  gas.  Symptoms  : The 
first  poisonous  effects  are  noticed  in  the  irritation  of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  ah 
passage,  producing  cough.  Afterward  the  patient  becomes  unconscious  and  usually 
when  found  is  in  a complete  or  partially  comatose  condition,  with  the  seeming  slow  respi- 
ration. Face  livid  or  bluish,  extremities  cold.  Treatment:  Fresh  air  should  immediately 
be  admitted ; friction  to  the  skin  and  extremities ; galvanism,  stimulants,  and  artificial 
respiration  ; cold  effusion  to  the  head. 

1.  Poison. — Poison  ivy,  or  poison  oak  ; poison  dogwood,  or  poison  sumach.  Symp- 
toms: Violent  itching  of  the  poisoned  parts,  with  heat,  pain,  and  swelling, with  viscera- 

tion,  coming  on  from  a few  hours  to  several  days  after  exposure.  Usually  at  its  height 
about  the  fifth  day,  after  which  disqualmation  begins.  Treatment : Alum  curd  ; or  a tea- 
spoonful of  calomel  in  a pint  of  lime  water  as  external  application.  Vasaline  may  relieve 
the  itching.  A weak  solution  of  ammonia  in  water  may  also  be  used  moderately. 

2.  Poison. — Poisoned  bites  of  mad  dogs.  Symptoms : There  are  no  immediate 

symptoms  other  than  the  pain  which  would  follow  any  injury  of  equal  severity. 

3.  Poison. — Of  snakes.  Symptoms : Pain  at  the  seat  of  injury,  followed  by  livid 

redness  and  extensive  swelling,  numbness  of  the  injured  part.  In  from  half  an  hour  to 
two  hours  there  may  follow  faintness,  long  continuing  chilly  sensations,  cold  sweats,  irreg- 
ular pulse,  general  prostration,  vomiting,  diarrhoea,  and  in  severe  cases,  convulsions  and 
delirium.  2 and  3. — Treatment : A moderately  light,  broad  ligature  placed  above  the 

point  of  injury,  then  scarification,  and  suction  at  the  point  of  injury.  Afterwards  cauter- 
ization with  the  hot  iron  or  mineral  acids.  If  a finger  or  toe  be  bitten  amputation  should 
be  performed  at  the  next  joint  above,  after  application  of  the  ligature.  Keep  the  patient 
quiet  and  administer  freely  of  spirits,  (whisky.) 

4.  Poison. — Stings  of  insects.  Symptoms:  Itching,  soon  followed  by  an  intense 

pain  through  the  entire  limb,  and  spot  at  the  point  of  puncture  growing  larger  and  be- 
coming nearly  or  quite  black  at  the  center.  Treatment:  Cold  compresses,  ice,  lead 

water,  and  ammonia. 


How  to  Proceed  in  Special  Accidents, 

accidents  will  happen  in  the  best  regulated  families,  a few  directions  in 
cases  of  emergency  may  be  of  some  benefit  in  time  of  need.  Of  the 
graver  injuries,  such  as  fracture  and  dislocation,  little  need  be  said,  as 
such  cases  should  always  be  left  in  the  most  comfortable  position  till 
skilled  assistance  can  be  procured.  Probably  the  most  frequent  class  ot 
jrhaps  the  most  alarming,  the  laity  are  called  upon  to  attend,  are  incised 
wounds,  which  are  often  accompanied  by  much  loss  of  blood,  which,  as  a rule,  the  tem- 
porary dresser  is  at  a loss  how  to  control.  Let  us  take,  first,  incisions  about  the  head. 
Here  we  have  a hard,  smooth  surface,  covered  mostly  by  fibrous  tissue  and  skin  through 
which  ramify  many  good-sized  veins  and  arteries,  hemorrhage  from  which  may  always  be 
readily  checked  by  a little  firm  pressure  with  the  side  of  the  finger  at  several  points 
close  to  and  on  different  sides  of  the  cut  till  the  spurting  vessels  cease  to  flow,  when* 
having  found  the  point  or  points,  a compress  made  of  several  fold%  of  cotton  cloth  wet 
may  be  bound  upon  the  head,  so  as  to  keep  up  a steady  pressure  at  the  desired  point  till 
the  blood-vessel  can  be  secured,  or,  if  there  is  no  spurting,  but  a steady  flow  of  darker 
colored  blood,  a cold  wet  compress  may  be  placed  over  the  entire  wound  and  a little 
steady  pressure  maintained.  In  children,  who  so  frequently  fall  and  cut  the  scalp,  this 
treatment  is  ordinarily  all-sufficient,  and  even  where  the  cut  is  quite  extensive  (less  than 
an  inch  in  length)  it  is  often  best  to  mat  the  hair  over  the  wound,  and  dress  it  in  this 
simple  manner,  in  preference  to  shaving  the  head  and  strapping  or  securing  the  wound. 
Simple  bruises  without  impairment  of  the  continuity  of  the  skin  should  likewise  be 
treated  in  this  way.  In  dressing  incised  wounds  of  the  extremities  the  hemorrhage  is 
frequently  aggravated  by  the  ignorance  of  the  dresser  in  tying  a handkerchief  tightly 
at  random  just  above  the  point  of  injury.  Nine  times  in  ten  this  does  not  exert  the  least 
pressure  on  the  vessel  which  supplies  the  blood  to  the  injured  member,  and  which  or- 
dinarily lies  deeply  and  if  possible  protected  by  the  bones ; but,  on  the  contrary,  does 
press  directly  upon  the  vessels  which  return  the  blood  to  the  body  and  which  lie  very 
much  more  superficially  ; so  the  blood,  unable  to  flow  further  towards  the  body,  flows  out 
at  the  wound.  In  all  severe  cuts  of  the  upper  extremity  below  the  elbow,  in  order  to 
check  hemorrhage,  a compress  should  be  placed  over  the  brachial  artery,  which  will  be 
found  more  superficial  at  the  lower  third  on  the  arm  on  the  inside.  Firm  pressure  made 
at  this  point,  directly  against  the  bone,  will  often  save  many  a valuable  ounce  of  human 
blood  ; and  so  with  the  lower  extremities.  In  all  severe  incisions  below  the  middle  of 
the  thigh  pressure  should  be  made  at  a point  about  two  to  four  inches  from  the  top  of  the 
thigh,  about  the  middle  of  the  inside  aspect.  In  nearly  all  other  instances  of  hemorrhage 
from  cuts  about  the  trunk  the  bleeding  vessels  should  be  picked  up  and  tied  at  once. 

FRACTURES  AND  DISLOCATIONS  will  be  recognized  ordinarily  by  the  pain 
and  deformity  at  the  point  of  injury,  and  should  generally  be  left  in  as  comfortable  a 
position  as  possible  till  skilled  assistance  can  be  procured.  Applications  of  cold  watei 
may  be  made  to  prevent  excessive  swelling. 


HOW  TO  ATTAIN  SKILL 


IN 


Speaking  and  Writing 


THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE 


AND  ITS  PROPER  USE. 

The  English  language  is  divided  into  nine  Parts  of  Speech:  Article,  Noun,  Ad • 
fective,  Pronoun,  Verb,  A dverb.  Preposition , Conjunction,  and  Interjection.  0 f the  nine  parts 
of  speech,  the  Noun  is  the  principal  one0  Like  the  sun  in  the  solar  system,  it  takes  the 
position  of  center,  round  which  the  remaining  eight  parts  of  speech  revolve  as  mere 
satellites,  taking  the  secondary  office  of  modifiers.  Nouns  are  names  ; or,  a noun  is 
the  name  of  any  person,  place,  object,  or  idea.  This,  or  any  other  definition,  gives  but 
a feeble  idea  of  this  part  of  speech,  for  the  noun  forms  the  base  upon  which  the  whole 
superstructure  of  the  English  language  is  beautifully  and  permanently  erected.  Nouns 
are  divided  into  Common  and  Proper.  A common  noun  belongs  to  any  one  of  a race 
or  class.  A proper  noun  is  the  individual  name  of  one  of  any  race  or  class.  Nouns  are 
said  to  be  varied  by  Person,  Gender,  Number  and  Case.  Person  is  that  relation  existing 
between  the  speaker , the  audience , and  the  subject  of  discourse,  or  correspondence.  The 
persons  are  first , second,  and  third,  as  they  represent  respectively  the  speaker,  the  person 
addressed,  or  the  person  or  thing  mentioned  Gender  has  the  same  relation  to  nouns 
that  sex  has  to  individuals.  Nouns  have  four  Genders  : Masculine,  Feminine,  Common 
and  Neuter.  There  are  only  two  Sexes,  male  and  female.  Number  is  the  distinction  of 
one  from  more.  There  are  two  numbers,  the  Singular  and  the  Plural.  The  singular 
denotes  one  ; the  plural  denotes  more  than  one.  The  plural  is  usually  formed  by  the 
addition  of  s or  es  to  the  singular.  Case  is  the  relation  one  noun  bears  to  another,  or  to 
a verb,  or  preposition.  There  are  three  cases,  the  Nominative,  Possessive,  and  Objective . 
These  are  indicated  by  their  relation  to  the  verb  or  the  idea  of  ownership.  The  addi- 
tion of  the  apostrophe  and  an  s to  the  nominative  form  indicates  the  latter,  as  Johns 
book.  Articles  limit  nouns ; or,  an  article  is  a word  that  points  out  nouns  and  limits 
them  ; as,  a star ; an  organ  ; the  sun.  The  is  called  the  definite  article  because  it 
defines  and  points  out  definitely.  A ox  an  is  called  the  indefinite  article.  For  the  sake 
of  euphony  the  removed  n is  sometimes  recalled  to  coalesce  with  a , as,  an  apple  ; an 
instrument.  This  necessity  produced  the  following  simple  rule,  assented  to  by  all 
grammarians  : Vowel  sounds  require  an  before  them  ; Consonant  sounds,  a.  Adjectives 
imply  character ; or,  an  adjective  is  a word  added  to  a noun  to  give  character  to  those 
objects  which  the  nouns  represent;  as,  an  interesting  child  , a large  city;  chappy 
home  ; a pure  thought.  Comparison  is  called  into  use  when  rivalry  in  character  exists. 
There  are  three  degrees  of  comparison  : the  Positive , the  Comparative , and  the  Superla- 
tive. The  positive  expresses  the  ordinary  character  without  comparison  with  any  other ; 
the  comparative  is  used  when  two  characters  are  in  rivalry  with  each  other  ; the  super- 
lative is  used  in  the  comparison  of  three  objects , or  more,  and  expresses  the  highest  or 
lowest  extreme  of  character.  Pronouns  are  substitutes ; or,  a pronoun  is  a word  that 
is  used  as  a substitute  for  a noun.  Pronouns  are  divided  into  Personal,  Relative,  Demon- 
strative, and  Distributive.  Personal  pronouns  are  used  instead  of  the  names  of  persons*) 
hence  their  name  personal.  They  are : I,  thou , he,  she,  it,  in  the  singular  ; and  we,  you , 
they,  in  the  plural.  Relative  pronouns  are  words  which  relate  to  nouns  or  phrases 
going  before  them.  They  are  who,  which , and  that.  Who  is  applied  to  persons,  o* 
the  higher  intelligences  generally.  Which  is  applied  to  animals  and  inanimate  objects. 
That  is  used  when  it  would  be  improper  to  use  either  who  or  which,  or  when  the  repe- 
tition of  either  becomes  offensive.  Verbs  imply  action ; or,  a verb  is  a word  that 
expresses  something  of  its  noun  or  nominative.  Verbs  are  of  three  kinds:  Transitive 
Passive,  and  Neuter . The  English  language  is  supposed  to  contain  about  eight  thou- 
sand verbs,  of  which  upward  of  seven  thousand  eight  hundred  are  regular.  These 


596 


THE  CORRECT  USE  OF  LANGUAGE. 


form  their  past  tense  and  present  perfect  by  a uniform  process  of  adding  d or  ed  to  the 
present.  Those  verbs  which  do  not  form  their  past  tense  and  present  perfect  by  under- 
going a similar  process  are  called  irregular.  Adverbs  give  character  to  action  ; or,  an 
adverb  is  a word  that  qualifies  a verb,  an  adjective,  or  another  adverb.  They  promote 
brevity,  and  add  much  to  the  beauty  of  the  language,  making  it  concise  and  elegant. 
Conjunctions  unite  ; or,  a conjunction  is  a word  that  connects  words  or  sentences  to- 
gether. The  words  generally  used  as  conjunctions  are:  also,  and,  as  well  as,  but,  yet, 
nevertheless,  nor,  notwithstanding,  or,  neither,  if,  though,  unless,  for,  since,  lest,  than, 
because,  inasmuch.  Interjections  express  emotion  ; or,  an  interjection  is  a word  caused 
by  some  sudden  and  exciting  sensation  of  the  mind  ; as,  Hark  / the  bell  tolls.  Oh! 
make  her  a grave  where  the  sunbeams  rest.  See ! the  eclipse  is  now  complete. 


THE  CORRECT  USE  OF  LANGUAGE  IN  WRITING  AND 

SPEAKING. 

VERY  one  who  desires  to  maintain  a reputation  for  intelligence  in  polite 
society  should  pay  due  attention  to  the  proper  use  of  his  mother  tongue. 
No  matter  how  well  versed  he  may  be  in  other  modern  or  ancient  lan- 
guages, in  the  arts  or  sciences,  if  he  does  not  correctly  employ  the  lan- 
guage of  his  native  land  his  education  has  been  neglected  at  a vital  point. 

The  ordinary  student  need  not  be  appalled  at  the  vast  number  of  words  which  ap- 
pear in  the  Dictionary  when  he  remembers  that  only  a small  part  of  them  are  required 
for  daily  use  in  commercial,  social,  or  even  professional  life. 

The  complete  works  of  Shakespeare,  the  wonderful  delineator  of  human  character 
and  passion,  are  said  to  contain  only  five  thousand  different  words,  and  the  Bible,  aside 
from  Greek  and  Hebrew  names,  even  a less  number. 

The  proper  grammatical  formation  of  the  English  language  may  be  acquired  by  the 
child  in  the  home  and  the  public  school,  or  by  association  and  conversation  with  edu- 
cated and  informed  people;  but  in  all  parts  of  our  country  there  are  peculiar  provincial- 
isms which  betray  the  person  and  tell  from  what  part  of  the  Union  he  has  come.  These 
should  be  guarded  against  by  every  one. 

There  are  three  essential  points  to  be  observed  in  the  use  of  language  : 

First — Purity.  By  this  is  signified  the  use  of  good  English.  It  precludes  the  em 
ployment  of  all  slang  words,  obsolete  terms,  foreign  idioms,  or  any  ungrammatical  ex* 
pression.  It  does  not  sanction  the  use  of  any  newly-coined  word  until  it  has  been 
received  by  the  best  writers  and  speakers.  This  confines  one  to  the  use  of  pure  English 
both  in  speaking  and  writing. 

Perspicuity.  This  demands  the  clearest  expression  of  the  thought  to  be  conveyed  in 
unequivocal  language.  It  forbids  all  ambiguous  words,  or  those  of  doubtful  meaning, 
and,  when  possible,  all  strictly  technical  terms.  It  requires  a style  at  once  clear  and 
comprehensive,  and  entirely  free  from  pedantry. 


RULES  FOR  SPELLING. 


597 


Precision . This  requires  concise  and  exact  expression,  free  from  redundancy  and 
tautology,  in  a style  so  terse  that  the  hearer  or  reader  cannot  fail  to  comprehend  its 
meaning  at  once.  The  elegant  writer  or  speaker  will  avoid  long  and  involved  sentences 
on  the  one  hand,  and  too  short  and  abrupt  ones  on  the  other.  The  former  taxes  the 
attention  of  the  hearer  or  reader,  and  the  latter  indicates  a nervous  style  which  weakens 
the  force. 

For  the  ordinary  uses  of  description  or  didactic  composition,  an  easy  flowing  conver- 
sational style  is  to  be  preferred.  The  extremes  of  dryness  and  too  ornate  diction  should 
be  equally  avoided. 

We  have  space  to  give  only  a few  hints,  and  leave  the  student  to  follow  the  subject 
at  his  leisure  in  other  parts  of  this  work. 

The  various  articles  bearing  upon  this  subject,  “The  Dictionary  of  Synonyms,”  “The 
Art  of  Correspondence,”  “ Selections  in  Prose  and  Poetry,”  and  “ The  Department  of 
Political  Education,”  are  filled  with  choice  examples  of  the  correct  use  of  language. 

In  the  foundation  of  a literary  style  be  no  mere  copyist,  but  acquire  a graceful,  nat- 
ural style  for  yourself,  one  suited  to  the  subject  upon  which  you  write  or  speak,  and  the; 
occasion. 

The  habit  of  committing  one’s  thoughts  to  writing  should  be  practiced  by  every  one 
whatever  may  be  the  avocation  which  he  is  to  follow  in  life  ; for  there  will  arise  occa. 
sions  when  he  will  be  called  upon  to  do  this.  Many  men  who  are  good  in  conversation,, 
when  they  attempt  to  put  their  thoughts  upon  paper  assume  a cramped  and  heavy  style 
that  is  laborious  for  themselves  and  unpleasant  to  their  readers.  Like  any  other  mental 
function,  this  will  be  developed  by  practice. 

The  young  man  would  do  well  to  exercise  the  art  of  extemporaneous  speaking,  and 
thus  acquire  the  habit  of  thinking  while  facing  an  audience.  For  this  purpose  the  forma- 
tion of  debating  societies  and  lyceums  wherever  a number  of  young  people  can  be  found 
to  conduct  them,  is  desirable. 

RULES  FOR  SPELLING. 

S incorrect  spelling  frequently  occurs  when  it  is  desirous  of  expressing 
more  than  one  thing  of  the  same  kind,  the  few  following  rules  will  greatly 
facilitate  the  writer  in  spelling  such  words  correctly  : 

i.  As  a general  rule  the  letter  s added  to  a word  meaning  one  will 
represent  more  than  one ; but  to  this  rule  there  are  several  exceptions,  as, 
lor  instance,  words  ending  iny  when  the y has  any  other  letter  than  a , e,  i,  o or  u before 
it,  the  y is  left  out  and  ie  is  used  in  its  place,  as  lady , ladies,  baby , babies. 

2.  In  words  ending  in  sk,  ch , x , o or  ss,  e is  added  in  addition  to  the  s,  as  church , 
churches , marshy  marsheSy  boxy  boxes , heroy  heroesy  witnesSy  witnesses.  Ox  is  an  exception 
to  this  rule,  en  being  added  instead  of  es,  as  ox,  oxen. 

3.  Words  ending  in  f or  fe  have  v substituted  for  the  f,  as  wife , wives , knife,  knives 9 
etc.,  except  when  ending  in  Jf. 

4.  Some  words  are  spelled  the  same  in  both  cases,  as  deer , sheep , etc.,  in  which  in- 
stance, by  placing  a before  the  word,  one  is  meant,  and  by  using  the , more  than  one. 


598 


HOW  TO  USE  CAPITALS. 


5-  Some  words  are  spelled  altogether  differently,  as  mouse , mice , goose , geese. 

In  spelling  words  it  is  necessary  to  consider  well  the  different  sounds  of  each  part  of 
the  word.  Every  separate  sound  in  a word  must  have  in  it  one  of  the  following  letters : 
a , e , i,  o or  u.  Take  for  instance  contemplate , which  consists  of  three  different  sounds 
con-tem-plate ; there  are  the  letters  0 , e and  a , respectively,  in  each  sound  or  syllable,  as 
it  is  called,  and  each  one  gives  the  sound  to  its  syllable.  In  dividing  such  words  at  the 
end  of  a line  you  must  not  let  the  last  letter  be  any  one  of  the  above-mentioned  five  let- 
ters, but  must  divide  according  to  the  syllable. 

Another  rule  to  be  observed  in  the  spelling  of  words  which  have  ing  added  to  them, 
when  such  word,  ends  in  e the  e must  always  be  left  out,  as  come,  coming , divide,  dividing. 

It  is  also  found  difficult  when  the  letters  i and  e come  together  in  a word  to  know 
which  is  to  be  placed  first.  The  following  simple  rule  will  obviate  such  difficulty : 

When  i and  ^ follow  c in  a word  the  e is  invariably  placed  first,  as  receive,  deceive, 
conceive , etc.;  in  other  instances  i comes  before  the  e,  as  believe,  relieve , etc. 

A few  remarks  respecting  the  use  of  the  words  a and  an  will  guide  the  writer  as  to 
their  proper  application.  Words  commencing  with  any  of  the  five  letter  a , e,  i,  o or  u 
must  have  an  placed  before  them.  Other  words  meaning  one  have  a used  except  words 
beginning  with  h when  not  sounded,  as  hour,  honor,  herb,  humble . These  have  an  before 

them. 


HOW  TO  USE  CAPITALS. 


HE  first  word  of  every  sentence  and  the  first  word  of  every  line  of  poetry 
should  begin  with  a capital  letter. 

All  proper  names  should  begin  with  capital  letters. 

Words  derived  from  proper  names  begin  with  a capital. 

Every  word  that  denotes  the  Deity  should  begin  with  a capital. 
Pronouns  relating  to  the  Deity  should  generally  commence  with  a capital. 

Capital  letters  are  used  when  you  begin  a sentence  ; also  all  names  of  persons,  cities, 
streets,  mountains,  rivers,  etc.;  the  days  of  the  week,  the  months  of  the  year,  and  when  a 
name  is  given  to  one  thing  of  the  same  kind  to  distinguish  it  from  another  of  that  kind. 

The  words  North,  South,  East,  West  and  their  compounds  and  abbreviations,  as 
Northwest,  commence  with  capitals  when  they  denote  a section  of  country. 

The  pronoun  I and  the  interjection  O are  always  capitals. 

Every  direct  quotation  should  begin  with  a capital  letter. 

All  titles  of  persons  begin  with  capitals. 

All  the  principal  words  in  the  titles  of  books  should  begin  with  capital  letters 
The  several  chapters  or  other  divisions  of  any  book  begin  with  capitals. 

Common  nouns  personified  begin  with  capital  letters. 

Any  word  particularly  important  may  begin  with  a capital  letter. 

All  words  denoting  religious  denominations  begin  with  capital  letters. 


THE  ART  OF  COMPOSITION. 

SUBJECTS  AND  THEIR  ANALYSIS. 

The  art  of  expressing  the  thoughts  of  the  writer  in  an  easy,  graceful  and  clear  style 
is  one  that  can  be  acquired  only  after  careful  study  and  much  practice.  There  are 
many  competent  business  men,  and  not  a few  good  speakers,  who,  when  they  come  to 
put  their  thoughts  upon  paper,  are  trammeled  and  cramped  in  the  expression  of  their 
ideas.  The  chief  design  is  to  express  our  thoughts  and  knowledge  in  clear,  compre- 
hensive and  elegant  language.  The  main  object  to  be  attained  is  to  have  something  to 
say,  and  to  say  it  in  a way  that  will  be  at  once  interesting  and  intelligible.  This  presup- 
poses some  knowledge  of  grammar  and  the  construction  of  language.  The  young  stu- 
dent will  do  well  to  have  a well  digested  plan  in  mind  before  commencing  the  actual 
work  of  composition,  and  by  this  means  he  will  avoid  repetition,  confusion  and  want  of 
clearness  in  his  treatment  of  the  subject. 

The  first  thing  for  a student,  after  he  has  chosen  his  subject,  is  to  think  about  it 
and  decide  what  he  will  write  ; for  this  purpose  note  down  his  thoughts  upon  a separate 
slip  of  paper.  Suppose  he  chooses  as  a subject,  “ The  value  of  the  horse  to  man,”  he 
will  write  an  analysis  something  like  this  : 


The  Horse  : His  Value  to  Man. 

First  Thought. — His  noble  qualities,  beauty,  speed,  strength,  intelligence,  obedience  to  man. 

Second  Thought. — Found  in  all  parts  of  the  world  ; easily  tamed  and  trained  to  the  back,  to  the  wagon, 
to  the  plow,  to  go  into  battle. 

Third  Thought. — What  he  can  do  : Heavy  work  on  a farm  and  in  the  city,  take  long  journeys,  add  to 

man’s  pleasure. 

Fourth  Thought. — His  great  rate  of  speed  ; the  fastest  time  on  record. 

Fifth  Thought. — What  he  has  done  in  war. 

Sixth  Thought. — -His  length  of  life,  confidence  in  his  master’s  superior  knowledge,  and  willingness  to 
do  what  he  understands. 

Conclusion. — How  he  should  be  treated. 

When  the  student  has  outlined  his  work  in  this  way,  he  can  go  on  and  write  a com, 
position  that  is  interesting  to  the  reader,  and  creditable  to  himself.  Let  him  do  this 
with  every  subject,  and  soon  “ Composition  Day  ” will  cease  to  be  such  a dreadful  thing 
as  he  may  think 

List  of  Subjects. 


1.  The  elements  of  success. 

2.  Ambition  and  its  fruits. 

3.  Force  of  character. 

4.  Perseverance  in  business. 

5.  Energy,  and  what  it  will  accomplish. 

6.  The  demands  of  the  age. 

7.  The  evils  of  intemperance. 

8.  The  necessity  of  self-respect. 

9.  The  study  of  language. 

10.  The  advantages  of  art. 

11.  The  study  of  history. 

12.  The  necessity  of  application. 

13.  The  resources  of  our  country. 


14.  The  study  of  mathematics. 

15.  The  lives  of  great  men. 

16.  The  education  of  the  young. 

17.  The  pleasure  of  study. 

18.  The  difficulties  of  study. 

19.  The  hope  of  che  future. 

20.  The  use  of  steam. 

21.  The  application  of  electricity. 

22.  The  city  I live  in. 

23.  The  beauties  of  nature. 

24.  The  result  of  the  last  war. 

25.  The  English  language. 

26.  The  necessity  of  self-reliance. 


600 


THE  ART  OF  COMPOSITION. 


27.  The  utility  of  enthusiasm. 

28.  Ancient  and  modern  history. 

29.  The  study  of  Astronomy. 

30.  The  study  of  Philosophy. 

31.  The  science  of  Geology. 

32.  “ Know  Thyself.” 

33.  True  success. 

34.  The  possibilities  of  youth. 

35.  Lessons  from  the  life  of  Napoleon. 

36.  A life  on  the  ocean. 

37.  The  wealth  of  nations. 

38.  Commerce  of  the  United  States. 

39.  The  desire  of  praise. 

40.  The  love  of  country. 

41.  The  human  mind. 

42.  The  human  body. 

43.  The  power  of  mind  over  matter. 

44.  Care  in  little  things. 

45.  The  sum  of  human  happiness. 

46.  The  works  of  Shakespeare. 

47.  The  poetical  works  of  John  Milton. 

48.  The  life  and  writings  of  Longfellow. 

49.  George  Washington  and  Napoleon  I. 

50.  Youth  the  time  for  preparation. 


51.  The  proper  use  of  time. 

52.  A proper  aim  in  life. 

53.  Successful  merchants. 

54.  The  value  of  character. 

55.  The  formation  of  character. 

56.  Reputation  and  character, 

57.  The  relation  of  recreation  and  work. 

58.  Mental  discipline. 

59.  The  reward  of  labor. 

60.  The  triumphs  of  youth. 

61.  A successful  life. 

62.  Defeated  ambition. 

63.  The  highest  type  of  manhood. 

64.  The  progress  of  our  country. 

65.  The  true  statesman. 

66.  The  duty  of  the  press. 

67.  Public  opinion. 

68.  The  law  of  supply  and  demand. 

99.  The  manufactories  of  our  land. 

70.  Industry. 

7 1.  Patience  and  perseverance. 

72.  The  reward  of  true  merit. 

73.  Success  of  men  in  business. 

74.  A division  of  labor. 


From  these  we  will  select  a few  for  illustration  in  analyzing.  Our  object  is  to  stim- 
ulate the  mind  of  the  student  to  the  utmost  thought  and  study,  and  not  to  do  the  work 
for  him.  But  to  show  him  what  to  do,  and  point  out  the  proper  methods  to  accom- 
plish it  to  the  best  advantage. 

Analysis  of  Subject  No.  5. 

First. — A few  words  of  definition  as  an  introduction  to  the  subject,  not  too  long,  but  clear,  and  limiting 
the  scope  of  the  article  to  one  line  of  thought. 

Second. — Its  Importance.  1st,  In  commercial  life.  2d,  In  professional  life.  3d,  In  political  life. 
4th,  In  mechanical  pursuits  : illustrated  by  those  men  who  have  been  successful  in  these  directions,  and 
the  want  of  success  by  those  who  have  been  lacking  in  the  quality. 

Third. — What  it  has  accomplished.  1st,  For  the  country  ; 2d,  For  the  individual,  and  3d,  For  the  com- 
munity at  large  ; in  the  railroad,  manufacturing  and  business  interests  of  the  country  or  community. 

Fourth. — The  necessity  of  developing  this  trait  in  youth,  and  manifesting  it  in  every  act  of  his  life. 

Fifth. — Conclusion,  with  a direct  application  to  the  persons  to  whom  writing. 

Analysis  of  Subject  No.  20. 

First. — As  an  introduction  leading  up  to  the  subject  you  can  refer  to  annoyance  caused  by  the  steam 
whistles  or  in  any  way  bring  the  thought  to  the  main  ideas. 

Second. — The  wonderful  discovery  in  its  application  to  the  uses  of  life.  Its  importance  as  a motive 
power. 

Third. — Its  great  utility  in  factories,  locomotives,  steamers,  and  for  heating  purposes.  Each  of  these 
can  be  developed  to  make  a full  paragraph  if  the  writer  wishes. 

Fourth. — Its  uses  in  ordinary  life  for  heating  and  other  purposes. 

Fifth. — As  a trained  servant  it  is  powerful,  ready  and  willing  to  labor  for  man. 

Sixth. — Its  consequence  when  beyond  the  control  of  its  master. 

Analysis  of  Subject  No.  23. 

First. — A short  introduction  descriptive  of  a walk  will  naturally  lead  up  to  the  subject.,  or  any  pleasant 
way  of  introducing  it. 

Second. — The  love  of  nature  essential  to  an  appreciation  of  its  beauty. 

Third. — The  word-painting  of  a sunset. 

Fourth. — Describe  the  scenery  in  the  mountains. 

Fifth. — At  the  sea  side.  • 

Sixth. — Spring  and  autumn  contrasted.  . 1 

Seventh. — The  unity  in  variety,  all  making  a perfect  and  complete  whole. 

Eighth. — Man’s  feeble  attempt  at  imitation. 


THE  ART  OF  COMPOSITION. 


601 


Analysis  of  Subject  No.  35. 

First. — By  some  historical  incident  introduce  the  subject. 

Second. — His  early  life  career,  downfall  and  influence  upon  the  history  of  the  world,  in  short  and 
concise  narrative. 

Third. — His  good  traits,  energy,  self-reliance,  personal  courage,  perseverance,  etc. 

Fourth. — His  evil  traits,  inordinate  ambition,  selfishness,  cruelty  and  inhuman  butchery. 

Fifth. — Sum  up  the  balance  of  character  and  decide  whether  upon  the  whole  he  is  worthy  of  imitation. 
Sixth. — Conclusion  with  a proper  application. 

Analysis  of  Subject  No.  52. 

First. — One  life  given  to  each  one  in  which  to  accomplish  the  work. 

Second. — Only  one  thing  can  be  attained  with  success. 

Third. — The  important  object,  to  develop  the  highest  type  of  manhood. 

Fourth. — The  choice  to  depend  upon,  taste,  inclination  and  mental  capacity. 

Fifth. — Each  one  to  decide  for  himself,  since  he  is  the  arbiter  of  his  own  fortune. 

Sixth. — The  advice,  counsel  and  aid  of  friends  not  to  be  disregarded. 

Seventh. — Every  other  thing  in  life  to  be  made  subservient  to  the  main  object. 

Eighth. — The  conclusion,  the  result  of  a persistent  following  of  one  well  defined  purpose. 

Analysis  of  Subject  No.  54. 

First. — The  distinction  between  character  and  reputation. 

Second. — A good  reputation  of  great  importance,  but  not  always  a sure  test  of  character. 

Third. — Character  acquired  by  gradual  growth. 

Fourth. — Character  the  standard  of  real  worth  among  men. 

Fifth. — Character  in  its  effect  upon  the  present  life. 

Sixth, — Character  to  decide  the  future  destiny. 

Seventh. — Character  a personal  possession  of  incalculable  value  to  the  individual,  because,  1st,  the  sat- 
' isfaction  it  gives  the  individual ; 2d,  the  dignity  it  bestows  upon  the  community  ; 3d,  its  example  upon 
others,  and  4th,  the  test  of  man’s  real  worth. 

Eighth.. — The  conclusion  and  personal  application  of  the  subject.  The  character  can  be  built  up  only 
by  daily  toil  and  perseverance. 

Analysis  of  Subject  No.  55. 

The  subject  naturally  grows  out  of  the  preceding  one,  and  is  closely  allied  to  it. 
If  an  exercise  has  already  been  written  by  the  student  on  the  former  he  may  refer  to 
that,  or  even  repeat  the  substance  of  the  closing  paragraph.  If  he  writes  independently 
of  the  former  subject,  he  may  speak  briefly: 

First. — Of  the  value  of  character. 

Second. — Character  is  the  test  of  real  worth. 

Third. --Character  is  a personal  development. 

Fourth. — This  development  is  gradual,  beginning  in  early  life  and  pertaining  to  all  the  actions  of 
every  day.  It  does  not  change  from  day  to  day,  now  good,  now  bad,  but  is  the  result  of  constant  growth. 
Fifth. — It  is  the  inner  real  life  of  the  man,  known  perfectly  only  by  himself  and  his  Maker. 

Sixth. — The  acts,  words,  motives  and  all  outward  forms  of  manifestation  are  the  processes  by  which  it 
is  developed,  but  not  the  real  character  itself. 

Seventh. — Watchfulness  over  one’s  self,  his  associates  and  surroundings  of  essential  importance. 
Eighth. — A mistake  once  made  has  a permanent  effect  upon  the  character  which  can  never  be  fully 
eradicated. 

Analysis  of  Subject  No.  56. 

Very  intimately  connected  with  the  two  preceding  exercises  the  subject  of  thepresr 
ent  one  can  be  treated  much  the  same. 

First. — A concise  definition  of  the  two  words. 

Second. — The  popular  use  of  them  with  the  same  meaning. 

Third. — Reputation,  the  estimation  which  others  place  upon  a man  as  a whole.  This  may  vary  with 
time,  place,  or  among  different  classes  of  men. 

Fourth. — Character,  the  same  and  unchangeable  ; the  real  worth  of  the  man. 

Fifth. — Reputation  to  be  sought  and  prized  only  because  of  its  influence  for  good  among  men. 

Sixth. — Character  the  one  object  to  be  attained,  and  prized  as  the  chief  good  of  life. 

We  acknowledge  that  the  single  line  of  thought  that  we  have  marked  out  for  the 
subjects  analyzed  is  but  one  of  the  very  many  which  can  be  adopted  by  thinking  stu- 
dents, and  perhaps  not  the  best.  We  have  given  them  as  examples  of  how  they  may  be 
treated  rather  than  models  of  perfect  treatment. 


TWO  HUNDRED  MISTAKES 


OF  DAILY  OCCURRENCE 

IN  SPEAKING,  PRONOUNCING,  AND  WRITING 

THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE. 

The  aim  of  this  “ treatis,”  by  correcting  a multitude  of  common  errors  in  the  use 
of  language,  is  mainly  to  offer  assistance  to  such  persons  as  need  greater  facilities  for 
accurate  expression  in  ordinary  conversation.  It  is  not  designed  to  suggest  topics  of 
talk,  nor  to  give  rules  or  examples  pointing  out  the  proper  modes  of  arranging  them. 
The  subject  of  a conversation  need  not  be  made  a matter  of  study,  or  special  prepara- 
tion. Men  may  talk  of  things  momentous  or  trivial,  and  in  either  strain  be  alike 
attractive  and  agreeable. 

Some  suggestions  on  points  most  prominent  are  accordingly  given  among  these 
introductory  remarks — not  in  formal  statements  of  grammatical  rules,  but  in  examples 
by  which  the  spirit  of  such  rules  is  revealed. 

Not  the  least  glaring  among  the  many  misuses  of  words  and  forms  of  expression 
in  conversation,  occur  by  incorrectly  employing  the  pronouns — who , which,  what , and 
that.  It  may  be  remarked  that  who  should  be  applied  exclusively  to  persons. 
Which  usually  refers  to  animals  and  inanimate  objects,  except  in  such  an  expression 
as,  “Tell  me  which  of  the  two  men  was  chosen  ?”  What,  means  that  which  : thus, 
“ This  is  the  book  what  I wanted,”  should  read,  “ This  is  the  book  that  (or  which)  I 
wanted.” 

Among  interrogatives,  who?  inquires  for  the  name;  which?  for  the  individual; 
what  ? for  the  character,  or  occupation.  Thus,  “ Who  built  the  bridge  ? ” “ Mr.  Blake.” 
“Which  of  the  Blakes?”  “ Charles  Blake.”  “ What  was  he?”  “A  distinguished  civil 
engineer.” 

The  title  of  a small  book  for  young  people  recently  published,  was — “ The  Way 
that  Little  Children  Enter  Heaven  ;”  the  word  that  is  here  incorrectly  used  as  a sub- 
stitute for  in  which,  or  by  which. 

When  this  and  that,  and  their  plurals,  are  used  in  the  sense  of  latter  and  former , 
this  and  these  signify  the  latter,  and  that  and  those  the  former.  Thus  in  the  following 
couplet  from  Burns : 

“ Farewell  my  friends,  farewell  my  foes  ; 

My  peace  with  these , my  love  with  those." 

these  refers  to  “foes,”  and  those  to  “ friends.” 

The  use  of  the  hyphen  [-}  is  frequently  disregarded  in  epistolary  correspondence, 


x wO  HUtMURRU  MISTAKES. 


603 


occasioning  not  only  a blemish  but  a blunder.  Its  importance  may  be  seen  by  com- 
paring the  meaning  of  “ glass  house  ” with  “glass-house  ;”  the  former  may  mean  the 
Crystal  Palace,  while  the  latter  is  a manufactory  of  glass-ware. 

Adjectives  are  often  improperly  used  for  adverbs;  as,  “extreme  bad  weather,”  for 
“ extremely  bad  weather.” 

It  is  sometimes  difficult  to  choose  between  such  phrases  as  “ the  first  three,”  and 
u the  three  first”  To  say  first  three  when  there  is  no  second  three  is  inelegant,  because 
superfluous;  and  three  first  is  absurd,  because  impossible.  As  a general  rule  and, 
easy  to  be  recollected,  let  “first”  be  first. 

The  use  of  some  for  about  is  by  many  writers  thought  to  be  awkward : as,  “ Some 
fifty  years  ago,”  instead  of  “About  fifty  years.” 

An  ambiguity  occasionally  arises  in  employing  the  adjective  no.  Thus,  “No 
money  is  better  than  gold,”  may  mean  either  that  gold  is  the  best  kind  of  money,  or 
that  gold  is  not  so  good  as  no  money  at  all ! 

After  numerals,  the  words  couple , pair , dozen , score , hundred,  thousand,  and  a few 
others,  need  not  take  the  plural  form : thus,  custom  first,  and  finally  grammar,  have 
sanctioned  such  uses  as,  “three  pair  of  shoes,”  “ nine  dozen  bushels,”  four  couple  of 
students;”  also,  “forty  sail  of  vessels,”  “seventy  head  of  cattle.” 

The  article  (a  or  an)  renders  an  important  service  in  such  expressions  as  “ A few 
followed  their  leader  throughout  the  long  struggle.”  To  say,  “Few  followed  him,” 
would  imply,  unlike  the  former  phrase,  that  he  was  almost  deserted. 

“ A black  and  a white  horse,”  suggests  the  idea  of  two  horses,  while  a black  and 
white  horse,”  refers  to  but  one — as  if  written  “a  black-and-white  horse.” 

The  grammatical  number  of  a verb  should  agree  with  that  of  its  subject,  and  not 
of  its  predicate.  Thus  the  sentences,  “ Death  is  the  wages  of  sin,”  and  “ The  wages 
of  sin  are  death,”  are  properly  written. 

In  changing  from  a past  tense  to  the  present,  when  the  same  nominative  remains, 
the  form  of  the  verb  should  continue  unaltered.  Thus,  instead  of  saying  “He  was 
travelling  and  travels ,”  say,  “ He  was  travelling,  and  is  travelling.” 

When  a verl}  has  both  a singular  and  a plural  nominative,  separated  by  or,  its 
number  agrees  with  that  of  the  nearer : as,  “ the  cup  or  his  billiards  were  his  ruin  ; ” 
or,  “ his  billiards  or  the  cup  was  his  ruin.” 

Custom — which,  when  crystallized,  becomes  grammar — allows  expressions  like 
“ The  linen  tears,”  and  “ The  meadow  ploughs  well ;”  although  they  should  not  be 
frequently  employed,  and  should  be  more  seldom  coined. 

A fruitful  source  of  mistakes  in  language,  is  in  the  linking  together  of  two  or 
more  inappropriate  tenses,  or  in  the  misuse  of  one.  Many  among  the  learned  and 
refined  commit  blunders  of  these  kinds. 

Adverbs  are  often  inelegantly  used  instead  of  adjectives,  as,  “ the  then  ministry,” 
for  “the  ministry  of  that  time.” 

Of  the  phrases  “ never  so  good,”  or  “ ever  so  good,”  as  to  whether  one  is  prefer- 
able to  the  other,  authority  is  divided.  Modern  usage  inclines  to  the  latter,  whiJ  j 
ancient  preferred  the  former,  as  in  the  Scriptural  expression,  “charm  he  never  scA 
wisely.” 


604 


TWO  HUNDRED  MISTAKES. 


Yea  and  nay  are  not  equivalent  to  yes  and  no  ; the  latter  are  directly  affirmative 
and  negative,  while  the  former  are  variously  employed. 

Of  prepositions,  it  has  been  frequently  said  that  no  words  in  the  language  are  so 
liable  to  be  incorrectly  used.  For  example,  “ The  love  of  God,”  may  mean  either 
“ His  love  to  us,”  or  “ our  love  to  Him1.” 

Many  more  of  these  particles  are  inelegantly,  if  not  ambiguously  used.  Instead 
of  “ the  natives  were  a different  race  to  what  they  are  now,”  say  “ different  from.” 

A good  heed  to  what  has  been  said  in  the  few  preceding  paragraphs  will  enable 
a person  who  carefully  reads  this  work  to  mend  his  modes  of  expression  to  no  incon- 
siderable degree. 


1.  “ The  business  would  suit  any  one 
who  enjoys  bad  health.”  Few  persons 
who  have  bad  health  can  be  said  to  enjoy 
it.  Use  some  other  form  of  expression  : 
as,  one  in  delicate  health , or,  one  whose 
health  is  bad. 

2.  “We  have  no  corporeal  punishment 
here,”  said  a schoolmaster.  Corporeal  is 
opposed  to  spiritual.  Say  corporal  punish- 
ment. Corporeal  means  having  a body. 

3.  “ Insert  the  advertisement  in  the 
Weekly.”  Emphasize  vert  and  not  ise. 

4.  “He  rose  up , and  left  the  room:” 
leave  out  up,  as  it  is  absurd  to  say  rise 
down.  The  Irishman  who  was  hoisted 
down  the  coal-pit,  did  not  observe  this 
rule. 

5.  “ Set  down  and  rest  yourself  ; ” say 
sit  down  : settmg  is  said  of  the  sun  in  the 
west,  but  cannot  be  properly  applied  to  a 
person  taking  a seat.  “ Sit  down  ” is  not 
improper,  though  “ rise  up  ” should  never 
be  used.  Sitting  down  expresses  the  act 
of  appropriating  a chair,  while  sitting  up 
means  sitting  erect.  Sitting  up  also  refers 
to  watching  during  the  night  with  the 
sick. 

6.  “You  have  sown  it  very  neatly,” 
said  a seamstress  to  her  apprentice ; say 
sewed , and  pronounce  so  as  to  rhyme  with 
road.  The  pronunciation  of  sew , meaning 

to  use  the  needle,”  violates  its  spelling  ; 


it  is  the  same  as  that  of  sow , meaning  “ to 
scatter  seed.” 

7.  “ This  is  a secret  between  you  and 
I ; ” say,  you  and  me.  The  construction 
requires  the  objective  case  in  place  of  7, 
which  is  in  the  nominative.  It  is  in  still 
better  taste  to  say,  “ This  is  a secret  with 
you  and  me.” 

8.  “Let  you  and  I take  a walk;”  say, 
Let  you  and  me,  or  Let  us.  Who  would 
think  of  saying,  Let  I go  ? The  expression 
“ Let  I and  you  ” is  frequently  heard, 
which  contains  the  additional  impropriety 
of  putting  the  first  person  before  the 
second. 

9.  “He  is  going  to  learn  his  brother 
Alfred  how  to  knit  nets ; ” say  teach. 
The  act  of  communicating  instruction  is 
expressed  by  “ teaching ;”  the  act  of  receive 
ing  it,  by  “ learning.”  The  distinction 
between  these  words  was  made  as  early 
as  the  time  of  Shakespeare,  and  cannot  be 
violated  without  incurring  censure. 

10.  “John  and  Henry  both  read  well, 
but  John  is  the  best  reader;”  say,  the 
better  reader,  as  best  can  be  properly  used 
only  when  three  or  more  persons  or  ob- 
jects are  compared. 

1 1 . “ The  two  first  cows  are  the  fattest,” 
said  a farmer  at  an  agricultural  fair.  He 
should  have  said,  “the  first  two ;”  there 
can  be  only  one  that  is  first — the  other 
must  necessarily  be  second. 


TWO  HUNDRED  MISTAKES. 


605 


12.  “ It  is  an  error ; you  are  mistaken  ; ” 
say,  you  mistake.  Mistaken  means  mis- 
apprehended ; “ you  mistake ,”  means  “ you 
m isapprehend. 

13.  “Have  you  lit  the  fire,  Bridget?” 
say,  lighted  ; lit  is  now  obsolete. 

14.  “Are  you  at  leisure ?”  pronounce 
lei  in  leisure  the  same  as  lee.  The  word 
should  not  rhyme  with  measure. 

15.  “John  is  my  oldest  brother;”  say, 
eldest.  Elder  and  eldest  are  applied  to 
persons — older  and  oldest  to  things.  U sage, 
however,  does  not  make  these  distinctions 
imperative. 

16.  Sparrowgrass:  it  is  only  the  grossest 
ignorance  which  confounds  this  word  with 
asparagus . The  same  is  the  case  with 
ing-uns  for  onions. 

17.  The  following  words  were  posted 
as  a sign,  in  a reading-room  : “No  Talk- 
ing Allowed  ; ” which  was  designed  to 
prohibit  all  conversation.  A wag  altered 
the  inscription  so  as  to  read,  “ No  Talking 
Aloud,”  which  (he  declared)  did  not  pre- 
vent whispering  and  chatting  in  low  tones. 
What  shall  be  said  of  the  following — 
“ No  Smoking  Aloud  ? ” 

18.  “No  extras  or  vacations /”  [from 
the  prospectus  of  a schoolmistress :]  say, 
NOR  vacations. 

19.  “ Dearly  beloved  brethren,”  when 
beloved  is  placed  before  the  noun,  as  in 
this  instance,  pronounce  it  in  three 
syllables ; when  placed  after , in  two 
syllables,  as,  “ She  was  much  be-loved  by 
us  all.”  When  used  as  a noun  by  itself, 
it  is  pronounced  in  three  syllables ; as, 
“ Be-lov-ed,  let  us  love  one  another.” 

20.  Not  as  I know say,  that  I know. 

21.  “He  would  never  believe  but  what 
I did  it ; ” say,  but  that  I did  it. 

22.  “ He  is  quite  as  good  as  me ; ” say, 
as  good  as  I.  Also,  instead  of  as  good  as 
him , say,  as  good  as  he. 


23.  “ Many  an  one  has  done  the  same  ; ” 
say,  many  a one.  A,  and  not  an,  is  also 
used  before  the  long  sound  of  u,  that  is, 
when  u forms  a distinct  syllable  of  itself : 
as,  a unit , a union,  a university  : it  is  also 
used  before  eu : as,  a euphony , and  like- 
wise before  the  word  ewe  : as,  a ewe  : we 
should  also  say,  a youth , not  an  youth. 

24.  “ How  do  you  like  these  kind  oi 
pears?”  say,  these  kinds ; a noun  in  the 
singular  number  will  not  allow  its  ad- 
jective to  be  in  the  plural. 

25.  “You  should  have  went  home;’’ 
say,  gone. 

26.  “ I see  him  last  Monday  ;”  say,  saw 
him. 

27.  “He  was  averse  from  such  a pro- 
ceeding ; ” say,  averse  to. 

28.  Have  you  shook  the  table-cloth  ? ” 
say,  shaken. 

29.  “ I have  rang  several  times;”  say, 
rung. 

30.  “ I know' d him  at  once  ; ” say,  knezv. 

31.  “ You  have  too  much  of  it;” 

say,  drunk. 

32.  “ He  has  chose  a very  poor  pattern  ;” 
say,  chosen. 

33.  “ They  have  broke  a window  : ” say, 
broken. 

' 34.  “ I have  just  began  my  letter  ; ” say, 
begun. 

35.  “Give  me  them  books;"  say,  those 
books. 

36.  “ Whose  are  these  here  books  ? ” say, 
these  books.  Here  is  superfluous  and  in- 
elegant. 

37.  “ Who  do  you  mean?”  say,  whom. 

38.  “ The  men  which  we  saw ; ” say, 
whom. 

39.  “ The  flowers  what  you  have  ; ” say, 
which,  or  that. 

40.  “ The  boy  as  is  reading;”  who  is 
reading. 

di . “ It  was  them  who  did  it ; ” say,  they. 


606 


TWO  HUNDRED  MISTAKES. 


42.  “ It  is  me  who  am  in  fault ; ” say, 
It  is  I. 

43.  “ Was  it  her  who  called  me  ? ” say, 
?ke. 

44.  “If  I were  her,  I would  accept  his 
offer;  ” say,  If  I were  she. 

45.  “ He  has  got  my  slate;”  omit  got ; 
has  is  sufficient  for  the  sense. 

46.  “The  pond  is  froze  ;"  say  frozen. 

47.  “You  cannot  catch  him;”  pro- 
nounce catch  so  as  to  rhyme  with  match , 
and  not  ketch — as  the  fishermen  are  in  the 
habit  of  saying. 

48.  “ Who  done  it  ? ” say,  Who  did  it  ? 

49.  “ The  club  gives  an  impetus  to  the 
ball ; ” pronounce  impetus  with  the  stress 
on  im,  and  not  on  pe. 

50.  “ Spain  and  Portugal  form  a penin- 
sula/”  pronounce  pen-in-su-la , with  the 
accent  on  in,  and  not  on  su. 

51.  “He  must  by  this  time  be  almost 
as  far  as  the  antipodes pronounce  antip- 
odes with  the  accent  on  tip,  and  let  des 
rhyme  with  ease ; it  is  a word  of  four 
syllables,  and  not  of  three. 

52.  Vouchsafe : a word  seldom  used,  but 
when  used,  the  first  syllable  should  rhyme 
with  pouch;  never  say  vousafe. 

53.  Purpose  and  propose:  these  two 
words,  which  are  often  confounded,  are 
entirely  distinct  in  meaning.  To  purpose 
means  to  intend ; to  propose  means  to  offer 
a proposition. 

54.  Directing  and  addressing  tetters : 
Directing  designates  the  persons  to  whom, 
and  the  place  to  which  the  letter,  as  a 
parcel,  is  to  be  sent ; addressing  refers  to 
the  individual  to  whom,  as  a communica- 
tion, it  is  written.  A letter  addressed  to 
the  President,  may  be  directed  to  his  sec- 
retary. 

55.  Who  do  you  think  I saw  yester- 
day ? say,  Whom. 

56.  A popular  proverb  is  expressed  in 


the  following  language : Of  two  evils 
choose  the  least ; say,  the  less. 

57.  Exaggerate  : pronounce  exad-geratey 
and  do  not  sound  agger  as  in  dagger. 

58.  Ladies  School : the  usual  form,  but 
not  correct ; write  Ladies'  School.  The 
apostrophe  (’)  is  thus  used  after  nouns  in 
the  plural,  and  indicates  possession. 

59.  The  following  equivocal  notice  is 
said  to  swing  out  on  a sign-board  some- 
where in  the  Western  country:  “Smith 
& Huggs  — Select  School.  — Smith 
teaches  the  boys,  and  Huggs  the  girls." 
Huggs  needs  correction  ! 

60.  “ The  drought  lasted  a long  time  ; ” 
pronounce  drought  so  as  to  rhyme  with 
sprout,  and  not  drowth. 

61.  “ The  two  friends  conversed  together 
for  an  hour  ; ” omit  together. 

62.  “ The  affair  was  compromised ; ” pro- 
nounce compromised  in  three  syllables,  and 
place  the  accent  on  com,  sounding  mized 
like  prized. 

63.  “ Several  of  the  trappers  were  mas- 
sacred by  the  Indians ; ” pronounce 
massacred  with  the  accent  on  mas,  and  red 
like  erd,  as  if  massaker'd ; never  say 
massacreed,  which  is  abominable. 

64.  “A  respite  was  granted  the  con- 
vict:” pronounce  respite  with  the  accent 
on  res,  and  sound  pite  as  pit. 

65.  “He  soon  returned  back;"  leave 
out  back,  which  is  implied  by  re  in  re - 
turned. 

66.  “ The  ship  looked  like  a speck  on 
the  edge  of  the  horizon /”  pronounce 
horizon  with  the  accent  on  ri,  and  not  on 
hor,  which  is  often  the  case. 

67.  “ They  were  early  at  the  sepulchre /” 
pronounce  sepidchre  with  the  accent  on 
sep,  and  not  on  the  second  syllable. 

68.  “ I have  often  swam  across  the 
Hudson ; ” say,  swum. 

69.  “ I found  my  friend  better  than  I 


TWO  HUNDRED  MISTAKES. 


607 


expected  to  have  found  him  ;"  say,  to  find 
him. 

70.  Shall  and  will  are  often  confounded 
or  misused.  The  following  suggestion 
will  be  of  service  to  the  reader : mere 
futurity  is  expressed  by  shall  in  the  first 
person,  and  by  will  in  the  second  and 
third ; the  determination  of  the  speaker  by 
will , in  the  first,  and  shall,  in  the  second 
and  third.  For  example  : “ I shall  go  by 
the  way  of  Halifax,"  simply  expresses  an 
event  about  to  take  place — as  also  you  will, 
and  they  will ; I will  expresses  determin- 
ation— as  also  you  shall  and  they  shall. 

71.  “ Without  the  grammatical  form  of 
a word  can  be  recognized  at  a glance,  lit- 
tle progress  can  be  made  in  reading  the 
language  ” [from  a work  on  the  study  of 
the  Latin  language].  Say,  Unless  the 
grammatical,  etc.  The  use  of  without  for 
unless  is  a very  common  mistake. 

72.  “ He  claimed  admission  to  the  chief- 
est  offices  say,  chief.  Chief,  right,  su- 
preme, correct,  true,  universal,  perfect, 
consummate,  extreme,  etc.,  imply  the  su- 
perlative degree  without  adding  est,  or 
prefixing  most.  In  language  sublime  or 
impassioned,  however,  the  word  perfect 
requires  the  superlative  form,  to  give  it 
its  fullest  effect. 

73.  An  obituary  notice  contained  the 
following  ludicrous  statement : “ He  left 
a large  circle  of  mourners  embracing  his 
amiable  wife  and  children  ! " Comprising 
should  have  been  used  instead  of  embrac- 
ing. 

74.  “ Victoria  is  Queen  of  the  United 
Kingdom;  ” say  United  Kingdoms.  Who 
ever  speaks  of  the  United  State  of 
A merica  ? 

75.  “I  have  not  travelled  this  twenty 
years;"  say,  these  twenty  years. 

76.  “ The  yellow  part  of  an  egg  is  very 
nourishing;”  never  pronounce  yellow  so 


as  to  rhyme  with  tallow,  as  we  so  often 
hear. 

77.  “He  strived  to  obtain  an  appoint- 
ment ; ” say,  strove. 

78.  “ He  always  preaches  extempore 
pronounce  extempore  in  four  syllables,  with 
the  accent  on  tern,  and  never  in  three,  mak- 
ing pore  to  rhyme  with  sore — but  with 
story. 

79.  “ The  Emperor  of  Russia  is  a 
formidable  sovereign  ; pronounce  formid- 
able with  the  accent  on  for,  and  not  on 
mid. 

80.  Before  the  words  heir,  herb,  honest , 
honor,  and  hour,  and  their  compounds, 
instead  of  the  article  a,  we  make  use  of 
an,  as  the  h is  not  sounded  ; likewise  be- 
fore words  beginning  with  h,  that  are  not 
accented  on  the  first  syllable : such  as 
heroic,  historical,  hypothesis , etc.,  as,  “ an 
heroic  action  ; " “ an  historical  work  ; " “ an 
hypothesis  that  can  scarcely  be  allowed.” 

81.  “He  was  such  an  extravagant  young 
man,  that  he  soon  spent  his  whole  patri- 
mony.” This  construction,  which  is  much 
used,  is  not  so  elegant  as,  “ He  was  so 
extravagant  a young  man,"  etc. 

82.  “The  girl  speaks  distinct ;"  say, 
distinctly.  Never  use  adjectives  as  ad- 
verbs. 

83.  The  combination  of  letters  ough  is 

pronounced  in  eight  different  ways,  as 
follows:  1.  Though,  in  which  it  is  pro- 
nounced 0;  2.  Through,  pronounced  00/ 
3.  Flough,  ow ; 4.  Sought,  awe;  5.  Cough T 
off;  6.  Though,  uff ; 7.  Bo roitgh,  ugh; 
8.  Lough,  ok.  The  following  sentence, 
which  is  of  doubtful  authorship,  affords 
an  example  of  each  of  these  eight  modes 
of  pronunciation:  “I  put  (1)  dough 

(6)  enough  in  the  (5)  trough  near  the 
(3)  slough  by  the  (8)  lough,  to  last  the 
ducks  that  I (4)  bought  at  the  (7)  borough 
(2)  through  the  day.” 


608 


TWO  HUNDRED  MISTAKES. 


84.  “ I saw  his  august  majesty,  the 
Emperor  of  Hayti,  last  August /”  pro- 
nounce the  former  word  with  the  accent 
on  gust ; the  latter,  on  An. 

85.  “We  laid  down  to  sleep:”  say,  we 
lay  down , etc.  We  can  say,  however, 
“ we  laid  him  down  to  sleep.” 

86.  “ He  who  makes  himself  famous  by 
his  eloquence,  makes  illustrious  his  origin, 
let  it  be  never  so  mean  ; ” say,  ever  so  mean. 
The  practice  of  using  never  in  such 
phrases  was  anciently  in  vogue,  but  is  now 
becoming  obsolete. 

87.  “ His  reputation  is  acknowledged 
through  Europe  ; ” say,  throughout  Europe. 

88.  “ The  bank  of  the  river  is  frequently 
overflown ; ” say,  overflowed.  Flown  is 
the  perfect  particle  of  fly,  flying ; flowed , 
of  flow , flowing. 

89.  “ I doubt  if  this  will  ever  reach 
you  ; ” say,  whether  this , etc. 

90.  “It  is  not  improbable  but  I may 
be  able  to  procure  you  a copy  ; ” say,  that 
I may , etc. 

91.  “There  were  not  over  twenty 
persons  present ; ” say,  more  than. 

92.  “ Bills  are  requested  to  be  paid 
quarterly  ; ” the  bills  are  not  requested , but 
the  persons  who  owe  them.  Say,  instead  : 
It  is  requested  that  bills  be  paid  quarterly. 

93.  “There  can  be  no  doubt  but  that  he 
will  succeed  ; ” omit  but. 

94.  “It  was  no  use  asking  him  any  more 
questions;”  say,  of  no  use  to  ask  him , or 
there  was  no  use  in  asking , etc. 

95.  “The  Americans  said  they  had  no 
right  to  pay  taxes.”  [From  a Fourth  of 
J uly  Oration.]  They  certainly  had  a right 
to  pay  them,  if  they  wished.  What  the 
speaker  meant  was,  they  were  under  no  ob- 
ligation to  pay , or,  they  were  not  bound  to 
pay. 

96.  “ He  intends  to  stop  at  home  for  a 
few  days ; ” it  is  more  elegant  to  say 


stay.  If  the  time,  however,  should  be  very 
brief,  stop  would  better  express  the  idea  ; 
as,  “We  stopped  at  Elmira  about  twenty 
minutes.” 

97.  “ Brutus  and  Aruns  killed  one 
another /”  sa y,each  other,  which  is  more 
proper.  But  many  similar  instances  which 
occur  in  the  New  Testament,  as,  “ Beloved, 
love  one  another ,”  and  others  no  less 
beautiful  and  cherished,  have  rendered 
this  form  of  expression  common,  and 
almost  unexceptionable. 

98.  Words  to  be  Carefully  Dis- 
tinguished.—Be  very  careful  to  dis® 
tinguish  between  indite  and  indict  (the 
former  meaning  to  write,  and  the  latter 
to  accuse') ; key  and  quay ; principle  and 
principal ; marshal  and  martial ; counsel 
and  council ; counsellor  and  councillor ; 
fort  and  forte ; draft  and  draught ; place 
and  plaice  (the  latter  being  the  name  of  a 
fish)\  stake  and  steak;  satire  and  satyr ; 
stationery  and  stationary ; ton  and  tun ; 
levy  and  levee ; foment  and  ferment;fo- 
mentatio7i  and  fermentation  ; petition  and 
partition;  Francis  and  Frances  ; dose  and 
doze ; diverse  and  divers;  device  and 
devise  ; wary  and  weary;  salary  and  celery; 
radish  and  reddish;  treble  and  triple ; 
broach  and  brooch;  ingenious  and  ingen- 
uous; prophesy  and  prophecy  (some  clergy- 
men sounding  the  final  syllable  of  the 
latter  word  long  like  the  former) ; fond- 
ling and  foundling ; lightning  and  lighten- 
ing / genus  and  genius  ; desert  and  dessert ; 
currier  and  courier ; pillow  and  pillar ; 
executer  and  executor  (the  former  being  the 
regular  noun  from  the  verb  “ to  exectite 
and  the  latter  a strictly  legal  term) ; rid- 
icule  and  reticule ; lineament  and  liniment ; 
track  and  tract ; lickerish  and  licorice 
{lickerish  signifying  dainty,  and  licorice 
being  a plant,  or  preparation  from  it) ; 
statute  and  statue  ; ordinance  and  ordnance; 


TWO  HUNDRED  MISTAKES. 


609 


lease  and  leash;  recourse  and  resource ; 
straight  and  strait  ( straight  meaning  di- 
rect, and  strait , narrow ) ; immerge  and 
emerge ; style  and  stile ; compliment  and 
complement;  bass  and  base ; contagious 
and  contiguous ; eminent  a?id  imminent; 
eruption  and  irruption ; precedent  and  pres- 
ident; relic  and  relict. 

99.  “ The  number  of  emigrants  arriving 
in  this  country  is  increasing  and  alarm- 
ing ; ” say,  immigrants.  Emigrants  are 
those  going  out  from  a country ; immi- 
grants, those  coming  into  it. 

100.  “This  House  To  Let;”  more 
properly,  to  be  let. 

101.  Here , there , where , with  verbs  of 

motion,  are  generally  better  than  hither , 
thither , whither;  as,  “ Come  here;  Go 
there."  Hither , thither , and  whither , 

which  were  used  formerly,  are  now  con- 
sidered stiff  and  inelegant. 

102.  “ Whom  say  ye  that  I am?”  This 
is  the  English  translation,  given  in  Luke 
ix.  20,  of  the  question  of  Christ  to  Peter. 
The  word  whom  should  be  who.  Other 
instances  of  grammatical  inaccuracies 
occur  in  the  Bible;  for  example,  in  the 
Sermon  on  the  Mount,  the  Saviour  says  : 
“ Lay  not  up  for  yourselves  treasures  on 
earth,  where  moth  and  rust  doth  corrupt ," 
etc.  “ Moth  and  rust  ” make  a plural  nom- 
inative to  “ doth  corrupt,"  a singular  verb. 
The  following,  however,  is  correct : “ But 
lay  up  for  yourselves  treasures  in  heaven, 
where  neither  moth  nor  rust  doth  corrupt." 

103.  “ The  first  edition  was  not  as  well 
printed  as  the  present ; ” say,  so  well,  etc. 

104.  “He  is  a despicable  fellow,  and 
such  an  epitaph  is  strictly  applicable  to 
him  ; ” never  place  the  accent  in  despicable 
and  applicable  on  the  second  syllable,  but 
always  on  the  first. 

105.  “ Some  disaster  has  certainly  befell 
him  ; ” say,  befallen. 


106.  “ I am  very  wet,  and  must  go  and 
change  myself ;"  say,  change  my  clothes. 

107.  “ He  is  taller  than  me ;"  say,  than  I. 
He  is  much  better  than  me ; ” say,  than  I. 
“You  are  stronger  than  him;"  say,  than 
he. 

108.  “ His  character  is  undeniable ;"  a 
very  common  expression ; say,  unex- 
ceptionable. 

109.  “ The  room  is  twelve  foot  long, 
and  nine  foot  broad  ; ” say,  twelve  feet, 
nine  feet. 

no.  “They  are  detained  at  France;” 
say,  in  France.  “ He  lives  at  New  York 
say,  in  New  York. 

in.  “He  is  very  dry"  (meaning  thirsty), 
is  a very  common  and  very  improper 
word  to  use  ; say,  thirsty. 

1 1 2.  “ Such  another  victory,  and  we 
shall  be  ruined  ; ” say  Another  such  vie 
tory,  etc. 

1 1 3.  “It  is  some  distance  from  our 
house  ; ” say,  at  some  distance,  etc. 

1 14.  “ I shall  call  upon  him  ; ” say,  on 
him. 

1 15.  “Give  me  leave  to  tell  you;” 
never  say  lief  for  leave.  “ I had  as  lief  do 
it  as  not ; ” lief  means  willingly,  gladly, 
and  is  not  to  be  confounded  with  leave. 

1 16.  “First  of  all  I shall  give  you  a 
lesson  in  French,  and  last  of  all  in  music  ; ” 
omit  of  all  in  both  instances. 

1 17.  “I  shall  have  finished  by  the  latter 
end  of  the  week  ; ” leave  out  latter , which 
is  superfluous.  “They  sought  him 
throughout  the  whole  country ; ” leave  out 
whole,  which  is  implied  in  throughout. 
“Iron  sinks  down  in  water;”  leave  out 
down.  “ A warrant  was  issued  oiit  for  his 
apprehension ; ” leave  out  the  word  out, 
which  is  implied  in  issued.  “He  covered 
it  over  ; " leave  out  over. 

1 18.  “ I bought  anew  pair  of  shoes ;" 
say,  a pair  of  new  shoes. 


610 


TWO  HUNDRED  MISTAKES. 


. 1 19.  “Honor  to  the  patriot  and  the 

sage  ; ” divide  the  syllables  like  pa-tri-ot, 
not  pat-ri-ot.  Irish  rowdyism  has  been 
called  “ Pat-riot-ism .” 

120.  “ He  raised  the  national  standard 
pronounce  the  first  two  syllables  like  the 
word  nation , never  as  if  written fiash-ion-al. 

12 1.  Principal  and  Principle  : be  careful 
to  observe  the  distinction  between  these 
words.  Principal  signifies  chief ; princi- 
ple, motive. 

122.  “St.  John’s  is  about  two  days 
nearer  England  than  Halifax.”  [From 
an  account  in  a New  York  newspaper, 
of  the  Submarine  Telegraph  Expedition, 
September,  1855.]  Does  it  mean  that 
St.  John’s  is  nearer  to  England  than 
Halifax  is,  or  nearer  to  England  than 
to  Halifax  ? 

123.  “He  wears  a blue-spotted  neck- 
handkerchief ; ” say,  neckerchief , or,  still 
better,  neck-cloth , or  cravat.  The  original 
word  is  kerchief \ and  not  handkerchief ‘ 
which  is  a kerchief  for  the  hand. 

124.  “The  city  was  illumined  in  honor 
of  the  victory ; ” better  say  illuminated. 
Distinguish  between  the  pronunciation 
of  illumined  and  ill-omened. 

125.  “Hemet  with  luck;"  say  either 
“ bad  luck,"  or  “ good  luck  ; ” luck  primarily 
refers  to  simple  “ chance,”  although  its 
derivatives,  lucky  and  luckily,  imply  only 
good  fortune. 

126.  “The  in-va-lid  signed  a deed  that 
was  in-val-id ; ” pronounce  the  former 
“ invalid  ” with  the  accent  on  the  first 
syllable ; the  latter,  with  the  accent  on 
the  second. 

127.  “ He  deserves  chastisement ;"  say, 
chas-tiz-ment , with  the  accent  on  chas,  and 
NEVER  on  tise. 

j 128.  “ They  committed  a heinous  crime 
pronounce  heinous  as  if  spelled  hay-nus ; 
NEVER  call  the  word  hee-nus  or  hain-yus . 


129.  “He  is  a powerful  ally;"  never 
place  the  accent  on  al  in  ally,  as  many 
do. 

1 30.  “ We  have  never  been  called,  almost, 
to  the  consideration  of  the  Apocalypse, 
without  finding  fresh  reasons  for  our 
opinion.'’  [Such  are  the  words  of  a very 
eminent  reviewer.]  He  should  have  said, 
“We  have  scarcely  ever  been  called,”  or, 
“ we  have  almost  never." 

13 1.  “He  built  a large  granary;"  do 
not  pronounce  granary  so  as  to  rhyme 
with  tannery.  Call  the  word  grainary. 
Both  pronunciations,  however,  are  given 
by  scholars. 

132.  Beware  of  using  Oh!  and  O indis- 
criminately. Oh  ! is  used  to  express  the 
emotion  of  pain,  sorrow,  or  surprise ; as, 
“ Oh!  the  exceeding  grace  of  God.”  O is 
used  to  express  wishing  exclamation,  or  a 
direct  address  to  a person,  as, 

* ‘ O mother,  will  the  God  above 
Forgive  my  faults  like  thee?” 

133.  “ I will  retain  two-thirds,  and  give 
you  the  balance  ; ” say,  remainder. 

134.  “He  dickered  with  him  an  hour  ; ” 
say,  “ he  bargained."  This  is  a word  some- 
what peculiar  to  New  York. 

135.  “Do  don't"  is  a vulgar  usage  of 
the  Southern  States,  especially  Georgia, 
for  “ do  not." 

1 36.  “ He  is  done  gone ;"  say,  ruined. 

137.  “We  had  a dreadful  fine  time  ; ” 
say,  very,  or  exceedingly. 

138.  “The  message  was  sent  by  his 
aid-de-camp ; " pronounce  as  if  written 
ade-de-kawng,  avoiding,  however,  as  much 
as  possible  a twang  on  the  last  syllable. 

139.  To  yank  is  a vulgarism,  meaning 
to  twitch  powerfully. 

140.  “The  basket  is  pretty  large;" 
avoid,  if  possible,  the  use  of  the  word 
pretty  out  of  its  legitimate  signification ; 


TWO  HUNDRED  MISTAKES. 


611 


the  language  abounds  with  substitutes 
more  elegant. 

141.  The  following  sentence  affords  an 
example  of  three  words  of  similar  pro- 
nunciation, but  different  signification : 
“It  is  not  easy  to  pare  a pear  with  a pair 
of  scissors.” 

142.  “ The  robber  entered  the  dwelling, 
and  secretly  carried  off  the  silver ; ” say, 
thief ; a robber  attacks  violently,  and  com- 
mits his  depredations  by  main  force ; a 
thief  is  one  who  uses  secrecy  and  decep- 
tion. 

143.  “Go  and  fetch  me  my  riding- 
whip  ; ” say,  bring . Fetch  means  to  go 
and  bring  ; go  and  fetch  is  repetition. 

144.  To  leave  and  to  quit  are  often  used 
as  synonymous  terms,  though  improperly  ; 
to  leave  implies  a design  of  returning 
soon — to  quit , an  absence  of  a long  time. 

145.  Mute  and  dumb.  A dumb  man 
has  not  the  power  to  speak ; a mute  man 
either  does  not  choose,  or  is  not  allowed 
to  speak.  It  is,  therefore,  more  proper 
to  say  of  a person  who  can  neither  hear 
nor  speak,  that  he  is  “ deaf  and  dumb,” 
than  that  he  is  a “ deaf  mute.” 

146.  “ Isaac  Newton  invented  the  law  of 
gravitation  ; ” say,  discovered.  “ Galileo 
discovered  the  telescope ; ” say,  invented. 

147.  To  hear  and  to  listen  have  each 
distinct  degrees  of  meaning.  To  hear 
implies  no  effort  or  particular  attention. 
To  listen  implies  some  eagerness  to  hear. 
An  old  proverb  says,  “ They  that  listen 
seldom  hear  any  good  of  themselves.” 

148.  Ought  and  should  both  express 
obligation,  but  the  latter  is  not  so  bind- 
ing as  the  former.  “ Children  ought  to 
love  their  parents,  and  should  be  neat  in 
their  appearance.” 

149.  Alone  and  only  are  often  mis- 
applied. “ He  only  could  do  it,”  means 
that  no  other  but  himself  could  do  it  ; 


“ he  alone  could  do  it,”  should  mean  that 
he,  without  the  assistance  of  others,  could 
do  it. 

150.  “Whether  he  will  or  no;”  say, 
not. 

15 1.  “ He  looked  at  it  first  lengthways, 
then  sideways ; ” say,  lengthwise  and  side- 
wise.  Also,  say  otherwise  instead  of  other- 
ways. 

152.  “Will  you  accept  of  this  slight 
testimonial?”  Omit  of,  which  is  super- 
fluous and  weakens  the  sentence. 

153.  “The  Danube  empties  into  the 
Black  Sea ; ” say,  flows ; to  empty  means 
to  make  vacant ; no  river  can  properly  be 
called  empty,  until  it  is  entirely  dried  up. 

1 54.  “ There's  the  books  you  wanted  ; ” 
say,  there  are ; avoid  all  abbreviations 
when  they  lead  to  a grammatical  error,  as 
in  the  present  instance. 

155.  “The  most  eminent  scholars  will, 
on  some  points,  differ  among  one  another ;” 
say,  among  themselves. 

156.  To  differ  from  and  to  differ  with ; 
to  differ  from  a man  means  to  have  an 
opinion  different  from  his  ; to  differ  with 
a person  signifies  a quarrel  or  rupture. 

157.  “He  barely  escaped  having  one  or 
two  broken  heads;”  a man  has  but  one 
head,  let  it  be  broken  or  whole.  Say, 
“He  once  or  twice  barely  escaped  having  a 
broken  head.” 

158.  The  word  only  is  often  wrongly 
placed  in  the  sentence,  and  made  to  ex- 
press an  idea  which  is  not  designed  to  be 
conveyed.  “ Not  only  Chinese  are  super- 
stitious/’ implies  that  others  besides  the 
Chinese  are  superstitious.  “ Chinese  are 
not  only  superstitious,”  implies  that  in 
addition  to  being  superstitious,  they  have 
some  other  characteristics.  “ Chinese  not 
only  are  superstitious,”  leaves  room  for 
something  still  further  to  be  implied  of 
the  Chinese  than  superstition,  and  which 


612 


TWO  HUNDRED  MISTAKES. 


is  not  necessarily  the  predicate  of  are  ; 
as,  “ Chinese  not  only  are  superstitious, 
but  they  persecute  those  who  do  not  put 
faith  in  Confucius.” 

159.  The  word  long  should  not  now  be 
employed  to  signify  many.  An  example 
of  this  early  usage  is  found  in  the  Fifth 
Commandment,  “that  thy  days  may  be 
long  upon  the  land.” 

160.  “ Have  you  any  leisure  upon  your 
hands  ? ” omit  upon  your  hands. 

161.  “ Seven  lads  were  present,  and  he 
gave  them  all  a book  * ” say,  gave  them 
each  a book.  All  refers  to  a number  of 
persons  or  things  taken  collectively,  as  one 
body ; each  refers  to  every  individual, 
separately  considered. 

162.  “ I am  afraid  it  will  rain  ; ” say, 
I fear.  A fraid  expresses  terror ; fear 
may  mean  only  anxiety. 

163.  Never  say  o-fences  for  offences  ; 
pison  for  poison ; co-lection  for  collection  ; 
voiolent  for  violent ; kivver  for  cover ; 
afeard  for  afraid ; debbuty  for  deputy. 
The  last  three  examples  are  very  common. 

164.  “ Gibbon  wrote  the  Rise  and  Fall 
of  the  Roman  Empire ; ” pronounce  Rise, 
the  noun,  so  as  to  rhyme  with  price ; 
Rise,  the  verb,  rhymes  with  prize. 

165.  “ Received  this  day  of  Mr.  Brown 
ten  dollars ; ” say,  “ Received  this  day 
fromf  etc. 

166.  “ Of  whatever  you  get,  endeavor 
to  save  something ; and  with  all  your  get- 
ting, get  wisdom  ; ” carefully  avoid  saying 
git  for  get,  and  git  ting  for  getting. 

1 67.  “ Lower  the  sails,  as  the  sky  begins 
to  lower  f'  pronounce  low  in  the  former 
so  as  to  rhyme  with  mow,  and  low  in  the 
latter  so  as  to  rhyme  with  cow. 

168.  “There  was  a great  row  on 
Monday,  in  Tryon  Row  /”  pronounce  the 
former  row  so  as  to  rhyme  with  cow — the 
latter  row,  so  as  to  rhyme  with  mo. 


169.  “The  buildings  are  so  old  that 
they  pay  almost  no  rent  now ; ” scarcely 
any  rent,  is  better. 

170.  Active  verbs  often  take  a neuter 
sense  ; as,  “ The  house  is  building ; ” here 
is  building  is  used  in  a neuter  significa- 
tion, because  it  has  no  object  after  it.  By 
this  rule  are  explained  such  sentences  as, 
“ Application  is  wanting “ The  Grammar 
is  printing,  ” etc. 

1 7 1 . “He  attackied  me  without  the 
slightest  provocation  ; ” say  attacked. 

172.  “ I called  on  him  every  day  in  the 
week  successfully very  common,  but 
incorrect ; say,  successively. 

173.  “I  fear  I shall  discommode  you  ; ” 
it  is  better  to  say  incommode. 

174.  “He  was  obliged  to  fly  the 
country;”  say,  flee  the  country.  A very 
common  mistake. 

175.  “Too  free  an  indulgence  in  luxuries 
enervate  and  injure  the  system ; ” say, 
enervates  and  injures,  etc.  The  plural, 
luxuries , standing  directly  before  the  verb 
(which  should  be  enervates, in  the  singular), 
deceives  the  ear. 

176.  “A  father  divided  a portion  of 
his  property  among  his  two  children,  and 
the  remainder  he  distributed  between  the 
poor  ; ” say,  between  his  two  children,  and 
among  the  poor.  Between  is  applicable  to 
two  only,  among  to  three  or  more. 

1 77.  “ Every  child  should  obey  their 
parents  ; ” say,  his  parents.  The  pronoun 
must  agree  with  the  noun  in  number,  etc. 

178.  Coming , going,  according,  etc.,  are 
often  pronounced  without  the  final  g; 
speak  them  distinctly,  and  pronounce 
difficult  words  with  de-lib-er-a-tion. 

179.  If  you  are  a Yankee,  you  should 
take  special  pains  with  your  vowel  sounds, 
that  they  be  not  formed  through  the 
nasal  cavities.  Don’t  say  heow , ceow , con- 
feound,  for  how , cow,  etc. 


TWO  HUNDRED  MISTAKES. 


612 


180.  If  you  are  a Western  man,  you 
are  liable  to  give  your  vowel  sounds  too 
great  breadth.  You  should  not  say  bar 
for  bear,  hum  for  home,  dawlar  for  dollar  ; 
and  it  is  better  to  avoid  using  such  ex- 
pressions as  I reckon , I guess , I calculate , 
too  frequently. 

1 8 1 . Some  people  add  a superfluous 
preposition  at  the  end  of  a sentence — - 
“More  than  you  think  for."  This  is 
awkward. 

182.  “Wanted,  two  apprentices,  who 
will  be  treated  as  one  of  the  family ; ” 
great  practical  difficulty  would  be  found 
in  realizing  such  treatment ! Say,  as  mem- 
bers of  the  family. 

183.  Sometimes  but  is  incorrectly  sub- 
stituted for  that ; as,  “ I have  no  doubt 
but  he  will  be  here  to-night.”  Sometimes 
for  the  conjunction  if,  as,  “ I shouldn’t 
wonder  but  that  was  the  case.”  And 
sometimes  two  conjunctions  are  used 
instead  of  one,  as,  “If  that  I have  offended 
him,”  “ After  that  he  had  seen  the 
parties,”  etc.  All  this  is  very  awkward, 
and  should  be  avoided. 

184.  Never  say,  “Cut  it  in  halff  for 
this  you  cannot  do  unless  you  could 
annihilate  one  half.  You  may  “cut  it  in 
two,”  or  “ cut  it  in  halves,”  or  “ cut  it 
through,”  or  “ divide  it,”  but  no  human 
ability  will  enable  you  to  cut  it  in  half. 

185.  To  lay  and  to  lie. — To  lay  is  an 
active  or  transitive  verb,  and  must  always 
have  an  object  expressed  or  understood. 
To  lie  (not  meaning  to  tell  a falsehood ) is  a 
neuter  or  intransitive,  and,  therefore,  does 
not  admit  of  an  object.  The  only  real 
difficulty  arises  from  the  fact  that  the 
past  tense  of  “ lie,”  when  used  without 
an  auxiliary,  is  the  same  as  the  present  of 
“ lay.”  But  a little  attention  will  obviate 
this.  Nothing  can  be  more  erroneous 
than  to  say,  “ I shall  go  and  lay  down.” 


The  question  which  naturally  arises  in 
the  mind  of  the  discriminating  hearer  is, 

“ What  are  you  going  to  lay  down — ' 
money,  carpets,  plans,  or  what?  ” for,  as 
a transitive  verb  is  used,  an  object  is 
wanted  to  complete  the  sense.  The 
speaker  means  that  he  himself  is  going 
to  lie  down.  “ My  brother  lays  ill  of  a 
fever,”  should  be,  “ My  brother  lies,"  etc. 

186.  The  uneducated  speaker  uses 
adjectives  instead  of  adverbs,  and  says: 
“This  letter  is  written  shocking /”  the 
genteel  speaker  uses  adverbs  instead  of 
adjectives,  and  says,  “ This  writing  looks 
shockingly." 

187.  A grammatical  play  upon  the 
word  THAT  : 

“ Now  that  is  a word  which  may  often  be  joined, 

For  that  that  may  be  doubled  is  clear  to  the  mind, 
And  that  that  that  is  right  is  as  plain  to  the  view, 
j As  that  that  that  that  we  use  is  rightly  used  too  ; 

And  that  that  that  that  that  line  has  in  it,  is  right 
In  accordance  with  grammar,  is  plain  in  our  sight. ” 

188.  “ He  will  go  from  thence  to- 
morrow.” The  preposition  “ from  ” is 
included  in  these  adverbs,  therefore  it  be- 
comes tautology  in  sense  when  prefixed 
to  them. 

189.  “ Equally  as  well,”  is  a very  com- 
mon expression,  and  a very  incorrect  one  ; 
the  adverb  of  comparison,  “ as,”  has  no 
right  in  the  sentence.  “ Equally  well,” 
“ Equally  high,”  “ Equally  dear,”  should 
be  the  construction. 

190.  “ No  other  resource  but  this  was 
allowed  him;”  say,  “No  other  resource 
than  this,”  etc. 

19 1.  “I  don’t  know  but  what  I shall  go 
to  White  Plains  to-morrow  ; ” say,  “ I 
don’t  know  but  that,"  etc. 

192.  “ He  spoke  contemptibly  of  him,” 
should  be,  “He  spoke  contemptuotisly  of 
him.” 

193.  Avoid  all  slang,  obsolete  and  vul- 
gar words  and  phrases,  as,  Anyhow , 


614 


TWO  HUNDRED  MISTAKES. 


Bating , Bran  new , To  blow  up , Bother , Cut, 
Currying  favor , Fork  out , Half  an  eye,  I 
am  up  to  you.  Kick  up,  Scrape , 7Vz^  scratch , 
Walk  into. 

194.  “ It  is  I who  is  to  receive  the 
appointment ; ” say,  who  am  to  receive ; 
who  is  in  the  first  person,  and  the  verb  of 
which  it  is  the  subject  must  be  in  the  same. 

195.  “ Every  lancer  and  every  rifleman 
were  at  their  post ; ” say,  was  at  his  post. 

196.  “ I can  lift  as  many  pounds  as  he 
has  ;”  add  lifted. 

197.  Do  not  use  to,  the  sign  of  the  infin- 
itive mood,  for  the  infinitive  itself.  “ I 
have  not  written  to  him,  and  I am  not 
likely  to,”  should  read,  “ I am  not  likely 
to  write  to  him.” 

198.  The  word  agree  is  sometimes 
followed  by  the  wrong  preposition.  We 
should  say  agree  with  a person — to  a pro- 
position— upon  a thing  among  ourselves. 

199.  We  should  say  copy  after  a per- 
son— copy  from  a thing. 

200.  In  should  not  be  used  ioxinto,  after 
verbs  denoting  entrance.  “ Come  in  my 
parlor,”  should  read,  “Come  into  my  par- 
lor.” 


201.  “ We  confide  in,  and  have  respect 
for , the  good.”  Such  a form  of  expression 
is  strained  and  awkward.  It  is  better  to 
say,  “ We  confide  in  the  good,  and  have 
respect  for  them,”  or,  “We  trust  and 
respect  the  good.” 

202.  “ This  veil  of  flesh  parts  the  visible 
and  invisible  world  ; ” say,  “ parts  the 
visible  from  the  invisible.”  It  certainly 
is  not  meant  that  the  veil  of  flesh  parts 
(or  divides')  each  of  these  worlds. 

203.  “ Every  leaf,  every  twig,  every 
blade,  every  drop  of  water,  teem  with  life;  ” 
say,  teems. 

204.  The  last  direction  which  this  little 
treatis  will  give,  on  the  subject  with 
which  it  has  been  occupied,  is  one  that 
long  ago  was  given  in  the  greatest  of 
books — “ Let  your  conversation  be  as 
it  becometh  the  Gospel  of  Christ.”  If 
obedience  to  this  injunction  may  not 
guard  him  who  heeds  it  against  the  com- 
mission of  such  mistakes  as  are  numbered 
in  this  catalogue,  it  will  not  fail  to  lead 
him  out  of  the  way  of  errors  more  grievous 
and  solemn. 


^The  Art  of  Correspondence 


GIVING  DIRECTIONS  AND  FORMS  FOR  WRITING,  PUNCTUATION,  &C. 

LETTERS  ON  BUSINESS, 

FRIENDSHIP,  INTRODUCTIONS,  LOVE,  ETIQUETTE,  CONDOLENCE, 


AND  OTHER  TOPICS  OF  INTEREST. 


HERE  are  few  things  of  more  importance  for  the  mercantile  man,  the 
statesman,  the  divine,  and  indeed  to  all  who  would  be  thought  to  possess 
ordinary  intelligence  than  the  ability  to  correspond  by  letter  with  free- 
dom and  elegance.  To  the  student  preparing  to  compete  with  those 
already  in  the  race  of  business  life,  it  is  an  art  that  should  have  a very 
prominent  place,  and  to  the  acquirement  of  which  too  much  attention  cannot  be  given. 
It  is  of  advantage  to  a young  man  replying  to  an  advertisement  or  applying  for  a situa-* 
(tion,  because  however  geometric  may  be  its  calligraphy,  if  clumsily  expressed  or  badty 
arranged,  it  carries  its  own  refusal,  while  another  of  inferior  penmanship,  if  neatly 
expressed,  concise  and  to  the  point,  its  mechanical  arrangement  showing  the  character  of 
the  writer,  it  will  attract  the  attention  of  the  recipient  and  secure  the  position. 

The  utility  of  a letter  writer  adapted  to  the  requirements  of  the  present  day  cannot 
be  questioned,  for  it  must  be  apparent  to  all  that  the  use  of  judicious,  forms  as  models  in 
which  to  convey  one’s  own  thoughts  and  feelings,  so  far  from  being  detrimental  to  the 
youthful  writer,  may  be  really  advantageous  to  him.-  The  antiquated  books  upon  the 
subject  are  not  adapted  to  the  present  day,  being  obsolete  in  expression,  verbose  and 
unnatural.  The  thought  is  high-flown  and  the  rhetoric  exaggerated  often  to  a laughable 
degree.  A modern  letter  writer  should,  give  models  for  the  present  time  free  from  these 
peculiarities  and  defects.  But  we  are  aware  that  it  is  impossible  to  suit  a model  to  the 
ten  thousand  forms  of  letters  on  the  varied  subjects  demanding  the  attention  of  the 
present  generation  of  letter  writers.  'I  he  endless  variety  of  topics,  the  characteristics 
of  mental  temperament,  and  position  in  society,  and  the  frame  of  mind  at  the  time  of 
inditing  the  letter  are  all  lc  N*  considered  The  faculty  of  good  letter  writing  is  one 
that  all  should  cultivate,  since  it  is  the  mainspring  of  the  commercial  and  social  life, — 
the  link  that  binds  the  complicated  chain  of  civilized  society.  The  style  should  vary 
according  to  the  subject.  A business  letter  should  be  terse,  explicit  and  free  from  am- 
biguity, without  useless  compliment,  and  contain  nothing  but  the  business  in  hand. 
This  can  be  contracted  into  ten  lines  ordinarily.  It  should  be  brief  without  being  dis- 
courteous. A clear  and  flowing  interpretation  of  our  own  ideas  is  the  prerequisite  of 
good  familiar  correspondence  among  relatives  and  friends,  united  with  an  understanding 
of  the  mind  of  the  person  to  whom  we  are  writing.  A child  at  school,  a friend  on  the 
eve  of  marriage,  a family  in  sorrow,  an  official  of  state,  a clergyman  and  a brother  or 
sister  would  not  all  be  addressed  in  the  same  manner.  Let  the  substance  and  tone  of 
the  letter  be  natural  to  yourself  and  to  the  circumstances. 


616 


ART  OF  CORRESPONDENCE. 


The  surest  method  to  attain  proficiency  as  a letter  writer  is,  to  correspond  with 
those  who  themselves  are  adepts  in  the  art.  The  next  best  thing  is  to  peruse  carefully 
the  letters  that  are  so  large  a part  of  the  best  of  the  writings  of  the  best  authors. 

Why  should  anyone  make  so  fearful  a bugbear  of  letter  writing  ? The  thing 
required  is  to  have  something  to  say,  and  to  express  it  in  a clear,  natural  and  graceful 
manner. 

This  subject  should  receive  the  attention  it  deserves  m our  schools  and  institutions 
of  learning.  Our  purpose  is  to  give  models  of  letters,  not  to  be  copied  by  our  readers, 
but  to  guide  them  in  the  best  methods  of  moulding  their  own  thoughts.  These  three 
rules  should  always  be  observed  : Write  courteously,  write  truthfully,  and  write  sensibly. 

GENERAL  DIRECTIONS  AS  TO  LETTER  WRITING. 

First,  in  writing  letters,  it  is  necessary  to  make  the  style  clear,  elegant  and  appro- 
priate for  all  subjects ; vivacity  of  discourse  forces  us  frequently  to  sacrifice  happy 
though  tardy  expressions  to  the  necessity  of  avoiding  hesitation  ; but  what  is  thus  an 
obstacle  in  speaking,  does  not  interfere  with  the  use  of  the  pen.  We  ought,  therefore,  to 
avoid  repetition,  erasures,  insertions,  omissions,  and  confusion  of  ideas,  or  labored  con- 
struction. If  we  write  a familiar  letter  to  an  equal  or  a friend,  these  blemishes  may 
remain  ; if  otherwise,  we  must  commence  our  letter  again.  The  most  exact  observance 
of  the  rules  of  grammar  is  strictly  imperative  ; an  error  of  orthography,  or  an  incorrect 
phraseology  is  not  admissible,  even  in  the  least  careful  letter,  or  the  most  unimportant 
billet.  Even  correction  is  not  allowable,  for  besides  being  a blemish  to  the  letter,  it  be- 
trays ignorance  or  carelessness  of  the  party  writing  it.  The  choice  of  materials  for 
writing,  without  being  very  essential,  is  yet  necessary  ; to  write  on  very  coarse  paper  is 
allowable  only  for  the  most  indigent,  to  use  gilt-edged  and  perfumed  paper  for  letters  of 
business  would  be  ridiculous. 

Many  distinguished  people,  however,  reasonably  prefer  simplicity  in  this  thing,  and 
make  use  of  very  beautiful  paper,  but  yet  without  ornament. 

It  is  extremely  impolite  to  write  upon  a single  leaf  of  paper,  even  if  it  is  a billet ; it 
should  be  always  double,  although  we  write  only  two  or  three  lines. 

It  is  as  indispensable  to  answer  when  you  are  written  to  as  when  you  are  spoken  to, 
and  the  indolence  which  so  many  correspondents  allow  in  themselves  in  this  respect  is 
an  incivility.  And  if,  after  all,  they  decide  to  answer,  they  begin  by  apologies  so  often 
renewed  that  they  become  commonplace.  We  must  use  much  care  that  these  excuses 
may  not  appear  ridiculous.  Conciseness  and  some  new  terms  of  expression  are,  in  this 
case,  indispensable.  The  same  observation  is  applicable  in  making  use  of  reproving 
terms. 

Letters  supply  the  place  of  visits,  in  bestowing  presents,  or  on  occasions  of  mar- 
riages, funerals,  etc.;  and  to  neglect  to  write  in  such  cases,  is  gross  impoliteness. 

Two  persons  should  not  write  in  the  same  letter  by  one  writing  upon  the  first,  and 
another  upon  the  second  leaf,  except  on  very  intimate  acquaintance  with  the  correspond- 
ent. The  language  of  men  who  write  to  ladies  ought  always  to  have  a polish  of  respect, 
with  which  the  latter  ought  not  to  dispense  in  answering  ; but  on  occasions  of  great  cere* 


ART  OF  CORRESPONDENCE. 


617 


mony  a lady  may  address  to  a gentleman  such  phrase  as,  “ I have  the  honor  to  be,’*  etc., 
while  he  should  use  the  most  respectful  terms,  as  “Deign,  madam,  to  allow  me,”  * ‘Allow 
me  the  honor  of  presenting  you  my  respects,”  etc. 

You  may  use  a lofty  style  towards  persons  to  whom  you  owe  respect;  an  easy, 
tempting,  or  even  jesting  style  towards  a friend,  and  a courteous  style  towards  one  an- 
other generally. 

If  you  have  many  subjects  to  treat  of  in  the  same  letter,  commence  with  the  most 
important ; for  if  the  person  to  whom  you  write  is  interested  while  reading  it,  he  will  be 
more  impatient  to  resume  its  perusal,  however  little  interesting  he  may  find  it. 

It  is  useful  and  convenient  to  begin  a paragraph  at  every  change  of  the  subject. 
After  having  written  “Sir,”  or  “Madam,”  at  the  top  of  the  letter,  we  should  not  commence 
with  one  of  these  phrases  : “Sir,”  “Madam,” — “Your  sister  has  written  me  thus.”  We 
should  say,  “I  understand  by  a letter  which  Madam , your  sister,  has  written  me.” 

Take  care,  also,  when  writing  to  a person  of  great  consideration,  not  to  make  com- 
pliments to  any  one,  but  write  to  this  third  person  whatever  you  wish  him  to  know. 


How  to  fold  a letter,  first  fold  How  to  fold  a letter,  second  fold 

from  you  for  the  width  of  from  you  for  the  length  of 

envelope.  envelope. 

PUNCTUATION. 

To  render  a letter  intelligible,  it  is  necessary  to  pay  attention  to  the  stops  or  marks 
which  denote  when  a pause  should  be  made  by  the  reader.  These  marks  are — the 
comma  (,)the  semicolon  (;)  the  colon  (:)  the  period  or  full  stop  (.)  the  note  of  admiration 
(!)  and  the  note  of  interrogation  (?). 

A comma  denotes  that  a short  pause  is  to  be  made,  as  in  the  following  cases  : Two 

or  more  substantives,  adjectives,  etc.,  immediately  succeeding  each  other,  require  a 
comma  after  each;  but,  if  joined  by  a conjunction,  the  comma  is  not  needed;  as,.  “She  is 
an  industrious  and  frugal  woman.”  If  an  admonition  is  made  to  a person,  the  noun 
requires  a comma  before  and  after  it  ; as,  “ Remember,  boy,  what  thou  hast  heard.” 
Many  adverbs  should  have  a comma  before  and  after  them,  as  perhaps,  before , etc. 

A semicolon  requires  a longer  pause  than  a comma,  but  denotes  that  something  else 
is  to  follow  before  the  whole  idea  can  be  expressed.  As,  “A  boorish  air  is  but  a trivial 
defect  ; yet,  trivial  as  it  is,  it  is  enough  to  render  a person  unwelcome'”  Or  it  is  used 
to  distinguish  those  members  of  a sentence,  though  less  nearly  joined  than  those  divided 
by  commas,  are  not  so  independent  as  those  marked  by  a colon  ; thus,  “ The  way  of  the 
wicked  leads  to  death  ; that  of  the  righteous  to  life  everlasting.” 

A colon  implies  that  the  idea  is  fully  expressed,  but  that  something  else  follows  for 
the  purpose  of  giving  still  more  force  to  the  author’s  meaning,  or  casting  additional  light 
upon  it,  thus,  “This  is  your  triumph  : it  is  my  shame.”  Quotations  should  be  preceded 
by  a colon,  as,  a popular  author  says  : “The  pen  is  mightier  than  the  sword.” 


618 


ART  OF  CORRESPONDENCE. 


The  period  or  full  stop  ends  the  sentence,  as  “ Give  me  the  book.”  “ Let  us  go  home.” 
It  is  also  placed  after  all  abbreviations,  as  N.  Y.  New  York,  A.  D.  Anno  Domini,  Fred., 
Jno. 

A note  of  admiration  is  used  to  show  that  lively  emotion  is  expressed,  as  : “Oh, 
Virtue  ! how  lovely  thou  art !” 

A note  of  interrogation  is  placed  at  the  end  of  every  question,  as  “ Have  you  seen 
my  brother  ? How  late  ?” 

Other  marks  are  used  in  writing  which  need  explanation.  The  dash  ( — ) is  used 
when  the  sentence  is  abrubtly  broken  off ; thus,  “Exactly  so — a wonderful  young  man  !” 
The  parenthesis  ()  is  used  to  enclose  part  of  a sentence  which  may  be  left  out  without 
spoiling  the  sense ; as,  “Let  us  hear  from  all  (including  Ellen)  when  you  write  again.” 
The  apostrophe  (’)  is  used  to  denote  the  possessive  case,  or  to  abbreviate  a word  ; thus  : 

“Frederick’s  book,  thro’  for  through.”  The  caret  (a)  is  used  for  the  purpose  of  showing 

grave, 

something  omitted;  thus,  “Most  reverend, ^and  potent  seignors.”  The  hyphen  (-)  is  used 

for  all  compound  words;  thus,  “self-glorification.”  The  asterisk  (*)  is  used  to  refer  to 
notes,  as  are  also  the  following  signs  : f,  §,  ||,  and  ^[.  The  index  points  out 

anything  worthy  of  especial  notice. 

Unless  you  attend  to  the  punctuation,  serious  mistakes  may  be  made  by  the  individual 
with  whom  you  correspond.  Even  the  omission  of  a comma  will  sometimes  give  a 
meaning  to  the  sentence  precisely  the  reverse  of  that  which  you  intend  to  convey 

LETTERS  ON  LOVE. 

The  love  letter  ought  to  be  more  easy  to  write  than  any  other,  premising  always  that 
the  writer  is  really  under  the  influence  of  the  grand  passion.  Upon  first  addressing  the 
object  of  your  regard,  there  should  be  no  prudent  hesitation  about  committing  yourself 
too  far.  You  either  love  the  fair  being  whom  you  address,  or  you  do  not.  If  you  are 
not  decided  upon  that  point,  you  do  wrong  to  write  at  all  ; but  if  you  earnestly  desire 
to  unite  your  destiny  with  hers,  you  must,  in  the  first  instance,  give  her  to  understand 
that  you  entertain  for  her  a sincere  and  earnest  admiration. 

Your  letters  should  express  respect  blended  with  exalted  and  overpowering  passion, 
and  this  applies  more  particularly  to  your  first  letter.  A tame,  hesitating  lover  cannot 
make  a strong  impression  upon  the  hearts  of  the  gentle  sex.  The  writer  must  show  the 
woman  of  his  choice  that  his  love  is  too  real  and  too  violent  to  be  prudent,  or  to  have  any 
place  for  a selfish  fear  of  compromising  himself.  He  must  compromise  himself  fearlessly 
and  thoroughly  in  his  first  address  to  her,  and  have  his  mind  made  up  to  stand  the  hazard 
of  the  die;  for  the  first  thing  a man  has  to  do  when  disclosing  his  love  for  a woman,  is, 
to  convince  her  that  he  does  love  her,  and  that  he  loves  her  a great  deal,  and  her  alone. 

Let  this  be  the  aim  of  your  letters;  speak  just  as  you  feel,  and  speak  out  all  that 
you  feel,  in  straightforward,  simple,  honest  language — which  is  always  the  language  ot 
strong  emotion — and  if  she  be  a virtuous  woman,  whose  heart  has  not  been  hackneyed 
by  the  arts  of  coquetry,  she  will  know  how  to  estimate  your  sincerity  and  your  devotion. 


ART  OF  CORRESPONDENCE. 


615* 

It  is  best  to  use  gilt-edged  paper,  and  of  a fine  quality;  write  in  good  hand  if  pos- 
sible; fold  and  seal  your  missive  neatly,  and  direct  it  in  a bold  plain  manner,  that  it  may 
not  fall  into  the  hands  of  the  wrong  person,  and  expose  your  lady-love  to  the  jeers  ancl 
malicious  remarks  of  idle  and  heartless  worldings. 

GENERAL  OBSERVATIONS. 

Some  few  general  remarks  on  very  simple  matters — which  are  nevertheless  of  much- 
importance  in  the  transactions  of  every-day  life — may  be  advantageously  appended  to 
the  specimens  to  be  laid  before  the  reader. 

I.  There  is  great  judgment  required  in  using  “Sir,”  or  “Dear  Sir,”  especially  in 
addressing  a person  of  superior  worldly  position  to  yourself.  Always  reflect  whether 
you  are  on  such  terms  with  the  person  to  whom  you  write  as  to  warrant  your  using 
“Dear,”  or  “My  dear,”  before  the  more  retiring  phrase  of  address. 

At  the  same  time,  the  use  of  “Dear  Sir,”  even  towards  a stranger,  is  considered  a 
graceful  manner  of  addressing  an  inferior;  but,  in  responding  to  this,  it  would  be  prefer- 
able to  avoid  too  much  familiarity  at  first.  A golden  rule  in  such  matters  is,  that  noth- 
ing is  lost  by  too  much  modesty,  while  nothing  gives  so  much  offence  as  officious 
familiarity 

“Reverend  and  dear  Sir”  is  a frequent  address  from  one  clergyman  to  another,  with 
whom  he  is  supposed  to  have  little  acquaintance  beyond  that  of  being  in  the  same  pro- 
fession. “Dear  Sir”  is  afterwards  adopted,  when  one  or  two  letters  have  passed  between 
the  parties. 

“Dear  Sir”  is  frequently  used  in  transactions  between  gentlemen  and  their  trades- 
men; but  such  use  must  be  guided  by  the  good  sense  of  both  parties.  It  must  also  be 
considered  that  the  position  and  character  of  many  tradesmen  render  them  fully  on  a par 
with  many  professional  or  independent  persons. 

“Honored  Sir,”  though  somewhat  antiquated,  is  still  frequently  used,  either  in  ad- 
dressing a person  in  very  advanced  years,  a parent,  a person  to  whom  we  have  been  under 
great  obligations,  or  in  an  appeal  from  a poor  person  to  a rich  and  powerful  one. 

Nearly  the  same  rules  apply  to  letters  addressed  to  persons  of  the  other  sex. 

II.  Never  send  a note  to  a person  who  is  your  superior,  unless  it  be  upon  a very 
slight  and  indifferent  matter.  In  asking  a favor  of  an  intimate  friend,  address  him  in  the 
first  person. 

III.  Do  not  take  bad  writing  for  freedom  of  style.  Whatever  pleasure  your  friends, 
may  derive  from  reading  your  letters,  you  have  no  right  to  suppose  that  they  have  time 
for  the  study  of  hieroglyphics. 

IV.  And,  finally,  remember  that  whatever  you  write  is  written  evidence  either  of 
your  good  sense  or  your  folly,  your  industry  or  carelessness,  your  self-control  or  impa- 
tience. What  you  have  once  put  in  the  letter-box  may  cost  you  lasting  regret,  or  be 
equally  important  to  your  whole  future  welfare.  And,  for  such  grave  reasons,  think  be^ 
fore  you  write,  and  think  while  you  are  writing. 


620 


ART  OF  CORRESPONDENCE. 


FORMS  OF  DIRECTING,  COMMENCING  AND  CONCLUDING  LETTERS. 

The  title  of  Esquire  is  now  given  to  almost  every  person  of  respectability,  but  in 
directing  to  persons  of  high  position  and  distinction,  we  generally  add  etc.,  etc.,  etc., 
writing  the  word  Esquire  at  full  length.  It  should  however  be  used  sparingly. 

The  wives  of  gentlemen,  in  cases  where  several  persons  of  the  same  family  are 
married,  are  distinguished  by  the  Christian  name  of  their  husbands,  e.  g.y  Mrs.  Frederick 
Brown,  Mrs.  Alfred  Brown. 

THE  CLERGY. 

Direct — To  the  Right  Rev.  the  Bishop  of 

Commence — My  Bishop. 

Conclude — I have  the  honor  to  be,  Bishop,  your  most  obedient,  humble  servant 

Direct — To  the  Rev.  , D.  D.  (or,  to  the  Rev.  Dr. .) 

Commence — Rev  Sir. 

Conclude — I have  the  honor  to  be,  Rev.  Sir,  yours,  etc.  (according  to  the  cirumstances 
under  which  we  write,  or  our  acquaintance  with  the  person. 

TO  AMBASSADORS,  SECRETARIES,  CONSULS,  ETC. 

The  President  of  the  United  States  and  ambassadors  from  other  governments  have 
the  title  of  Excellency  added  to  their  quality. 

Direct — To  His  Excellency,  Chester  A.  Arthur,  President  of  the  United  States. 

Commence — Sir,  Your  Excellency 

Direct — To , Secretary  from  the  Republic  of  Mexico. 

Commence — Sir. 

Direct — To , Esq.,  U.  S.  Consul  to  Her  Britannic  Majesty  at  Smyrna. 

Commence — Sir. 

Direct — To  His  Excellency, , Ambassador  from  the  Court  of  St.  James. 

Commence Sir,  Your  Excellency. 


ART  OF  CORRESPONDENCE. 


621 


LETTERS  ON  THE  SICKNESS  AND  DEATH  OF  PRESIDENT  GARFIELD 


FROM  A.  F.  ROCKWELL, 


Mrs.  Garfield,  Elberon , New  Jersey  : 

The  president  wishes  me  to  say  to  you 
for  him  that  he  has  been  seriously  hurt — 
how  seriously  he  cannot  yet  say.  He  is 
himself,  and  hopes  you  will  come  to  him 
soon.  He  sends  his  love  to  you0 

A.  F.  Rockwell. 

Queen  Victoria  to  the  Secretary  of  State: 

“ I wish  to  exp;  ess  my  great  satisfaction 
at  the  very  favorable  accounts  of  the  pres- 
ident, and  hope  that  he  will  soon  be  con- 
sidered out  of  danger.” 

F>j?m  the  Chief  of  the  Confederate  Tribes  of 
Washington  Territory: 

4 Tell  the  Great  Chief  at  Washington 
that  it  makes  our  hearts  sad  to  hear  of  the 
cowardly  attempt  made  on  his  life.  Chief 
Mosos  and  all  of  his  people  offer  their 
warmest  sympathies  to  the  Great  Father 
and  his  familyc  He  has  always  been  a 
good  friend  to  the  Indians.  We  are  glad 
to  hear  that  he  is  recovering,  and  hope  his 
life  may  be  spared.” 

Card  From  the  Governor  of  Ohio. 

“ Governors  Office , Columbus , O.,  July  io. 

“ Present  indications  strongly  encourage 
the  hope  that  the  president  will  recover 
from  the  effects  of  the  horrible  attempt 
upon  his  life.  It  must  occur  to  all  that  it 
would  be  most  fitting  for  the  Governors  of 
the  several  States  and  Territories  to  issue 
proclamations  setting  apart  a day  to  be 
generally  agreed  upon  for  thanksgiving  and 
praise  to  Almighly  God  for  the  blessed 
deliverance  of  our  president,  and  for  this 


great  evidence  of  His  goodness  to  this 
nation.  If  this  suggestion  meets  your  ap- 
probation, permit  me  to  name  the  Govern- 
ors of  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  Kentucky 
Maryland,  and  Ohio,  as  a committee  to  fix 
upon  a day  to  be  so  observed.  Please 
reply.  (Signed) 

Charles  Foster.” 

On  the  President’s  Condition. 

“ The  President  had  another  chill  of  con- 
siderable severity  this  morning,  which,  fol- 
lowing so  soon  after  the  chill  of  last  evening, 
left  him  very  weak  indeed.  His  pulse  be- 
came more  frequent  and  feeble  than  at  any 
time  since  he  recovered  from  the  immedi- 
ate shock  of  the  wound,  and  his  general 
condition  was  more  alarming  during  the 
day.  His  system  has  reacted  to  some 
extent,  and  he  passed  the  afternoon  and 
evening  comfortably.  At  this  hour  he  is 
resting  quietly,  and  no  disturbance  is  ex- 
pected during  the  night.  There  has  been 
however,  no  gain  whatever  in  strength,  and 
therefore,  there  is  no  decrease  of  anxiety.” 

To  Secretary  Lincoln , at  Boston  : 

Long  Branch,  Sept.  19,  1881,  9 p.  m. 

“ The  president  has  passed  a comfortable 
day,  and  is  now  resting  quietly. 

Wayne  MacVeagh.” 

To  Vice  President  Arthur,  N V.  City: 

“ It  becomes  our  painful  duty  to  inform 
you  of  the  death  of  President  Garfield,  and 
to  advise  ycu  to  take  the  oath  of  office  as 
President  of  the  United  States  without 
delay.  If  it  concurs  with  your  judgment,  ( 


622 


ART  OF  CORRESPONDENCE. 


will  be  very  glad  if  you  will  come  here  on 
the  earliest  train  to-morrow. 

“William  Windom,  Sedy  of  the  Treasury . 
“W.  H.  Hunt,  Secretary  of  the  Navy. 

“ T homas  L.  J ames,  P ostmaster-G eneral. 

* Wayne  MacVeagh,  Attorney  General. 

“S.  J.  Kirkwood,  Secretary  of  Interior!' 

To  the  President' s two  sons  in  College  at 
Williamstown,  Mass. : 

“ At  thirty-five  minutes  past  ten  o’clock 
to-night  your  father  passed  peacefully  away. 
Come  to  Long  Branch  at  once.” 


To  Yoshida,  Japanese  Minister,  Washington: 
Tokio,  Sept.  21. 

You  are  instructed  to  transmit  the  fol- 
lowing message  to  the  Hon.  James  G. 
Blaine,  Secretary  of  State: 

We  have  received  with  feelings  of  pro- 
found sorrow  a telegram  from  our  Minister, 
announcing  the  death  of  President  Garfield. 
The  favorable  reports  of  his  condition  we 
have  from  time  to  time  received  make  this 
sad  announcement  the  more  unexpected 
and  painful.  In  the  name  of  His  Majesty, 
we  tender  to  you  and  the  sadly  bereaved 
family  our  heartfelt  condolence  and  sympa- 
thy. Inouye, 

Minister  for  Foreign  A fairs. 

To  Secretary  of  State , Washington  : 

By  special  command  of  His  Majesty,  the 
King  of  Italy,  now  absent  in  the  northern 
provinces,  the  Minister  for  Foreign  Affairs 
communicates  to  me  the  expression  of  the 
profound  regret  of  His  Majesty,  and  of  the 
Italian  nation,  for  the  death  of  our  late 
chief  magistrate. 

Marsh. 


From  the  Acting  Governor-General  of  Can- 
ada : 


Ottawa,  Sept.  21. 

Be  pleased  to  convey  to  the  President, 


and  through  him  to  the  people  of  the  Uni- 
ted States,  the  deep  sympathy  felt  by  the 
government  and  people  of  the  Dominion  oi 
Canada,  for  the  sad  loss  the  people  of  the 
United  States  have  sustained  in  the  melan- 
choly death  of  their  late  President. 

To  the  Secretary  of  State , Washington , D.  C.T 
The  Minister  for  foreign  Affairs  tele- 
graphs me  that  the  Sultan  and  the  Ottoman 
government  are  profoundly  grieved  at  the 
death  of  the  President ; and  His  Excellen- 
cy charges  me  to  present,  in  the  name  of 
His  Majesty  and  the  government  their 
sincerest  sympathy  to  Mrs.  Garfield,  and 
the  government  of  the  United  States. 

Aristarchi. 

To  Secretary  Blaine,  Washington: 
Sympathy  in  Belgium  for  the  nation,  and 
President  Garfield’s  family,  profound  and 
universal.  The  King,  the  government  lega- 
tions, and  citizens  have  expressed  it. 

Putnam,  Brussels. 

To  His  Excellency,  the  Minister  of  Foreign. 

Affairs , Washington: 

Rome,  Sept.  21. 

The  loss  of  the  illustrious  President  Gar- 
field has  roused  a deep  sorrow  to  the  Holy 
Father.  His  Holiness  directs  me  to  pre- 
sent his  condolence  to  Your  Excellency, 
and  to  the  government,  and  his  best  wishes 
for  the  prosperity  of  the  republic. 

L.  Cardinal  Jacobini. 

To  President  Arthur: 

The  Anglo-Jewish  Association  deplores 
the  loss  sustained  by  the  American  nation, 
and  offers  heartfelt  sympathy  to  the  Govern- 
ment and  people  of  the  United  States,  and 
also  to  the  bereaved  family  of  the  late 
illustrious  president. 

Baron  de  Worms,  M.  P. 


ART  OF  CORRESPONDENCE. 


623 


The  Pall  Mall  Gazette  said  : 

A year  ago  to-day  not  one  Englishman 
in  a thousand  had  heard  Garfield’s  name. 
To-day  there  will  scarcely  be  an  English- 
man in  a thousand  who  will  not  read  of  his 
death  with  regret  as  real  and  as  deep  as  if  he 
had  been  a ruler  of  our  own.  A communion 
of  sorrow  unites  the  members  of  the 
English  race  to-day  more  closely  than  it 
has  ever  been  since  1 776. 


Glasgow,  Sept.  26, 

The  flags  were  at  half-mast,  and  the  bells 
were  tolled  for  an  hour,  the  principal  mar- 
kets have  closed  for  the  afternoon. 


Manchester,  Sept.  26. 
Business  was,  to  a great  extent,  suspend- 
ed to-day.  There  was-  a funeral  service  in 
the  Cathedral. 


The  Gentleman’s  Complete  Guide  to  Letter  Writing, 

EMBRACING  FORMS  FOR 


eFa  1444^  cvwb  eF Setter  oj  Qsoviboi Wroe, 
Q&vwflt o^u^o4>k>44,  ShicjTLC/tte  ci/nb  £oue. 


ZBTTSIZDsTIESS  L E T T B HRj  S . 


FROM  A WORKING  MAN  “TO  THE  SECRETA- 
RY OF  A RAILWAY  COMPANY. 

Church  Street f New  York,  May  4,  1 8 — . 

Honored  Sir  : — Feeling  desirous  of  ob- 
taining a situation  as  a in  the  service 

of railway  company,  for  which  I be- 

lieve myself  fully  competent,  having  been 

for  several  years  engaged  as in  the 

service  of , I refer  you  to  the  enclosed 

letter  of  recommendation  from  Mr. , of 

, and  Mr. , of , in  my  favor, 

which  I hope  may  prove ' satisfactory. 
Should  I,  by  your  kind  assistance,  obtain 
the  situation  I seek,  I will  endeavor  to 
show  my  sense  of  the  obligation  by  a zeal- 
ous and  diligent  discharge  of  my  duties. 

I remain,  honored  sir, 

Your  obedient,  humble  servant. 


TO  A FIRM  SEEKING  A CLERK. 

B roadway , April  4,  18—. 

Gentlemen  — Perceiving  by  your  ad- 
vertisement in  the  Post  of  Saturday,  that 
you  are  in  want  of  a clerk,  I beg  to  enclose 
testimonials,  and  venture  to  hope  that  from 
my  previous  experience  in  the  line  of  busi- 
ness you  pursue,  I should  be  of  some  use 
in  your  establishment.  My  habits  of  life 
are  such  as  to  assure  regularity  in  the  dis- 
charge of  my  duties,  and  I can  only  assure 
you  that,  should  you  honor  me  with  your 
confidence,  I shall  spare  no  pains  to  acquit 
myself  to  your  satisfaction. 

I remain,  gentlemen, 

Your  obedient  servant, 

William  Gray. 


To 


To  Messrs.  Brown  & Bolton. 


624 


ART  OF  CORRESPONDENCE. 


A SECOND  ANSWER  TO  A FIRM. 

Broadway , April  5,  18 — . 

Gentlemen  : — In  answer  to  your  ques- 
tion as  to  the  salary  I should  expect,  I beg 
to  express  my  perfect  satisfaction  with  the 
offer  you  propose,  and  can  assure  you  that, 
should  we  ultimately  come  to  terms,  no 
pains  will  be  spared  on  my  part  to  do  jus- 
tice to  the  confidence  reposed  in  me.  With 

regard  to  the  guarantee  required,  Mr. ’s 

name  will,  I trust,  be  satisfactory. 

I remain,  gentlemen, 

Your  obedient  servant, 

Charles  Smith. 
To  Messrs.  Brown  & Bolton. 

AN  APPLICATION  FOR  A SITUATION 

Hudson  City , March  30,  18 — . 

Sir  : — Understanding  that  you  are  a 
shareholder  in  some  of  the  principal  rail- 
ways, and  on  intimate  terms  with  several 
of  the  directors,  I venture  to  solicit  your 
kind  interest  on  behalf  of  my  eldest  son, 

, now  in  his  twenty-second  year.  His 

education  has  been  of  a useful  character  ; 
and  since  he  left  school  he  has  been  with 

Mr.  , the  of  this  town.  The 

period  for  which  he  was  engaged  has  ex- 
pired, but  my  means  are  insufficient  to 
enable  me  to  establish  him  in  business. 
Under  these  circumstances  I venture  to 
write  to  you,  in  the  hope  that,  should  you 
have  it  in  your  power  to  oblige  me  in  his 
behalf,  by  pointing  out  any  situation  that 
you  think  would  suit  him,  either  at  the 
principal  station  or  any  other  on  the  line, 
you  would  kindly  intercede  in  his  favor. 
In  doing  so,  you  would  confer  a lasting 
obligation  both  to  him  and  me. 

I remain,  sir, 

Your  obliged  servant, 

Charles  Smith. 


A HINT  FOR  THE  PAYMENT  OF  A SMALL 
DEBT. 

New  York , Match  7,  18 — . 

My  Dear  Sir  : — Being  at  present  rather 
short  of  cash,  I am  compelled  to  remind 
you  that  I have  in  my  possession  your 

I O U for  the  sum  of  $ . I need  say 

no  more,  but  that  I hope  to  hear  from  you, 
if  convenient,  by  return  of  post,  and  re- 
main, 

My  dear  sir, 

Yours,  most  sincerely, 

John  Adams. 

IN  ANSWER  TO  THE  ABOVE. 

Galveston,  Texas , June  1 2,  18-—. 

Dear  Sir  : — I am  happy  in  being  able 
to  enclose  you  the  sum  for  which  I have 
been  already  too  long  your  debtor.  Assur- 
ing you  that  unforeseen  disappointments 
have  been  the  sole  cause  of  any  want  of 
punctuality, 

Believe  me,  dear  sir. 

Your  obliged  and  faithful  servant, 

James  Bowen. 

delaying  the  payment  of  a debt. 

— Ann  Street , Jan , 18 — . 

Sir  : — I really  must  beg  of  you  to  defer 
the  settlement  of  your  account  till  after 
the  middle  of  next  month,  when  I shall  be 
in  a condition  to  meet  your  demand.  Re- 
gretting that  circumstances  prevent  my 
being  more  prompt  in  attending  to  your 
wishes, 

I remain,  sir, 

Yours, 

Charles  Stevens. 

to  a firm,  asking  extension  of  time. 

Georgetown , .S'.  C.,  June  15,  18 — . 

Gentlemen  : — I much  regret  that  cir- 
cumstances prevent  my  being  as  punctual 


ART  OF  CORRESPONDENCE. 


625 


as  is  my  wont,  and  hope  you  will  kindly 
renew  the  acceptance  you  hold  of  mine  for 
another  three  months.  The  failure  of  a 
person  largely  indebted  to  me,  and  some 
other  losses  in  business,  have  caused  me 
severe  inconvenience,  and  I really  must 
depend  upon  your  leniency  as  one  means 
to  enable  me  to  recover  myself. 

I remain,  gentlemen, 

Yours  faithfully, 

J.  H.  Blake. 

URGING  PAYMENT. 

Georgetown , S.  C.f  Feb.  15,  18 — . 

Sir  : — -In  consequence  of  my  having  a 
heavy  sum  to  make  up  by  the  — th,  I must 
beg  you  to  give  immediate  attention  to  my 
account,  which  has  already  run  far  beyond 
my  usual  extent  of  credit.  You  have  not 

remitted  me  anything  for months,  and 

I must  really  urge  greater  promptness  on 
your  part,  as  the  nature  of  my  business 
does  not  allow  me  to  remain  out  of  my 
capital  so  long. 

I am, 

Your  obedient  servant, 
Charles  H.  Powell. 

answer. 

Philadelphia , February  16,  18 — . 

Str: — I am  really  grieved  to  have  occa- 
sioned you  any  inconvenience,  but  I assure 
you  that  the  depression  of  business  of  late 
has  had  a similar  effect  upon  the  incomes 
of  professional  men,  and  I have  scarcely 
known  which  way  to  turn  to  extricate  my- 
self from  the  difficulty. 

If  you  will  kindly  wait  about  three  or 
four  weeks  longer,  I think  I can  safely 

promise  you dollars,  and  the  rest  of 

your  account  within  a few  months  after. 


Again  regretting  that  I cannot  at  once 
meet  your  wishes, 

I remain, 

Yours  faithfully, 

David  Carter. 

declining  to  lend  money. 

Baltimore , March  3,  18 — . 

My  Dear : — I have  always  made  it 

a principle  in  life  never  to  borrow  or  lend 
money,  not  even  when  members  of  my  own 
family  have  been  concerned.  I therefore 
trust  you  will  excuse  conduct  which  may 
seem  harsh  and  uncourteous  on  my  part, 
but  which  I have  ever  found  to  be  the 
safest,  and,  in  the  long  run,  the  kindest 
course  for  all  parties. 

I remain, 

Yours  very  faithfully, 

John  Brown. 

APPLICATION  FOR  A LOAN  ON  INSURANCE. 

Boston , June  4,  18-—. 

Gentlemen  : — Having  been  insured  in 
your  office  for  — years  to  the  amount  of 

$ , at  $ premium,  I wish  to  know 

what  sum  you  would  feel  disposed  to  ad- 
vance me  thereupon,  as  I am  anxious  to 
complete  a partnership  in  business  for  my 
eldest  son. 

The  favor  of  an  early  communication  will 
oblige, 

Yours  respectfully, 

Timothy  Bowen. 

To  the  Managers  and  Directors  of  th^ 

Insurance  Co. 

AN  APPLICATION  FOR  SHARES  IN  A BUILD- 
ING OR  OTHER  SOCIFTY. 

Union  Place , New  York , July  12,  18 — . 

Sir  : — I beg  that  you  will  place  my  name 
on  the  list  of  shareholders  in  the so- 
ciety for  shares  at  the  rate  of , 


€26 


ART  OF  CORRESPONDENCE. 


and  herewith  enclose  a check  for  $ as 

the  first  installment  payable  thereupon. 

I am,  sir, 

Your  obedient  servant, 

J.  H.  Howard. 

To  the  Secretary  of  the  Society. 

TO  TRANSFER  SHARES. 

Savannah , November  15,  18 — . 

Sir  : — In  answer  to  your  application 

respecting  shares  in  the , I beg  to  say 

that  I shall  be  happy  to  transfer  (mention 
the  number)  to  you,  and  if  you  will  give 
your  attorney  the  requisite  directions,  the 
necessary  forms  shall  be  prepared  immedi- 
ately. I am,  sir, 

Your  obedient  servant, 

C.  V.  Scofield. 

TO  DELAY  THE  PAYMENT  OF  A BILL. 

New  Street , August  7th,  18 — . 

Sir  : — Your  account,  amounting  to  $ — , 
ms,  indeed,  remained  some  time  unsettled, 
^)ut  disappointments  of  a pecuniary  nature, 
to  which  I need  not  more  particularly 
allude,  will  prevent  my  liquidating  it  for 
some  time  to  come,  perhaps  three  months, 
but  the  payment  will  not  exceed  that  period. 
From  the  pressing  language  of  your  appli- 
cation, I am  disposed  to  think  that  a pro- 
missory note  for  that  time  may  be  of  ser- 
vice to  you,  it  being  negotiable ; if  so,  I 
have  no  objection  to  give  it,  and  will  be 
prepared  to  honor  it  when  duly  presented. 

I am,  sir, 

Your  obedient  servant, 

Charles  Jones. 

A GENTLEMAN  DESIRING  THE  RENEWAL  OF 
A NOTE. 

New  Orleans , Aug.  3 dy  18 — . 

Sir  : — My  note  of  hand  (or  acceptance), 
will  be  due  on  the  28th  instant,  but  I 
regret  to  say  that,  owing  to  circumstances 


beyond  my  control,  I fear  that  I shall  not 
be  able  to  meet  it.  May  I therefore  request 
that  you  will  grant  me  the  indulgence  of  a 
short  renewal  of  (six  weeks),  when  I doubt 
not  of  my  means  to  take  it  up.  Your  com- 
pliance with  this  wish  will  confer  an  obli- 
gation upon,  Sir, 

Your  very  obedient  servant, 

James  Madison. 

from  a tenant,  excusing  delay  of 

PAYMENT. 

Washington , Jnne  12 th,  18 — . 

Sir: — I have  now  been  your  tenant 
above  ten  years  in  the  house  where  I now 
live,  and  you  know  that  I never  failed  to 
pay  my  rent  quarterly  when  due.  At  pres- 
sent  I am  extremely  sorry  to  inform  you 
that  from  a variety  of  recent  disappoint- 
ments, I am  under  the  necessity  of  beg- 
ging that  you  will  indulge  me  one  quarter 
longer.  By  that  time  I hope  to  have  it  in 
my  power  to  answer  your  just  demand,  and 
the  favor  shall  be  ever  gratefully  acknowl- 
edged by 

Your  obedient  humble  servant, 
Thomas  Jefferson. 

TO  A TRADESMAN  PROPOSING  TO  OPEN  AN 
ACCOUNT. 

Louisville , Feb.  7th,  18 — . 

Sir  : — My  friend,  Mr. of  B 

street,  has  spoken  of  you  in  terms  of  high 
recommendation  ; so  much  so,  indeed,  that 
having  found  reason  to  withdraw  my 

orders  from , I am  disposed  to  open 

an  account  with  your  firm.  You  will  there- 
fore much  oblige  me  by  forwarding  a list  of 
prices,  together  with  other  necessary  par- 
ticulars as  to  your  manner  of  doing  busi- 
ness. I am,  Sir, 

Yours  respectfully, 

Martin  Van  Buren. 


THE  ART  OF  CORRESPONDENCE. 


627 


TO  A PHYSICIAN  IN  TOWN,  ASKING  HIS  AD- 
VICE. 

Hudson  City,  N J,  July  7 th,  18 — . 

Sir  : — For  a long  time  past,  I have  been 
suffering  in  the  most  distressing  manner 
from  a long  train  of  symptoms,  which 
have  baffled  the  skill  of  all  the  medical 
men  here,  and  which,  I fear,  if  not  arrested 
in  their  progress,  will  terminate  in  the  total 
prostration  of  my  strength.  Loss  of  appe- 
tite, and  desire  of  stimulating  and  artificial 
means  of  sustenance  at  irregular  times, 
want  of  healthy  sleep,  and  consequent  de- 
pression on  rising  in  the  morning,  render 
life  quite  a burden  to  me,  and  interfere  seri- 
ously with  the  discharge  of  my  professional 
duties.  I am  of  a florid  complexion,  slight- 
ly corpulent  [state  description  of  appearance, 
habit,  whether  sedentary  or  active,  etc.,  pro- 
fession, and  the  hours  it  occupies , early  habits, 
and  any  other  particulars  you  think  may  bear 
upon  the  matterl) 

My  friend  Mr. , who  has  been  stay- 

ing here  for  a few  days,  speaks  in  high 
terms  of  your  treatment  of  him  under  sim- 
ilar circumstances.  As  far  as  I can  per- 
ceive, our  constitutions,  as  well  as  our  com- 
plaints, are  very  similar,  and  so  satisfied 
am  I of  your  professional  repute,  that  I 
would  gladly  have  paid  a visit  to  New  York 
to  consult  you  in  person  ; various  reasons, 
however,  render  that  impossible,  and  I 
therefore  hope  that  you  will  enter  into 
a correspondence  with  me  on  the  subject. 
Meanwhile,  I beg  to  enclose  a check  for 

— — upon  Messrs.  , and  assure  you 

that  I shall  think  the  restoration  of  my 


health  more  than  equivalent  for  any  sum  it 
may  cost  me. 

I have  the  honor  to  remain,  sir, 

Yours  truly, 

To  Dr. . Andrew  Jackson. 

Or,  to , M.  D. 

recommending  a successor  on  retiring 

FROM  BUSINESS. 

New  Orleans,  June  3 d,  18 — . 

To  Messrs. , , & Co. : 

Gentlemen  : — We  flatter  ourselves  that 
there  are  many  friends  amongst  our  con- 
nection, who  will  regret  to  hear  that  we  are 
just  upon  the  point  of  relinquishing  busi- 
ness. In  doing  so,  our  premises  and  stock 
of  goods  will  be  transferred  to  the  hands  of 

Messrs.  & Co.,  who  will,  in  future, 

carry  on  the  business  on  the  same  approved 
system,  and  the  same  extensive  scale  as 
ourselves,  provided  they  can  rely  on  receiv- 
ing the  patronage  of  our  connection ; in 
the  hopes  of  which,  it  is  our  pleasure  and 
duty  to  present  these  gentlemen  to  your 
notice.  We  cannot  speak  too  highly  of  the 
confidence  we  feel  in  their  liberal  mode  of 
conducting  business,  and  their  strict  atten- 
tion and  punctuality  in  their  mercantile 
transactions  ; and,  in  the  hope  that  they 
may  be  honored  with  the  same  countenance 
received  by  ourselves  from  your  respecta- 
ble firm. 

We  beg  to  subscribe  ourselves, 

Your  obliged  and  most 

obedient  servants, 

C.  H.  Beel  & Co. 


PARENTAL  AND  FAMILY  LETTERS. 

prom  A merchant  to  the  president  of  long  entertained  of  your  character  as  a' 
yale  college,  recommending  his  scholar  and  gentleman,  encourages  me  to 
son.  solicit  your  kind  assistance  in  an  affair  of 

New  York,  January  17th,  18 — . very  great  importance. 

Rev.  Sir: — The  high  opinion  I have  My  son  Charles  has  just  completed  his 


628 


ART  OF  CORRESPONDENCE. 


course  of  studies  at , and  is  desirous 

of  being  entered  in  your  college.  The 
variety  of  business  in  which  I am  engaged 
requires  my  constant  residence  in  New 
York,  but,  being  anxious  to  procure  for  my 
dear  boy  every  advantage  within  my  power, 
I feel  that  there  is  no  gentleman  in  New 
Haven  to  whose  fidelity  I could  so  readily 
trust  him  as  to  yourself.  Should  you,  there- 
fore, feel  disposed  to  honor  my  son  by  ad- 
mitting him  as  a member  of  your  college, 
you  will  confer  a great  favor  upon, 

Sir,  your  most  obedient  servant, 

James  B.  Reed. 

To  the  Rev. . 

THE  REPLY. 

New  Haven,  Conn.,  June  iStk,  18 — . 

Dear  Sir: — Your  favor  of  the  17th  inst. 
is  at  hand.  I send  you  by  to-day’s  mail,  a 
copy  of  the  last  annual  “ Catalogue  of  Yale 
College,”  with  “requirements  for  admis- 
sion” marked.  Your  son  will  be  expected 
to  pass  an  examination  in  each  department 
as  given.  I will  be  pleased  to  be  of  any 
service  to  him  that  lies  in  vny  power,  but 
you  must  know  that  I am  very  busy  at  this 
time  with  the  matters  pertaining  to  com- 
mencement. 

Yours  truly, 


TC  A SCHOOLMASTER. 

Albany,  N Y,  April  i%th,  18 — . 

Sir  : — I regret  that  the  pressure  of  busi- 
ness prevents  my  accompanying  my  son 

down  to  House,  as  I should  gladly 

have  had  a few  minutes’  conversation  with 
you,  relative  to  his  studies.  At  the  same 
time  I have  such  thorough  confidence  both 
in  your  will  and  capacity  to  train  youth  in 
a manner  calculated  to  render  them  useful 
to  themselves  and  others,  that  I unhesita- 
tingly entrust  my  dear  boy  to  your  charge, 
only  hoping  that  he  may  prove  worthy  of 


the  attention  which  I feel  persuaded  he  will 
receive  at  your  hands. 

I have  che  honor  to  remain,  sir, 

Your  very  obedient  and 
humble  servant, 

To . James  Buchanan. 

A GENTLEMAN  TO  HIS  DAUGHTER  ON  HER 
PREFERENCE  OF  A SUITOR, 

Hudson  Villa,  Dec.  3,  18 — . 

My  Dear  : — What  pleasure  must 

it  give  me  when  I declare  that  my  child- 
ren’s conduct  has  ever  displayed  that 
dutiful  affection  which  has  made  their 
present  happiness  and  future  welfare  my 
constant  aim  1 To  find  that  they  have 
made  a prudent  choice  in  their  partners  for 
life,  and  to  see  them  living  in  harmony, 
and  in  comfortable  circumstances,  with 
those  partners,  have  been  among  my  dear- 
est and  most  cherished  wishes.  I suppose 
I shall  occasion  you  some  little  emotion 

in  mentioning  the  name  of  Mr. ; but 

be  assured,  my  dear  child,  that  from  my 
own  observation  of  that  gentleman’s  char- 
acter, and  from  the  esteem  in  which  he  is 
generally  held,  there  is  scarcely  one 
amongst  my  acquaintance  for  whom  I have 
greater  respect,  and  whom  I regard,  from 
his  worldly  position,  his  integrity,  his  gen- 
tlemanly conduct,  his  prudent  and  well- 
known  good  temper,  as  being  more  likely 
to  make  a woman  happy.  I can  therefore 
truly  say,  that  although  I shall  sorely  feel 
the  loss  of  your  dear  company,  I cannot 
but  approve  of  the  choice  you  have  made ; 
and  in  regard  to  his  visits  in  the  character 
of  a suitor,  neither  I nor  your  mother  will 

offer  any  obstacle.  As  you  and  Mr. 

have  preferred  addressing  me  upon  this 
subject  by  letter,  I return  my  answer  in 
the  same  form,  and  am, 

My  dear  child, 

Your  ever  affectionate  father, 

To . Frank  K.  Pierce. 


ART  OF  CORRESPONDENCE. 


629 


A GENTLEMAN  TO  HIS  SON  ON  THE  MAR- 
RIAGE OF  THE  LATTER. 

Petersburg , July  1 1 , 1 8 — . 

My  Dear : — It  is  with  no  small 

pleasure,  and  with  no  slight  feeling  of 
parental  pride,  that  I now  congratulate  you 
upon  your  recent  change  of  state.  That 
you  have  my  best  and  heartiest  wishes  for 
your  future  happiness  you  already  know ; 
but  I feel  a natural  pleasure  in  again  giv- 
ing them  expression.  And  here  I have  to 
add,  that  no  parent  could  join  in  those 
wishes  with  more  fervent  sincerity  than 
your  dear  and  kind  mother,  who  desires 
you  to  unite  with  me  in  the  most  affection- 
ate regards  to  our  new  relation,  our  daugh- 
ter-in-law. That  your  marriage  state  may 
be  blessed  with  the  same  domestic  happi- 
ness that  has  fallen  to  my  lot,  is  the  sincere 
wish  of, 

My  dear  son, 

Y our  ever  affectionate  father, 

To . U.  S.  Grant. 

AN  INVITATION  TO  A PICNIC  PARTY. 

Albany , July  3,  18 — . 

My  Dear  Sir, — We  are  endeavoring  to 

get  up  a small  excursion  to  visit on 

the  — of  this  month.  Will  you  do  us  the 
favor  of  making  one  of  our  number  ? Mrs. 
— — - and  my  family  desire  their  compli- 
ments, and  request  me  to  mention  that  they 
have  taken  upon  themselves  the  task  of 
providing  the  “ creature  comforts  ” for  that 
occasion,  and  trust  that  their  exertions  will 
meet  with  unanimous  approval.  Should 
you  have  no  previous  engagement  for  that 
day,  and  feel  disposed  to  join  our  party,  a 
carriage  will  be  at  your  door  by  — o’clock 

on morning ; and  believe  me  to  be, 

My  dear  sir, 

Yours  most  sincerely, 

To . John  Kelley. 

P.  S. — The  favor  of  an  early  answer  will 
oblige. 


ANOTHER,  TO  A FATHER  OF  A FAMILY. 

New  York , July  — , 1 8 — . 

My  Dear  Sir  : — May  I hope  that  you 
will  allow  your  boys  and  girls  to  join  mine 

in  an  excursion  to on  the ? We 

expect  to  make  rather  a large  party,  and 
have  therefore  made  arrangements  to  dine 
at . 

In  haste,  believe  me, 

My  dear  sir, 

Yours  ever  sincerely, 

To . John  Burgh. 

FROM  A REDUCED  GENTLEMAN,  SOLICITING 
AID. 

Portland , Maine , March  7,  18 — . 

Dear  Sir  :■= — Though  many  years  have 
elapsed  since  we  last  met,  I trust  that  the 

name  01  is  not  entirely  obliterated1. 

from  your  memory.  It  is  the  same -> 

your  former  friend  and  intimate  companion,, 
who  now  addresses  you  ; but,  I lament  to> 
say,  sadly  changed  from  the  individual  you: 
then  knew.  My  former  flow  of  spirits  has 
gone  long  since  with  my  prosperity,  and 
with  those  who  once  thronged  round  to 
flatter  me.  Sorrow,  poverty  and  the  sneers 
and  contempt  of  an  unfeeling  world  alone 
remain.  This,  to  a man  of  your  sensibility, 
must  be  as  painful  to  read  as  it  is  for  me  to 
write.  It  is  not  my  object  to  practice  on 
your  feelings  by  overwrought  language ; 
but  my  distresses  have  increased  to  that 
degree,  that  speak  they  will  in  some  guise: 
and,  urged  on  by  them,  I have  stifled  mv 
previous  repugnance  at  disclosing  them  u 
you.  Without  further  circumlocution,  let 
me  tell  you  then  at  once  that  my  state  is 
that  of  the  bitterest  poverty— in  fact,  of 
destitution  ; and  I make  my  appeal  to  your 
kindly  feelings  in  the  name  of  that  friend- 
ship which  once  existed  between  us.  I 
need  but  add  my  address,  and  subscribe  my- 
self, Your  most  unfortunate  friend, 

John  Poor. 


630 


ART  OF  CORRESPONDENCE. 


THE  ANSWER. 

Charleston , May  12,  18 — . 

My  Dear  Sir: — I have  just  received 
your  letter,  which  I know  it  must  have  cost 
you  much  pain  to  write,  and  which  I must 
have  been  wanting  in  all  friendly  feeling 
could  I have  read  it  unmoved.  Most  sin- 
cerely do  I sympathize  in  your  present 
sufferings,  and  as  sincerely  do  I hope  that 
some  unlooked  for  change  of  fortune  may 
speedily  relieve  you  from  them,  and  event- 
ually restore  you  to  comfort  and  prosperity. 
As  far  as  my  good  offices  can  extend  you 
may  readily  command  them,  and  as  some 
alleviation  to  your  present  necessities,  I 
beg  you  will  accept  the  enclosed  {check  or 
sum  of  money).  Should  you  wish  to  see 
me,  and  call  at  my  house,  you  will  meet 
the  reception  due  to  an  old  and  respected 
acquaintance ; and  with  every  hope  that 
your  present  embarrassments  may  be  but 
temporary, 

Believe  me, 

My  dear  sir, 

Your  ever  sincere  friend, 
James  Rich. 

warning  a young  lady  against  an  im- 
prudent MATCH. 

1 2 King  Street , Nov.  6,  1 8 — . 

My  Dear  Miss : — I have  so  much 

confidence  in  your  good  sense  and  discre- 
tion that  I trust  you  will  excuse  me,  as  a 
very  old  friend,  offering  a few  words  of  ad- 
vice to  you  on  a matter  which  may  seri- 
ously affect  the  happiness  of  your  whole 
life. 

You  are  young,  and  have  been  unhappily 
bereft  of  paternal  care  for  many  years  past. 
Under  such  circumstances  you  are  exposed 
to  temptations,  not  only  dangerous  in  them- 
selves, but  the  more  so  in  proportion  as 
your  innocence  of  heart  renders  you  open 
and  unsuspecting  in  your  opinion  of  others. 


Report  seems  to  speak  of as  your 

accepted  lover,  or,  at  all  events,  as  having 
paid  you  of  late  many  attentions,  which 
appear  to  have  been  favorably  received.  I 

sincerely  hope,  my  dear  Miss , that  you 

will  not  feel  offended  at  one  who,  from  long 
knowledge,  entertains  a father’s  feeling, 
almost  a father’s  anxiety,  on  your  behalf, 
speaking  plainly  what  he  is  but  too  well 
aware  of. 

I have  long  had  my  eye  upon  young 

’s  doings,  and  I am  convinced  that, 

without  saying  anything  unduly  harsh,  he 
is  not  calculated  to  make  any  wife  happy. 
He  is  violent  and  unrestrained  in  his  tem- 
per,  extravagant  in  his  habits,  and  by  no 
means  particular  as  to  the  society  he  keeps. 
Believe  me,  my  dear  child,  you  never  could 
be  happy  with  such  a man.  Your  life 
would  be  one  of  incessant  suffering ; you 
would  find  a tyrant  to  whom  you  had  en- 
slaved yourself,  not  a protector  and  friend 
on  whom  your  weakness  should  depend  for 
support ; you  would  perhaps  find  yourself 
neglected  and  forgotten,  when  the  fleeting 
charms  of  youth  and  beauty  had  departed* 
and  you  would  find  yourself  the  victim  of  a 
man  whose  whole  object  is  immediate  grat- 
ification, but  whose  want  of  stability  and 
decision  of  character  totally  incapacitates 
him  from  looking  forward  to  the  serious 
duties  of  the  future.  Think  well  of  this, 
my  dear  girl,  and  do  not  commit  yourself 
by  rashly  encouraging  the  advances  of  a 
young  man  of  so  doubtful  a disposition. 
Reflect  upon  the  happy  life  your  own  pa- 
rents enjoyecf  and  depend  upon  it  you  will 
find  that  affection,  unaccompanied  by  es- 
teem, is  no  incentive  to  linking  your  desti- 
nies with  those  of  another. 

And  now,  my  dear  girl,  I ciose  this  long, 
and,  it  may  seem  tedious  lecture,  trusting 
that  God  may  lead  you  to  weigh  anxiously 
and  carefully  the  consequences  of  so  seri- 


THE  ART  OF  CORRESPONDENCE. 


631 


ous  a step ; and  that  your  own  heart  may 
be  your  truest  and  soundest  adviser,  is  the 
sincere  prayer  of 

Your  affectionate  guardian, 

To  Miss . W.  H.  H.  Ray. 

A WIDOWER  TO  HIS  DAUGHTER  AT  SCHOOL. 

Chicago , June  14,  18 — . 

My  Dear  : — Your  last  letter  gave  me 
much  pleasure,  as  it  conveyed  to  me  the 
belief  that,  although  enjoying  every  com- 
fort under  the  care  of  Miss , you  still 

cling  with  fondness  to  your  home  and  to 
your  father.  Believe  me,  my  dearest  child, 
it  was  no  small  trial  for  me  to  part  with 
you  after  my  unhappy  bereavement,  but  I 
felt  that  parental  fondness  must  not  be  in- 
strumental to  making  a sacrifice  of  a child’s 
prospects,  and  that  nothing  can  excuse  a 
man  debarring  his  children  of  the  necessary 
advantages  of  education,  in  order  to  gratify 
the  somewhat  pardonable  desire  to  see 
them  around  his  own  fireside.  I trust,  my 

dear  girl,  that  when  you  return  to 

your  improvement  in  all  that  can  elevate 
the  character  of  a young  woman  will  be 
ample  atonement  for  the  sorrow  I feel  in 
your  temporary  absence  from  me.  Pray 
write  another  letter  soon,  and  believe 
me, 

Your  ever  affectionate  father, 

P.  T.  Brown. 

A GENTLEMAN  SEEKING  A TUTOR 
FOR  HIS  SON. 

Cincinnati , June  4,  1 8 — . 

My  Dear : — Your  large  acquaint- 

ance among  men  of  education  leads  me  to 
believe  that  you  could  materially  assist  me 
in  a matter  which  I have  much  at  heart.  My 

son is  now  of  age  sufficient  to  render 

strict  attention  to  his  education  of  import- 
ance. Wishing,  however,  to  give  him  due 
preparation  before  sending  him  to  a public 


school,  I write  to  ask  whether  you  are  ac- 
quainted with  any  gentleman  who  would  be 
willing  to  undertake  the  office  of  private 
tutor  for  the  next  two  or  three  years. 

As  I am  convinced  of  the  importance  of 
laying  a good  foundation  before  we  attempt 
to  elevate  the  superstructure  of  education, 
I should  gladly  offer  a liberal  remuneration 
to  any  gentleman  on  whose  fitness  for  the 
office  I could  thoroughly  depend. 

I trust  the  importance  oi  the  matter  will 
be  my  best  excuse  for  troubling  you  with 
it,  and  remain, 

My  dear , 

Yours  ever  faithfully, 

To , Esq.  J.  G.  Blaine. 

the  answer. 

Jersey  City , June  6,  18 — . 

My  Dear  — — : — I lose  no  time  in  re« 
plying  to  your  letter,  as  I not  only  feel 
complimented  by  your  reliance  on  my  judg- 
ment, but  am  fortunately  acquainted  with 
a gentleman  who  is  every  way  likely  to  suit 
your  views.  Mr.  is  a very  old  ac- 

quaintance of  mine,  and  has  not  only  taken 
high  classical  honors  himself,  but  has  been 
almost  uniformly  successful  with  his  pupils. 
Being  at  present  partially  disengaged,  he 
would  be  willing  to  devote  a few  hours 
every  day  to  the  instruction  of  your  son  ; 
and,  from  all  I know  of  his  character  and 
attainments,  I feel  certain  that  you  will 
have  no  cause  to  regret  selecting  him  to  an 
office  of  such  vital  importance  to  your  son’s 
future  welfare. 

I enclose  Mr.  ’s  present  address, 

and  in  the  sincere  hope  that  your  corre- 
spondence may  prove  satisfactory  to  both 
parties, 

I remain,  my  dear , 

Yours  ever  truly, 

To , Esq.  John  Andrews. 


632 


THE  ART  OF  CORRESPONDENCE. 


FROM  A TUTOR  TO  A FORMER  PUPIL. 

Pittsburgh , June  29 th,  1 8 — -. 

My  Dear : — I sincerely  hope  this 

brief  epistle  from  an  old  friend  and  pre- 
ceptor will  not  be  thought  impertinent.  I 
have  known  you  so  long,  that  I feel  as- 
sured you  will  receive  a few  words  of 
counsel  from  an  older  head,  and  that  you 
will  believe  that  whatever  my  advice  be 
really  worth,  it  is  at  least  dictated  in  a 
kindly  and  straightforward  spirit. 

You  have  entered  on  a style  of  life  in 
which  the  advantages  and  the  temptations 
follow  each  other  so  closely,  that  it  is  often 
difficult  to  separate  the  one  from  the  other. 
Even  the  talents  which  procured  you  your 
scholarship  may  become  a means  of  mis- 
chief if  you  do  not  exert  severe  control 
over  their  application  and  direction.  But 
I know  too  much  of  your  innate  goodness 
of  heart  to  believe  that  you  will  ever  allow 
yourself  to  be  spoilt  even  by  success,  and 
have  a happy  confidence  in  your  integrity 
of  character,  which  leads  me  to  think  you 
incapable  of  anything  mean  or  flippant. 

But,  above  all,  my  dear , let  me  ex- 

hort you  never  to  forget  the  duty  you  owe 
to  God,  who  has  bestowed  a share  of  his 
gifts  upon  you.  We  are  all  of  us  too  apt, 
amidst  the  bustle  and  enterprise  of  every- 
day life,  to  forget  Him  upon  whom  our 
very  life  utterly  depends,  and  to  think  only 
of  worldly  success,  while  we  lose  all 
thought  of  the  life  for  which  our  present 
existence  should  be  but  a preparation.  Let 

me  express  a hope,  my  dear , that  you 

will  think  goodness  preferable  to  great- 
ness; that  you  will  study  the  cultivation  of 
the  soul  as  well  as  of  the  mere  intellect; 
that  you  will  recollect  how  great  a virtue 
is  reliance  on  God,  and  how  noble  a self- 
reliance  is  the  result  of  such  virtue. 

That  every  honorable  success,  and  every 


consequent  happiness,  may  be  the  result  of 
your  efforts,  is  the  sincere  prayer  of 

Your  old  tutor  and  ever  since  friend, 

THE  ANSWER. 

Nashville,  April  4th,  18 — . 

My  Dear  Sir  : — It  is,  indeed,  delight- 
ful to  receive  such  a letter  from  so  valuable 
and  tried  a friend.  I sincerely  hope  that 
your  example,  as  well  as  your  conversation, 
has  possessed  sufficient  influence  over  my 
conduct  here  to  enable  me  to  withstand 
some  of  the  temptations  of  the  place,  and 
to  think  of  duties  higher  than  those  which 
merely  result  from  our  ambition  or  self- 
satisfaction.  I am  happy  in  enjoying  the 
society  of  young  men  who  have  greater 
belief  in  conscience  than  irf  mere  talent 
and  I trust  that,  without  advocating  ex- 
treme views  of  any  kind,  I am  living  as 
you  would  wish  me  and  have  taught  me  to 
live. 

I look  forward  with  delight  to  the  time 
when  we  shall  again  meet.  Meanwhile, 
believe  that  no  success  can  ever  efface  the 
remembrance  of  the  kind  friend  and  pre- 
ceptor to  whom  I owe  all.  With  sincerest 
wishes  for  your  health,  happiness,  and  long 
continuance  in  your  exemplary  career  of 
usefulness, 

Believe  me,  my  dear  sir, 

Your  ever  affectionate  pupil  and  friend, 
To  the  Rev. . . 

FROM  A YOUNG  MAN  OF  NEGLECTED  EDU- 
CATION TO  AN  OLD  FRIEND. 

Charleston , 4 th  February , 18 — . 

Sir  : — Since  my  appointment  to  the 
office  of  clerk  in  Messrs. ’s  establish- 

ment, through  your  kind  interest,  I have 
felt  very  anxious  as  to  my  present  imper- 
fect education.  Circumstances,  with  which 
you  are  well  acquainted,  rendered  my  early 


THE  ART  OF  CORRESPONDENCE. 


633 


means  of  instruction  very  limited,  and  I 
now  feel  that  it  is  high  time  to  remedy  my 
deficiences.  Enjoying,  as  I now  do,  an 
income  sufficient  to  support  me  in  respect- 
ability, I still  feel  unhappy  in  the  con- 
sciousness of  my  deficiency  of  that  general 
knowledge  which  renders  a man  fit  for  the 
society  around  him.  May  I solicit  your 
advice  as  to  the  best  course  of  reading  and 
instruction  likely  to  remedy  this  evil  ? I 
feel  not  only  the  desire,  but  the  will,  to 
learn,  and  humbly  trust  that,  with  your 
long  experience  of  the  world,  and  your 
knowledge  of  what  is,  in  these  times,  re- 
quired of  every  man,  I may  derive  no  small 
benefit  from  your  advice. 

Hoping  that  you  will  excuse  my  trou- 
bling one  to  whom  I am  already  so  much 
indebted, 

Believe  me,  sir, 

Your  obliged  and  faithful  servant, 

To Esq.  Geo.  W.  Pollard. 

FROM  A GENTLEMAN  TO  HIS  SON  OR 
DAUGHTER  AT  SCHOOL. 

Boston , yuly  \*]th,  18 — . 

My  Dear : — Though  I have  so 

long  been  silent,  you  have  not  been  absent 
from  my  remembrance,  and  I should  have 
written  to  you  before,  had  I not  waited  for 
some  intelligence  which  would  have  ren- 
dered my  letter  more  acceptable.  Noth- 
ing, however,  of  any  particular  importance 
has  transpired,  and  I have,  therefore,  only 
to  inform  you  that  your  mother,  myself, 
and  your  brothers  and  sisters  remain  as 
well  as  when  I last  wrote.  My  knowledge 
of  your  usual  good  behavior  and  attention 
to  your  duties,  renders  any  fresh  advice  in 
regard  to  your  conduct  unnecessary.  I 
leave  you,  my  dear  child,  to  the  guidance 
of  your  own  good  sense,  and  the  guardian 

care  of  Mr.  or  Mrs. , to  whom  myself 

and  your  mother  desire  to  be  remembered, 
with  our  compliments  to  . Believe 


me,  with  the  best  wishes  of  myself  and 
your  dear  mother  for  your  health  and  hap^ 
piness, 

Your  ever  affectionate  father, 

To . J.  H.  Bellow. 

a father’s  letter  to  his  son,  con- 
taining PARENTAL  ADVICE. 

Hartford , Conn.,  yune  15,  1882. 

My  Dear  Boy  : — In  your  last  letter,  I 
found  that  which  gave  me  pleasure  as  well 
as  pain.  I am  glad  that  you  are  well  and 
progressing  so  well  in  your  studies,  but 
sorry  to  have  you  ask  for  more  money. 
The  allowance  I gave  you  ought  to  be  suf- 
ficient for  all  purposes,  especially  as  I pay 
all  the  necessary  expenditures  of  your  edu- 
cation. You  must  remember  that  I have 
other  members  of  the  family  for  whom  I 
must  make  provision. 

You  must  learn  the  virtue  of  economy, 
and  practice  retrenchment  in  all  your  ex- 
penditures. I will,  however,  for  this  time 
only,  send  you  a small  amount,  hoping  that 
you  will  use  it  with  discretion.  Do  not 
borrow  money  of  any  one,  nor  get  in  debt 
for  anything. 

We  shall  remove  to  112  Elm  street,  to 
which  you  direct  your  next  letter.  All  the 
family  wish  to  be  remembered  to  you. 

Believe  me,  your  affectionate  father, 

C.  H.  Buck. 

A WIDOWER  TO  HIS  DAUGHTER  AT  SCHOOL. 

Springfield , Mass .,  May  10,  1882. 
My  Darling  Child  : — 

Your  last  affectionate  letter  was,  indeed, 
a comfort  to  me.  You  cannot  know  how 
much  I miss  you.  I would  have  been 
selfish  enough,  I fear,  to  have  kept  you 
with  me  at  home,  had  not  your  kind  aunt 
advised  me  that  your  interests  and  pros- 
pects would  be  better  subserved  by  send- 
ing you  to  Mount  Holyoke.  The  great 
void  which  has  come  into  our  home  can 


634 


THE  ART  OF  CORRESPONDENCE. 


never  be  relieved,  and  I am  truly  desolate. 
Your  aunt  does  all  in  her  power  to  make 
my  home  happy  and  bright,  but  I miss  your 
pleasant  greeting.  Do  not,  my  child,  allow 
the  sorrow  we  both  must  feel  to  weigh  too 
heavily  upon  your  spirits.  Follow  the  ex- 
ample of  your  dear  mother,  and  may  you 
become  such  a model  woman  as  she. 
When  time  may  have  lessened  the  sorrow 
of  your  father,  you  may  be  happy  with  him 
in  the  home  upon  which  you  will  ever  have 
the  strongest  claim. 

Write  often  and  at  length. 

Your  affectionate  father, 

John  P.  Jones. 

A FATHER  TO  HIS  SON,  ABOUT  COMMENCING 
LIFE. 

Waterbury,  Conn.y  May  30,  1882. 
My  Dearest  Son  : — 

Your  are  about  to  leave  the  home  of  your 
boyhood,  to  try  the  world  for  yourself,  and 
you  will  pardon  your  father  for  giving  you 
a word  of  advice,  based  upon  the  experi- 
ence of  years.  There  will  come  times 
when  you  will  feel  the  necessity  of  having 
the  immediate  advice  of  some  friend  in 
whom  you  can  trust. 

Let  me  warn  you,  then,  to  seek  the  soci- 
ety only  of  those  whom  the  community  at 
large  respect.  Avoid  forming  friendships 
with  the  so  styled  fast  young  men  whose 
highest  ambition  is  to  make  a display  ot 
recklessness  and  gratify  their  own  selfish- 
ness. Make  judicious  friendships  and  few 
intimacies.  If  you  are  tempted  to  a wrong 
action,  as  you  may  be,  ask,  “Would  I do 
this  at  home  where  I am  well  known  ?”  or, 
“Would  I willingly  have  it  known  at 
home  ?”  and  the  truthful  answer  should  be 
your  guide  to  do  or  not  to  do  it. 

We  have  high  hopes  of  you,  my  son,  and 
follow  you  with  our  prayers. 

Your  father,  Charles  W.  Taylor. 


TO  A FATHER  FROM  A SON  WHO  HAS  MIS 
USED  HIS  EMPLOYER. 

Wallingford , Conn.,  May  20,  1882. 

Dear  Father  : — I hardly  know  how  to 
begin  this  letter,  for  I am  in  trouble  caused 
by  my  own  misconduct.  I have  left  the 
place  you  found  for  me,  without  any  provo- 
cation, in  the  most  busy  season,  just  for  a 
little  foolish  amusement.  I forgot  my  duty 
to  him — the  best  of  employers — and  to  you 
as  well,  and  ran  away  for  two  whole  days, 
till  I am  ashamed  to  return  and  tell  the 
truth.  You  know  I cannot  deceive  him. 
He  cannot  accuse  me  of  dishonesty,  so  I 
hope  that  he  will  be  lenient  with  me=  Will 
you  see  him  and  explain  all  and.  if  he  will 
allow  me  to  return  I will  do  my  best  to 
please  him  ^nd  serve  Tim  faithfully  in  fu* 
ture.  Write  me  soon,  and  believe  me, 

Y our  repentant  son, 

Charles 

THE  ANSWER. 

East  Haven,  Conn.,  May  2$d,  1882. 

My  Dear  Son  : — I am  grieved  at  your 
indiscretion,  and  cannot  attribute  it  to  any 
lack  on  my  part  in  giving  you  good  advice, 
and  proper  training.  While  I am  sorry 
that  you  have  so  quickly  forgotten  these  I 
trust  that  you  have  not  fallen  into  bad  com- 
pany or  bad  personal  habits.  I went  to 
New  Haven  and  saw  your  employer  to-day, 
and  he  was  glad  to  hear  that  you  were  sor- 
ry, and  said  that  he  thought  that  you  were 
influenced  by  others  against  your  better 
judgment.  If  you  will  return  at  once  he 
will  reinstate  you  in  your  old  position 
which  is  still  vacant.  Let  this  experience 
be  a lesson  and  a warning  to  you,  my  son. 
Shun  even  the  appearance  of  evil. 

Your  fond  father, 

James  Lincoln, 


THE  ART  OF  CORRESPONDENCE. 


635 


FROM  A FATHER  TO  HIS  SON  AT  SCHOOL. 


dddamfic/en,  ^an.  J23,  /<¥$/. 

^ : Od'i  it  m?f  e/atcf  to  ae/oide  ^oa  to 

made  tde  atmodt  o^  tde  o^ioltanitted  vfoa  note  dane,  dfoa 
cannot  tedd  teitd  todat  anauettp  (2d  dave  dent  ?foa  oat  J^iom 
dome  to  ac^aite  an  ee/acatcon . Q> ^ ^ oa  tooadc/  deeome  a 

dcdodat,  ad  vfoa  cdaom  id  ^oat  e/edit  e,  ^ oa  madt  eatdf  ac^acle  a 
done  J/t  dtac/^  ^ot  itd  oa/n  dade.  /d/f)o  not  dajjj/et  a natata/ 

done  o^  eade  ant/  comj/ott  to  dcno/er  ^ oa  on  ^oal  'tea d toot'd: 
/d/d/ememdet  tdat  tde  daditd  o^  nunc/  ano/ c^ doo/f  eonttactec/ tn 
^oatd  deeome  conjdtmee/  on  a^lel  ^eaod.  eradication  at 

^ildt  deemd  c/cj^/ca/t,  dene/ ^oat  enet^aed  at  once , ane/  doon  it 
widd  de  a 'lead jft  dead  ate  to  ^ oa . dd/dde  amditioad  to  daeceec/  dtp 

metit  adone,  a?ic/  de  date  tdat  daeeedd  cnidd attend  tdode  todo 
^letdeoete.  dfoa  dane  a j/ail  ddate  o^  tadentd , dat  toidd  e/oadt- 
dedd  meet  toitd  otdetd  todoj  at^itdf  di^df  ma^  de  mote  drid/bant; 
c/o  not  on  tdat  aecoant  de  e/idcoata^ee/.  (<r(///de  dattde  id  not 
to  tde  dioij/t”  dat  to  tde  ^lattentj  tde  enet^etie^  tde  ^letdeoetcn^. 

d/five  deec/  /o  tde  ^atdet  todo  dad  deen  mote  o^  tde  tnot/c/, 
ane/  tememdet  tdat  de  adtoand  dad  neat  dedt  entetedtd  at  dealt* 


*oat  affectionate  fatnel; 

^bdn  dd.  dd/d/eacd. 


636 


THE  ART  OF  CORRESPONDENCE. 


student’s  ANSWER  TO  REQUEST  OF  PRIN- 
CIPAL. 

Mr.  R.  C.  Loveridge. 

Dear  Sir  : — I am  sure  that  I have  ac- 
quired very  much  which  will  be  of  inesti- 
mable value  in  after  life,  and  I am  well 
pleased  with  your  College. 

Your  arrangements  for  teaching  book- 
keeping are  very  complete,  and  I think  that 


any  young  man  who  has  any  ambition  may 
profit  greatly  in  pursuing  the  course  you 
have  laid  out. 

I should  be  very  much  pleased  if  I could 
improve  my  penmanship,  although  this 
branch  seems  to  be  more  difficult  for  me  to 
acquire  than  any  other. 

Very  respectfully  yours, 

L.  B.  Pawe. 


LETTERS  OF  AFFECTION  AND  LOVE. 


TO  AN  ACQUAINTANCE  OF  LONG  STAND- 
ING. 

Charleston , October  i$tk,  18 — . 

My  Dear  Miss : — I have  so  long 

enjoyed  the  happiness  of  being  received  as 
a welcome  guest  at  your  respected  parent’s 
house,  that  I write  with  the  more  confi- 
dence on  a subject  of  most  serious  impor- 
tance to  my  welfare. 

From  constantly  meeting  with  you,  and 
observing  the  thousand  acts  of  amiability 
and  kindness  which  adorn  your  daily  life,  I 
have  gradually  associated  my  hopes  of  fu- 
ture happiness  with  the  chance  of  possess- 
ing you  as  their  sharer.  Believe  me,  dear 

Miss , this  is  no  outbreak  of  boyish 

passion,  but  the  hearty  and  healthy  result 
of  a long  and  affectionate  study  of  your  dis- 
position. It  is  love,  founded  on  esteem  ; 
and  I feel  persuaded  that  your  knowledge 
of  my  own  character  will  lead  you  to  trace 
my  motives  to  their  right  source. 

May  I,  then,  implore  you  to  consult 
your  own  heart,  and  should  I not  have 
been  mistaken  in  the  happy  belief  that  my 
feelings  are  in  some  measure  reciprocated, 
to  grant  me  permission  to  mention  the 
matter  to  your  parents. 

Believe  me,  dear  Miss , 

Your  ever  sincere,  but  at 

present  anxious  friend, 
Adolphus  Fitzroy. 


ON  RECEIVING  A FAVORABLE  ANSWER. 

Charleston , October  16th , 18 — . 

Dearest  Miss  {or use  Christian  name)'. — - 
Words  cannot  express  my  delight  on  find- 
ing your  note  on  my  table  last  night.  The 
toils  of  the  day  were  over,  but  how  delight- 
ful was  it  to  find  a letter — and  such  a letter ! 
— from  one  whom  I may  now  hope  to  hail 
as  the  companion  of  my  whole  future  life  ! 
The  weight  taken  off  my  mind  by  the  can- 
did and  gentle  confession  of  one  whose 
love  seemed  too  great  a happiness  to  hope 
for  is  beyond  description.  To-morrow  I 
shall  hasten  to  the  presence  of  her  from 
whom  I hope  I may  never  henceforth  be 
parted  ; but  I could  not  retire  to  rest  with- 
out making  one  feeble  attempt  to  express 
my  delight  at  finding  that  hopes  so  flatter- 
ing have  not  been  in  vain. 

Believe  me,  dearest. 

Your  devoted  and  happy  lover, 

Adolph. 

TO  A WIDOW  FROM  A WIDOWER. 

Union  Square , Nov.  14th,  18 — . 

My  Dear  Madam  : — I am  emboldened 
to  lay  open  to  you  the  present  state  of  my 
feelings,  being  so  convinced  of  your  good 
sense  and  amiable  disposition,  that  I feel 
assured  you  will  deal  candidly  with  me  in 
your  reply. 

Like  yourself,  I have  been  deprived  of 


THE  ART  OF  CORRESPONDENCE. 


the  partner  of  my  earlier  life,  and,  as  I ap- 
proach the  middle  state  of  existence,  I feel 
more  and  more  the  want  of  some  kindred 
spirit  to  share  with  me  whatever  years  are 
reserved  to  me  by  Providence.  My  fortune 
is  such  as  to  enable  me  to  support  a lady 
in  the  manner  which  T feel  to  be  due  to 
your  accomplishments  and  position,  and  I 
sincerely  hope  that  you  will  think  carefully 
over  my  proposal ; and,  if  you  can  make  up 
your  mind  to  share  my  fortune  and  affec- 
tions, I trust  that  no  efforts  will  be  wanting 
on  my  part  to  insure  you  the  happiness 
/ou  so  well  deserve. 

I need  scarcely  say,  that  an  early  answer, 
on  a matter  so  much  connected  with  my 
future  happiness,  will  be  a great  favor  to, 
My  dear  madam, 

Your  devoted  friend  and  admirer, 

Chales  W.  Brown. 

to  the  father  of  a lady. 

Montreal,  J an.  12  th,  18 — . 

Respected  Sir  : — I venture  to  hope  that 
you  will  call  all  your  friendly  feelings  to 
my  assistance,  in  considering  a proposal  I 
am  about  to  lay  before  you,  in  which  my 
happiness  is  much  concerned. 

For  a long  time  past  your  daughter 

has  held  a strong  hold  over  my  affections, 
and  I have  reason  to  believe  that  I am  not 
indifferent  to  her.  My  position  is  such  as 
to  warrant  my  belief  that  I could  support 
her  in  the  style  of  comfort  which  she  so 
well  deserves,  and  which  it  has  been  your 
constant  aim  to  provide  for  your  children. 
As  regards  my  character  and  disposition,  I 
trust  that  they  are  sufficiently  well  known 
to  you  to  give  you  confidence  in  the  pros- 
pect of  your  child’s  happiness. 

I have  not,  however,  ventured  on  any 
express  declaration  of  my  feelings,  without 
first  consulting  you  on  the  subject,  as  I feel 
persuaded  that  the  straightforward  course 


65? 

is  always  the  best,  and  that  a parent’s  sanc< 
tion  will  never  be  wanting,  when  the  cir- 
cumstances of  the  case  justify  its  being 
accorded. 

Anxiously  awaiting  the  result  of  your 
consideration  on  this  important  and  inter- 
esting subject, 

I remain,  sir, 

Your  most  faithful  and 

obedient  servant, 

Peter  Noble. 

THE  ANSWER. 

Quebec , Jan.  14 th,  18 — . 

My  Dear  : — I thank  you  very 

much  for  the  manly  and  honorable  way  in 
which  you  have  addressed  me  in  reference 
to  my  daughter’s  hand.  I have  long  since 
perceived  that  your  actions  to  her  were  of 
a marked  character,  and  that  they  appear- 
ed to  give  her  much  pleasure.  I know  no 
reason  whatever  to  oppose  your  wishes, 
and,  if  I may  judge  from  the  manner  in 
which  she  received  the  communication 
from  myself,  you  will  find  a by  no  means 
unwilling  listener. 

Dine  with  us  to-morrow  at , if  you 

are  not  engaged,  and  you  will  then  have  an 
opportunity  of  pleading  your  own  cause. 
Meanwhile,  believe  me,  with  every  confi- 
dence in  your  integrity  and  good  feeling. 

Yours,  most  sincerely, 

Stephen  Rose. 

UNFAVORABLE,  ON  ACCOUNT  OF  A PRE-' 

ENGAGEMENT. 

Hoboken , N J,  April  4th. 

Dear  Sir  : — It  is  always  painful  to  return 
an  unfavorable  answer,  but  such  is  unfor- 
tunately my  task  on  the  present  occasion. 

My  daughter  has  for  a long  time  been 
engaged  to  a gentleman  whose  character 
and  position  give  her  no  cause  to  regret  the 
tie.  At  the  same  time  she  duly  appreci- 


638 


THE  ART  OF  CORRESPONDENCE, 


ates  the  compliment  implied  by  your  pre- 
ference, and  unites  with  me  in  the  sincere 
wish  that  as  an  esteemed  friend,  you  may 
meet  with  a companion  in  every  way  calcu- 
lated to  insure  your  happiness. 

Believe  me, 

Dear  Sir, 

Your  sincere  friend, 

J.  H.  Mints. 

TO  A YOUNG  LADY  TO  WHOM  ONE  IS 
ENGAGED. 

Charleston , Oct.  1 5 th,  18 — . 

My  Dear  Fanny  : — If  there  is  one  thing 
which  can  console  me  for  my  unavoidable 
absence  from  your  side<,  it  is  the  pleasure 
of  being  able  to  pen  a few  lines  to  express, 
however  feebly,  my  continued  and  increas- 
ing affection  for  you.  It  is,  indeed,  a pain- 
ful and  irksome  change  from  our  rambles 
about  the  fields,  our  evening  duets,  and  our 
stolen  conversations,  to  a dull  routine  of 
mercantile  accounts  and  the  never-failing 
confusion  of  business.  Happily,  however, 
my  affairs  are  in  a rapid  state  of  settlement, 
and  I shall  soon  hope  once  more  to  bask  in 
the  sunshine  of  my  Fanny’s  sweet  counte- 
nance, and  to  feed  my  imagination  with 
thoughts  of  the  happiness  which  her  placid 
and  sincere  disposition  will  hereafter  shed 
around  a home ! I need  hardly  say  how 
eagerly  I watch  for  the  post,  and  how  I 
cherish  every  line  that  bears  the  evidence 
of  my  dear  girl’s  affection,  and  how  grate- 
fully every  sentiment  that  flows  from  her 
pen  is  treasured  in  my  memory. 

God  bless  you,  dearest  Fann),  and  be- 
lieve me,  with  most  respectful  and  affec- 
tionate remembrances  to  your  parents,  and 
all  friends. 

Your  ever  affectionate 

and  devoted 

Henry. 


TO  JULIA,  ON  HER  BIRTHDAY. 

New  York,  Feb.  i$tk,  18—. 

Dearest  Julia  : — How  sad  it  is  that  I 
am  hindered  from  being  with  you  on  this 
dearest  of  all  days  of  the  year — the  day 
that  gave  my  Julia  to  the  light,  and  that 
laid  the  foundation  of  the  greatest  happi- 
ness of  my  life. 

Words  cannot  express  the  deep  gratitude 
I feel  to  that  Power,  which,  in  granting 
you  life,  has  at  the  same  time,  year  after 
year,  ripened  those  graces  of  the  soul,  as 
well  as  developed  the  outward  perfections 
of  the  body.  As  I see  you,  the  companion 
of  my  childish  pains  and  pleasures,  expand- 
ing into  the  woman  who  is  to  share  both  with 
me  throughout  my  future  lot,  I feel  almost 
surprised  as  to  how  I have  deserved  such 
happiness,  and  gratitude  beyond  expression 
to  the  kind  parents  who  have  encouraged 
and  approved  our  affection. 

Accept,  dearest,  the  enclosed  portrait. 
I feel  that  its  original  is  too  deeply  stamped 
on  your  heart  to  require  any  photograph. 

Yours,  as  devotedly  as  ever, 

John. 

TO  AN  EARLY  COMPANION  AND  PLAYMATE. 

Cincinnati , July  6th,  18 — . 

My  Dear  Emma  : — Fori  can  only  think 
of  you,  woman  as  you  are,  as  the  “little 
Emmy”  of  the  many  happy  days  of  child- 
hood we  have  spent  together.  Can  you 
make  up  your  mind  to  listen  to  a very 
awful  confession  ? In  plain  words,  I love 
you  as  heartily  now  as  ever,  and,  if  I may 
judge  from  our  last  night’s  meeting,  after 
so  long  a separation,  you  have  not  quite 
lost  the  remembrance  of  your  old  playfel- 
low. But,  joking  apart,  Time  has  done 
much  for  both  of  us  ; for  you,  in  making 
you  all  that  can  be  desired  by  man,  as  the 
object  of  his  love  and  trust  * for  me,  in  en- 
abling me  to  provide  a home  for  her  who 


THE  ART  OF  CORRESPONDENCE. 


639 


has  ever  been  dearest  to  me,  and  whose 
image  has  never  faded  from  my  memory 
amidst  the  varied  exertions  of  a preliminary 
professional  career. 

And  now,  my  dear  Emmy,  think  well 
whether  you  can  transfer  that  affection  as 
a woman,  which,  in  your  girlhood,  was  my 

chiefest  delight.  We  shall  meet  on  

at  ’s,  and  then,  perhaps,  my  heart 

may  be  gladdened  by  the  belief  that  “there 
is  something  in  first  loves.” 

Eagerly  awaiting  our  meeting, 

Believe  me, 

Your  affectionate  old  playmate 

and  new  lover, 
Chas  P.  Thompson. 

EXPLAINING  AWAY  AN  APPARENT  SLIGHT. 

August  5 thy  1 8 — . 

My  Dearest : How  grieved  am  I 

that  you  should  think  me  capable  of  waver- 
ing in  my  affection  towards  you,  and  inflict- 
ing a slight  upon  one,  in  whom  my  whole 
hopes  of  happiness  are  centered  ! Believe 

me,  my  attentions  to  Miss were  never 

intended  for  anything  more  than  common 
courtesy.  My  long  acquaintance  with  her 
father,  and  my  knowledge  of  her  amiable 
character,  as  well  as  the  circumstances  of 
her  being  a comparative  stranger  to  the 
’s,  such  were  my  sole  reasons  for  pay- 
ing more  attention  to  her  than  I might 
otherwise  have  done. 

Pray  rest  confident  in  the  belief  that  my 
affection  for  you  is  as  unchanging  as  my 
regret  is  great  that  I should  ever  have 
given  you  cause  to  doubt  it,  and  believe 
me,  Dearest , 

Yours  ever  sincely  and 

devotedly, 

Charlie. 


FROM  ONE  YOUNG  MAN  TO  ANOTHER  IN 
REFERENCE  TO  AN  ATTACHMENT. 

Jersey  City , June  3 d>  18 — . 

My  Dear  : — You  will  laugh  at  me, 

with  some  reason,  when  I tell  you  that  all 
my  old  skepticism  about  matrimonial  hap- 
piness is  at  an  end.  I have  met  with  a 
young  lady  who,  I believe,  would  convert 
even  you  to  a belief  that  marriage  may  be 
a very  happy  state,  and  that  bachelors  are 
only  miserable  wretches  after  all. 

In  brief,  I am  the  engaged  and  accepted 
suitor  of  Miss  , whose you  re- 
member at . Words  can  scarcely  suf- 

fice to  express  how  great  has  been  the  en- 
joyment I have  hitherto  derived  from  her 
society,  and  the  more  I see  of  her  amiable 
character  and  high  accomplishments,  the 
more  certain  do  I feel  that  the  day  which 
first  made  known  to  me  her  consent  to 
share  my  fortunes,  will  prove  one  of  the 
happiest  in  my  whole  existence. 

You  may  think  this  a very  wild  effusion, 
and  one  strangely  at  variance  with  my 
former  avowed  callousness  on  the  score  of 
domestic  life,  but,  believe  me,  you  will  soon 
be  a convert  when  you  see  my  dear  Louisa. 

Wishing  that  you  may  prove  as  fortunate 
in  the  selection  of  a partner  as  I have  at 
present  reason  to  believe  I myself  am, 
Believe  me, 

My  dear , 

Ever  yours, 

M.  T.  Vogle. 

THE  ANSWER. 

F hiladelphia,  Jan.  6th , 18 — . 

Dear  Old  Fellow  : And  so  you  real- 

ly are  to  be  a Benedict ! Well ! I have  no 
objection,  provided  you  feel  convinced  that 
it  is  a measure  likely  to  tend  to  your  hap- 
piness. For  myself,  I am  still  a bachelor, 
although  I do  not  know  what  such  tempta- 


640 


THE  ART  OF  CORRESPONDENCE. 


tion  as  you  appear  to  have  undergone  might 
not  do  towards  upsetting  my  present  reso- 
lutions. You  know  I have  no  antipathy  to 
matrimony : but,  unlike  yonrself,  I have 
not  independent  means  sufficient  to  render 
me  fearless  of  consequences,  and  should 
not  be  disposed  to  involve  any  woman, 
whom  I could  like  sufficiently  to  make  my 
wife,  in  a doubtful  state  of  circumstances, 
if  not  in  a discomfort  which  must  be  pain- 
ful to  a man  of  proper  feeling  and  honor. 
At  the  same  time,  believe  me,  I cordially 
sympathize  with  your  delight  at  the  pros 
pect  of  an  agreeable  union,  and  wish  sin- 
cerely that  every  happiness  may  be  the 
result. 

Ever  truly  yours, 

H.  W.  Norton. 

FROM  A YOUNG  MAN  AVOWING  A PASSION. 

New  York , Feb.  13,  18 — . 

Dear  Miss : — It  is  with  no  small 

degree  of  apprehension,  as  to  the  manner 
in  which  you  may  receive  the  following 
avowal,  that  I take  up  my  pen  to  address 
you ; but  I have  so  long  struggled  with  my 
feelings  that  they  have  now  got  the  better 
of  my  irresolution  ; and  throwing  aside  all 
hesitation,  I have  ventured,  although 
alarmed  at  my  own  boldness  in  doing  so, 
to  lay  open  my  whole  heart  before  you. 
For  months  past  I have  been  oppressed 
with  a passion  that  has  entirely  superseded 
every  other  feeling  of  my  heart — that  pas- 
sion is  love — and  you — you  alone  are  the 
object  of  it.  In  vain  have  I endeavored  to 
drive  the  idea  from  my  mind,  by  every  art 
that  I could  possibly  think  of ; in  vain  have 
I sought  out  every  amusement  that  might 
have  a tendency  to  relieve  my  mind  from 
the  bias  which  it  has  taken,  but  love  has 
taken  that  firm  hold  of  my  whole  soul,  that 
I am  unable  to  entertain  but  one  idea,  one 
thought,  one  feeling,  and  that  is  always 


yourself.  I neglect  myself,  my  business, 
and  can  neither  hear  nor  see  any  one  thing 
—but  you  bear  the  chief  part  therein.  Be- 
lieve me,  I am  sincere,  when  I assert  that 
I feel  it  totally  impossible  to  live  apart 
from  you — when  near  you,  I am  in  para- 
dise— when  absent,  I feel  in  torture ; this, 
I solemnly  assure  you,  is  a true  description 
of  the  feelings  with  which  my  breast  is 
continually  agitated,  and  it  remains  only 
for  you  to  give  a reality  to  those  hopes,  or 
at  once  to  crush  them,  by  a single  word ; 
say  but  that  word,  and  I am  the  happiest 
or  the  most  miserable  of  mankind. 

Yours,  till  death, 

Charles  Coan. 

TO  A LADY. 

Trenton , N J,  July  3,  18 — . 

Dear  Madam  : — I have  been  so  har- 
assed with  love,  doubt,  distraction,  and  a 
thousand  other  wild  and  nameless  feelings, 
since  I had  the  happiness  of  being  in  your 
company,  that  I have  been  unable  to  form 
one  sane  reflection,  or  to  separate  events 
from  the  feelings  that  accompanied  them 
—in  fact,  I have  been  totally  unable  to 
bring  my  thoughts  into  anything  like  regu- 
larity, for  they  are  so  entirely  mixed  up 
with  the  idea  of  yourself  that  the  business 
of  the  world  and  the  pursuits  of  amusement 
and  pleasure  have  been  entirely  forgotten 
in  the  one  passion  that  holds  undivided 
empire  over  my  soul.  I have  deferred  from 
day  to  day  penning  this  confession  to  you, 
in  order  that  I might  have  been  enabled  to 
have  done  so  with  some  degree  of  ease  and 
calmness  ; but  the  hope  has  proved  fruit- 
less. I can  resist  no  longer,  for  to  keep 
silent  on  a subject  which  is  interwoven 
with  my  very  existence  would  be  death  to 
me.  No,  I am  unable  to  do  so,  and  I have 
therefore  determined  to  lay  open  to  you 
the  sufferings  of  my  heart,  and  to  implore 


THE  ART  OF  CORRESPONDENCE. 


G41 


from  you  a restoration  of  that  peace  and 
happiness  which  once  were  mine.  You, 

my  dear  Miss , are  alone  the  cause  of 

my  unhappiness,  and  to  you  alone  can  I 
look  for  a relief  from  the  wretchedness  that 
has  overwhelmed  me.  The  fervent  passion 
that  devours  my  soul  for  your  adorable 
self  can  only  be  allayed  by  the  declaration 
that  I am  loved  as  fervently  in  return. 
But  dare  I ask  so  much  purity,  so  much 
sweetness,  mildness  and  modesty  to  make 
such  a declaration  ? I know  not  what  I 
say — but  O ! my  dear  Miss , be  mer- 

ciful, and  if  you  cannot  love  me,  say,  at 
least,  that  you  do  not  hate  me.  Never 
could  I survive  the  idea  of  being  hateful  to 
that  angelic  being  whose  love  I prize  more 
than  existence  itself.  Let  me  then  cling 
to  the  idea  that  time  may  accomplish  that 
which,  I fain  hope,  a first  impression  has 
done  presuming,  unless  a fatal  pre-engage- 
ment exists  (a  thing  I dare  not  trust  my- 
self to  think  of),  that  you  will  comply  with 
my  request,  seeing  that  my  designs  are 
perfectly  sincere  and  honorable.  I remain, 
waiting  with  the  utmost  impatience  for 
your  favorable  reply. 

Dear  Miss  , 

Yours  till  death, 

G.  H.  Godney. 

FROM  A LOVER  TO  A FATHER,  ON  HIS  AT- 
TACHMENT TO  THE  DAUGHTER. 

April  2,  1 8 — . 

Sir  : — As  I scorn  to  act  in  any  manner 
that  may  bring  reproach  upon  myself  and 
family,  and  hold  clandestine  proceedings 
unbecoming  in  any  man  of  character,  I 
take  the  liberty  of  distinctly  avowing  my 
love  for  your  daughter,  and  humbly  request 
your  permission  to  pay  her  my  addresses, 
as  I flatter  myself  my  family  and  expectan- 
cies will  be  found  not  unworthy  of  your 
notice.  I have  some  reason  to  imagine 


that  I am  not  altogether  disagteeable  to 
your  daughter  ; but  I assure  you  honestly, 
that  I have  not  as  yet  endeavored  to  win 
her  affections,  for  fear  it  might  be  repugn 
nant  to  a father’s  will. 

I am,  sir, 

Your  most  obedient  servant, 

Charles  Wilcox. 

THE  FATHER’S  ANSWER  IN  THE  NEGATIVE. 

Harrisburg , Pa.y  April  3,  18 — . 

Sir  : — I make  no  doubt  of  the  truth  of 
your  assertions  relative  to  yourself,  charac- 
ter and  connections,  but  as  I think  my 
daughter  too  young  to  enter  into  such  a 
serious  engagement,  I request  I may  hear 
no  more  of  your  passion  for  the  present 
In  every  other  respect, 

I am,  sir, 

Y our  most  obedient, 
Frank  H.  Hall. 

IN  THE  AFFIRMATIVE. 

Sir  : — There  is  so  much  candor  and 
honor  apparent  in  your  letter,  that  to  with- 
hold my  consent  would  be  both  ungener- 
ous and  unjust.  As  the  duty  of  a father 
demands,  I shall  first  make  some  necessary 
inquiries,  assuring  you  that  I would  never 
oppose  my  daughter’s  choice,  except  I had 
some  very  just  reason  to  imagine  it  would 
be  productive  of  ill  consequences,  for  I am 
convinced  that,  in  the  marriage  state,  hap- 
piness consists  only  in  reciprocal  affection. 
You  may  therefore  depend  upon  hearing 
from  me  in  a few  days  ; till  then  I remain, 
Your  very  faithful  servant, 

Seymour  Smith. 

A GENTLEMAN  DESIROUS  OF  DISCONTINU- 
ING HIS  ADDRESSES. 

Long  Branchy  June  5,  18 — . 

Dear  : — Whatever  may  be  your 

future  lot  in  life,  and  whatever  change  mav 


642 


THE  ART  OF  CORRESPONDENCE. 


take  place  in  your  circumstances,  of  this  be 
assured,  if  put  to  the  test,  in  me  you  will 
find  a steadfast  friend,  and  one  ever  ready 
to  protect  your  interests.  I make  this 
avowal  from  a deep  feeling  of  respect,  which 
long  experience  of  your  worth  has  im- 
planted within  me,  but  in  doing  so  (and, 
believe  me,  it  is  a declaration  that  causes 
me  inexpressible  pain  to  utter),  I have  also 
to  make  another  avowal,  for  which  I appre- 
hend you  are  little  prepared,  and  which  I 
fear  may  give  some  shock  to  your  feelings. 

My  dear , with  pain  I utter  it — I must 

resign  all  hopes  of  our  future  union.  Ask 
me  not  wherefore  ; my  answer  would  inflict 
an  additional  pang  in  the  breasts  of  both. 
This  is  no  hasty  resolve ; I have  deliber- 
ately weighed  it,  and  know  it  to  be  essen- 
tial to  our  mutual  happiness  and  welfare. 
Whatever  letters  I may  have  of  yours  I will 
dispose  of  as  you  think  fit ; and,  if  you  pre- 
fer it,  will  enclose  them  to  you  under  seal ; 
entreating,  however,  that  you  will  grant  me 
the  indulgence  of  being  allowed  to  keep 
only  one,  as  a memorial  of  the  past ; and 
with  this  request,  I bid  you  a painful  but 
affectionate  adieu,  and  entreat  you  will  be- 
lieve me, 

Ever  yours  sincerely, 

Henry  Jones. 

FROM  A YOUNG  MAN  TO  HIS  SWEETHEART. 

California , Jan . 13,  18 — . 

My  Dearest : — At  length,  by  the 

blessing  of  Providence,  I am  able  to  reclaim 
my  promise  and  claim  you  as  the  partner 
of  my  joys  and  sorrows  for  life. 

I trust,  from  your  constant  affection 
when  we  both  saw  nothing  but  want  and 
distress  before  us^  that  the  news  of  my 
prosperity  will  be  most  acceptable  to  you. 
Never  can  I be  sufficiently  thankful  to  Mrs. 
Chisholm  for  the  help  her  kindness  pro- 
cured me,  but  I shall  feel  far,  far  more 


grateful  when  I welcome  my  dearest  ■ - 

to  a home  on  this  side  of  the  wide  ocean. 

I send  you  , which  will  be  amply 

enough  for  your  outfit,  and  , which 

pray  give  to  your  mother  with  my  most 
affectionate  duty,  and  tell  her  that,  however 
far  removed  from  her  presence,  neither  you 
nor  myself  will  ever  forget  that,  now  we 
have  the  power,  it  is  our  bounden  duty  to 
assist  and  cherish  her  declining  years. 

I also  send  some  little  presents,  chiefly 
of  the  produce  of  the  country,  as  tokens  of 

friendship  to  ( mention  the  najnes). 

And  now,  with  kindest  love  to  all,  and  with 
heartfelt  wishes  for  your  safe  voyage  and 
speedy  arrival,  believe  me, 

Dearest , 

Your  affectionate  and  impatient, 

A.  H.  Hamlin. 

THOMAS  JEFFERSON  TO  JOHN  ADAMS,  ON 
THE  DEATH  OF  MRS.  ADAMS. 

Monticello , Nov.  13,  1818. 

The  public  papers,  my  dear  friend,  an- 
nounce the  fatal  event  of  which  your  letter 
of  October  the  20th  had  given  me  ominous 
foreboding.  Tried,  myself,  in  the  school 
of  affliction,  by  the  loss  of  every  form  of 
connection  which  can  rive  the  human 
heart,  I know  well  and  feel  what  you  have 
lost,  what  you  have  suffered,  are  suffering, 
and  have  yet  to  endure.  The  same  trials 
have  taught  me  that  for  ills  so  immeasur- 
able, time  and  silence  are  the  only  medi- 
cine. I will  not,  therefore,  by  useless  con- 
dolence, open* afresh  the  sluices  of  your 
grief,  nor,  although  mingling  sincerely  my' 
tears  with  yours,  will  I say  a word  more 
where  words  are  vain,  but  it  is  of  some 
comfort  to  us  both  that  the  time  is  not  very 
distant  at  which  we  are  to  deposit  in  the 
same  cerement  our  sorrows  and  suffering 
bodies,  and  to  ascend  in  essence  to  an 
ecstatic  meeting  with  the  friends  we  have 


THE  ART  OF  CORRESPONDENCE. 


643 


loved  and  lost,  and  whom  we  shall  still  love  • 
and  never  lose  again.  God  bless  you  and 
support  you  under  your  heavy  affliction. 

Th.  Jefferson 

LA  FAYETTE  TO  JEFFERSON,  ANNOUNCING 
THE  DEATH  OF  MADAME  LA  FAYETTE. 

Anteuily  Feb.  n,  1808. 

My  Dear  Friend  : — The  constant 
mourning  of  your  heart  will  be  deepened 
by  the  grief  I am  doomed  to  impart  to  you. 
Who  better  than  you  can  sympathize  for 
the  loss  of  a beloved  wife  ? The  angel 
who  for  thirty-four  years  has  blessed  my 
life,  was  to  you  an  affectionate,  grateful 
friend.  Pity  me,  my  dear  Jefferson,  and 
believe  me,  forever,  with  all  my  heart, 
Yours, 

La  Fayette. 

, ON  the  death  of  a wife. 

New  Haveny  Conn .,  April  25,  1882. 

My  Dear  Friend  : 

Allow  me  to  express  my  heartiest  sym- 
pathy in  your  recent  bereavement.  I well 
know  that  all  words  must  be  hollow  and 
almost  meaningless  to  one  over  whom  the 


wave  of  such  a sorrow  has  swept ; yet  I 
cannot  forbear  the  mournful  pleasure  of 
expressing  to  you  the  feelings  of  my  own 
heart. 

Your  wife  was  a true  Christian  woman, 
and  that  expression  embraces  all  that  is 
noble  and  lovely  in  character  and  life. 
That  she  adorned  such  a character  with 
the  graces  of  patience  and  meekness  to  a 
remarkable  degree.  Her  charities  were 
without  display.  Her  constant  cheerful- 
ness was  like  the  sunlight  to  your  home. 
Her  devotion  to  family  and  friends,  her 
charms  of  person  and  adornments  of  mien, 
won  the  esteem  of  all,  and  the  admiration 
of  her  chosen  friends.  I give  you  my 
fullest  assurance  of  sympathy,  knowing  too 
well  that  there  is  a sanctity  in  your  grief 
into  which  not  even  the  closest  friendship 
should  enter.  May  the  comfort  of  Him 
who  has  promised  to  be  with  us  in  trouble, 
be  yours.  I shall  be  most  happy  to  re- 
ceive a visit  from  you  at  your  convenience. 

I am,  as  ever, 

Your  friend, 

Joshua  H.  Brown. 


LETTERS  OF  CONGRATULATION. 


THOMAS  JEFFERSON  TO  GENERAL  WASHING- 
TON, UPON  HIS  RETURN  FROM  ABROAD, 
AND  SUCCESS  AT  YORKTOWN. 

Monticelhy  Oct.  28,  1781. 
Sir  : — I hope  it  will  not  be  unacceptable 
x j your  Excellency  to  receive  the  congrat- 
ulations of  a private  individual  on  your  re- 
turn to  your  native  country,  and,  above  all 
things,  on  the  important  success  which 
has  attended  it.  Great  as  this  has  been, 
however,  it  can  scarcely  add  to  the  affec- 
tion with  which  we  have  looked  up  to  you. 
And  if,  in  the  minds  of  any,  the  motives  of 
gratitude  to  our  good  allies  were  not  suffi- 


ciently apparent,  the  part  they  have  borne 
in  this  action  must  amply  convince  them. 
Notwithstanding  the  state  of  perpetual 
solicitude  to  which  I am  unfortunately  re- 
duced, I should  certainly  have  done  my- 
self the  honor  of  paying  my  respects  to  you 
personally ; but  I apprehend  that  these 
visits,  which  are  meant  by  us  as  marks  of 
our  attachment  to  you,  must  interfere  with 
the  regulations  of  a camp,  and  be  particu- 
larly inconvenient  to  one  whose  time  is  too 
precious  to  be  wasted  in  ceremony.  I beg 
you  to  believe  me  among  the  sincerest  of 
those  who  subscribe  themselves  your  Ex- 


644 


THE  ART  OF  CORRESPONDENCE. 


cellency’s  most  obedient  and  most  humble 
servant,  Th.  Jefferson. 

A FORMAL  LETTER  OF  CONGRATULATION. 

Mr.  and  Mrs.  Stevenson  desire  to  offer  to 
Mr.  and  Mrs.  Thompson  their  sincere  con- 
gratulations on  the  convalescense  of  Miss 
Nellie,  and  to  express  the  wish  that  she 
may  very  speedily  regain  her  usual  health. 

1234  State  street. 

April  29,  1882. 

ON  THE  ELECTION  OF  A FRIEND  TO  CON- 
GRESS. 

Meriden , Conn.,  Nov.  15,1882. 

I give  you  the  hearty  congratulations  of 
a friend  upon  your  triumphant  election. 
There  is  glory  enough  for  one  day.  This 
congressional  district  has  done  itself  honor, 
and  I am  not  surprised  at  the  majority  we 
roiled  up.  I knew  that  you  deserved  elec- 
tion, and  believe  the  result  is  both  an  en- 
dorsement of  your  personal  merits  as  well 
as  the  principles  you  uphold.  Your  con- 
stituents can  safely  intrust  their  interests 
in  your  hands,  and  be  sure  that  you  will 
serve  them  with  fidelity. 

I am  ever, 

Yours  faithfully, 

John  P.  Hale. 

EXTRACT  FROM  A LETTER  OF  SIR  WALTER 
SCOTT  TO  ROBERT  SOUTHEY  ON  HIS  IN- 
VESTITURE AS  POET  LAUREATE. 

Edinburgh , Nov.  13,  1813. 

I do  not  delay,  my  dear  Southey,  to  say 
my  congratulatory.  Long  may  you  live,  as 
Paddy  says,  to  rule  over  us,  and  to  restore 
the  crown  of  Spencer  and  Dryden  to  its 
pristine  dignity.  * * * 

I was  greatly  delighted  with  the  circum- 
stances of  your  investiture.  ' It  reminded 
me  of  the  porters  at  Calais  with  Dr.  Smol- 
lett's baggage,  six  of  them  seizing  one 
small  portmanteau  and  bearing  it  in  tri- 
umph to  his  lodgings.  * * * 


Adieu,  my  dear  Southey  ; my  best  wishes 
attend  all  that  you  do,  and  my  best  con- 
gratulations every  good  that  attends  you — 
yea,  even  this,  the  very  least  of  Providence’s 
mercies,  as  a poor  clergyman  said  when 
pronouncing  grace  over  a herring.  * * 

My  best  compliments  attend  Mrs.  Southey 
and  your  family. 

Ever  yours, 

Walter  Scott. 

ANNIVERSARY  OF  A SILVER  WEDDING. 

Dear  Friends:  — Not  often  is  one 
privileged,  as  I,  to  congratulate  his  friends 
upon  twenty-five  years  of  married  bliss. 
How  swiftly  the  years  have  flown  with  their 
changes  of  gladness  and  sorrow,  burdens 
and  happiness,  care  and  tranquillities  1 Bui 
on  looking  back  you  can  only  see  the  hill- 
tops of  joy,  forgetting  the  vales  of  trouble 
and  disquietude.  May  the  sunlight  of  in- 
creasing prosperity  and  happiness  be  yours 
for  many  years  ! to  come,  and  God  grant, 
you  his  favor.  A small  gift  accompanies 
this.  Not  for  its  intrinsic  worth,  but  for 
the  affection  which  it  represents,  I beg  you 
to  accept  from  your  friend, 

J.  H.  Slowcom. 

TO  THE  FATHER  OF  A BOY. 

New  Haven , May  5,  1882. 

Dear  Jack  : — And  so  it  is  a boy  ! Well, 
here  is  my  hand  in  congratulation.  Of 
course,  it  looks  like  his  daddy,  they  always 
do;  but  be  careful  and  train  him  up  in  the 
correct  principles  of  the  party.  Remember 
he  is  soon  to  be  a sovereign  of  this  great 
and  glorious  republic,  and  must  never 
scratch  the  ticket. 

You  have  my  congratulations  and  hearty 
wishes.  May  the  mother  and  child  con- 
tinue to  do  well,  and  may  he  live  to  reflect 
honor  upon  his  parents. 

Y ours,  as  ever, 

James  M.  Beebe. 


THE  ART  OF  CORRESPONDENCE. 


645 


NOTES  TO  ACCOMPANY  GIFTS,  AND  SUITABLE  REPLIES  THERETO. 

I 


ACCOMPANYING  A PRESENT. 

New  Haven , Conn.,  Nov.  20,  1882. 

My  Dearest  Jennie: — Accept  this 
token  of  love  and  esteem  from  an  old 
friend.  It  is  but  a small  proof  of  my  affec- 
tion, which  words  are  not  needed  to  ex- 
press, for  I am  well  aware  that  you  know 
me  ever  to  be 

Your  true  and  loving  friend, 

Maria  Powell. 

RETURNING  THANKS  FOR  THE  GIFT. 

My  Dearest  Maria  : — How  can  I 
chank  you  sufficiently  for  your  magnificent 
gift,  you  dear,  kind  Iriend  ? You  quite 
load  me  with  kindness;  no  proof  of  your 
friendship  was  wanting  to  assure  me  of 
your  esteem  and  friendship,  which  I hope  I 
shall  always  deserve.  Thanking  you  from 
my  heart,  believe  me, 

Yours  most  affectionately, 

Jennie  Harrison. 

ACCOMPANYING  A BIRTHDAY  GIFT. 

Clinton,  Sept.  3,  1882. 

Dear  Nellie  : — Accept  this  little  token 
ot  love  and  esteem  from  an  old  friend. 
Many  happy  returns  of  the  day ! 

Your  loving  friend, 

Minnie  Peck. 

ANOTHER. 

Madison,  Sept.  3,  1882. 

Will  Miss  Minnie  Peck  accept  this  little 
token  of  remembrance  on  this  her  natal 
day  ? Nellie  Buell. 

/ACCOMPANYING  A GIFT  OF  A BASKET  OF 
FRUIT. 

Miss  Brown  presents  her  compliments 
to  Miss  Jones,  and  is  happy  in  presenting 


for  her  acceptance  the  accompanying  bas 
ket  of  fruit. 

600  State  street. 

Hartford,  May  6,  1882. 

ANSWER. 

Miss  Jones  considers  herself  much  fa- 
vored by  the  kind  attention  and  generous 
gift  from  Miss  Brown,  and  returns  her  sin- 
cere thanks  for  her  handsome  present. 

169  Asylum  street,  May  7,  1882. 

ACCOMPANYING  A BETHROTHAL  RING. 

356  Fifth  Ave.,Aug.  19,  1881. 

My  Beloved  Nettie  : — Will  you  please 
accept  and  wear  the  accompanying  ring  as, 
a pledge  of  the  endless  love  and  affectiom 
of  your  beloved  Harry. 

Miss  Nettie  R.  Caswell. 

ANSWER  ACCEPTING  THE  FOREGOING. 

My  Dear  Harry  : — You  need  no  assur- 
ance from  me  that  your  valuable  gift  will 
be  doubly  precious  to  me,  as  a token  of 
your  affection.  May  our  love,  like  your 
ring,  have  no  end. 

Your  loving 

Nettie. 

ACCOMPANYING  TICKETS  FOR  A THEATRI- 
CAL PERFORMANCE. 

* 

New  Haven,  Feb.  6,  1882. 

My  Dear  Nellie  : — This  morning  a 
friend  of  mine  sent  me  three  tickets  for 
reserved  seats  at  Carll’s  Opera  House,  Sat- 
urday matinee.  We  have  all  seen  the  play 
now  being  acted  there,  and  as  I thought 
your  young  people  might  like  to  go,  I in- 
close them  to  you  with  our  best  love. 

Believe  me,  yours  affectionately, 

Mary  Gowes. 


The  Ladies’  Complete  Guide  to  Letter  Writing. 


FROM  MADAM  DE  STAEL  TO  MADAM  LAFAYETTE. 


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NOTES  OF  INVITATION. 


647 


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648 


NOTES  OF  INVITATION. 


December  I,  1882. 

Dear  Carrie  : 

The  young  people  of  our  literary  society 
are  contemplating  a surprise  party  upon 
their  warm  friend  and  co-worker,  Miss 
Lizzie  Sanford. 

I have  arranged  to  be  present,  and  have 
been  assigned  by  the  committee  the  pleas- 
ant duty  of  specially  inviting  you. 

I trust  circumstances  will  admit  of  your 
presence.  The  evening  is  Thursday,  the 
4th  in  st. 

Your  friend, 

Minnie  Acton. 


December  1,  1882. 

Friend  William  : 

Can  you  not,  for  one  evening,  thrust 
aside  pressing  duties  and  attend  a merry- 
making Thursday  evening  next  ? 

Sister  Jane  and  I are  concocting  a sur- 
prise reception  for  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Douglass, 
who  have  been  absent  a long  time  in  the 
west. 

Will  you  not  make  a special  effort  to  be 
present,  remembering  that  there  are  to  be* 
refreshments  and  dancing  ? 

Your  friend, 

Thomas  Augur. 


December  1,  1882. 

Dear  Ada  : 

We  are  to  give  a surprise  party  on 
Thursday,  December  4,  to  our  friends,  Mr. 
and  Mrs.  Edmonds. 

If  the  weather  should  prove  unfavorable 
at  that  time,  it  will  be  postponed  until 
Tuesday  evening,  the  9th. 


We  rely  upon  you  to  be  present  with 
your  escort,  who  so  pleasantly  entertained 
us  at  Miss  Black’s  receptions  last  season. 
Your  friend, 

Hattie  Selkirk. 


December  ly  1882. 
Miss  Sarah  Weaver  : 

There  is  to  be  a reunion  of  the  ancient 
theatrical  society  to  which  you  were  at  one 
time  connected.  Y ou  remember  the  young 
man  who  personated  Hamlet?  Well,  he 
has  promised  to  be  in  attendance. 

An  effort  will  be  made  to  have  you  recite 
Ophelia,  with  all  the  necessary  dramatic 
situations.  I warn  you  in  advance  to  be 
ready  to  do  so.  The  part  will  need  but  an 
hour’s  rehearsal — you  have  it  at  your 
tongue’s  end. 

May  I presume  to  send  the  coupe  for 
you  at  8 o’clock  Wednesday  evening  ! 

Yours  truly, 

Jennie  Thornton. 


September  1,  1882. 

Dear  Charlie  : 

The  hint  I gave  you  last  week  foreshad- 
owed the  truth.  We  are  to  have  a sleigh- 
ing party  Thursday  evening. 

It  is  not  to  be  a formal  affair,  but  a trip 
in  an  omnibus  sleigh  with  plenty  of  straw. 
The  objective  point  is  Farmer  Durant’s,  in 
Eagleville. 

Will  you  be  on  hand  early,  at  Miss 
Smith’s,  with  your  wife  ? 

Your  friend. 

Frank  Cummins. 


NOTES  OF  CEREMONY  AND  INVITATION. 


649 


NOTES  OF  CEREMONY  AND  INVITATION. 


These  models  are  about  one-quarter  size. 


INVITATION. 

DECLINING  THE  SAME. 

AfeticrTiNG. 

Mr.  6°  Mrs.  Ford 
request  the  pleasure  of  Mrs. 
Gage's  company  at  dinner,  on 
Monday,  the  30 th  of  Jan.  at 
seven  o'clock. 

146  W.  14  th  SU 

Mrs.  Gage 

regrets  extremely  that  a prior 
engagement  will  prevent  her 
having  the  pleasure  of  din- 
ing with  Mr.  Mrs.  Ford, 

on  the  30 th  of  Jan. 

24  Lewis  Place,  Jan.  16th. 

Mrs.  Gage 

has  much  pleasure  in  accept- 
ing Mr.  <2r*  Mrs.  Ford's 
invitation  to  dinner 
on  the 

joth  of  January,  1882 
24  Lewis  ** lace , Jan . 16 th. 

o f-<« 


Wednesday  JBve.,  May  id,  '82,  at  8 o'ciock. 


(T\r~V»»V~?r/5> 


INVITATION  TO  A DINNER  PARTY. 

My  Dear  Miss  Perkins : 

Will  you  please  favor  us  with  your  com- 
pany at  dinner , on  Wednesday  next  ? It 
will  be  a family  party , but  James  and  I 
should  not  consider  it  complete  without  you 
Sincerely  yours, 

Jane  Gordon. 

Charles  St.,  May  $th. 


A LESS  FORMAL  INVITATION. 

Dear  George: 

Come  and  dine  with  us  on  Monday  next, 
to  meet  a few  old  friends,  I assure  you  it 
will' give  you  great  pleasure  to  see  them , es- 
pecially as  Charlie  and  his  sister  will  be  here. 
Pray  let  me  have  a favorable  reply,  and  be- 
lieve me.  Very  sincerely, 

1 16  E.  14 th.  Mar  10 th.  Josie% 


650 


WEDDING  CARDS  AND  INVITATIONS. 


INVITATION  TO  AN  EVENING  PARTY. 

Mrs.  Osborne 

requests  the  pleasure  of  Mr.  &>  Mrs. 
Lewis’  company , to  an  evening 
party , on 

Monday , 14  th  October. 

Eight  o'clock.  Dancing. 

32  Charles  Street. 


INVITATION  TO  EVENING  PARTY. 
Mrs.  Bingham 

requests  the  pleasure  of  Mr.  Wood’s 
company  to-morrow  evening , at 
nine.  Dancing. 
Brightwood , Feb.  12 th. 


WEDDING  CARDS  AND  INVITATIONS. 

The  size  paper  in  use  at  the  present  time  for  fashionable  invitations  is  about  3!  x 6i,  and 
envelopes  3^  x 3I.  These  models  are  much  smaller  than  the  usual  size. 


Sc  ^eo-tcje  ^oho/m, 

'fcecj'west  the  -pf’eao'W'te  o|  i^out  coTH-pcmi^  at  the  -ma^eiacje  ceeetwam^ 
o|  theie  t>aa.cj.htee, 

to 

powao 

©j^owbaty  a^teMAoo^,  |®atj-  15th,  at  tvuo  o’cfoch. 

^ace  ^h-tvrch, 


Mr.  dr3  Mrs.  Wm.  Towns  he  ad 
request  your  presence  at  the  mairiage  of  their 
daughter 
Julia 
to 

George  A.  Thompson  y 
Saturday  morning , May  $th,  1882, 
at  11  o'clock. 


Trinity  Church , 
iV<?w/  Haven, 

Friday  evening , March  10 th,  1882 
af%.  30  j clock. 

Fred  ford.  Grove  Greenwood . 


WEDDING  CARDS  AND  INVITATIONS. 


651 


WEDDING  CARDS  AND  INVITATIONS. 

These  cards  should  be  tied  to  each  other  by  a white  satin  ribbon,  the  wedding  knot 
should  be  in  the  upper  left  hand  corner;  they  should  accompany  the  invitation  to  the 

wedding. 


When  no  invitations  have  been  issued,  it  is  fashionable  to  send  announcements  as  soon 
as  convenient  after  the  marriage,  as  follows : 


The  following  note  is  another  form. 


Ipftowpso-M., 

9Tt^.  8c  e F.  ‘SfvotHaj. 

9Tl^.  &9TC/ZO.  cHofe'zt  3z4M44<j, 

Wt a 3ane 

<3\LowbaAjC> 

dt  eJfoWC' 

91t 

ai 4b 

‘^9'Weobaip  144  911ch^,  1882. 

91 ZonbaAj,  eF<dx  1882. 

eFz4ba4p. 

12  GlVitou<^Mnj  ct/uc. 

9le™ 

122  W.  18tfv  Street. 

21  ett-ipf  extern. 

652 


WEDDING  ANNIVERSARIES. 


WEDDING  ANNIVERSARIES. 


The  Wooden  Wedding.  Printed 
on  a thin  sheet  of  wood. 


The  Tin  Wedding.  Printed 
on  a sheet  of  tin-foil  paper. 


The  Crystal  Wedding.  Invitations  to 
a Crystal  Wedding  should  be  printed 
on  cards  with  a fine  glass  finish. 


1872.  1877. 

1872.  1882. 

FIFTH  ANNIVERSARY. 

TENTH  ANNIVERSARY. 

OTU.  Sc  9T Tro.  gWxyl.  Gjct/i^. 

p*.  & gte-  mmm 

AT  HOME 

AT  HOME. 

Monday  eve,  June  $th,  at  8 o'clock. 

Wednesday  evening,  June  $th,'?>2. 

113  York  Street. 

113  York  Street. 

1871.  1886. 

CRYSTAL  WEDDING. 

Mrs.  & Mrs.  George  2.  Ford. 

AT  HOME. 

Monday  evening , September  l$th , 
at  eight  o'clock. 

24  Hillhouse  Avenue. 


I The  China  Wedding.  The  paper  should  have  a smooth 
surface,  resembling  China-ware. 


The  Silver  Wedding.  Invitations  should  be  issued  upon 
white  paper  in  silvered  letters. 


1862.  1882. 

1881/  1906. 

CHINA  WEDDING. 

TWENTY-FIFTH  ANNIVERSARY. 

Jg. 

AT  HOME. 

SILVER  WEDDING. 

Iljpt'.  Sc 

Compliments, 

Saturday  evening,  January  20th , 

and  requests  the  pleasure  oj  your  company,  on 

MERIDEN,  CONN. 

Monday  evening , Jan.  1st,  1883,  at  8 o'clock. 
408  Degraw  St.,  Brooklyn. 

The  Golden  Wedding.  Invitations  should  be  printed  in 
rich  gilt  letters,  upon  heavy  white  or  cream 
colored  paper. 


The  Diamond  Wedding  is  held  on  the  seventy-fifth  mar- 
riage anniversary.  Invitations  should  be  printed 
on  the  finest  paper,  envelopes  to  match. 


1832.  1882. 

1808.  1883. 

FIFTIETH  ANNIVERSARY. 

SEVENTY-FIFTH  ANNIVERSARY. 

9TC^.  Sc  9Tt^.  cx'JUo  GWoobfiv Cb, 

fptr.  & fgtes.  gamjesgjetmjett. 

AT  HOME, 

AT  HOME. 

Tuesday  afternoon  and  evening , May  22 d. 

Friday  afternoon,  May  12th. 

No.  1 1 Agate  Place. 

No.  46  Clinton  Ave. 

RECEPTION,  MEMORIAL  AND  PRESENTATION  CARDS.  653 

Reception,  Memorial  and  Presentation  Cards, 

Invitations  for  informal  afternoon  and  evening  receptions  are  issued  on  cards  as  follows, 

no  reply  is  needed. 


Informal  afternoon  reception  card.  Informal  evening  reception  card. 


©JJ/t'.  8c  |j.  ||cm /zotxitb. 

<3\lv.  8c  9TC/&0-.  (^.  St.  ^otocyn. 

16lfv,  1882. 

|wm  3 tiff  5 ociocb. 

<3X^<ib'i\<iobci\^  ©ucrrwKj. 

146  ^ovn^tocb  ^gtue4vue. 

149  Matilda  Street. 

J 

Memorial  card  to  be  sent  to  friends  of  deceased  about  three  weeks  after  funeral. 


ooo- 


tow  to 

ytvono,  oav&  txc/o  0/0cep^cM4cc  ttxo 

ao  cv  totwAV  o|  two  votoovn. 


’ch^  lOtfv,  1882. 


654 


THE  ART  OF  CORRESPONDENCE.  LOVE  LETTERS. 


LOVE  LETTERS. 


FROM  A GENTLEMAN  TO  A LADY  WITH 
WHOM  HE  IS  IN  LOVE. 

Madam  : — I have  three  times  attempted 
to  give  you  a verbal  relation  of  the  con- 
tents of  this  letter,  but  my  heart  as  often 
failed.  I know  not  in  what  light  it  may  be 
considered,  only  if  I can  form  any  notion 
of  my  own  heart  from  the  impressions  made 
on  it  by  your  many  amiable  accomplish- 
ments, my  happiness  in  this  world  will,  in 
a. great  measure,  depend  on  your  answer. 
I am  not  precipitate,  madam,  nor  would  I 
desire  your  hand  if  your  heart  did  not  ac- 
company it.  My  circumstances  are  inde- 
pendent, my  character  hitherto  unblem- 
ished, oi  which  you  shall  have  the  most 
undoubted  proof.  You  have  already  seen 

some  of  my  relations  at  your  aunt’s  in 

street,  particularly  my  mother,  with  whom 
I now  live.  Your  aunt  will  inform  you 
concerning  our  family,  and  if  it  is  to  your 
satisfaction,  I shall  not  only  consider  my- 
self extremely  happy,  but  shall  also  make 
it  the  principal  study  of  my  future  life  to 
spend  my  days  in  the  company  of  her  whom 
I do  prefer  to  all  others  in  the  world.  I 
shall  wait  for  your  answer  with  the  utmost 
impatience. 

And  am,  madam, 

Your  real  admirer, 
Charles  Augustus  Montague. 

THE  LADY’S  REPLY  TO  HER  ADMIRER. 

Sir  : — I received  your  letter  last  night, 
and  as  it  was  on  a subject  I had  not  yet 
any  thoughts  of,  you  will  not  wonder  when 
I tell  you  I was  a good  deal  surprised. 
Although  I have  seen  and  familiarly  con- 
versed with  you  at  different  times,  yet  I 
had  not  the  most  distant  thoughts  of  your 
making  proposals  of  such  a nature.  Some 
of  your  sex  have  often  asserted  that  we  are 


fond  of  flattery,  and  very  much  pleased 
with  praise  ; I shall  therefore  suppose  you 
one  of  that  class,  and  excuse  you  for  those 
encomiums  bestowed  upon  me  in  your  let- 
ter ; but  I am  afraid  were  I to  comply  with 
your  proposals,  you  would  soon  be  con- 
vinced that  the  charms  you  mention,  and 
seem  to  value  so  much,  are  merely  exterior 
appearances.  An  appearance  of  sincerity 
runs  through  your  letter,  but  there  is  one 
particular  to  which  I have  a very  strong 
objection  ; you  say  that  you  live  with  your 
mother,  yet  you  do  not  say  that  you  have 
either  communicated  your  sentiments  to 
her  or  to  your  other  relations.  I must 
freely  and  honestly  tell  you  that,  as  I would 
not  disoblige  my  own  relations,  neither 
would  I,  on  any  consideration,  admit  of  any 
addresses  contrary  to  the  inclination  of 
yours.  If  you  can  clear  up  this  to  my  sat- 
isfaction, I shall  send  you  a more  explicit 
answer,  and  am,  sir. 

Your  most  obedient, 

Mary  L.  Harrison. 

A LADY  ON  SENDING  HER  PORTRAIT  TO 
HER  LOVER. 

Boston , yuly  n,  18 — . 

Dear  Sir  : — Accept  my  very  best  thanks 
for  your  kind  inquiries  regarding  my  health, 
which  I am  happy  to  say  is  as  good  as 
usual.  My  thoughts  often  recur  to  the 
happy  hours  which  we  have  passed  to- 
gether— hours  which  I have  thought  passed 
like  minutes,  so  full  were  they  of  the  pleas- 
ure which  I ever  feel  in  your  company. 
While  I feel  that  my  personal  pretensions 
are  but  humble,  I believe  that  you  will  be 
pleased  with  the  enclosed  miniature,  the 
view  of  which,  in  my  absence,  may  call  to 
your  mind  a remembrance  of  me.  While 
I feel  that  the  likeness  is  rather  a flattering 


THE  AKT  OF  CORRESPONDENCE.  LOVE  LETTERS. 


655 


one,  still,  should  it  but  serve  to  bring  me 
to  your  remembrance,  the  skill  of  the  artist 
will  not  have  been  exercised  in  vain.  Pray 
accept  it  as  a friendly  memento  from, 

My  dear  sir, 

Ever  sincerely  yoursP 
Emily  Wood. 

FROM  A YOUNG-  LADY  TO  HER  MOTHER. 

Newport , September  3,  18 — . 

My  Dear  Mamma  : — From  what  you 
know  of  Newport  you  will  not  be  surprised 
to  hear  that  I have  enjoyed  an  incessant 
round  of  gaiety  and  pleasure,  my  health  too 
is  completely  recruited,  and  my  friends  are 
so  kind  that  I almost  feel  at  home. 

But  I have  another  more  serious  matter 
to  confess  to  you,  at  which  I hope  you  will 
not  feel  angry.  It  seems  almost  ungrateful 
to  think  of  loving  any  one  but  you,  but  O, 
mamma  ! if  you  saw  Henry  — — you  would 
forgive  me,  I am  sure.  He  is  so  handsome, 
gentle  in  his  manners,  and  yet  so  sensible 
and  accomplished ! We  met  at  the  — — ~ 
ball,  and  he  scarcely  quitted  my  side  the 
whole  evening.  Mrs.  - — - has  so  high  an 
opinion  of  him  that  she  has  repeatedly  in- 
vited him  to  her  house,  until  his  visits  have 
become  of  almost  daily  occurrence.  He  is 
most  honorable  and  straight-forward,  and 
only  waits  permission  to  write  to  you,  in 
order  to  give  you  full  particulars  as  to  his 
condition  and  prospects. 

Pray,  dear  mamma,  forgive  me  when  I 
confess  that  my  feelings  are  deeply  enlisted 
,in  his  favor,  and  that  I feel  as  if  much  of 
my  future  happiness  depended  upon  our 
union.  I wish  you  were  here  to  counsel 
and  advise  with  me,  for  never  before  did  I 
so  much  feel  my  own  heart  master  of  my 
reason. 

I hope  you  will  write  directly,  or  come 
immediately  to  your  affectionate  but  anx- 
ious child.  Gussie. 


THE  ANSWER. 

New  York , September  7,  1 8 — . 

My  Dearest  Child  : — Make  yourseli 
perfectly  easy  as  to  my  consent  to  anything 
that  can  promote  your  happiness.  If  Mr, 

be  what  you  represent,  my  fondest 

wishes  that  you  might  meet  with  a desira- 
ble partner  in  life  will  be  realized.  At  the 
same  time,  do  not  be  too  hasty  in  giving  an 
unqualified  assent  to  his  proposals,  but  take 
time  to  learn  those  minute  shades  of  dispo- 
sition and  character  which  nothing  but 
constant  acquaintance  can  display. 

I shall  be  at  Newport  on  the  th,  and 
shall  not  only  be  delighted  to  meet  my  dear 
child  again,  but  to  be  introduced  to  the 
man  whom  she  has  thought  so  worthy  od 
her  affections. 

Y our  ever  loving  mother. 

TO  THE  GENTLEMAN. 

Newport , Sept.  5,  18—, 

My  Dear  Sir:— You  will  be  delighted 
that  mamma  is  every  way  favorable  to  our- 
attachment.  I say  our — for  I now  feel  un- 
der no  restraint  in  confessing  that  my  par- 
tiality for  you  is  closely  akin  to  a deeper 
feeling.  Let  us,  however  (as  she  herseP 
advises),  seek  to  know  each  other’s  tempe: 
and  character  more  thoroughly  ere  we  take 
too  decided  steps.  Let  us  learn  each  oth- 
er’s little  humors  and  wishes  that  we  may 
the  better  know  wherein  we  have  to  make 
allowance  for  and  yield  to  one  another. 

I trust  we  shall  see  my  mamma  in  a few 
days,  when  I am  sure  her  favorable  opinion 
of  you  will  be  more  and  more  confirmed. 

Believe  me,  dear  sir, 

Very  sincerely  yours, 

Gussie. 

A WIDOW  IN  ANSWER  TO  PROPOSALS. 

Kingston , July  14,  18 — . 

Dear.  Sir  : — I take  the  first  opportunity 


656 


THE  ART  OF  CORRESPONDENCE.  LOVE  LETTERS. 


of  acknowledging  the  receipt  of  the  flatter- 
ing letter  with  which  you  have  favored  me. 
Y ou  wish  to  know  whether  I am  willing  to 
enter  again  into  the  marriage  state,  and  in 
the  event  of  my  being  so,  whether  I should 
be  adverse  to  admitting  you  in  the  quality 
of  a suitor.  I assure  you,  sir,  I feel  flat- 
tered by  the  latter  question,  and  as  to  the 
former,  I can  only  say  that  I have  no  dis- 
like to  entering  again  into  that  state.  But 
our  acquaintance  is  at  present  imperfect, 
and  we  are  comparatively  strangers  to  each 
other’s  tastes  and  tempers.  I need  scarcely 
observe  that  an  intimate  knowledge  of  such 
matters  is  absolutely  requisite  before  we 
can  decide  whether  we  are  fitted  for  enjoy- 
ing together  a partnership  in  life.  Mean- 
while I have  no  objection  to  allowing  such 
freedom  of  acquaintance  as  shall  enable  us 
both  to  arrive  at  this  knowledge,  and  can 
therefore  only  say,  in  conclusion,  that  the 
commencement  of  your  addresses  will  meet 
with  no  obstacle, 

Dear  sir, 

Yours  most  faithfully, 

Evie. 

THE  WIDOW'S  REPLY  IN  THE  NEGATIVE. 

Kingston , July  14,  18 — . 

Dear  Sir  : — I have  just  perused  the  flat- 
tering letter  with  which  you  have  favored 
me.  Of  late,  whilst  enjoying  the  pleasure 
of  your  company,  I have  not  failed  to  ob- 
serve that  your  behavior  towards  myself 
has  been  more  than  ordinarily  attentive ; 
and  that  on  more  than  one  occasion  you 
have  rendered  yourself  of  essential  service 
to  my  interests.  Such  conduct  has  not 
failed  in  attaining  my  favor  and  friendship, 
but  has  not  had  the  effect  of  inspiring  a 
deeper  passion — a passion  which  I have 
totally  renounced,  whether  on  account  of 
the  advance  of  years  (as  the  case  may  be),  or 
of  attachment  to  the  memory  of  my  late 


husband,  it  is  immaterial  for  me  to  state. 
Had  I allowed  myself  to  suppose  that  the 
attentions  to  which  I have  just  alluded 
were  prompted  by  any  other  feeling  but 
that  of  simple  friendship,  I should  certainly 
have  endeavored  to  repress  them.  Hence 
you  may  infer  that,  while  I decline  the 
honor  of  your  addresses,  I still  remain,  with 
best  wishes  for  your  future  welfare, 

Dear  sir, 

Your  sincere  friend, 

Evie. 

TO  AN  ACCEPTED  LOVER. 

Yonkers , April  12,  18 — . 

My  Dear : Your  kind  and  affec- 

tionate letter  gave  us  much  pleasure,  es- 
pecially as  you  state  that  it  is  your  inten- 
tion to  come  down  next  midsummer,  and 
that  you  purpose  settling  here.  I can 
assure  you  we  shall  all  be  on  the  tiptoe  of 
expectation  for  your  arrival ; what  delights 
dear  father  and  mother  the  most  is  that  you 
propose  settling  in  the  country,  as  in  that 
case  we  shall  not  be  deprived  of  seeing 
each  other,  and  they  will  be  partakers  of 
our  pleasures,  which  could  not  be  had  you 
made  up  your  mind  to  reside  in  New  York. 

I have  received  your  pretty  present,  and 
will  repay  you  for  your  kind  remembrance 
of  me  with  a token  more  acceptable  than 
money  when  I see  you  ; until  then,  my 
dearest , 

I remain, 

Yours,  affectionately, 

Josie. 

AFTER  A MISUNDERSTANDING. 

April  2,  18  . 

Dear : Your  kind  letter  satisfies 

me,  and  I now  regret  that,  in  the  anxiety 
of  my  affection  for  you,  I should  have  given 
way  to  anything  resembling  a doubt.  You 
allow  that  appearances  were  a little  against 


THE  ART  OF  CORRESPONDENCE.  LOVE  LETTERS. 


657 


you,  and  that  I had  some  reason  for  com- 
plaint. Let  no  more  be  said  on  the  sub- 
ject, but  hasten  to  the  company  of 

Your  affectionate  and  faithful. 

Sarah  Ann. 

MORE  SERIOUS. 

July  23,  1 8 . 

Sir  : The  attempt  you  make  to  excuse 

your  conduct  is  neither  straightforward  nor 
satisfactory.  It  is,  in  fact,  only  exculpating 
yourself  by  admitting  a fault  as  great  as 
the  one  of  which  I complain  {Jtere  state  par- 
ticulars). Under  these  circumstances,  what- 
ever pain  it  may  cause  me,  I must  avow 
my  determination  never,  under  any  consid- 
eration, to  admit  of  your  addresses,  feeling 
persuaded  that  the  consequences  would  not 
be  favorable  to  the  happiness  of  either. 

I remain,  sir, 

Your  obedient  servant, 
Sarah  Ann  Morton. 

CONFESSING  A CHANGE  OF  FEELING. 

New  York , June  4,  1 8 . 

My  Dear  Sir  : I fear  my  avowal  may 

give  you  some  pain  ; but  it  is  better  to  be 
sincere  and  open  in  matters  where  the  hap- 
piness of  another  is  concerned. 

To  speak  plainly,  then,  I feel  that  my 
sentiments  in  regard  to  yourself  are  no 
longer  what  they  were.  While  my  esteem 
for  your  character  remains  unshaken,  I still 
cannot  blind  myself  to  the  fact  that  I do 
not  cherish  that  affection  which  a wife 
ought  to  feel  for  her  husband,  and  without 
which  the  married  life  is  one  continual 
scene  of  torment  and  vexation.  You  will 
not,  I am  sure,  give  me  credit  for  acting 
from  mere  fickleness — especially  as  I do 
not  at  present  entertain  a partiality  for  any 
other : but  you  must  pardon  me  when  I 
express  my  firm  belief  that  all  correspond- 
ence between  us  had  better  cease,  and  that 


such  letters  as  have  passed  between  us 
should  be  returned  at  the  first  convenient 
opportunity. 

I remain,  my  dear  sir, 

• Yours  very  respectfully, 

M.  J.  W. 

A FEMALE  SERVANT  TO  HER  SUITOR, 
Williamsburg,  May  1,  18  . 

Dear : I am  very  happy  to  receive 

your  kind  letter,  and  to  hear  that  you  are 
doing  so  well.  My  mistress  is  so  satisfied 
with  me  that  she  has  increased  my  wages. 
I am  in  hopes  that  with  care  and  economy, 
we  may  both  of  us  save  something,  and  not 
start  into  married  life,  as  many  do,  without 
a dollar  to  help  us. 

As  I go  out  on  Sunday  afternoon  I shall 
hope  to  meet  you  as  usual  at  ; till 
when  I remain 

Your  affectionate 

POLLIE. 

ANOTHER. 

York  Street , Saturday  12,  18  . 

Dear : I received  your  kind  letter 

of  the  th,  and  am  happy  to  hear  that  you 
are  well  in  health,  and  giving  satisfaction 
to  your  employer.  I look  forward  with 
anxiety  to  the  day  when  we  shall  be  united 
forever,  and  when  I shall  enjoy  the  protec- 
tion of  an  honest  and  persevering  husband. 
Jennie  is  happy  and  is  now  here. 

Continue  to  go  on  as  you  have  done,  and 
assure  yourself  of  the  constant  affection  of 

Maria.  . 

NOT  SO  FAST,  YOUNG  MAN. 

Yonkers , August  5,  18  . 

Dear : I cannot  say  I am  dis- 

pleased at  your  proposal,  but  I want  to 
know  you  better  before  I make  up  my  mind. 
Mother  says  “ that  they  who  ride  fast  never 
ride  long,”  and  I think  we  shall  both  do 
better  if  we  try  to  know  more  about  one 


658 


THE  ART  OF  CORRESPONDENCE.  LOVE  LETTERS. 


another  than  we  do  at  present.  Mother  is 
willing  for  you  to  visit  here,  and  I shall 
make  no  opposition,  as  I cannot  say  I dis- 
like you. 

Yours  faithfully, 
Jennie  Shaw. 

VERY  URGENT  TO  NAME  THE  WEDDING 
DAY. 

Yonkers , October  12,  1 8 . 

Dear : You  are  so  very  urgent 

that  I suppose  I must  consent  to  the  day 

you  name,  the  — th  of next.  I have 

settled  with  your  two  sisters  to  be  my 
bridesmaids,  and  shall  busy  myself  in  mak- 
ing preparations.  Meanwhile,  I suppose 
we  shall  see  you  as  usual  every  evening 
after  work  is  over. 

Your  affectionate  wife  to  come, 

Louise  Linwood. 

ASKING  FOR  BRIDESMAIDS. 

Dear : I write  to  ask  you  whether 

-you  and  you?  sister  can  get  ready  by  the 
— th  of  next  — — , as  you  have  kindly  prom- 
ised to  act  as  my  bridesmaids  on  the  im- 
portant occasion  ; — — is  so  very  impatient 
that  I cannot  resist  him  any  longer.  I shall 
call  and  see  you  to-morrow  ; tell  then, 
Believe  me, 

Your  sister  elect, 
Louise  Linwood. 


THE  ANSWER,  IN  WHICH  THEY  ARE  GLAD  OF 
THE  CHANCE. 

Yonkers , October  i^m  18 — . 

Dear : We  are  both  delighted  to 

hear  that  the  happy  day  is  fixed,  and  shall 
set  to  work  directly  to  make  ourselves  as 
fine  as  possible  in  our  quiet  humble  way. 
Plain  white  and  a few  artificial  flowers 
(which  we  shall  coax  father  to  bring  from 
— ),  will  be  all  that  we  shall  require,  and 


you  would  look  pretty  in  anything.  So  no 
more  at  present  from 

Your  affectionate  sisters, 
Amelia  and  Sophia 

A CLERGYMAN  PROPOSES — SHE  SEEMS 
DELIGHTED — THE  ANSWER. 

Meriden , A ugust  8 18--. 

My  Dear  Sir  : — I was  indeed  surprised 
and  delighted  by  my  visit  to  your  charming 

little  church  last , and  was  in  every 

way  impressed  by  the  devout  behavior  of 
the  congregation,  and  the  evident  pervad- 
ing influence  of  the  clergyman  among  his 
parishioners. 

I must  own  that  the  favorable  impression 
thus  formed  of  yourself  has  increased  on 

our  subsequent  meetings  at , and  that 

I have  ever  looked  upon  the  life  of  a zeal- 
ous clergyman  as  a guarantee  of  happiness 
to  those  around  him.  My  friends  here  (to 
whom  I have  communicated  the  report  of 
your  flattering  letter)  plead  strongly  on 
your  behalf;  and  I must  candidly  confess 
that  I feel  both  honored  and  pleased  by 
your  preference.  I cannot  say  more  than 

that  you  will  be  a welcome  visitor  at , 

and  that  I hope  our  further  acquaintance 
will  tend  to  strengthen,  rather  than  dimin- 
ish, our  mutual  good  will. 

Believe  me,  my  dear  sir, 

Yours  very  faithfully, 

Gertrude. 


A.LADY  TO  HER  FRIEND,  INFORMING  HER 
OF  HER  INTENDED  MARRIAGE,  AND  EN- 
GAGING HER  AS  A BRIDESMAID. 

New  Haven,  Sept.  18,  18 — . 
My  Dear  Susie  : — You  have  witnessed 
the  attentions  which  have  so  long  been  paid 

to  me  by  , and  are  of  course  aware 

that  he  has  addressed  them  to  me  in  the 
quality  of  a suitor.  I can  assure  you  it 
has  not  been  without  the  closest  scrutiny, 


THE  ART  OF  CORRESPONDENCE.  FAMILY  AND  LOVE  LETTERS. 


659 


both  on  my  part  and  that  of  my  dear  par- 
ents, into  his  moral  character,  temper, 
tastes  and  habits,  that  I have  come  to  the 
resolution  of  becoming  his  partner  for  life. 
His  disposition  is  cheerful ; I know  him  to 
be  a man  of  the  nicest  honor ; and  I re- 
joice to  say,  as  I have  hitherto  found,  that 
we  seldom  fail  to  coincide  in  our  opinions ; 
which  shows,  at  least,  that  we  are  actuated 
by  such  a unity  of  tastes  as  is  calculated 
to  give  one  every  reasonable  prospect  of 
enjoying  happiness  in  the  married  state. 
The  day  of  our  union  has  at  length  been 
decided  ; and  the  mention  of  this  brings 
me  to  the  chief  purport  of  my  letter,  which 
is  that  of  inviting  you  to  become  my  brides- 
maid. Allow  me  to  promise  myself  this 
favor,  which  I am  convinced  you  will  not 
refuse  after  our  long  friendship.  The  — th 
of  — — has  been  fixed  upon  as  the  auspi- 
cious day,  upon  which,  if  you  have  no  other 
more  particular  engagement,  may  I rely  on 
seeing  you  ? An  early  reply,  as  you  are 
aware,  will  be  requisite  ; and  trusting  that 
it  may  be  in  compliance  with  my  earnest 
wish, 

I remain,  my  dear , 

Y our  affectionate  friend, 
Clara  Vere  de  Vere. 

SUSIE  ACCEPTS,  AND  CONGRATULATES  HER 

FRIEND  ON  HER  INTENDED  MARRIAGE. 

Baltimore , Sept.  20,  18 — . 

My  Dear  Clara: — No  one,  I believe, 
can  be  more  desirous  to  hear  of  your  wel- 
fare and  your  prosperous  settlement  in  the 
marriage  state  than  myself.  I have  long 
been  sensible  of  your  worth,  your  goodness 
of  heart,  your  rectitude  of  principle,  and 
your  warmth  of  friendship.  Enviable  among 
men  will  be  the  lot  of  him  who  is  destined 
to  become  your  partner  for  life,  and  fortu- 
nate, indeed,  was  Mr.  • in  that  intro- 

duction which  first  presented  you  to  his 


notice.  As  for  Mr.  — — , I need  scarcely 
observe  that  I approve  of  your  choice,  in 
which  you  have  shown  a discrimination 
that  does  credit  to  your  taste,  and  that  good 
sense  which  has  been  the  guide  of  your 
past  life.  Your  friendly  letter,  in  which 
vou  announce  your  intended  marriage,  now 
lies  before  me,  and  I must  say  that  I feel 
highly  favored  in  your  preference  of  me  to 
become  one  of  your  bridesmaids.  You 
could  scarcely  have  preferred  any  request 
with  which  I would  more  gladly  comply. 
Expect,  therefore,  to  see  me  without  fail 

on  “,  the  — th,  a period  to  which  I shall 

look  forward  with  some  impatience,  as  the 
day  on  which  the  happiness  of  a dear  and 
valued  friend  will,  I hope,  be  consummated. 
Adieu  till  then,  and  believe  me  to  be,  my 
dear  , 

Yours,  most  sincerely  and  affectionately, 

Susie. 


A LADY,  VISITING  IN  PROVIDENCE,  TO  HER 
HUSBAND. 

Providence,  July  22,  18 — . 

My  Dear  Charles  : — In  imagining  what 
your  thoughts  and  feelings  are  likely  to  be 
during  my  absence,  I have  only  to  call  to 
recollection  what  my  own  have  been  on  like 
occasions,  when  you,  dear  — — , have  been 
absent  from  home.  How  has  my  remem- 
brance of  you  then  been  interwoven  with 
each  minute  of  my  existence?  and  how 
have  I counted  the  hours  till  that  had  ar- 
rived which  brought  me  intelligence  of 
your  welfare?  So  justly  do  I appreciate 
your  attachment,  that  I feel  convinced  this 
feeling  must  be  mutual,  and  I picture  to 
myself  the  smile  of  delight  with  which  you 
will  receive  my  present  letter:  I know  you 
will  experience  real  satisfaction  in  hearing 
that  I still  enjoy  my  health,  and,  in  fact, 
was  never  better,  and  that  the  hospitality 
and  kindly  attentions  of , so  far  from 


660 


THE  ART  OF  CORRESPONDENCE.  FAMILY  AND  LOVE  LETTERS. 


diminishing,  seem  rather  to  increase.  They 
make  it  indeed  their  study  to  surround  me 
with  comforts,  and  are  constantly  devising 
some  fresh  plans  which  they  think  may 
conduce  to  my  amusement.  Be  assured, 
therefore,  my  dear  , that  with  the  ex- 

ception of  missing  your  cheering  company, 
and  that  of  our  dear  children,  I am  as  hap- 
py as  you,  the  fondest  of  all  my  well  wish- 
ers, could  desire  me  to  be. 

Having  said  this  much  of  myself,  let  me 
now  observe  that  I am  most  anxious  to  re- 
ceive a letter  from  you,  for  I long  to  hear 
how  you  aLv":  the  children  still  continue  in 
regard  to  health,  and  what  fresh  occur- 
rences have  taken  place  since  you  wrote 
last.  At  present  I have  no  reason  for  sup- 
posing that  my  absence  from  home  will  be 
prolonged  beyond  the  — th,  on  which  day  I 
hope  again  to  be  with  you.  Give  my  kind- 
est love  to  Millie,  and  believe  me, 

My  dear , 

Your  ever  affectionate  wife, 

Evie. 

FROM  THE  SAME  TO  HER  DAUGHTER,  WHO, 
IN  HER  ABSENCE,  ACTS  AS  HOUSE- 
KEEPER. 

Providence , July  22,  18 — , 
My  Dear  Millie  As  the  duty  of  man- 
aging our  small  establishment  has  devolved 
upon  you  during  my  absence,  I am  anxious 
to  have  some  account  of  your  proceedings 
at  home,  and  should  be  happy  to  give  you 
any  further  instructions  in  case  you  have 
met  with  any  difficulty,  or  find  yourself  at 
a loss  how  to  act.  You  will  have  learnt 
from  the  letter  which  I have  sent  to  your 
father  that  I still  continue  to  enjoy  my 
health,  and  considering  that  I am  separated 
from  my  own  family,  my  time  passes  as 
pleasantly  as  I could  reasonably  desire,  my 

hospitable  entertainers,  Mr.  and  Mrs. , 

being  constantly  attentive  to  promote  my 


comfort  and  amusement.  We  have  had 
several  most  agreeable  parties,  and  I have 
been  favored  with  many  introductions,  and 
have  formed  acquaintances  of  a desirable 
nature.  I have  been  very  much  delighted 
with  some  excursions  which  we  have  made 
in  the  neighborhood ; amongst  the  rest,  to 
(; mentioning  the  places ).  These  short  trips 

have  much  benefited  my  health,  as  well  as 
increased  my  knowledge  of  the  country. 
Yet  amidst  all  my  enjoyments  my  thoughts 
continually  recur  towards  home  and  to  that 
affectionate  circle  which  has  endeared  it  to 
me.  I shall  endeavor  to  return  by  the  — -th, 
and  in  the  meantime  let  me  repeat  that  I 
am  anxious  to  receive  a full  account  of 
your  domestic  proceedings.  Write,  there- 
fore, at  your  earliest  opportunity,  with  such 
particulars  as  you  think  likely  to  interest 
Your  absent  but 

Ever  affectionate  mother. 

THE  ANSWER. 

Brooklyn , July  24,  18 — . 

My  Dear  Mamma  : — I was  delighted  to 
hear  from  you,  especially  as  you  write  in 
such  excellent  spirits  and  in  such  evident 
enjoyment  of  your  excursion.  Everything 
was  left  in  such  capital  order  when  you 
went  out  of  town  that  I have  had  little  diffi- 
culty in  our  domestic  matters,  and  papa 
says  that  I am  getting  quite  a little  woman 
of  business. 

At  this  season  ol  the  year  very  few  of 
our  friends  are  in  town,  and  we  have  not, 

therefore,  had  many  visitors.  Mrs. 

called  the  other  evening,  and  made  many 

kind  inquiries  after  all  of  us,  and  Mr. 

spent  the  evening  with  papa  last . 

We  were  rather  anxious  about  Emily  last 
week ; she  was  so  languid  and  feverish  tha. 

papa  went  off  for  Dr. at  once.  I sat 

up  with  her  the  greater  part  of  the  night, 


THE  ART  OF  CORRESPONDENCE.  FAMILY  AND  LOVE  LETTERS. 


661 


and  scarcely  left  her  room  till  she  recover- 
ed. She  was  as  patient  and  amiable  as 
ever,  but  often  wondered  a little  about 
mamma.  However,  as  there  was  no  danger 
(so  Dr.  — — assured  us),  we  would  not 
think  of  alarming  you,  and  spoiling  the 
pleasure  of  your  visit  by  news  that  we 
knew  would  have  caused  you  severe  anx- 
iety. Like  all  of  us,  dear  Emily  sends  her 
hearty  love  to  you,  and  desires  me  to  tell 
you  that  she  never  was  better  or  more  hap- 
py than  at  present. 

Our  life  is  passed  much  as  usual.  Miss 

, our  governess,  is  as  kind  to  the 

younger  children  as  you  could  possibly  de- 
sire, and  proves  a most  agreeable  compan- 
ion and  helpmate  to  myself  in  the  perform- 
ance of  our  little  domestic  duties.  Papa 
and  I go  out  a great  deal,  and  he  seems  to 
find  me  a substitute,  though  a very  poor 
one,  for  your  society. 

Sincerely  hoping  that  when  you  return 
you  will  be  pleased  with  all  that  has  been 
done  during  your  absence, 

I remain, 

My  dear  Mamma, 

Your  ever  affectionate  daughter, 

Millie. 

A LADY  TO  HER  FRIEND  IN  TOWN,  INVIT 
ING  HER  TO  SPEND  A MONTH  IN  THE 
COUNTRY. 

Washington , Ct .,  June  14,  18 — . 
My  Dear  Friend  Susie  : — I need 
scarcely  tell  you  that  I always  feel  the 
greatest  pleasure  in  your  society,  and  am 
selfish  enough  on  the  present  occasion  to 
covet  it  for  a month,  or  for  a longer  period, 
should  it  suit  your  convenience.  I think 
you  would  gather  some  amusement,  and 
also  perhaps,  improve  your  health  by  a so- 
journ in  the  country.  Will  you  then  do  us 
the  favor  of  making  our  rural  retreat  your 
temporary  abode,  assuring  yourself  that 


your  presence  will  enliven  our  family  cir 
cle,  and  be  a real  source  of  enjoyment  to 
Your  sincere  friend, 
Phinnie. 

ANSWER  TO  THE  SAME,  AFFIRMATIVELY. 

New  Haven , June  16,  18 — . 

My  Dear  Phinnie: — I have  iust  re- 
ceived your  kind  letter,  inviting  me  to 
spend  a short  time  at  your  pleasant  house. 
I can  assure  you  that  there  are  few  who 
feel  more  delighted  with  the  country  than 
myself,  and  I could  be  well  contented  to 
make  it  my  residence  during  a certain  part 
of  every  year,  and  should  certainly  do  so, 

did  the  pursuits  of  Mr. allow  us  to 

live  out  of  town.  However,  my  domestic 
duties  are  not  at  present  of  so  pressing  a 
nature  as  to  force  me  to  decline  your 

friendly  invitation,  and  Mr.  -,  so  far 

from  offering  any  obstacle  to  my  absence 
from  home  for  a short  time,  has  urged  me 
to  send  you  an  affirmative  answer,  and  as 
he  thinks  that,  in  addition  to  the  enjoy- 
ment which  I cannot  fail  to  experience  in 
the  society  of  yourself  and  family,  I shall 
benefit  my  health  by  a change  of  air  and 
scene,  I therefore  accept  your  kind  invita- 
tion most  cheerfully. 

My  dear, 

Your  ever  sincere  friend, 

Susie . 

FROM  A YOUNG-  LADY  TO  iEE  SISTER,  AN- 
NOUNCING HER  ENGAGEMENT. 

New  York , Jan.  25  thy  18 — . 

My  Dear  Sister  : — You  may  remember 
my  mentioning  to  you  the  marked  atten- 
tion Mr.  C.  paid  me  ; it  has  now  termina- 
ted in  a formal  proposal  of  marriage,  which 
I think  of  accepting,  but  it  won’t  be  pru- 
dent to  be  hasty  in  my  decision,  as  such  a 
course  might  lead  him  to  suppose  I was 
anxious  to  have  him.  A lady’s  policy  ui>- 


682 


THE  ART  OF  CORRESPONDENCE.  FAMILY  AND  LOVE  LETTERS. 


der  circumstances  of  this  kind,  ought  to 
be  so  effectually  carried  out,  as  to  cause 
the  gentleman  some  trouble  in  the  attain- 
ment of  his  ends,  so  that  he  may  more 
highly  value  the  prize,  when  gained.  How 
soon  he  may  wish  me  to  change  my  name, 
I cannot  at  present  say,  but  I do  not  think 
he  will  be  long,  as  he  does  not  appear  to 
be  one  of  the  deferring  kind.  He  is  snug- 
ly off  and  doing  a profitable  business,  a 
few  years  my  senior,  good  looking,  and  ap- 
rently  good  tempered. 

I hope  you  will  soon  return  home.  You 
can  then  pass  your  opinion.  I shall  have 
to  tax  your  time,  as  I shall  require  assist- 
ance in  preparing  for  my  anticipated  union. 

I remain 

Your  affectionate  sister, 

Jane. 

ANSWER  TO  THE  ABOVE. 

Chicago , ///.,  Jan . 1 8th,  18 — . 

My  Dear  Sister  I cannot  say  I am 
much  surprised  at  the  news  in  your  last 
letter.  It  would  have  been  anything  but 
honorable,  or  feeling,  had  Mr.  C.  acted 
otherwise  than  he  has.  I am  sure  his  bear- 
ing towards  you  would  have  lead  any  one 
to  believe  you  were  on  the  eve  of  marriage. 

I must  congratulate  you  on  your  con- 
quest. I shall  return  home  the  4th  of  Feb= 
ruary,  and  render  you  all  the  assistance  I 
can  in  your  multitudinous  preparations  for 
the  great  event  of  your  life. 

Your  affectionate  sister, 

Mary. 

FROM  A YOUNG-  GENTLEMAN,  DESIRING  A 
YOUNG  LADY  TO  ELOPE  WITH  HIM. 

My  Dear  Minnie  : — I cannot  live  with- 
out you,  and  if  you  persist  in  refusing  to 
comply,  I am  miserable  forever.  Do  not 
be  afraid  of  poverty  ; if  ever  you  loved  me( 
let  me  beg  that  you  will  not  make  me  any 


longer  unhappy.  Let  me  entreat  you  by 
all  that  is  dear,  that  you  will  comply  with 
my  request,  and  meet  me  at  six  on  Sunday 
evening,  at  the  back  door  of  the  garden, 
where  a carriage  will  be  ready.  I will  fly 
on  the  wings  of  love  to  my  charmer,  and 
be  happy  in  her  embraces  forever. 

I remain  your  dear  lover, 

James  Adams. 

FROM  A YOUNG  LADY,  IN  ANSWER  TO  A 
PROPOSAL  AFTER  A SHORT  ACQUAINT- 
ANCE. 

New  Haven , July  6th , 18 — 
Sir  : Although  it  is  the  highest  com- 

pliment that  can  be  paid  our  sex,  to  receive 
offers  calculated  to  ensure  a lasting  acqaint- 
ance,  I must  still  complain  of  the  precipi- 
tate character  of  your  address  to  one  who, 
till  a few  days  ago  was  a total  stranger  to 
you.  Without  wishing  to  say  anything 
harsh,  I must  confess  that  I do  not  feei  any 
motive  to  entertain  so  hasty  a proposal,  and 
have  felt  bound  to  lay  your  letter  before 
my  parents,  as  I could  not  think  of  con- 
cealing from  them  any  correspondence  of 
such  a description. 

Trusting  that  you  will  see  the  matter  in 
its  proper  light, 

I remain, 

Sir, 

Yours,  respectfully, 

Harriet  Beecher. 

ON  MORE  INTIMATE  ACQUAINTANCE. 

New  Haven , May  1st,  18 — . 
Dear : — We  shall  all  be  very  hap- 

py to  see  you  here  for  a little  evening  fes- 
tival to  the  children  of  the  village.  When 
I say  we,  it  of  course  includes  some  one  in 
whose  heart  you  now  hold  a place,  with 
whose  fondest  thoughts  and  prayers  your 
name  has  been  associated  for  some  months 
past.  I believe  we  are  to  perform  charades. 


THE  ART  OF  CORRESPONDENCE.  LETTERS  OF  CONDOLENCE. 


663 


or  something  of  that  sort,  and  I have  been 
occupied  half  the  week  in  cutting  old  win- 
dow curtains  and  sofa-covers  into  absurd 
costumes  supposed  to  be  Oriental.  I know 
you  are  very  clever  at  that  sort  of  non- 
sense, so  I hope  you  will  come  and  have  a 
good  laugh  with  and  at 

Your  affectionate , 

Harriet  Beecher. 

ON  RECEIVING  A BIRTH-DAY  CONGRATTJLA 
TION. 

Worcester , May  fih,  18 — . 

My  Dear — If  anything  could  com- 

pensate for  your  absence  from  me  yester- 
day, it  is  the  charming,  kind  letter  in  which 
you  poured  out  your  thoughts  so  fervently. 
I have  read,  and  cried  over  it,  till  I begin 
to  believe  that  there  is  even  a degree  of 
painfulness  in  feeling  oneself  beloved. 

We  had,  in  all  other  respects,  a most  de- 
lightful day.  My  friends  here  make  so 
much  of  me,  that  I am  afraid  I shall  be 
spoilt  by  over-indulgence.  We.  were  en- 
gaged in  a picnic  the  whole  of  the  after- 
noon, and  came  home  heartily  tired.  This, 
however,  did  not  prevent  a great  deal  of 
music  and  singing  in  the  evening,  and  it  was 
o’clock  before  we  parted.  I have  lit- 
tle news  to  convey  to  you;  indeed,  our  let- 
ters are  so  frequent  that  they  almost  anti- 
cipate events. 

My  aunt,  Mr.  and  Mrs.  , and  all  here 
unite  in  their  kindest  regards,  and,  with 
sincere  gratitude  for  your  constant  tender, 
ness  and  affection. 

Believe  me, 

Your  ever  loving  and  faithful 
Julia  Romance. 

COMPLAINING  OF  NOT  RECEIVING  A LET- 
TER. 

Detroit,  May  2d,  18 — . 

Dear : — No  letter  again  ! Y ou  are 

really  growing  intolerably  negligent,  and  I 


shall  begin  to  think  that  you  are  getting 
tired  of  me,  and  that  some  new  attraction 
is  in  the  field.  Knowing  how  anxious  I am 
respecting  your  health  and  welfare,  I am 
sure  you  will  give  me  the  credit  of  not 
writing  from  idle  jealousy,  although  I really 
feel  grieved  and  anxious  at  your  unusual 
neglect. 

I have  no  news  just  at  present;  indeed, 

I am  too  much  out  of  spirits  to  write  at 
any  great  length.  Pray  hasten  to  remove 
all  doubt  from  the  mind  of  one  whose 
thoughts,  day  and  night,  are  upon  you  only. 

Your  affectionate 

Lizzie. 

A LETTER  OF  CONDOLENCE  ON  THE  DEATH 
OF  A HUSBAND. 

Springfield,  May  i8tk,  18 — -. 

My  Dear : — If  any  consolation  can 

be  afforded  under  so  heavy  an  affliction  as 
you  have  just  experienced,  it  must  come 
from  a higher  power  than  mine.  Your  own 
strong  sense  of  religion,  and  of  our  duty  of 
resignation  to  a power  that  is  beyond  our 
control,  and  a will  that  is  ever  beneficently 
directed  towards  our  good,  must  uphold  you 
in  this  most  bitter  trial.  I well  know  how 
painful  the  well-meant,  but  often  mistaken, 
officiousness  of  friends  may  be  on  such 
occasions,  or  I should  have  hastened  to  your 
side,  and  sought  to  assuage  the  pangs  of 
your  overworn  spirit. 

It  were  a melacholy  pleasure  to  dwell 
upon  the  virtues  and  accomplishments  ofj 
your  late  beloved  husband  ; but  the  sub- 
ject is  too  painful  for  me,  and,  in  the  confi- 
dence that  he  is  in  the  enjoyment  of  an 
everlasting  happiness,  such  as,  my  dear 

, even  you  could  not  have  realized  to 

him  on  earth,  I hope  that  you  will  support 
your  spirits  both  for  your  own  and  your 
children’s  sake,  and  look  forward  to  that 


664 


THE  ART  OF  CORRESPONDENCE.  LETTERS  OF  CONDOLENCE. 


brighter  and  happier  world  in  which  we 
shall  go  to  those  who  cannot  return  to  us. 

God  comfort  you, 

Dear . 

Your  affectionate  and 

sorrowing  friend, 

Mrs.  Jane  Sympathy. 

A LETTER  OF  CONDOLENCE  ON  THE  DEATH 
OF  A CHILD. 

New  York , Aug.  10th,  1 8 — . 

My  Dear  : If  anything  could  have 

caused  me  especial  pain,  it  was  the  news  of 
your  sad  bereavement.  How  I remember 
your  dear  child  ! Affectionate,  lively,  and 
intelligent,  ever  displaying  a thoughtfulness 
beyond  his  years,  and  holding  forth  hopes 
of  happiness  in  after  times  which  will 
scarcely  bear  reflection. 

It  has,  indeed,  been  a heavy  blow,  and  I 
scarcely  know  how  to  talk  of  consolation 
under  so  bitter  an  affliction.  But  think, 

my  dear , of  One  who  “ careth  for  all,” 

who  loves  little  children  beyond  others, 
and  think  of  the  bright  and  never-ending 
future  life  of  that  dear  child,  whose  spirit 
has  passed  away  but  for  a brief  period, 
whose  soul  only  waits  in  heaven  to  hail  the 
mother  from  whom  he  has  been  parted. 

I can  say  no  more  ; human  consolations 
are  weak  and  poorly.  May  a higher  power 
do  that  which  I cannot ! 

Ever  sincerely  yours, 

Mrs.  G.  H.  Trowbridge. 

A LETTER  OF  CONDOLENCE  ON  A REVERSE 
OF  FORTUNE. 

Columbus , Ohio , yan.  3,  18 — . 

Dear : — I am  truly  pained  to  hear 

of  the  melancholy  change  in  your  circum- 
stances. I had  hoped  that  your  husband’s 
position  and  connections  would  have  pre- 
vented the  possibility  of  his  embarking  in 
any  scheme  where  there  seemed  room  for 


uncertainty.  But,  unhappily,  the  specula- 
tive spirit  of  the  age  is  too  seductive  to  be 
easily  withstood,  and  we  are  every  day 
hearing  of  families  being  reduced  to  abso- 
lute poverty,  more  from  mischance  than 
wilful  error. 

But  you  must  not  only  cheer  up,  but 
labor  to  cheer  your  husband  likewise.  Let 
him  find  that  he  possesses  a wife  who  will 
not  display  her  annoyance  at  the  depriva- 
tion of  many  (perhaps  unnecessary)  luxu- 
ries of  life,  and  whose  determination  to 
economize  will  make  poverty  seem  less 
poor,  and  whose  affection  will  insure  him 
that  comfort  which  the  wealthiest  position, 
without  undivided  affection,  would  wholly 
fail  to  realize. 

Nor  must  you  look  at  matters  as  hope- 
less. Although  changed  in  your  means, 
you  have  not  lost  in  character.  Y our  truer 
friends  look  upon  you  with  the  same  eyes 
as  formerly,  and  for  the  shallow  and  insin- 
cere you  ought  not,  cannot  care.  Besides, 
a favorable  change  must  result  from  your 
husband’s  persevering  and  consistent  efforts; 
and  by  the  exercise  of  economy,  and  the 
patient  submission  to  a few  privations,  you 
may  ere  long  fully  retrieve  the  position  you 
have  already  adorned. 

That  success  and  happiness  may  soon 
spring  out  of  the  present  unfavorable  con- 
dition of  things,  is  the  hearty  and  earnest 
wish  of, 

Yours  ever  affectionately, 

Grace  Arlington. 

ANNOUNCING  TO  A LADY  THE  DEATH  OF 
HER  SISTER. 

Portland , May  18,  18 — . 

My  Dear  Madam  : — You  have  long  been 
aware  of  the  painful  and  serious  illness 
under  which  your  dear  sister  has  been  suf- 
fering; but  perhaps  you  have  not  been 
fully  sensible  of  its  dangerous  tendency, 


THE  ART  OF  CORRESPONDENCE.  ON  PUBLISHING  BOOKS. 


665 


and  of  the  fears  always  entertained  by  those 
around  her  that  its  termination  would  be 
fatal.  Would  that  our  fears  had  been  with- 
out foundation  ; but  I am  reluctantly  com- 
pelled to  tell  you  that  our  worst  anticipa- 
tions have  been  too  mournfully  realized, 
your  poor  sister  having  expired  (last  even- 
ing),  though,  it  is  consolatory  to  state,  with 
little  bodily  suffering.  She  had  borne  her 
affliction  with  the  fortitude  of  a Christian, 
retained  her  faculties  to  her  last  moments, 
yielding  her  breath  in  full  peace  of  mind, 
and  convinced  that  she  was  leaving  this 
earthly  state  for  a better  and  a happier  in 
another  world.  Your  dear  mother  is  in 
such  a state  of  prostration  that  she  finds 
the  task  of  writing  to  you  too  painful  for 
her  feelings,  and  has  expressed  her  wish 
that  I,  the  intimate  friend  of  your  late  sis- 
ter, should  be  the  communicant  of  the  sad 
intelligence.  She  desires  me  to  say  how 
much  your  presence  would  help  to  console, 
not  only  herself,  but  also  your  father  and 
the  whole  of  the  family.  They  hope,  there- 
fore, to  see  you  by  the  earliest  opportunity, 
and  request  me  to  send  you  their  best  love. 

Accept,  dear  madam,  my  sincerest  con- 
dolence under  this  sad  bereavement  and 
affliction,  and 

Believe  me  to  remain, 

Ever  yours,  sincerely, 

Mrs.  Julia  St.  John. 

TO  A YOUNG  LADY  ANXIOUS  TO  PUBLISH 
A BOOK. 

New  Haven , Oct . 7,  1 8 — . 

My  Dear : — I am  the  last  person 

in  the  world  to  dream  of  discouraging  the 
efforts  of  young  persons,  especially  when 
their  whole  conduct  displays  uniform  amia- 
bility of  disposition  and  soundness  of  char- 
acter. But  I cannot  conceal  what  I believe 
to  be  the  real  truth,  viz.  that  you  are  too 
young  to  have  thought  upon,  or  seen  enough 


of  human  nature,  to  venture  to  express 
yourself  in  print.  Remember,  my  dear 

, that  even  a mere  letter,  once  written, 

is  irrevocable.  How  much  greater,  then, 
the  mischief  of  committing  oneself  to  print  ? 
In  the  one  case,  one  person  only  may  be 
offended,  in  the  other,  thousands.  Do  not 
let  the  precociousness  of  some  few  Ameri- 
can and  English  authoresses  deceive  you- 
Among  the  former,  the  instances  are  but 
rare ; among  the  latter,  there  is  little  which 
an  American  lady  should  imitate. 

You  have,  it  is  true,  received  an  excel- 
lent education ; and  your  natural  aptitude 
has  made  that  education  profitable  to  you 
in  the  fullest  extent.  But  do  not  think 
that  your  juvenile  years  are  fit  for  the  diffi- 
cult task  of  novel  writing.  As  an  old  au- 
thoress, I look  back  with  regret  to  many 
crude  publications  of  my  early  days,  and 
feel  happy  in  their  oblivion.  Do  not  think 
me  unkind  or  querulous  in  my  views.  I 
believe  that  where  there  is  genius,  genius 
will  find  opportunities  of  fair  development ; 
but  you  must  not  mistake  a mere  partiality 
for  a pursuit  for  the  talent  which  alone  is 
calculated  to  insure  success.  Do  not 
“ rush  into  print.”  Deepen  your  present 
thoughts  by  continued  experience;  mark 
every  transaction — every  thought  of  your 
own  life,  and  think  cautiously  and  impar- 
tially upon  the  deeds  and  dealings  of  those 

around  you ; svich,  my  dear  , are  the 

only  studies  which  can  ever  make  you  fit 
for  the  responsible  and  difficult  duties  of  an 
authoress. 

Above  all,  beware  of  writing  from  mem- 
ory. There  are  too  many  writers  who  dis- 
course profusely  upon  things  they  have 
never  seen,  society  they  have  never  moved 
in.  This  is  of  little  consequence  where 
mere  facts  are  concerned,  and  what  is  once 
well  ascertained  and  known,  is  common 
property;  but  in  novel  writing  it  is  far 


666 


THE  AkT  OF  CORRESPONDENCE.  FAMILY  LETTERS. 


otherwise.  The  great  charm  of  Mrs.  South- 
worth’s  works  is  their  wondrous  truthful- 
ness and  probability ; fiction  to  be  success- 
ful should  bear  the  closest  impress  of  truth ; 
character  should  never  be  exaggerated,  ab- 
surdity should  not  be  increased  under  the 
mistaken  belief  that  wit  is  displayed  through 
its  means  ; every  feature  of  a story  should 
be  modelled  on  the  original  in  common 
life,  and  the  inculcation  of  a principle 
should  be  consistent  with  what  men  and 
women  think  and  do,  not  with  some  fairy- 
land notions  of  the  authoress. 

My  dear  , I have  no  doubt  that  if 

you  mature  your  conceptions,  and  mean- 
while pay  attention  to  the  minute  matters 
of  style  which  are  so  unhappily,  and  yet  so 
often,  neglected,  I shall  one  day  hail  you 
as  a younger  sister  in  authorcraft.  But  it 
is  because  I wish  sincerely  and  affection- 
ately for  your  welfare  that  I would  have 
you  begin  your  career,  not  with  precocious 
crudities,  but  with  well  ripened  and  wo- 
manly efforts,  the  result  of  reflection  and 
patience,  as  well  as  of  genius. 

Come  to  me  on , and  bring  some  of 

your  MS.  with  you.  You  will  find  a sin- 
cere, but  I trust  not  unkind,  friend  in 

My  dear , 

Yours  ever  sincerely, 

Clara  Howard  Bell. 


FROM  A MOTHER  TO  HER  DAUGHTER,  WHO 
HAS  LEFT  HOME  FOR  DOMESTIC  SERVICE 
IN  A LARGE  CITY. 

Glens  Falls , Y Y,  y an.  18,  18 — . 
My  Dear  Daughter: — The  time  has 
now  arrived  when  you  must  henceforth  de- 
pend upon  your  own  energies  and  moral 
strength  to  battle  successfully  with  the 
world. 


From  the  quiet,  unsophisticated  and 
comparative  innocence  of  country  life  you 
are  now  launched  into  the  midst  of  the 
bustle,  cunning  and  consequent  evils  to  be 
found  in  all  large  cities.  This  is  a critical 
period  of  life,  and  will  require  all  your  for- 
titude, sustained  by  the  early  lessons  so 
carefully  inculcated  into  your  yet  uncon- 
taminated mind,  to  firmly  withstand. 

In  the  new  sphere  you  have  chosen  be- 
ware of  the  associations  formed  ; you  will 
come  in  contact  with  those  who,  from  hav- 
ing lived  perhaps  all  their  lives  in  the  city, 
have  acquired  its  habits  of  gaiety  and  be- 
come acquainted  with  the  fascinating  influ- 
ences so  detrimental  to  those  uninitiated 
in  the  wiles  and  schemes  practiced  to  take 
advantage  of  the  young,  unprotected  and 
unsuspecting  female. 

So,  dear  child,  look  well  to  the  compan- 
ions you  choose.  You  are  old  enough  to 
know  right  from  wrong ; you  can  discern 
whether  the  society  in  which  you  mingle 
will  tend  to  good  or  evil.  The  question, 
“ Will  mother  approve  of  this  ? ” answered 
according  to  conscience,  may  guide  and 
protect  you  from  besetting  snares. 

In  conclusion,  faithfully  discharge  the 
duties  devolving  upon  you ; let  not  the 
persuasions  of  others  influence  you  in  de- 
parting from  such  a course  of  conduct  as  it 
has  been  my  fervent  wish  and  prayer  for 
you  to  follow,  it  having  been  my  sole  en- 
deavor to  train  your  mind  to  a course  of 
rectitude  of  conduct  and  integrity  of  pur- 
pose. 

Your  ever  affectionate  mother, 

Julia  Grah\m. 


TYPES  AND  THEIR  NAMES, 

SHOWING  HOW  TO  SELECT  TYPE  FOR  PRINTING,  WITH  SPECIMENS 

OF  THEIR  SIZE  AND  STYLE. 

ANY  persons  who  have  occasion  to  employ  a printer  at  some  time  in  their 
lives  and  are  unfamiliar  with  the  terms  used  in  a printing  office  when  they 
hear  the  printer  use  the  words  “ Brevier,”  “ Nonpareil,”  “ Long  Primer,” 
and  other  terms,  are  at  as  great  a loss  to  understand  him  as  if  he  spoke  a 
foreign  language.  They  may  wish  an  advertising  card,  a circular,  a 
handbill,  or  the  programme  of  an  entertainment,  and  naturally  desire  to  have  it  at  once 
attractive  and  contain  as  much  matter  as  possible.  To  aid  such  of  our  readers,  we  give 
a specimen  of  the  various  forms  and  sizes  of  type  commonly  used,  showing  the  same 
amount  of  “ copy  ” and  the  space  it  will  require  when  “ set  up  ” in  each  style. 


[PEARL.] 

Within  this  volume’s  crowded  pages 
The  careful  reader  e’er  cau  find 
Instruction  suited  to  all  ages 

And  wisdom  to  enrich  the  mind. 

The  youth  may  learn  to  write  with  beauty, 

And  “ keep  his  books  ” with  proper  care. 

The  forms  of  speech  and  social  duty, 

And  how  to  treat  his  lady  fair. 

[NONPAREIL.] 

The  maid  may  learn  the  art  of  writing, 

To  correspond  with  skill  and  ease, 

To  keep  her  home,  no  duty  slighting, 

And  how  to  dress,  the  eye  to  please. 

And  if  she  had  the  wise  instruction 

Of  “ Etiquette  and  Ball  Room  Guide,” 

Some  youth  will  seek  an  introduction 
And  ask  her  to  become  his  bride. 

And  when  the  lover’s  vows  are  plighted, 

They  learn  of”  wedding  cards  and  cake,” 
And  soon  in  happy  bonds  united, 

A home  of  peace  and  comfort  make: 

For  in  our  book  they  have  been  reading 
Of  happiness  in  wedded  life, 

And  this  instruction  wisely  heeding, 

They  gain  “ success  in  business  ” strife. 

[BREVIER.] 

They  learn  how  houses  are  erected 
With  great  simplicity  and  taste, 

How  every  part  may  be  protected 
And  nothing  good  need  run  to  waste. 
In  our  “Domestic  Education” 

The  wife  may  learn  the  household  art ; 
And,  fitted  for  her  honored  station, 
Judiciously  may  act  her  part. 

“ Commercial  Law  ” and  honest  action 
Will  lead  the  toiling  man  to  gain 
In  business  ample  satisfaction, 

And  thus  his  lawful  rights  maintain  ; 
While  he  who  loves  “The  Constitution,” 
And  proudly  aims  to  serve  the  State, 
May  learn  “ The  Art  of  Elocution,” 
“The  Rules  and  Order  of  Debate.” 


[LONG  PRIMER.] 

And  he  who  seeks  for  information 
Of  solid  fact  and  honest  worth, 

The  “ strength  and  power  of  every  nation 
That  dwells  upon  the  face  of  earth,” 
The  best  and  latest  compilation 
Within  these  lids  he  quickly  finds, 
Without  the  tedious  operation 

Of  searching  books  of  many  kinds. 

[SMALL  PICA.] 

The  one  in  literature  delighting, 

And  seeking  gems  of  classic  thought, 
Or  flowing  verse  of  those  inditing 
Poetic  works  by  genius  wrought, 

May  read  these  precious  gems  at  pleasure, 
Enrich  the  mind  with  classic  lore, 

And  find  our  book  a priceless  treasure 
To  teach  his  children  o’er  and  o’er. 


[PICA.] 

The  child  should  find  his  recreation 
At  home  with  friendsand  parentsdear, 
Where  in  this  fond  association 
There  need  arise  no  painful  fear 
Of  harm  or  wicked  dissipation. 

To  aid  in  this  we  have  designed 
Amusements  rich,  without  temptation, 
And  in  our  book  their  place  assigned. 


The  Public  Speaker  and  Reader, 

A SELF-EDUCATOR  IN  ELOCUTION  AND  ORATORY. 


F English  Grammar  be  truly  defined  as  “ the  art  of  speaking  and  writing  the 
English  Language  with  propriety,”  then,  assuredly,  the  practice  of  elocu- 
tion is  important.  Among  all  classes  of  society  there  is  no  complaint 
more  general  than  that  of  the  rarity  of  good  readers. 

A celebrated  orator  has  said  : *‘  What  is  the  cause  of  this  admitted 

neglect  of  the  art  of  reading  in  so  many  schools  and  families  ? Why  is  it  that  elocution 
has  been  of  late  years  so  much  disregarded  as  a part  of  education,  and  yet  singing, 
drawing  and  other  accomplishments,  have  all  received  their  due  share  of  attention  ? One 
reason  is,  I believe,  to  be  found  in  the  fact  that  this  very  word,  elocution , has  been  made 
a bugbear  of,  and  has  frightened  away  many  from  its  study,  through  a completely  erro* 
neous  interpretation  of  its  meaning  and  character.  Do  not  many  persons  imagine  that 
the  study  of  elocution  must  lead  to  a pompous,  bombastic,  stilted,  or  pedantic  style — a 
style  in  which  the  artificial  reigns  predominant  over  everything  that  is  simple  and 
natural  ? I can  only  say,  if  elocution  meant  anything  of  the  kind  I should  be  the  last 
man  to  advocate  its  adoption  in  schools  or  anywhere  else.  If  I am  asked  to  define  what 
I them  mean  by  elocution,  I think  I should  answer — ‘ That  which  is  the  most  effective 
pronunciation  that  can  be  given  to  words  when  they  are  arranged  into  sentences  and 
form  discourse/  In  this  of  course  I include  the  appropriate  inflections  and  modulations 
of  the  voice,  the  purity  of  its  intonation,  the  clearness  of  articulation,  and,  when  statable 
to  the  occasion , the  accompaniments  of  expression  of  countenance  and  action.  This  art 
of  elocution,  then,  I may  further  define  as  that  system  of  instruction  which  enables  us 
to  pronounce  written  or  extemporaneous  composition  with  proper  energy,  correctness, 
variety,  and  personal  ease ; or,  in  other  words,  it  is  that  style  of  delivery  which  not  only 
expresses  fully  the  sense  and  the  words  so  as  to  be  thoroughly  understood  by  the  hearer, 
but  at  the  same  time  gives  the  sentence  all  the  power,  grace,  melody  and  beauty  of  which 
it  is  susceptible. 

“ Is  it  not  strange,  let  me  ask,  when  we  reflect  on  the  marvellous  power  which  spoken 
language  has  to  excite  the  deepest  feelings  of  our  common  nature,  that  the  cultivation  of 
the  art  of  speaking  which  once  received  so  much  attention,  should  afterwards,  and  for  so 
long  a time  have  been  almost  completely  neglected  ? We  know  what  importance  the 
ancient  orators  of  Greece  and  Rome  attached  to  the  study  of  rhetoric.  The  prince  of 
them  all,  Demosthenes,  asserted  that  1 Delivery’  (under  which  term  is  included  every* 
thing  that  relates  to  the  effective  management  of  voice,  look,  and  gesture)  is  the  first,  the 
second  and  the  last  element  of  success  in  a speaker.  And  surely  this  is  as  true  in  our 
own  day  as  it  was  in  his.  For  even  assuming  that  a youth  has  no  apparent  prospect  of 
debating  in  Congress,  of  addressing  judges  or  juries  at  the  Bar,  or  appealing  on  the  most 
solemn  and  important  topics  of  all  from  the  pulpit,  does  it  therefore  follow  that  he  need 
bestow  no  trouble  in  learning  to  speak  his  native  language  elegantly  and  effectively  ? 


670 


ELOCUTION  CONSIDERED  AS  AN  ART. 


Will  he  never  have  occasion  to  read  aloud  in  his  family  circle,  or  to  a company  of  friends, 
some  leader  from  the  newspaper,  some  chapter  from  a book,  or  some  verses  from  a poem? 
And  what  a difference  will  there  be  in  the  effect  produced  upon  the  reader  and  upon  his 
audience  accordingly  as  this  is  done  well  or  ill ! All  should  be  taught  the  full  develop- 
ment of  that  which  is  the  crowning  glory  of  man — the  divine  gift  of  speech.” 

ELOCUTION  CONSIDERED  AS  AN  ART. 

RATORY,  like  poetry,  is  a gift,  and  cannot  be  acquired  ; the  conception 
of  original  ideas  and  the  ability  to  put  them  rapidly  into  form  is  common 
to  both — but  as  verification  is  to  poetry  what  elocution  is  to  oratory,  both 
maybe  improved  by  study  ; the  versifier  becomes  in  some  sense  a poet, 
and  the  elocutionist  an  orator. 

To  be  able  to  speak  and  read  well  must  certainly  rank  amongst  the  foremost 
accomplishments  ; and  the  truth  of  this  proposition  appears  to  be  very  generally  admit- 
ted, and  attested  by  the  pleasure  that  is  so  universally  derived  from  a just,  appropriate, 
and  harmonious  delivery  ; for  as  language  is  the  medium  through  which  we  communicate 
•our  thoughts,  feelings,  and  impressions,  so  the  force  and  power  it  exerts  over  us  must 
naturally  be  considerably  modified  by  the  manner  in  which  it  is  conveyed  to  us. 

To  the  cultivation  of  this  power  the  Art  of  Elocution  addresses  itself,  and  is  defined 
to  be,  the  just  and  graceful  management  of  the  Voice,  Countenance  and  Gesture. 

The  importance  of  this  art  has  been  felt  and  acknowledged  in  all  countries  wherein 
civilization  and  learning  have  attained  their  highest  state  of  perfection.  Even  from  the 
earliest  times  it  has  ever  been  esteemed  an  indispensable  branch  of  education  ; nor  can 
its  too  common  neglect  with  us  be  justified  when  we  reflect  upon  its  nature,  and  its 
almost  paramount  necessity,  not  alone  as  regards  those  who  aspire  to  distinguish  them- 
selves in  Congress , at  the  Bar , or  in  the  Pulpit , but  even  as  to  its  influence  in  the  trans- 
actions oi  commercial  life  and  the  management  of  large  public  societies.  Nor  is  it  pos- 
sible to  deny  the  grace  and  charm  with  which  it  invests  the  conversation  of  the  scholar 
and  the  gentleman  ; for,  as  Cicero  has  justly  observed,  ((A  cultivated  address  and  a knowl- 
edge of  its  principles  are  highly  ornamental  and  useful  even  in  private  life .”  And  surely 
the  truth  of  this  observation  must,  at  some  time  or  other,  have  been  apparent  to  most  of 
us  when  we  have  witnessed  the  efforts  of  some  unfortunate  youth  who  has  unexpectedly 
been  called  upon  to  entertain  a family  circle,  by  reading  a selection  from  the  works  of  a 
favorite  author ; or,  on  the  contrary,  have  been  charmed  by  the  correct' and  pure  enunci- 
ation— the  just  and  natural  harmony — with  which,  it  may  be,  some  other  friend  has,  on  a 
similar  occasion,  entranced  the  attention  and  elicited  the  applause  and  delight  of  all 
around  him. 

Nor  are  the  disadvantages  from  the  neglect  of  this  very  essential  branch  of  a perfect 
and  polite  education  in  oratory — that  is,  the  extemporaneous  expression  of  our  own 
thoughts  and  sentiments —less  apparent.  How  many  instances  may  be  cited  where  awk- 
wardness of  address,  and  a stammering  and  confused  style  of  delivery,  have  imperilled  a 
good  cause,  whose  advocate,  defective  only  in  this  respect,  has  been  compelled  to  sue 
cumb  before  mere  fluency  of  speech  and  confident  volubility. 


ELOCUTION  CONSIDERED  AS  AN  ART. 


671 


As  an  art,  it  is,  like  others,  entirely  imitative:  Nature  in  her  most  graceful  and 
harmonious  expressions  of  the  intentions,  sentiments  and  emotions  of  the  mind,  being 
the  model ; and  the  rules  of  that  art  teach  us  to  reproduce  in  our  utterance  of  the 
thoughts  of  others,  the  same  tones,  inflections,  and  pauses  with  which  Nature  has  invest- 
ed our  own. 

It  is  not  indeed  pretended  that  by  the  study  and  application  of  those  rules  excel- 
lence can  be  insured , or  an  equal  proficiency  attained  by  all ; that  of  course  must  depend 
on  natural  powers  and  capacity  ; but  few  who  have-deeply  considered  the  subject  will  be 
disposed  to  deny  the  great  advantages  that  might  accrue  from  a systematic  instruction 
in  this  art  in  early  life,  when  the  vocal  organs  are  pliable  and  ductile,  the  observation 
keen,  and  the  ear  quick  and  sensible  of  modulation,  for  it  is  precisely  at  this  period 
much  of  the  evil  from  its  neglect  arises.  It  is  by  the  neglect  of  all  study  that  either  a 
drawling  kind  of  monotony,  a uniform  rehearsing  tone,  by  which  a dull,  unvarying  sound 
unbroken  by  inflection  or  pause,  is  acquired,  producing  a wearying  effect  on  the  ear,  or 
that  a no  less  disagreeable  sensation  is  inflicted  from  a diametrically  opposite  cause,  viz  . 
a constant  rising  and  falling  of  the  voice  totally  regardless  of  the  nature  or  feeling  of  the 
subject  delivered,  and  this  careless  unanimated  whining  manner,  uncorrected,  becomes 
a habit  not  easily  eradicated. 

Now,  we  have  to  consider  what  are  the  principles  and  rules  for  a just  and  appropri- 
ate delivery  in  reading  as  laid  down  by  the  art  of  elocution  as  opposed  to  this,  and  they 
consist,  first,  in  a distinct  articulation  modified  by  tone  to  the  emotions  of  the  mind,  next 
in  the  judicious  observance  of  pause , inflection , and  emphasis , as  governed  by  the  sense, 
and  lastly,  the  key , or  pitch,  being  the  proper  management  of  the  voice  ; and  to  these  are 
added  gesture  or  action  when  referring  to  oratory  or  recitation. 

The  most  essential  quality  in  a speaker  being  distinctness,  not  only  as  regards  the 
pleasure  with  which  he  is  heard,  but  also  the  comfort  and  convenience  of  himself,  a mod- 
erate power  of  voice  being  audible  at  a much  greater  distance,  provided  the  articulation 
is  pure  and  correct,  than  would  be  the  case  with  a much  stronger  organ  if  confused  or 
indistinct  in  its  utterance.  Defects  in  this  particular  are  chiefly  attributable  to  a too  great 
precipitancy  of  speech,  and  are  not  unfrequently  the  result  of  school  repetitions,  in 
which  readiness  and  quickness  of  utterance  are  considered,  often,  rather  a clever  achieve- 
ment on  the  part  of  the  pupil,  and  a satisfactory  evidence  of  being  perfect  by  the  master. 
Be  this  as  it  may,  the  result  is  a bad  habit,  and  the  most  effectual  method  of  counteract- 
ing and  removing  it  that  perhaps  can  be  suggested,  is  the  daily  practice  of  reading  aloud 
either  a vocabulary  of  words  or  some  literary  composition,  neglecting  altogether  its  con- 
struction or  sense,  and  paying  attention  only  to  the  pronunciation  of  every  syllable,  par- 
ticularly regarding  the  vowel  sounds  in  all  their  tonic  variety,  and  in  this  manner  going 
through  the  entire  task  slowly  and  distinctly,  much  slower  indeed  than  would  be  neces- 
sary if  read  in  the  proper  manner.  The  indistinctness  acquired  by  sacrificing  sense  to 
rapidity  may,  by  the  opposite  process,  be  removed. 

This  will  be  found  also  a very  efficient  way  of  strengthening  the  voice  in  all  its 
pitches. 


672 


ELOCUTION.  ON  PAUSE* 


ON  PAUSE. 

HOUGH  it  would  be  wrong  to  affirm,  of  any  particular  branch  of  the  “art 
of  elocution/’  that  it  is  the  first  in  importance,  since  they  all  act,  as  it  were, 
in  combination,  and  each  contributes  its  share  essentially  in  imparting 
force,  elegance,  feeling,  or  harmony  to  the  delivery  of  the  perfect  reader 
or  speaker,  according  to  the  variety  of  character  with  which  Infinite  Good- 
ness has  endowed  that  supreme  and  distinctive  gift,  the  articulate  voice  of  man  ; yet,  as 
the  ease  and  propriety  with  which  we  are  enabled  to  pronounce  written  language,  or  our 
own  extemporaneous  effusions,  is  mainly  dependent  on  the  theory  of  pausing,  its  skilful 
adaptation  may  at  least  be  considered  the  foundation  on  which  the  art  of  reading  and 
speaking  is  in  some  measure  based.  To  appreciate  it  properly,  it  is  necessary  we  should 
understand  the  difference  that  exists  between  language  as  it  addresses  itself  to  us  through 
two  different  mediums — those  of  the  eye  and  ear — to  the  first  by  written  characters,  and 
to  the  latter  by  oral  expression. 

Now,  the  system  of  punctuation  or  stops,  by  which  the  former  of  these  is  distin-, 
guished,  can  only  be  considered  serviceable  as  it  instructs  the  silent  reader  in  the  gram- 
matical construction  of  the  subject  before  him,  and  he  is  thus  guided  in  the  sense  of  his 
author ; that  is,  if  they  are  correctly  placed,  which,  however,  may  not  always  be  the 
case. 

These,  then,  for  distinction  sake,  we  will  call  “Grammatical  Pauses.”  But  these  are 
by  no  means  sufficient  for  the  purpose  of  reading  aloud,  and  it  is  the  ignorance  or  disre- 
gard of  this  fact,  that  is  the  foundation  of  many  false  rules  of  instruction  in  this  particu- 
lar branch  of  education.  Hence  the  common  direction,  “ mind  your  stops”  by  which  is 
meant,  those  alone  that  appear  on  the  printed  page,  with  no  reference  at  all  to  any  others 
that  may  be  deemed  necessary,  and  indeed  are  absolutely  essential  to  correct  oral 
delivery. 

Hence,  too,  the  second  injunction,  which  is  “that  the  breath  is  never  to  be  drawn 
but  at  a full  stop.”  Now,  concerning  these  stops,  we  are  told,  that  a “ comma”  is  a rest 
while  you  count  one,  a “ semicolon”  two,  a “colon”  three,  and  a “period”  four,  and  by  this 
precise  division  of  time,  it  is  evident  that  they  are  generally  accepted  as  sufficient  for  all 
the  purposes,  not  only  of  sense,  but  expression  also.  But  herein  lies  the  error;  “Not 
half  the  pauses  are  found  in  printing  which  are  heard  in  the  pronunciation  of  a good 
reader  or  speaker ;”  and  these,  which  we  distinguish  as  “ Rhetorical  Pauses,”  are  neces-y 
sary  to  him,  to  enable  him  to  take  breath,  relieve  the  organs  of  speech,  and  to  enable  the! 
attention  of  his  auditors,  unwearied  by  the  continuity  of  sound,  to  follow  with  a perfect 
appreciation  of  the  meaning  of  that  which  he  utters. 

The  Rhetorical  Pauses  consist  of  three  rests  of  different  durations  of  time- — viz.:  the 
smaller  or  short  pause , answering  in  this  respect  to  the  comma ; the  greater  or  middle 
pause , to  the  semicolon  ; and  the  greatest  or  rest,  to  the  period  or  full  stop.  To  the  first  of 
these,  on  account  of  the  frequency  of  its  recurrence,  and  consequent  assistance  rendered 
to  the  speaker,  the  most  importance  is  attached. 


ELOCUTION.  ON  PAUSE. 


673 


This  pause  is  generally  used  after  several  words  occurring  in  one  phrase,  serving  as 
the  nominative  to  some  verb : 

The  objective  phrase  in  an  inverted  sentence — that  is,  sentences  the  number  of 
which,  when  inverted  as  to  order,  preserve  the  same  sense. 

The  emphatic  word  of  force  and  the  subject  of  a sentence,  Each  number  of  a 
“ series,”  whether  single ; (that  is,  composed  of  single  words)  or  compound, \ being  com- 
posed of  sentences. 

It  should  be  used  also  before  the  infinitive  mood  : 

Prepositions  (except  when  part  of  one  phrase),  relative  pronouns  and  conjunctions, 
adverbs  of  time,  similitude,  and  some  others  : 

In  some  cases,  for  the  sake  of  emphasis,  it  is  used  after  disjunctions. 

Whatever  number  intervenes  between  the  nominative  case  and  the  verb  must  be 
considered  to  be  of  the  nature  of  a parenthesis,  and  is  therefore  separated  from  both  of 
them  by  the  short  pause. 

The  greater  or  middle  pause  is  properly  to  be  used  when  a sentence  is  composed  of 
two  principal  parts,  in  the  first  of  which,  the  sense  being  incomplete  or  suspended,  is  per- 
fected by  the  latter ; the  pause  taking  place  at  that  point  where  the  sense  begins  to  be 
complete,  thus  dividing  it  into  distinctive  portions,  each  of  which,  it  is  to  be  observed, 
has  also  a distinctive  tone  or  inflection. 

great  rest  or  full  pause  completes  the  entire  sense,  and  being  identical  with  the 
“ period,”  can  therefore  be  well  understood. 

To  these  various  rests  a fourth  is  sometimes  added  by  writers  on  this  subject,  which 
they  term  the  long  pause.  It  is  mentioned  here  as  being  chiefly  of  use  to  the  orator  as» 
by  marking  certain  divisions  in  his  subject — a change  of  ideas  or  a return  from  a digres- 
sion— it  affords  him,  in  the  heat  of  argument  or  the  effects  of  exhaustion,  time  to  collect 
himself,  and  it  may  be,  an  opportunity  for  correcting  the  tone  or  pitch  of  voice,  which 
from  excitement  may  have  become  raised  too  high  to  be  sustained  with  comfort  or  effect. 

To  return,  however,  to  the  erroneous  direction  noticed,  viz.:  “That  the  breath  is 
never  to  be  drawn  but  at  a full  stop  or  period.”  It  has  been  before  observed  that  the 
use  of  these  pauses  is  for  the  greater  ease  and  facility  of  the  speaker.  The  absurdity  of 
this  injunction  must  be  therefore  most  apparent,  since  the  fact  is  really  that  at  every  one 
of  these  rhetorical  pauses  or  rests  the  breath  receives,  or  should  receive,  a gentle,  insensi- 
ble, but  at  the  same  time  inaudible  inspiration  ; and  thus  the  lungs,  like  the  bellows  of 
an  organ,  being  constantly  supplied  and  inflated  with  fresh  breath,  the  power  of  the 
speaker  is  considerably  increased  by  the  very  control  he  is  enabled  to  exercise  in  the 
increase  or  diminishment  of  its  power  at  will,  after  the  manner  of  the  “ crescendo”  and 
“diminuendo”  in  music. 

If  the  student  would  practically  test  this  let  him  take  up  the  Exordium  to  Milton’s 
first  book  of  “ Paradise  Lost.”  There  are  four  periods  in  that  fine  opening  ; the  first 
consisting  of  nine  and  a half  lines,  the  next  six  and  a half,  the  third  five  and  a half,  and 
the  last  four  and  a half.  Let  him  try  to  accomplish  the  delivery  of  the  first  period  with, 
out  taking  breath.  If  he  succeeds  he  may  rest  satisfied  that  he  possesses  lungs  of  the 
consistency  of  leather  with  the  capacity  of  the  cave  of  ^Eolus  ; but  as  this  experiment 
will  infallibly  prove  the  contrary,  let  him  again  essay,  using  not  only  the  punctuated  or 


674 


ELOCUTION.  ON  INFLECTION. 


grammatical,  but  the  rhetorical  pauses  in  aid,  according  to  the  general  rules  already 
recited,  and  he  will  find  himself  able  to  master  not  the  first  period  alone,  but  also  to 
reach  the  end  of  the  subject  through  the  three  succeeding  ones  with  the  greatest  ease 
and  facility,  and  in  addition  he  will  learn  also  this,  that  in  attempting  to  pronounce  more 
in  a breath  than  he  could  conveniently  effect,  and  neglecting  those  pauses  where  the 
breath  ought  to  be  taken,  he  has  been  obliged  to  pause  where  the  sense,  not  being  sepa- 
rable, forbade  it,  and  thus  has  rendered  the  whole  of  his  subject  an  unintelligible  jumble. 


ON  INFLECTION. 

OST  if  not  all  the  defects  which  are  discernible  in  the  generality  of  read- 
ers with  regard  to  “ inflection,”  arise  from  an  artificial  habit  acquired  in 
early  youth  of  reading  with  different  tones  and  cadences  from  those  which 
they  are  accustomed  to  use  in  speaking.  Now,  whatever  may  be  the 
cause  from  whence  it  originates,  a more  fatal  error,  one  more  subversive 
of  propriety  of  delivery,  does  not  exist ; for  in  reading,  the  utterance  should  be  so  regu- 
lated as  to  fall  on  the  ears  of  the  auditors  as  though  we  were  conveying  to  them  the 
sentiments  of  the  author — as  if  they  were  the  emanations  of  our  own  mind. 

Mr.  Sheridan,  in  his  “ Lectures,”  observes  : “ There  are  few  persons  who  in  private 
company  do  not  deliver  their  sentiments  with  propriety  and  force  in  their  manner  when- 
ever they  speak  in  earnest ; consequently,  here  is  a sure  standard  for  propriety  and  force 
in  public  speaking.”  And  this  observation  must  apply  therefore  equally  to  reading ; but 
to  reduce  this  to  practice  it  is  essentially  necessary  that  we  should  first  be  perfect  mas- 
ters of  the  nature  and  subject-matter  to  be  delivered,  and  the  intention  of  the  author; 
and  to  this  end,  therefore,  it  is  always  advisable  that  the  student  should  accustom  him- 
self in  his  private  practice,  first,  to  peruse  carefully  the  composition  he  intends  to  read 
aloud,  so  as  entirely  to  comprehend  the  full  meaning  and  import  of  the  words  and  the 
general  construction  of  the  language,  the  character  of  which  sometimes  bears  the  dis- 
tinctive impress  of  its  particular  writer,  and  then  let  him  endeavor  to  deliver  it  as  if  the 
ideas  and  sentiments  were  his  own,  and  in  that  natural  and  forcible  manner  as  in  that 
case  he  would  ; and  this  can  only  be  effected  by  observing  those  various  inflections  of 
voice  which  Nature  herself  has  prescribed,  and  adapting  them  according  to  the  form  and 
sense  of  the  various  sentences. 

These  consist  of  the  “Rising,”  the  “Falling”  and  the  “Circumflex”  or  “Com- 
pound Inflections.”  The  first  of  these  is  so  called  from  the  voice  rising  or  ascending 
upwards,  the  second  when  it  falls  or  slides  downwards,  and  the  last  when  both  the  rising 
and  falling  inflection  is  combined  in  the  same  word,  or  even  in  more  than  one,  as  is 
sometimes  the  case  ; but  when  the  voice  continues  on  the  same  note  it  is  then  said  to 
be  “ monotone.” 

The  “ Circumflex  Inflection  ” is  capable  of  being  again  subdivided  for  distinction's 
/ake  into  the  rising  and  falling  circumflex,  according  as  it  commences  with  either  the 
rising  or  falling  slide  of  the  voice. 


ELOCUTION.  ON  INFLECTION. 


675 


New,  in  speaking,  the  voice  is  regulated  either  by  the  implied  or  expressed  sense  or 
feeling  of  the  subject,  or  nature  of  the  sentence  ; that  is,  it  indicates  either  that  the 
sense  is  complete  or  suspended — is  Affirmative,  Negative,  Interrogative  or  Imperative t 
Thus,  suspended  sense  is  accompanied  and  marked  by  the  “rising  inflection/’  coupled 
with  the  middle  pause.  “ Complete  or  finished  sense  ” is  distinguished  by  the  falling,  and 
to  it  also  belongs  the  “ full  pause,”  answering  to  the  period  or  full  stop.  But  here  it  is 
necessary  to  notice  a very  common  error — it  is  the  very  common  direction  to  drop  the 
voice  at  the  end  of  a sentence.  Now,  the  last  part  of  a sentence — and  more  especially 
the  last  word,  as  it  completes  the  sense — must  of  necessity  be  the  most  essential  to  the 
perfect  understanding  of  that  sentence.  To  let  it,  therefore,  fall  listlessly  or  feebly  on 
the  ear,  so  as  to  strain  the  attention  of  the  auditor  or  reduce  him  to  the  bewilderment  of 
guessing  at  its  import,  is  a manifest  absurdity.  The  fact  is,  it  should  ever  be  considered 
of  equal  importance  to  the  first ; and  though  receiving  the  downward  inflection  of  the 
voice,  as  such  maintain  its  full  tone,  pitch  and  enunciation. 

To  proceed,  however.  The  Affirmative  sense  is  indicated  by  the  falling,  and  the 
Negative,  as  a general  rule,  receives  the  rising  inflection.  The  same  applies  to  the  In- 
terrogative sentences,  while  the  Imperative  is  distinguished  by  the  falling ; of  course,  it 
must  be  understood  that  all  these  are  subject  to  certain  exceptions,  which  exceptions  are 
caused  by  the  influence  of  what  is  termed  the  emphasis  of  force  or  feeling,  and  depend, 
therefore,  on  the  judgment  and  intelligence  of  the  speaker. 

The  compound  or  circumflex  inflection,  as  we  have  before  stated,  both  descends  and 
ascends  in  what  may  be  described  as  a curve  of  the  voice,  and  is  generally  used  in  strong 
or  vehement  interrogation,  its  extent  being  determined  by  the  force  or  extent  of  the 
passion  by  which  it  it  is  governed  ; it  is  expressive  of  Wonder,  Contempt,  Scorn,  Ridicu le% 
Irony,  & c.,  &c. 

The  speech  of  Brutus,  in  the  quarrel  scene  between  himself  and  Cassius,  will  afford 
an  apt  illustration  of  the  nature  of  this  particular  inflection  of  the  voice,  beginning  “ All 
this,  and  more,”  &c.,  &c. 

The  same  inflection  must  be  given  to  all  words  or  phrases  whose  meaning  and  con- 
struction are  in  opposition,  but  when  antithetical  or  opposed  to  each  other  they  demand 
opposite  inflections,  and  by  this  agreement  of  tone  in  the  first  and  opposition  in  the  latter 
case  the  sound,  as  it  were,  is  to  the  ear  in  accordance  with  the  sense.  When  many 
antithetical  members,  however,  follow  in  succession,  for  the  sake  of  variety  and  harmony 
the  inflections  should  be  alternated.  Let  the  student  refer  for  an  example  of  this  to  I 
Cor.  xv.  39,  40 : 

39.  All  flesh  is  not  the  same  flesh  ; but  there  is  one  kind  ot  flesh  of  men,  another 
flesh  of  beasts,  another  of  fishes  and  another  of  birds. 

40.  There  are  also  celestial  bodies  and  bodies  terrestrial ; but  the  glory  of  the 
celestial  is  one  and  the  glory  of  the  terrestrial  is  another. 

We  have  instanced  these  two  verses  only ; but  the  whole  chapter,  indeed,  from  the 
20th  verse,  not  only  in  respect  to  this,  but  every  other  rule,  is  an  admirable  exercise  in 
inflection  ; ” and  its  perfect  delivery  must  at  all  times  declare  the  accomplished  elocu- 
tionist 


676 


ELOCUTION.  ON  PITCH. 


ON  PITCH. 


HE  management  and  modulation  of  the  voice  is  another  branch  of  the  art 
of  elocution  to  which  the  student  who  is  ambitious  of  becoming  a good  and 
effective  reader  or  speaker  should  devote  the  most  sedulous  attention,  and 
for  this  purpose  it  is  necessary  for  him  to  be  thoroughly  acquainted  with 
the  theory  and  nature  of  the  various  pitches  of  that  organ,  for  by  them 
not  only  does  he  derive  the  variety  that  is  so  pleasing  to  the  ear,  and  secure  for  himself 
relief  from  that  inconvenience  which  his  ignorance  or  neglect  in  this  respect  must  inevit- 
ably entail  on  him,  but  he  is  enabled  to  exhibit  by  their  just  and  appropriate  use  the 
various  emotions  and  sentiments  of  his  subject,  whether  they  belong  to  himself  or  others, 
with  the  greater  force  and  power  of  expression. 

The  human  voice  has  been  observed  to  possess  three  distinct  tones,  and  these  are 
distinguished  as  “ high,  low  and  middle  pitch.”  Of  these  the  one  most  used  is  the 
middle,  for  the  reason  that  it  is  the  tone  which  we  naturally  are  accustomed  to  in  com- 
mon discourse,  and  is  therefore,  from  its  frequent  exercise,  generally  stronger.  It  must 
also  be  apparent  that  being  easier  to  rise  or  fall  from  it  to  a higher  or  lower  key,  it  ought, 
with  few  exceptions,  to  be  the  one  we  should  adopt  when  not  excited  by  any  particular 
passion — as,  for  instance,  in  calm  narration,  descriptive  statement  or  moral  reflection. 

Now,  it  cannot  have  escaped  the  notice  of  even  the  most  casual  observer  that  the 
instant  the  mind,  even  in  ordinary  conversation,  receives  the  impression  of  any  particular 
emotion  the  voice  becomes  inflected,  either  upward  or  downward,  to  the  higher  or  lower 
portion  of  its  register,  its  range  being  determined  by  the  force  or  intensity  of  that  emo- 
tion. There  is  a higher,  sharper  and  shriller  tone  attained  by  rage , and  a deeper  one  by 
sorrow.  It  is  therefore  expedient  that  a just  appreciation  and  a skillful  adaptation  of 
these  tones  should  be  attended  to. 

Having  already  noticed  the  first  of  these,  its  quality  and  character,  on  proceeding  to 
the  high  pitch,  we  shall  find  that  it  is  the  proper  key  of  all  the  more  impulsive  passions 
or  elevated  feelings.  To  it  belong  rage,  threatening,  denunciation,  invective,  joy  and 
exultation,  and,  indeed,  all  eager  and  animated  speech  in  general ; while,  on  the  contraryj 
grief,  melancholy,  veneration,  deep  thought,  serious  reflection,  hate  and  suppressed  pas- 
sion belong  to  the  low  pitch. 

It  is  necessary,  however,  to  observe  that  there  is  a great  distinction  between  the 
terms  high  and  low , and  loud  and  soft , for  these  are  often  confounded.  This  latter,  it 
should  be  clearly  understood,  merely  signifies  the  degree  of  force  or  volume  of  sound  it 
may  be  deemed  necessary  to  use  in  the  same  key,  and  answers  precisely  to  the  forte  and 
piano  in  music,  whilst  the  former  intimates  a change  of  key  altogether.  Pitch,  therefore, 
is  independent  of foice,  though  force  may  add  frequently  to  the  effect  of  pitch . 

Few  voices  are  so  perfect  as  not  to  require  some  sort  of  education  in  order  to  enable 
them  to  compass  with  facility  an  extensive  range  into  either  the  higher  or  lower  keys, 
and  on  extraordinary  occasions  it  may  even  be  necessary  to  touch  on  the  extremes  of 
either.  This  can  only  be  effected  by  practice.  Therefore,  as  in  the  directions  concern* 


ELOCUTION.  ON  GESTURE. 


677 


ing  articulation  we  stated  that  by  reading  slowly  and  pronouncing  every  syllable  clearly 
and  distinctly  in  the  middle  tone,  that  particular  pitch  would  be  greatly  strengthened,  we 
venture  to  recommend  that  the  self-same  process  be  diligently  and  perseveringly  applied 
in  the  same  manner  to  the  other  two — viz.:  without  reference  to  the  sense  of  the  passages 
to  be  read,  but  to  the  sound,  and  the  compass  and  power  of  the  voice  in  the  higher  and 
lower  portions  of  its  register  will  be  much  extended.  The  student  should,  in  addition  to 
this  exercise,  carefully  select  and  read  aloud  such  scenes  or  passages  as  require  these 
particular  pitches,  and  adapt  them  accordingly  ; and  more  especially  those  in  which  the 
particular  passion  they  indicate  appears  to  intensify  or  culminate,  so  as  to  go  through  all 
the  gradations  of  either  without  abruptly  leaping,  as  it  were,  from  one  pitch  to  another. 


ON  GESTURE. 


[NDER  this  head  is  included  the  whole  deportment  of  the  body,  in  ordei 
that  it  may  be  justly  adapted  to  the  nature  and  emotions  of  the  subject 
pronounced.  The  disposition  of  the  limbs,  the  movements  of  the  hands, 
the  carriage  of  the  head,  and  even  the  movements  of  the  eyes  and  direc- 
tion and  expression  of  the  countenance  altogether.  For  every  passion, 
emotion  or  sentiment  has  some  attitude,  look  or  movement  peculiar  to  itself;  any  incon- 
gruity, therefore,  either  by  vague,  awkward  or  unsuitable  and  inconsistent  gesture  not 
only  frustrates  the  intention  of  the  speaker,  but  in  many  instances  becomes  ridiculous 
and  absurd  ; for  the  object  of  public  speaking  is  either  to  instruct,  to  please  or  to  per 
suade ; and  how  can  either  of  these  objects  be  attained  if  the  orator  be  devoid  of  pro- 
priety, force  or  grace  ? 

Cicero  calls  action  “ the  language  of  the  body,”  and  further  observes  : * It  is  action 

alone  that  governs  in  speaking,  without  which  the  best  orator  is  of  no  value,  and  is  often 
defeated  by  one  in  other  respects  much  his  inferior.”  And,  indeed,  the  orators  of  Greece 
and  Rome  appear  to  have  attached  the  utmost  importance  to  this  particular  department 
of  elocution  ; for  not  only  were  they  accustomed  to  employ  persons  whom  they  called 
“ phonasci,”  whose  office  was  to  teach  the  modulations  of  the  voice,  but  also  others  foi 
special  instruction  as  to  voice  and  gesture  combined ; the  latter  being  generally  eminent 
and  experienced  actors  selected  from  their  theatres  ; and  in  fact,  by  this  practical  method 
it  was  that  they  attained  that  high  degree  of  excellence  of  which  we  have  so  many 
records. 

The  first  thing  to  be  considered,  and  one  of  infinite  importance,  both  to  the 
orator  or  reciter,  since  much  value  must  ever  be  attached  to  first  impressions,  is  the  man 
ner  in  which  he  presents  himself  before  the  assembly  it  is  his  purpose  to  address.  This, 
of  course,  depends  in  some  manner  on  the  nature  ot  his  subject,  and  in  this  the  aspect 
or  countenance  of  the  speaker  bears  no  inconsiderable  part.  Thus,  for  instance,  a sedate 
expression  at  once  implies  a mature  consideration  of  the  argument  about  to  be  advanced, 
and  communicates  insensibly  an  idea  of  its  importance.  And  on  the  contrary,  a cheer- 
ful air  raises  the  expectation  of  being  entertained  with  a pleasant  and  agreeable  dis- 
course. But  above  ail,  a wandering  look,  an  air  of  levity,  or  a haughty,  superciliov. ; man 


678 


ELOCUTION.  ON  GESTURE. 


ner,  which  either  fails  to  excite  respect  or  else  begets  distaste,  must  be  carefully  avoided 
Nor  at  the  same  time  is  a dejected  appearance  pleasing,  unless  the  subject  to  be  delivered 
is  of  a melancholy  nature. 

Face  the  audience,  avoiding  altogether  a sidelong  attitute,  let  the  feet  be  firmly 
planted,  yet  not  close  together,  but  with  one  advanced,  the  body  resting  on  the  other, 
erect,  not  too  stiff,  but  easily  and  flexibly  adapting  itself  to  the  motion  of  the  head  and 
hands ; avoiding,  however,  anything  approaching  to  a wavering  motion,  such  as  we  are 
told  by  Cicero  a Roman  orator  called  Curio  was  addicted  to,  and  for  which  he  became 
the  subject  of  a friend’s  joke,  who  once  asked,  “ Who  is  that  talking  out  of  a boat?' 

A judicious  management  of  the  eyes,  in  awakening  and  insuring  a continued  atten- 
tion, also  deserves  notice.  They  should  be  neither  wandering  nor  altogether  fixed  or 
staring,  but  generally  gentle  and  moderate  in  their  motions,  and  directed  in  turn  to 
different  portions  of  the  audience,  as  if  engaging  each  in  common  discourse. 

In  considering  the  movements  of  the  arms  and  hands  it  should  be  well  understood 
that,  to  insure  a graceful  action r all  angularity  must  be  strictly  avoided  ; and,  therefore, 
this  rule  cannot  be  too  carefully  impressed  upon  the  mind,  viz. : That  all  motion  must 
proceed  from  the  shoulder , and  not  from  the  extremity  of  the  fingers , and  that  the  elbow 
should  never  be  suffered  to  incline  to  the  body ; nor  should  the  hands  assume  a rigid  and 
constrained  appearance  in  the  disposition  of  the  fingers , by  being  held  open  and  fiat , as  if 
about  to  administer  a sound  “ box  on  the  ear ,”  or  spread  abroad  like  a bunch  of  radishes , 
or  crookedly  contracted  like  the  claws  of  a crab ; but  moderately  opened,  let  the  index , 
or  first  finger,  lightly  press  the  middle  one,  the  other  two  inclining  gently  inward  towards 
the  palm.  This  must,  of  course,  be  understood  as  referring  to  the  hands  in  a state  of 
repose ; and  when  used  in  a temperate  and  unimpassioned  address  they  contribute  to  that 
simplicity  and  grace— -and,,  at  the  same  time,  dignity — that  should  at  all  times  character- 
ize the  movements  and  bearing  of  the  orator.  Under  the  influence  of  the  passions, 
indeed,  they  assume  other  forms  ; and  most  infinite  is  their  use  and  variety  : “ Greater , 
indeed?  as  Quintilian  justly  observes,  u than  can  well  be  expressed,  for  they  are  almost  equal 
to  our  words . Do  not  we  desire  with  them , promise,  call,  dismiss,  threaten,  beseech , detest, 
fear,  inquire,  deny  ? Do  not  they  express  joy,  sorrow,  doubt,  confusion,  penitence,  measure, 
plenty,  number,  and  time  ? Do  not  they  excite,  restrain,  prove,  admire  and  shame  ? That  in 
so  great  a variety  of  speech  among  all  nations  and  countries,  this  seems  to  me  the  common 
language  of  mankma and  it  is  not  only  proper  but  needful  that  either  hand  occasionally 
should  be  used  indiscriminately,  as  the  principal  gesture,  or  the  position  of  the  person 
addressed,  may  require ; and  sometimes  distinctively  the  left  hand  alternates  its  office 
with  the  right. 

Rarely — very  rarely  indeed — should  the  hands  be  raised  above  the  eyes  or  extended 
beyond  the  range  ot  vision,  the  action  of  the  right  generally  commencing  on  the  left  side 
and  terminating  on  the  right  side  ; and  vice  versa,  the  same  rule  applies  to  the  movement 
of  the  left  hand.  The  stroke  which  marks  the  emphatic  word  must  descend  on  that 
word  alone  at  the  instant  of  its  utterance.  The  movement  of  the  arm  and  hand  also 
should  be  sustained  and  suspended  through  the  duration  of  a passage,  and  terminate 
precisely  with  it : and  we  may  very  well  conceive  this  timing  of  the  gesture  to  be  the 
probable  if  not  the  actual  meaning  of  Shakspeare  when,  in  his  direction  to  the  players. 


ELOCUTION  ON  GESTURE. 


679 


he  says,  “Suit  the  action  to  the  word — the  word  to  the  action  for  it  can  hardly  be  believed 
that  he  alluded  to  descriptive  or  appropriate  action  simply,  such  as  raising  the  hand  when 
appealing  to  heaven,  or  sinking  it  when  speaking  of  the  earth.  And,  in  mentioning 
Shakspeare,  it  will  scarcely  be  necessary  to  remind  the  student  of  his  remarks  concern 
ing  sawing  the  air,  which  is  nothing  more  than  the  incessant  repetition  of  the  obnoxious 
straight-lined  description  of  action  before  noticed. 

Having  spoken  of  the  indiscriminate  use  of  both  hands,  it  is  proper  to  add  that 
neither  should  be  used  invariably  alone. 

Nothing  can  appear  more  ungraceful,  not  to  say  ridiculous,  than  to  see  one  hand 
(either  the  right  or  left)  constantly  in  motion,  while  the  other  hangs  uselessly  by  the  side, 
as  if  it  had  no  sympathy  in  the  discourse.  The  fact  is,  that  either  hand  should  accom- 
modate itself  to  and  support  the  action  of  the  other. 

It  should  be  perfectly  understood,  that  no  art  depends  so  much  on  constant  and 
almost  unremitting  practice  as  elocution,  and  the  appropriate  gesture  that  should  attend 
it.  Neither  grace  nor  facility  can  possibly  be  otherwise  attained  ; theory  alone  is  worse 
than  useless,  and  even  the  best  instructions  must,  without  it,  entirely  and  invariably  fail. 
The  best  mentor  that  a young  orator  or  reciter  can  appeal  to,  in  this  indispensable  private 
practice,  is  the  looking-glass . Much,  however,  has  been  said  by  way  of  dissent  from  this 
opinion,  but  certainly  without  mature  consideration  of  the  subject. 

It  has  been  objected,  for  instance,  that  an  earnest  speaker  must,  from  the  impulse  of 
nature,  use  appropriate  action  ; but  it  we  grant  this,  it  by  no  means  follows  that  it  will 
be  graceful , and  it  is  the  combination  of  the  natmal  with  the  graceful  that  alone  makes 
the  perfect  orator \ 

Besides,  are  there  no  Bad  Habits  to  be  corrected  ? We  daily  see  that  such  have 
been  contracted  by  men  who  enjoy  a reputation  as  speakers,  yet  doubtless  they  are  influ- 
enced by  the  impulses  of  nature;  such,  for  instance,  as  nodding  with  the  heady  pocketing 
the  hands , trifling  with  the  dress , placing  the  arms  a-kimboy  tucking  them  behind,  ducking 
the  body  or jerking  it , leanmg  on  tabley  crossing  the  legs , standing  sideways  or  with  the  feet 
together y fixing  the  eyes  on  the  ceiling  or  opposite  wall,  exaggeration  of  action  or  constant 
repetition  of  it . Many  more  might  be  instanced,  but  these  will  serve  for  the  present  pur- 
pose, as  they  cannot  have  escaped  the  notice  of  any  acute  observer  interested  in  the  sub- 
ject of  public  oratory. 

Now  as  good  habits  are  full  as  easy  to  be  acquired  as  those  of  an  opposite  descrip- 
tion, though  the  latter,  in  the  process  of  being  got  rid  of,  present  a somewhat  greater 
difficulty,  yet  the  means  of  their  acquisition  is  very  similar,  viz. : constant  repetition.  If 
therefore,  the  rules  laid  down  for  appropriate  and  graceful  action  are  studied  assiduously 
and  frequently  in  the  faithful  reflections  of  the  mirror,  those  principles  will  become  so 
impressed  on  the  mind  of  the  student,  as  ever  after  to  influence  his  bearing  and  general 
style  of  gesture,  and  that  too  without  stiffness  or  artificiality  ; for  it  is  not  for  a moment 
pretended  that  the  action  which  he  may  then  consider  appropriate  must  of  necessity  be 
precisely  the  same  he  is  called  upon  to  use  when  speaking  or  reciting  in  public.  This 
exercise  aims  alone  at  the  acquisition  of  grace  and  ease  by  the  appeal  to  his  own  judg- 
ment, which  this  practice  will  habitually  confirm,  and  ever  after  influence  the  involuntary 
gestures  that  arise  from  the  emotions  of  his  mind.  It  is  probable  that  the  action  may 


680 


ELOCUTION.  ON  READING  VERSE. 


differ — may  take  a wider  sweep,  a more  extended  character — may  be  more  elevated  or 
depressed,  slower  or  more  abrupt : it  matters  not ; it  will  bear  the  impress  of  his  genera2 
study,  and  manifest  itself  in  force,  expression,  and  grace. 

ON  READING  VERSE. 

LTHOUGH  the  rules  laid  down  in  the  preceding  chapters  apply  alike  to 
poetry  and  prose,  a few  observations  on  the  reading  of  rhymed  verse  may 
not  be  out  of  place. 

There  are  many  excellent  readers  of  prose  who  entirely  fail  to  distin- 
guish the  equable  and  harmonious  flow  of  sound  which  distinguishes 
poetry  from  ordinary  unmeasured  composition.  These  are  devoid  of  what  a musician 
would  call  “ear,”  and  hence  their  delivery  of  rhymed  couplets  becomes  tame  and  insipid, 
familiar  and  commonplace,  and  too  frequently  degenerate  into  mere  “sing-song,”  utterly 
beneath  the  dignity  of  inspired  verse. 

Perhaps  one  of  the  greatest  difficulties  felt  by  every  professor  of  elocution  in  teach- 
ing youth  to  recite  poetry,  is  the  almost  universal  inability  of  the  pupil  to  understand 
and  grasp  the  meaning  of  the  poem.  Unless  the  author  be  thoroughly  appreciated  and 
his  intention,  not  only  expressed  but  implied,  mastered,  the  natural  emotion  (and  con- 
sequently the  proper  inflexions  and  varieties  of  voice)  cannot  possibly  arise,  and,  if  not, 
how  can  they  be  expressed  save  by  a studied,  stilted,  and  artificial  style  ? It  is,  perhaps* 
not  saying  too  much  to  aver  that  only  a poet  can  read  poetry  properly : at  any  rate  only 
those  who  are  perfectly  imbued  with  the  poetic  feeling  can  do  so.  Given  all  these  qu  ffifica- 
tions,  and  action,  voice,  and  gesture  will  follow  naturally  and  spontaneously ; the  electric 
fire  will  flash  from  the  speaker  to  his  audience,  enthusiasm  will  be  kindled,  and  a result 
that  only  true  genius  can  achieve  will  be  accomplished. 

The  great  secret  in  reading  poetry  is  to  exercise  the  art  that  conceals  art,  or 
rather  the  art  that  seems  to  heighten  and  improve  nature  and  to  subdue  it,  so  that  it  is 
never  apparent  that  the  speaker  is  delivering  the  words  ot  others.  To  the  hearers  it 
should  be  as  though  the  speaker  were  giving  the  utterances  of  his  own  heart,  and  his 
own  brain,  an  impulsive  and  involuntary  outpouring  excited  by  existing  and  surrounding 
circumstances.  It  was  thus  Shakspeare  wrote,  assisted  by  no  rule,  his  guiding  power 
being  only  his  exquisite  sense  of  the  fitness  of  all  things.  It  was  thus  that  Edmund 
Kean  produced  his  finest  effects, — not  from  calculation,  but  from  knowledge,  impulse,  and 
appreciation,  lit  by  the  light  that  was  within  him. 

But  in  our  schools  and  colleges  teaching  must  begin  before  experience  has  ripened. 
All  that  can  be  done  is  to  apply  certain  rules,  and  these,  if  diligently  attended  to,  will 
have  so  far  forwarded  the  work  of  perfection  at  which  all  may  arrive  when  the  mind 
comes  to  maturity.  We  would  premise  that  it  is  essential  in  all  cases  that  the  master 
should  fully  explain  to  the  pupil  the  subject,  the  meaning,  and  all  the  surroundings  of  the 
poem  or  extract  he  is  about  to  teach. 

The  rules  for  the  delivery  of  poetry  may  be  thus  briefly  stated. 


ELOCUTION.  HOW  TO  SIMULATE  THE  PASSIONS. 


681 


1.  In  all  cases  it  is  better  to  commence  a poem  in  a simple,  natural,  and  easy  sty^ 
warming  with  the  subject  as  the  poet  becomes  passionate  or  emotional. 

2.  If  the  poetry  be  written  correctly,  every  word  should  have  the  same  accent  as  in 
prose,  but  as  many  of  our  best  poets  have  accented  words  that  change  their  accent  when 
used  as  verbs  or  nouns  alike,  it  is  better  to  sacrifice  the  sense  to  the  sound  rather  than 
the  rhythm  of  the  poem  should  be  destroyed. 

3.  The  article  the  must  never  be  strongly  accented  in  reading  or  reciting  verse. 

4.  Elisions,  so  frequently  found  in  our  earlier  poets,  must  seldom  or  never  be  attend- 
ed to  in  reading  verse — thus  in  “ gen’rous”  the  dropped  “ e”  must  be  sounded  as  in 
“generous.” 

5.  The  end  of  every  line  in  poetry  must  be  delicately  marked,  care  being  taken  not 
to  interfere  with  the  intimate  or  remote  connection  subsisting  between  the  subsequent 
lines. 

6.  The  rhetorical  pauses  should  oe  taken  at  the  commencement,  and  never  in  the 
middle  of  a poetic  foot. 

7.  A simile  ought  to  be  read  in  a lower  tone  of  voice  than  the  portion  o!  the  poem 
which  precedes  it. 

HOW  TO  SIMULATE  THE  PASSIONS  IN  THE  RECITAL  OF 

HEROIC  VERSE. 

HUS  far  the  rules  we  have  laid  down  apply  to  poetry  generally,  but  as  the 
simulations  of  the  passions  enter  largely  into  the  recital  of  heroic  verse, 
it  will  be  necessary  to  enter  briefly  into  this  branch  of  the  subject. 

“ How  are  we  to  acquire  that  peculiar  quality  of  sound  that  indicates 
the  passion  we  wish  to  express  ?”  The  answer  is  easy : tf<  By  feeling  the 
passion  which  expresses  itself  by  that  peculiar  quality  of  sound.”  The  simulation  of  the 
passions  may  be  obtained  by  imitation — that  is,  by  observing  and  noting  in  the  memory 
the  various  tones  and  gestures  which  accompany  them  when  they  arise  or  are  indulged 
in  by  others,  so  that  we  may  dispose  ourselves  to  feel  them  mechanically,  and  improve 
our  expression  of  them  when  we  are  called  on  to  read  or  recite  the  particular  pieces  in 
which  they  occur;  for  by  the  imitation  of  the  passions,  we  meet  them,  as  it  were,  half 
way. 

1.  Tranquillity. — This  may  be  expressed  by  the  composure  of  the  countenance 
and  a general  repose  of  the  whole  body,  without  the  exertion  of  any  one  muscle.  The 
countenance  open,  the  forehead  smooth,  the  eyebrows  arched,  the  mouth  nearly  closed, 
and  the  eyes  passing  with  an  easy  motion  from  object  to  object,  but  not  dwelling  too  long 
on  one.  Care  must  be  taken  to  distinguish  it  from  insensibility. 

2.  Cheerfulness  adds  a smile  to  tranquillity,  and  opens  the  mouth  a little  more. 

3.  Mirth  requires  a laughing,  joyous  style  of  delivery  ; but  buffoonery  and  grimace 
must  be  avoided,  or  the  audience  will  laugh  at  and  not  with  the  speaker,  who  should  let 
his  subject-matter  set  his  audience  laughing  before  copying  their  example. 


682 


ELOCUTION.  HOW  TO  SIMULATE  THE  PASSIONS. 


4.  Raillery  puts  on  the  aspect  of  cheerfulness  ; the  tone  of  voice  should  be 
sprightly. 

5.  Irony  is  expressed  by  the  sneer,  which  is  ironical  approbation.  A satirical  tone 
of  voice,  look  and  gesture  should  accompany  it. 

6.  Joy  radiates  the  countenance  with  smiles,  and  lights  up,  as  it  were,  the  whole 
frame.  Walker  recommends  “ clapping  the  hands,”  “raising  the  eyes  to  heaven,”  and 
“ giving  such  a spring  to  the  body  as  to  make  it  attempt  to  mount  up  as  if  it  could  fly  ” — 
but  all  such  extravagances  must  be  avoided. 

7.  Delight. — The  tones,  gestures  and  looks  are  the  same  as  joy,  but  less  forcible 
and  more  permanent. 

8.  Love  must  be  approached  with  the  utmost  delicacy ; it  is  best  expressed  by  a 
deep,  impassioned,  fervent  tone  ; the  right  hand  may  be  pressed  over  the  heart,  but  the 
“ languishing  eyes  ” recommended  by  some  authors  borders  too  closely  on  burlesque.  A 
steady,  respectful  gaze  on  the  assumed  object  of  affection  may  be  permitted. 

9.  Pity  may  be  denoted  by  an  expression  of  pain  on  the  countenance  and  a com* 
passionate  tenderness  of  the  voice.  The  mouth  open,  and  a gentle  raising  and  falling  of 
the  hands  and  eyes,  as  if  mourning  over  the  unhappy  object. 

10.  Hope  erects  and  brightens  the  countenance,  spreads  the  arms  with  the  hands 
open,  as  to  receive  the  object  of  its  wishes.  The  voice  is  plaintive  and  inclining  to 
eagerness. 

11.  Hatred  draws  back  the  body  as  to  avoid  the  hated  object ; the  hands  at  the 
same  time  spread  out,  as  if  to  keep  it  off.  The  pitch  of  the  voice  is  low,  but  harsh, 
chiding  and  vehement. 

12.  Anger  expresses  itself  with  rapidity  and  harshness — and  sometimes  with  inter- 
ruption and  hesitation,  as  if  unable  to  utter  with  sufficient  force.  Rage  and  Fury  are 
exaggerations  of  this  passion. 

13.  Reproach  requires  the  contracted  brow  and  the  curled  lip ; the  voice  is  low  and 
the  whole  body  expressive  of  aversion. 

14.  Fear  is  one  of  the  most  difficult  and  elaborate  passions  to  simulate.  The  breath 
must  appear  quick  and  short ; the  voice  trembling  and  weak  ; the  body  as  if  shrinking 
from  danger.  When  attended  with  terror  and  consternation,  one  foot  is  drawn  back  as 
if  putting  itself  into  a posture  for  flight. 

15.  Sorrow. — Countenance  dejected,  eyes  cast  down,  arms  hanging  loose,  the  voice 
plaintive  and  interrupted  by  sighs. 

1 6.  Remorse. — Head  hangs  down,  the  voice  low  and  harsh. 

17.  Despair  can  only  be  touched  by  an  accomplished  actor.  The  amateur  should 
attempt  nothing  beyond  reading  or  reciting  the  oassage,  depicting  it  in  a deep  and 
solemn  tone. 

18.  Surprise  may  be  expressed  by  the  mouth  and  eyes  being  wide  open  ; the  voice 
in  the  upper  pitch.  Wonder,  Amazement  and  Admiration  come  under  this  head. 

19.  Pride  assumes  a lofty  look  ; the  eyes  well  open,  the  words  uttered  in  slow,  stiff 
affected  style. 


ELOCUTION.  HOW  TO  SIMULATE  THE  PASSIONS. 


683 


20.  Confidence — Courage. — In  both  the  head  is  erect,  the  breast  projected,  the 
countenance  clear  and  open,  the  voice  loud,  round  and  not  too  rapid.  Boasting  exagger- 
ates these  by  noise  and  blustering. 

21.  Perplexity,  with  which  may  be  classed  Irresolution  and  Anxiety,  requires 
an  expression  of  thoughtful  consideration ; the  motions  of  the  body  are  restless,  the 
pauses  long,  the  tone  of  the  voice  uneven. 

22.  Vexation  expresses  itself  with  looks  of  perplexity ; the  tones  are  sharp  and 
broken  ; the  hands  restless. 

23.  Envy. — Envy  arises  from  a mixture  of  joy,  sorrow  and  hatred ; it  sometimes 
assumes  a mocking  tone. 

24.  Malice  sends  flashes  from  the  eyes  and  closes  the  teeth.  The  voice  is  expressed 
as  in  anger. 

25.  Jealousy  displays  itself  in  such  a variety  of  forms  that  it  may  embrace  any  of 
the  foregoing  ; the  text  of  the  author  will  discover  which. 

26.  Modesty  bends  the  body  forward,  and  has  a placid,  downcast  countenance ; the 
tone  of  voice  is  low. 

27.  Shame  turns  away  the  face  from  the  beholders,  casts  down  the  eyes  ; the  voice 
is  confused  and  faltering. 

28.  Gravity. — The  posture  of  the  body  and  limbs  is  composed  and  without  much 
motion  ; the  speech  slow  and  solemn,  the  tone  without  much  variety. 

29.  Admonition  assumes  a grave  air,  bordering  on  severity  ; the  voice  assumes  the 
low  tone,  bordering  on  the  monotone. 

30.  Reproof  puts  on  a stern  aspect  and  roughens  the  voice ; it  is  sometimes  ac- 
companied by  threatening  gestures. 

A number  of  other  examples  might  be  given,  but  the  pupil  who  has  mastered  the 
above  will  scarcely  need  further  instruction. 

USEFUL  HINTS. 

the  opportunity  is  afforded  you,  try  the  acoustic  properties  of  the 
in  which  you  are  to  recite  beforehand.  You  will  thus  ascertain  the 
r pitch  on  which  to  commence. 

:.  If  the  room  be  large  and  resonant,  be  careful  to  speak  slowly, 
;ng  time-  for  the  voice  to  travel ; otherwise  the  words  will  become 
jumbled,  run  one  within  another,  and  indistinctness  will  result.  The  attention  with 
which  you  are  listened  to  will  soon  convince  you  if  you  are  heard  or  not. 

3.  Never  read  in  public  a piece  with  which  you  are  previously  unacquainted  ; you 
must,  in  order  to  give  the  proper  emphasis  to  the  lines  before  you,  be  acquainted  with 
what  is  to  follow.  At  least  one  perusal  of  the  piece  you  are  called  on  to  read  should  be 
insisted  on. 

4.  To  preserve  the  voice,  bathe  and  gargle  the  throat  morning  and  evening,  using 
cold  water.  As  a rule,  muffling  up  the  throat  is  relaxing  and  injurious,  but  it  is  advisa- 


684 


ELOCUTION.  HOW  TO  SIMULATE  THE  PASSIONS. 


ble  to  do  so  when  going  from  a warm  room  into  the  cold  air.  Keep  the  mouth  closed 
until  you  have  walked  some  time  or  reached  home,  and  you  may  then  speak  at 
pleasure. 

5.  If  you  have  to  read  or  recite  for  some  time  you  may  just  moisten  the  lips  with 
cold  water,  but  avoid  drinking  it  in  any  quantity. 

6.  Never  speak  through  a confirmed  hoarseness,  if  it  can  be  avoided.  If  your  voice 
is  out  of  order  a new-laid  egg  beaten  up  with  a teaspoonful  of  the  compound  tincture  of 
cinnamon  may  be  taken  with  advantage,  but  avoid  all  nostrums  for  the  voice  ; many  of 
them  contain  opium,  and  will  ultimately  and  permanently  injure  it.  For  nervousness  a 
couple  of  teaspoonfuls  of  sal  volatile  in  a wineglass  of  water  will  be  found  useful.  Spirits 
or  spirits-and-water  cause  a dryness  of  the  tongue,  and  will  only  increase  your  mis- 
fortune. 

7.  The  student  would  do  well  to  while  away  an  hour  sometimes  in  a sculpture  gallery, 
and  afterwards  endeavor  to  realize  the  attitudes  he  has  there  observed.  But  all  action 
must  be  suggested  by  the  sense  of  the  production  which  he  is  delivering,  and  any  move- 
ment that  does  not  naturally  arise  out  of  it  is  inconsistent  and  erroneous.  If  you  feel  a 
poem  and  deliver  it  with  energy,  you  will  be  sure  to  give  action  which  is  not  very  inap- 
propriate, and  redundancies  and  awkward  peculiarities  are  best  got  rid  of  by  practising 
before  a judicious  friend.  True  purity  and  dignity  of  action  is  a collection  of 

“ Nameless  graces  which  no  methods  teach. 

And  which  a master’s  hand  alone  can  reach,” 

and  which  nothing  but  a long  experience  and  correct  taste  can  impart. 

8.  Conversational  dialogues  are  among  the  most  effective  means  of  breaking  up 
monotonous  and  mechanical  tones,  and  are  cf  great  service  in  facilitating  the  acquisition 
of  an  appropriate  style  01  reading. 

9.  Modulation  should  never  be  resorted  to  for  the  sake  of  variety ; it  should  always 
be  subservient  to  the  sense , for  it  is  the  province  of  modulation  to  mark  changes  of 
sentiment,  changes  in  the  train  of  strength,  and  parenthetical  clauses. 

10.  The  management  of  passion  in  accordance  with  the  character  that  is  represented 
to  labor  under  it,  its  natural  sentiments,  its  fluctuations  and  its  combinations  must  be 
intuitively  present  to  the  mind  of  the  dramatic  author.  The  person  who  acts  a character 
has,  in  some  respects,  a minuter  and  more  delicate  task  to  perform,  as  he  must  watch 
over  every  tone,  look  and  gesture,  and  keep  them  in  consistency  with  the  situation  of 
the  person  represented.  There  is  a smile  of  benignity,  of  love,  of  contempt;  there  is  a, 
smile  of  innocence  and  of  guilt;  of  dignity  and  of  silliness;  there  is  the  smile  of  the 
peasant  and  that  of  the  king.  To  vary  the  expression  of  passion,  so  as  to  preserve  it  in 
keeping  with  the  character,  to  exhibit  inferior  and  incidental  passions  as  modified  by  a 
dominant  one,  are  the  attainments  of  a great  actor,  who,  in  his  delineations,  is  not  always 
assisted  by  the  composition  of  the  dramatist. 


EXERCISES  FOR  PRACTICE. 


How  dear  to  my  heart  are  the  scenes  of  my  child- 
hood, 

When  fond  recollection  recalls  them  to  view, 

The  orchard,  the  meadow,  the  deep-tangled  wild- 
wood, 

And  all  the  loved  spots  that  my  infancy  knew. 

The  widespreading  pond  and  the  mill  that  stood  by  it. 

The  bridge  and  the  rock  where  the  cataract  fell  ! 
The  house  of  my  father,  the  dairy-house  by  it, 

And  e’en  the  rude  bucket  that  hung  in  the  well. 

THE  AUCTIONEER. 

The  auctioneer,  then,  in  his  labor  began, 

And  called  out  aloud,  as  he  held  up  a man, 

“How  much  for  a bachelor?  Who  wants  to  buy?” 

In  a twink  every  maiden  responded,  “ I I !n 

In  short,  at  a hugely  extravagant  price, 

The  bachelors  all  were  sold  off  in  a trice, 

And  forty  old  maidens — some  younger,  some  older— 
Each  lugged  an  old  bachelor  home  on  her  shoulder. 

Hood. 

SPEECH  OF  CAIUS  GRACCHUS. 

O Rome,  my  country  1 O my  mother,  Rome  ’ 

Is  it  to  shed  thy  blood  I draw  my  sword  ? 

To  fill  thy  matrons’  and  thy  daughters’  eyes 
With  tears,  and  drain  the  spirits  of  thy  sons  ? 

Should  I not  rather  turn  it  ’gainst  myself, 

And,  by  the  timely  sacrifice  of  one. 

Preserve  the  many?  They  will  not  let  me  do  it  } 
They  take  from  the  rule  of  mine  own  acts, 

And  make  me  freedom’s  slave  ! What ! is  it  so  ? 
Come,  then,  the  only  virtue  that  is  left  me, — 

The  fatal  virtue  of  necessity. 

Upon  them  ! — 

Give  them  stout  hearts,  ye  gods  ! to  enable  them 
To  stand  the  flashing  of  their  tyrants’  swords  ; 

Deaf  to  the  din  of  battle  let  them  be  ; 

Senseless  to  wounds,  and  without  eyes  for  blood  ; — 
That  for  this  once  they  may  belie  themselves, 

Make  tyranny  to  cower,  and  from  her  yoke 
Lift  prostrate  Liberty,  to  fall  no  more. 

J.  Sheridan  Knowles. 


HAMLET’S  INSTRUCTION  TO  THE  PLAYERS. 

This  passage  from  the  inimitable  Shakspeare,  is 
not  only  a grand  exercise  for  practice,  but  it  is  also 
an  epitome  of  the  whole  theory  of  elocution,  and  is 
most  valuable  for  the  suggestions  which  it  affords 


the  student  of  oratory.  It  is  worthy  the  closest 
attention  and  study. 

Speak  the  speech,  I pray  you,  as  I pronounced  it 
to  you,  — trippingly  on  the  tongue;  but  if  you 
mouth  it,  as  many  of  our  players  do,  I had  as  lief 
the  town-crier  spake  my  lines.  Nor  do  not  saw  the 
air  too  much  with  your  hand  thus,  but  use  all 
gently  ; for  in  the  very  torrent,  tempest,  and,  as  I 
may  say,  whirlwind  of  your  passion,  you  must 
acquire  and  beget  a temperance,  that  may  give  it 
smoothness.  Oh  ! it  offends  me  to  the  soul,  to  hear 
a robustious  periwig-pated  fellow  tear  a passion  to 
tatters, — to  very  rags,— to  split  the  ears  of  the 
groundlings  ; who,  for  the  most  part,  are  capable  of 
nothing  but  inexplicable  dumb  show  and  noise,  f 
would  have  such  a fellow  whipped  for  o’erdoing 
Termagant : it  out-  Herods  Herod.  Pray  you, 

avoid  it. 

Be  not  too  tame  neither,  but  let  your  own  discre- 
tion be  your  tutor.  Suit  the  action  to  the  word, 
the  word  to  the  action  ; with  this  specicl  observance 
— that  you  o’erstep  not  the  modesty  of  nature  : for 
anything  so  overdone  is  from  the  purpose  of  play- 
ing ; whose  end,  both  at  the  first  and  now,  was,  and 
is,  to  hold,  as  ’twere,  the  mirror  up  to  nature  ; — to 
show  virtue  her  own  feature  ; scorn  her  own  image} 
and  the  very  age  and  body  of  the  time,  his  form  and 
pressure.  Now  this,  overdone  or  come  tardy  off, 
though  it  make  the  unskillful  laugh,  cannot  but 
make  the  judicious  grieve  ; the  censure  of  which 
one,  must,  in  your  allowance,  o’erweigh  a whole 
theatre  of  others.  Oh  ! there  be  players,  that  I have 
seen  play,  and  heard  others  praise,  and  that  highly, 
not  to  speak  it  profanely,  that,  neither  having  the 
accent  of  Christians,  nor  the  gait  of  Christian, 
pagan,  or  man,  have  so  strutted  and  bellowed,  that 
I have  thought  some  of  Nature’s  journeymen  had 
made  men,  and  not  made  them  well, — they  imitate 
nature  so  abominably. 

And  gleaming  and  streaming  an d steaming  and  beam 
ing, 

And  rushing  and  flushing  and  brushing  and  gushing, 
And  flapping  and  rapping  ana? clapping  and  slapping, 
And  curling  and  whirling  and  purling  and  twirling. 
Retreating  and  beating  and  meeting  and  sheeting. 
Delaying  and  straying  and  playing  and  spraying, 
Advancing  am/  glancing  and  prancing  and  dancing, 
Recoiling,  turmoiling  and  toiling  and  boiling, 

And  thumping  and  flumping  and  bumping-  and  jump, 
ing. 

And  dashing-  and  flashing  and  splashing  and  clashing. 


686 


ELOCUTION.  EXERCISES  FOR  PRACTICE. 


had  so  never  ending,  but  always  descending, 
Sounds  an  d mo  lions  for  ever  an  d ever  are  blending, 
All  at  once  am/  all  o’er,  with  a mighty  uproar/ 
had  this  way  the  water  comes  down  at  Lodore. 


HAMLET  TO  HIS  MOTHER. 

Look  here  upon  this  picture,  and  on  this  ; 

The  counterfeit  presentment  of  two  brothers. 

See  what  a grace  was  seated  on  this  brow : — 
Hyperion’s  curls  ; the  front  of  Jove  himself ; 

An  eye  like  Mars’,  to  threaten  and  command  j 
A station  like  the  herald  Mercury, 

New-lighted  on  a heaven-kissing  hill ; 

A combination,  and  a form,  indeed, 

Where  every  god  did  seem  to  set  his  seal, 

To  give  the  world  assurance  of  a man. 

This  was  your  husband.  Look  you  now  what  folr 
lows  : 

Here  is  your  husband  ; like  a mildewed  ear, 

Blasting  his  wholesome  brother.  Have  you  eyes? 
Could  you  on  this  fair  mountain  leave  to  feed, 

And  batten  on  this  moor?  Ha  ! have  you  eyes? 

You  cannot  call  it  love,  for  at  your  age 
The  heyday  in  the  blood  is  tame,  it’s  humble, 

And  waits  upon  the  judgment  ; and  what  judgment 
Would  step  from  this  to  this? 

Shakspeare. 


CATILINE’S  DEFIANCE. 

Banished  from  Rome  ! What’s  banished  but  set 
free 

From  daily  contact  with  the  things  I loathe? 

“ Tried  and  convicted  traitor  !”  Who  say's  this? 
Who’ll  prove  it,  at  his  peril,  on  my  head  ? 

Banished  ? I thank  you  for’t.  It  breaks  my  chain! 
I held  some  slack  allegiance  till  this  hour  ; 

But  now  my  sword’s  my  own.  Smile  on,  my  lords  ! 
I scorn  to  count  what  feelings,  withered  hopes, 
Strong  provocations,  bitter,  burning  wrongs, 

I have  within  my  heart’s  hot  cells  shut  up, 

To  leave  you  in  your  lazy  dignities. 

But  here  I stand  and  scoff  you  : — here  I fling 
Hatred  and  full  defiance  in  your  face. 

J.  Sheridan  Knowles. 

MACBETH’S  SOLILOQUY. 

If  it  were  done,  when  ’tis  done,  then  ’twere  well 
It  were  done  quickly.  If  the  assassination 


Could  trammel  up  the  consequence,  and  catch, 
With  his  surcease,  success  ! That  but  this  blow 
Might  be  the  be-all,  and  the  end-all,  here — 

But  here,  upon  this  bank  and  shoal  of  time, 

We’d  jump  the  life  to  come.  But,  in  these  cases, 
We  still  have  judgment  here,  that  we  but  teach 
Bloody  instructions,  which,  being  taught,  return 
To  plague  the  inventor.  This  even-handed  justice 
Commends  the  ingredients  of  our  poisoned  chalice 
To  our  lips.  He’s  here  in  double  trust  : 

First,  as  I am  his  kinsman  and  his  subject,— 

Strong  both  against  the  deed  ; then,  as  his  host, 
Who  should  against  his  murderer  shut  the  door, 
Not  bear  the  knife  myself.  Besides,  this  Duncan 
Hath  borne  his  faculties  so  meek,  hath  been 
So  clear  in  his  great  office,  that  his  virtues 
Will  plead  like  angels,  trumpet-tongued,  against 
The  deep  damnation  of  his  taking-off ; 

And  Pity,  like  a naked,  new-born  babe, 

Striding  the  blast,  or  heaven’s  cherubims 
Horsed  upon  the  sightless  couriers  of  the  air, 

Shall  blow  the  horrid  deed  in  every  eye, 

That  tears  shall  drown  the  wind. 

I have  no  spur 

To  prick  the  sides  of  my  intent,  but  only 
Vaulting  ambition,  which  o’erleaps  itself, 

And  falls  on  the  other  side. 

Shakspeare. 

DEMOSTHENES. 

Imagine  yourself  a Demosthanes,  addressing  the 
most  illustrious  assembly  in  the  world  upon  a point 
wherein  the  fate  of  the  most  illustrious  nations  de- 
pended. How  awful  such  a meeting  ! How  vast  the 
subject ! Is  a man  possessed  of  talents  adequate  to 
the  great  occasion?  Adequate!  Yes,  superior. 
With  what  strength  of  argument,  with  what  powers 
of  fancy , with  what  emotions  of  heart , does  he 
assault  and  subjugate  the  whole  man,  and  at  once 
captivate  his  reason,  his  imagination,  and  his  pas- 
sions ; to  effect  this  must  be  the  utmost  effort  of 
the  most  improved  state  of  human  nature.  Not  a 
faculty  he  possesses  is  here  unemployed.  Notwith- 
standing the  diversity  of  minds  in  such  a multi- 
tude, by  the  lightning  of  eloquence  they  are  melted 
into  one  mass  ; the  whole  assembly,  actuated  in  one 
and  the  same  way.  become,  as  it  were,  but  one  man, 
and  have  but  one  voice.  The  universal  cry  is.  Let 
us  march  to  PHILIP— let  us  fight  for  our  LIBER 
TIES — let  us  conquer,  or  DIE  t 


THE  ELOCUTION  OF  THE  PULPIT. 


CANNCT  forbear  regretting  here  that  a matter  of  such  vast  importance  to 
preaching  as  delivery  should  be  so  generally  neglected  or  misunderstood- 
A common  apprehension  prevails,  indeed,  that  a strict  regard  to  these 

rules  would  be  deemed  theatrical ; and  the  dread,  perhaps,  of  incurring 

this  imputation  is  a restraint  upon  many.  But  is  it  not  possible  to  obtain 
a just  and  expressive  manner,  perfectly  consistent  with  the  gravity  of  the  pulpit,  and  yet 
quite  distinct  from  the  more  passionate,  strong  and  diversified  action  of  the  theatre? 
And  is  it  not  possible  to  hit  off  this  manner  so  easily  and  naturally  as  to  leave  no  room 
for  just  reflection  ? An  affair  this,  it  must  be  owned,  of  the  utmost  delicacy  ; in  which 
we  shall  probably  often  miscarry,  and  meet  with  abundance  of  censure  at  first . But  still,  I 
imagine,  that  through  the  regulations  of  taste,  the  improvements  of  experience,  the  cor- 
rections of  friendship,  the  feelings  of  piety,  and  the  gradual  meilowings  of  time,  such  an 
elocution  may  be  acquired  as  is  above  delineated  ; and  such  as,  when  acquired,  will  make 

its  way  to  the  hearts  of  the  hearers  through  their  ears  and  eyes,  with  a delight  to  both, 

that  is  seldom  felt ; while,  contrary  to  what  is  commonly  practised,  it  will  appear  to  the 
former  the  very  language  of  nature,  and  present  to  the  latter  the  lively  image  of  the 
preacher's  soul  Were  a taste  for  this  kind  of  elocution  to  take  place  it  is  difficult  to  say 
how  much  the  preaching  art  would  gain  by  it.  Pronunciation  would  be  studied,  an  ear 
would  be  formed,  the  voice  would  be  modulated,  every  feature  of  the  face,  every  motion 
of  the  hands,  every  posture  of  the  body  would  be  brought  under  right  management.  A 
graceful  and  correct  and  animated  expression  in  all  these  would  be  ambitiously  sought 
after  ; mutual  criticisms  and  friendly  hints  would  be  universally  acknowledged ; light 
and  direction  would  be  borrowed  from  every  quarter  and  from  every  age.  The  best 
models  of  antiquity  would  in  a particular  manner  be  admired,  surveyed  and  imitated. 
The  sing-song  voice  and  the  see-saw  gestures,  if  I may  be  allowed  to  use  those  expres- 
sions, would,  of  course,  be  exploded ; and  in  time  nothing  would  be  admitted,  at  least 
approved  among  performers  but  what  was  decent,  manly  and  truly  excellent  in  the  kind, 
Even  the  people  themselves  would  contract,  insensibly,  a growing  relish  for  such  a man- 
ner ; and  those  preachers  would  at  last  be  in  chief  repute  with  all,  who  followed  nature, 
overlooked  themselves,  appeared  totally  absorbed  in  the  subject,  and  spoke  with  real  pro- 
priety and  pathos,  from  the  immediate  impulse  of  truth  and  virtue. 

Rev.  James  Fordyce. 


EXTRACTS  FROM  LORD  CHESTERFIELD  UPON  ELOCUTION 

AND  ORATORY. 


UE  ELOCUTION. — What  then  does  all  this  mighty  art  and  mys- 
tery of  speaking  in  parliament  amount  to  ? Why,  no  more  than  this; 
That  the  man  who  speaks  in  the  House  of  Commons,  speaks  in  that 
house,  and  to  four  hundred  people,  that  opinion  upon  a given  subject 
which  he  would  make  no  difficulty  of  speaking  in  any  house  in  England, 
round  the  fire  or  at  table,  to  any  fourteen  people  whatsoever ; better  judges,  perhaps, 
and  severer  critics  of  what  he  says  than  any  fourteen  gentlemen  of  the  House  of  Com- 
mons. 

I have  spoken  frequently  in  Parliament,  and  not  always  without  some  applause  ; and 
therefore  I can  assure  you,  from  my  experience,  that  there  is  very  little  in  it  The  ele* 
gancy  of  the  style  and  the  turn  of  the  periods  make  the  chief  impression  upon  the  hear- 
ers. Give  them  but  one  or  two  round  and  harmonious  periods  in  a speech,  which  they 
will  retain  and  repeat,  and  they  will  go  home  as  well  satisfied. 

The  first  thing  you  should  attend  to  is  to  speak  whatever  language  you  do  speak  114 
its  greatest  purity  and  according  to  the  rules  of  grammar,  for  we  must  never  offend 
against  grammar,  nor  make  use  of  words  which  are  not  really  words.  This  is  not  all ; 
for  not  to  speak  ill,  is  not  sufficient ; we  must  speak  well,  and  the  best  method  ot  attain* 
ing  to  that  is  to  read  the  best  authors  with  attention,  and  to  observe  how  people  of  lash 
ion  speak,  and  those  who  express  themselves  best ; for  shopkeepers,  common  people 
footmen  and  maid-servants  all  speak  ill. 

Oratory. — The  business  of  oratory  is  to  persuade  people  ; and  you  easily  feel  that 
to  please  people  is  a great  step  towards  persuading  them.  You  must  then,  consequently, 
be  sensible  how  advantageous  it  is  for  a man  who  speaks  in  public,  whether  it  be  in  Par- 
liament, in  the  pulpit  or  at  the  bar  (that  is,  in  the  courts  of  law),  to  please  his  hearers  so 
much  as  to  gain  their  attention,  which  he  can  never  do  without  the  help  of  oratory.  If 
is  not  enough  to  speak  the  language  he  speaks  in  its  utmost  purity  and  according  to  the 
rules  of  grammar,  but  he  must  speak  it  elegantly  ; that  is,  he  must  choose  the  best  and 
most  expressive  words,  and  put  them  in  the  best  order.  He  should  likewise  adorn  what 
he  says  by  proper  metaphors,  similes  and  other  figures  of  rhetoric;  and  he  should  en- 
liven it,  if  he  can,  by  quick  and  sprightly  turns  of  wit. 

Enunciation — Eloquence. — Your  figure  is  a good  one;  you  have  no  natural  de- 
fect in  the  organs  of  speech  ; your  address  may  be  engaging,  and  your  manner  of  speak- 
ing  graceful,  if  you  will ; so  that  if  they  are  not  so,  neither  I nor  the  world  can  ascribe  it 
to  anything  but  your  want  of  parts.  What  is  the  constant  and  just  observation  as  to  all 
actors  upon  the  stage  ? Is  it  not  that  those  who  have  the  best  sense  always  speak  the 
best,  though  they  may  happen  not  to  have  the  best  voices?  They  will  speak  plainly, 
distinctly,  and  with  the  proper  emphasis,  be  their  voices  ever  so  bad.  Had  Roscius 


ELOCUTION.  ARTICULATION,  USE  OF  ORATORY. 


689 


spofcen  quick , thick  and  ungracefully , I will  answer  for  it  that  Cicero  would  not  have 
thought  him  worth  the  oration  which  he  made  in  his  favor.  Words  were  given  us  to 
communicate  our  ideas  by,  and  there  must  be  something  inconceivably  absurd  in  uttering 
them  in  such  a manner  as  that  either  people  cannot  understand  them,  or  will  not  desire 
to  understand  them.  I tell  you  truly  and  sincerely  that  I shall  judge  of  your  parts  by 
your  speaking  gracefully  or  ungracefully.  If  you  have  parts,  you  will  never  be  at  rest 
till  you  have  brought  yourself  to  a habit  of  speaking  most  gracefully  ; for  I aver  that  it  is 
in  your  power. 

Articulation. — Y ou  will  take  care  to  open  your  teeth  when  you  speak  ; to  articu- 
late every  word  distinctly,  and  to  beg  of  Mr.  Harte,  Mr.  Eliot  or  whoever  you  speak  to, 
to  remind  and  stop  you  if  ever  you  fall  into  the  rapid  and  unintelligible  mutter.  You 
will  even  read  aloud  to  yourself,  and  tune  your  utterance  to  your  own  ear ; and  read  at 
first  much  slower  than  you  need  to  do  in  order  to  correct  yourself  of  that  shameful  trick 
of  speaking  faster  than  you  ought. 

Oratory  and  Hard  Work. — Demosthenes,  the  celebrated  Greek  orator,  thought 
it  so  absolutely  necessary  to  speak  well  that,  though  he  naturally  stuttered  and  had  weak 
lungs,  he  resolved,  by  application  and  care,  to  get  the  better  of  those  disadvantages.  Ac- 
cordingly, he  cured  his  stammering  by  putting  small  pebbles  in  his  mouth  ; and  strength* 
ened  his  lungs  gradually  by  using  himself  every  day  to  speak  aloud  and  distinctly  for  a 
considerable  time.  He  likewise  went  often  to  the  seashore  in  stormy  weather,  when  the 
sea  made  most  noise,  and  there  spoke  as  loud  as  he  could,  in  order  to  use  himself  to  the 
noise. 

Use  of  Oratory. — Your  trade  is  to  speak  well,  both  in  public  and  in  private. 
The  manner  of  your  speaking  is  full  as  important  as  the  matter,  as  more  people  have  ears 
10  be  tickled  than  understandings  to  judge.  Be  your  productions  ever  so  good,  they  wilt 
be  of  no  use  it  you  stifle  and  strangle  them  in  their  birth.  The  best  compositions  of 
Corelli,  if  ill  executed  and  played  out  of  tune,  instead  of  touching,  as  they  do  when  well 
performed,  would  only  excite  the  indignation  of  the  hearers,  when  murdered  by  an  un- 
skilful performer.  But  to  murder  your  own  productions,  and  that  coram  populot  is  a 
Medean  cruelty , which  Horace  absolutely  forbids.  Remember  ot  what  importance  De- 
mosthenes and  one  of  the  Gracchi  thought  enunciation ; read  what  stress  Cicero  and 
Quintilian  lay  upon  it ; even  the  herb -women  at  Athens  were  correct  judges  of  it.  Ora- 
tory with  all  its  graces,  that  of  enunciation  in  particular,  is  full  as  necessary  in  our  gov- 
ernment as  it  ever  was  in  Greece  or  Rome.  No  man  can  make  a fortune  or  a figure  in 
this  country  without  speaking,  and  speaking  well  in  public. 

Speak  Well. — Recite  pieces  01  eloquence,  declaim  scenes  of  tragedies  to  Mr. 
Harte  as  if  he  were  a numerous  audience.  If  there  is  any  particular  consonant  which 
you  have  a difficulty  in  articulating,  as  I think  you  had  with  the  Rf  utter  it  millions  and 
millions  of  times,  till  you  nave  uttered  it  right.  Never  speak  quick  till  you  have  first 
‘earned  to  speak  well.  In  short,  lay  aside  every  book  and  every  thought  that  does  not 
directly  tend  to  this  great  object,  absolutely  decisive  of  your  future  fortune  and 
figure. 


A DICTIONARY  OF 

1 2,000 


SYNO 


ORDS 


IN  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE 


Words  having  the  same  meaning  are  called  synonyms.  In  writing  or  expressing 
oneself  it  is  very  essential  to  use  different  words  conveying  the  same  idea,  so  that  a rep- 
etion  may  not  occur  in  the  same  sentence.  Correct : Her  company  at  this  time  was 
very  acceptable ; agreeable  in  manners,  pleasing  in  address  , she  was  a most  welcome 
visitor.  Incorrect : Her  company  at  this  time  was  very  acceptable  ; acceptable  in  man- 
ners, acceptable  in  address,  she  was  a most  acceptable  visitor. 

There  are  many  dictionaries  of  synonyms  which  contain  only  one  synonym  to  each 
word,  such  as  abridge,  abbreviate.  In  this  work  you  will  find  the  following  synonyms 
with  the  word  : abridge,  abbreviate,  diminish,  curtail,  restrict,  condense,  compress.  In 
fact  such  works  are  abridged,  abbreviated,  diminished,  curtailed,  restricted,  condensed  and 
compressed  to  such  an  extent  that  they  are  of  little  value.  The  reader  will  find  in  this 
work  a full  alphabetical  list  of  words,  and  in  many  instances  as  many  as  twelve  or  more 
synonyms  to  each  word.  It  has  been  our  aim  to  make  one  of  the  most  complete  lists  of 
words  ever  issued. 


ABACK,  backward,  back. 

Abaft,  sternward,  aft,  behind. 

Abandon,  desert,  leave,  relinquish,  discon- 
tinue, cease,  quit,  renounce,  give  up,  sur- 
render, forego,  forswear. 

Abandonment,  leaving,  desertion,  derelic- 
tion, renunciation,  defection. 

Abase,  depress,  reduce,  humble,  degrade, 
disgrace,  humiliate,  dishonor. 

Abasement,  degradation,  depression,  dis- 
grace, dishonor,  humiliation. 

Abash,  confuse,  confound,  discompose, 
shqme,  humiliate,  mortify,  humble. 

Abate,  moderate,  decrease,  diminish,  termi- 
nate, remove. 

Abbreviate,  abridge,  shorten,  reduce,  con- 
dense, compress. 


Abdicate,  relinquish,  resign,  vacate,  re- 
nounce, quit. 

Aberration,  rambling,  illusion,  hallucina- 
tion, insanity. 

Abet,  aid,  help,  instigate,  encourage,  pro- 
mote, countenance. 

Abettor,  confederate,  helper,  assistant, 
accessary,  encourager,  associate,  com- 
panion. 

Abhorrence,  loathing,  hatred,  horror,  detes- 
tation, dislike,  distaste,  disgust. 

Abhorrent,  odious,  detestable,  hateful, 
abominable,  revolting. 

Abiding,  continuing,  permanent,  constant 

Ability,  power,  force,  capacity,  talent,  skill, 
dexterity,  faculty,  qualification. 

Abject,  low,  mean,  base,  worthless,  despi- 


A DICTIONARY  OF  SYNONYMOUS  WORDS. 


691 


cable,  vile,  contemptible,  servile,  misera- 
ble, slavish. 

Abjure,  forswear,  renounce,  disclaim,  re- 
voke, retract. 

Abnormal,  unusual,  strange,  unnatural,  ex- 
ceptional. 

Abolish,  repeal,  revoke,  cancel,  invalidate, 
obliterate,  destroy,  subvert,  overthrow. 

Abominate,  loathe,  detest,  hate. 

Aboriginal,  primeval,  native,  first,  original. 

Abortion,  miscarriage,  failure,  downfall,  de- 
feat. 

Abound,  plentiful,  swarm,  revel. 

About,  concerning,  respecting,  with  respect 
to,  relative  to,  nearly,  almost,  near. 

Abridge,  abbreviate,  diminish,  curtail,  re- 
strict, condense,  compress. 

Abridgment,  abbreviation,  abstract,  syn- 
opsis, outline,  digest. 

Abrupt,  broken,  precipitous,  steep,  craggy, 
sudden,  unexpected,  hasty,  harsh. 

Abscond,  run  away,  depart,  decamp. 

Absent,  not  present,  elsewhere,  thought- 
less. 

Absolute,  complete,  entire,  unconditional, 
arbitrary,  despotic,  authoritative. 

Absolve,  set  free,  liberate,  clear,  pardon, 
forgive. 

Abstain,  forbear,  stop,  desist,  discontinue, 
avoid. 

Abstemious,  temperate,  self-denying,  sober. 

Abstruse,  hidden,  intricate,  difficult,  pro- 
found, deep. 

Abundance,  sufficiency,  plenty,  copious- 
ness, plentitude. 

Abundant,  plentiful,  copious,  lavish,  ample. 

Abuse,  ill-treat,  misuse,  injure,  upbraid,  vil- 
ify, insult,  defame,  slander. 

Accede,  consent,  acquiesce,  coincide,  ap- 
prove. 

Accelerate,  hasten,  hurry,  despatch. 

Accept,  receive,  take,  admit. 

Acceptable,  agreeable,  pleasing,  welcome. 

Acceptation,  meaning,  significance. 

Access,  admission,  approach,  admittance. 

Accession,  increase,  augmentation,  addi- 
tion. 

Accident,  casualty,  contingency. 

Acclamation,  applause,  exultation,  joy, 
cheering,  triumph. 

Acclivity,  ascent,  rise,  incline. 

Accommodate,  adapt,  adjust,  serve,  supply. 

Accompany,  attend,  escort. 


Accomplice,  confederate,  accessory,  abet- 
tor. 

Accomplish,  execute,  effect,  perform, 
achieve,  consummate,  complete,  bring 
about. 

Accomplished,  finished,  completed,  exe- 
cuted, skilled,  talented,  polished. 

Accord,  concede,  admit,  allow,  grant. 

Accordingly,  conformably,  agreeably,  suit- 
ably, consequently. 

Accost,  speak  to,  salute,  greet,  hail. 

Accountable,  responsible,  liable,  amenable, 
punishable. 

Accredited,  authorized,  commissioned,  con- 
fidential, trusted. 

Accumulate,  collect,  heap  up,  gather,  bring 
together,  hoard. 

Accumulation,  heap,  collection,  mass. 

Accuracy,  precision,  fidelity,  nicety. 

Accurate,  correct,  unerring,  precise,  just, 
actual. 

Accusation,  charge,  impeachment,  imputa- 
tion, arraignment. 

Accuse,  charge,  impeach,  censure,  impute. 

Acerbity,  tartness,  sharpness,  acrimony,  bit- 
terness. 

Achieve,  accomplish,  perform,  execute, 
gain,  win,  attain,  finish. 

Achievement,  feat,  exploit,  deed,  attain- 
ment. 

Acknowledge,  admit,  confess,  avow,  grant, 
concede. 

Acquaint,  inform,  tell,  apprise,  disclose, 
make  known,  notify,  divulge. 

Acquiesce,  agree,  consent,  comply,  concur. 

Acquire,  gain,  procure,  obtain,  realize, 
earn. 

Acquirement,  attainment,  qualification,  ac- 
complishment. 

Acquit,  absolve,  discharge,  release. 

Acrimonious,  sharp,  biting,  harsh,  sar- 
castic. 

Acrimony,  asperity,  tartness,  sourness,  bit- 
terness. 

Act,  do,  perform,  effect,  make,  work,  per- 
sonate. 

Action,  deed,  achievement,  feat,  exploit. 

Actor,  player,  performer,  comedian,  tra- 
gedian. 

Acumen,  shrewdness,  cleverness,  sagacity. 

Actual,  real,  positive,  genuine. 

Actuate,  impel,  instigate,  induce,  prompt 

Adage,  proverb,  maxim,  motto. 


692 


A DICTIONARY  OF  SYNONYMOUS  WORDS. 


Adapt,  suit,  fit,  adjust,  arrange,  conform. 

Add,  cast  up,  increase,  enlarge,  extend, 
join. 

Addicted,  attached,  accustomed. 

Addition,  accession,  increase,  enlargement, 
extension. 

Additional,  extra,  more. 

Address,  skill,  ability,  tact,  dexterity,  inge- 
nuity. 

Adduce,  present,  offer,  advance. 

Adept,  proficient,  experienced,  practiced. 

Adhere,  cleave,  cling,  unite,  fix,  join. 

Adherence,  attachment,  fidelity,  devotion. 

Adherent,  follower,  partisan,  pupil. 

Adhesion,  attachment,  fidelity,  devotion. 

Adieu,  good-by,  au  revoir , farewell,  leave- 
taking. 

Adjacent,  near  to,  adjoining,  contiguous, 
bordering. 

Adjourn,  prorogue,  postpone,  delay. 

Adjunct,  appendage,  appurtenance,  append- 
ency. 

Adjust,  set  right,  accommodate,  adapt,  ar- 
range, settle. 

Administer,  serve,  supply,  afford,  contri- 
bute. 

Admirable,  striking,  surprising,  wonderful. 

Admonition,  warning,  notice,  caution. 

Adopt,  assume,  appropriate,  choose. 

Admire,  wonder  at,  approve,  love,  esteem, 
praise,  commend,  applaud. 

Admit,  allow,  permit,  acknowledge,  own, 
grant,  avow,  suffer,  concede,  accept. 

Admonish,  advise,  forewarn,  caution,  coun- 
sel, reprove,  rebuke. 

Adore,  worship,  idolize,  love,  hallow,  praise, 
reverence,  glorify. 

Adroit,  dexterous,  skillful,  expert,  profi- 
cient, clever. 

Adulterated,  impure,  debased,  vitiated,  de- 
teriorated, spurious. 

Advancement,  progress,  progression,  im- 
provement, propulsion,  preferment,  pro- 
motion. 

Advantage,  benefit,  good,  profit,  avail,  gain, 
interest,  utility,  service. 

Advantageous,  beneficial,  profitable,  ser- 
viceable, useful. 

Adventure,  chance,  hazard,  casualty,  inci- 
dent, occurrence,  event. 

Adventurous,  bold,  enterprising,  daring, 
rash. 

Adversary-  energy,  opponent  assailant. 


Adverse,  opposed  to,  opposite,  conflicting. 

Adversity,  misfortune,  affliction,  calamity, 
disaster. 

Advertise,  publish,  announce,  notify,  pro- 
claim, circulate. 

Advertisement,  notice,  announcement,  pro- 
clamation. 

Advice,  counsel,  warning,  information,  in- 
struction. 

Advise,  inform,  acquaint,  instruct,  admon- 
ish, warn,  counsel,  notify,  deliberate. 

Advisedly,  deliberately,  designedly,  dis- 
creetly. 

Advocate,  counsel,  defender,  upholder. 

Advocate,  propose,  maintain,  support. 

Aerial,  light,  etherial,  volatile. 

Affable,  courteous,  polite,  sociable,  gentle. 

Affair,  matter,  business,  subject. 

Affecting,  touching,  moving,  pathetic,  ten- 
der, impressive,  exciting. 

Affectionate,  tender,  attached,  devoted. 

Affirm,  swear,  testify,  asseverate,  tell,  de- 
clare, assert,  aver. 

Affirmation,  asseveration  attestation,  aver- 
ment, declaration. 

Afflict,  grieve,  distress,  trouble,  torment. 

Affluence,  wealth,  riches,  opulence. 

Affray,  * contention,  altercation,  wrangle, 
contest. 

Affright,  frighten,  terrify,  appall,  overawe. 

Affront,  wrong,  insult,  offence,  outrage. 

Afraid,  timid,  timorous,  faint-hearted. 

Afterward,  hereafter,  subsequently,  ulti- 
mately. 

Age,  time,  date,  generation. 

Aged,  old,  elderly. 

Agency,  instrumental,  influence. 

Aggregate,  total,  complete. 

Aggregate,  amass,  accumulate. 

Aggression,  encroachment,  assault,  attack, 
offence. 

Aggressive,  attacking,  assailing. 

Aggrieve,  injure,  wrong. 

Agitate,  convulse,  disturb,  stir,  move, 
shake. 

Agitate,  perturbation,  emotion,  tremor. 

Agonize,  distress,  rack,  excruciate,  pain. 

Agony,  anguish,  pang,  suffering,  woe. 

Agreeable,  gratifying,  pleasant,  pleasing, 
amiable. 

Agreement,  concurrence,  coincidence,  con- 
tract, bargain. 

Aid,  help,  assist,  co-operate,  relieve,  succor. 


A DICTIONARY  OF  SYNONYMOUS  WORDS, 


693 


Ailing,  unwell,  ill,  sick,  diseased,  indis- 
posed, poorly. 

Aim,  direct,  point,  level,  aspire. 

Aim,  intent,  purpose,  design,  aspiration. 

Air,  look,  cast,  manner,  address,  bearing, 
deportment. 

Alacrity,  quickness,  willingness,  briskness. 

Alarm,  affright,  fright,  terror,  dismay. 

Alert,  watchful,  vigilant,  active,  brisk. 

Alienate,  estrange,  wean,  disaffect. 

Alike,  similar,  same,  identical,  twin,  equal. 

Aliment,  food,  sustenance,  nourishment, 
victuals. 

Alive,  living,  existing,  existent,  breathing, 
subsisting,  safe. 

All,  entire,  full,  complete,  perfect. 

Allay,  appease,  assuage,  soothe,  calm,  com- 
pose, alleviate,  soften,  moderate. 

Allege,  say,  declare,  affirm,  assert,  state, 
maintain,  advance. 

Allied,  connected,  related,  leagued,  joined, 
confederated,  alike,  kindred. 

Allow,  permit,  suffer,  tolerate,  admit,  con- 
cede, authorize,  sanction,  yield. 

Allowance,  grant,  stipend,  wages,  salary, 
recompense. 

Allude,  hint,  insinuate,  intimate,  imply, 
suggest. 

Allure,  entice,  seduce,  attract,  tempt,  decoy, 
inveigle. 

Alluring,  attractive,  enticing,  inviting, 
tempting. 

Almighty,  God,  Jehovah,  the  Supreme  Be- 
ing, the  Infinite,  the  Eternal. 

Alone,  solitary,  lone,  sole,  single,  retired. 

Also,  in  addition,  likewise,  moreover. 

Alter,  change,  make,  different,  vary,  modify. 

Alteration,  change,  variation,  modification, 
shifting. 

Altercation,  quarrel,  dispute,  controversy, 
dissension,  variance. 

Although,  though,  yet,  but,  still,  notwith- 
standing. 

Altogether,  totally,  wholly,  entirely,  utterly, 
completely. 

Always,  ever,  continually,  constantly. 

Amazed,  astonished,  surprised. 

Amazement,  astonishment,  wonder,  sur- 
prise. 

Ambiguous,  doubtful,  dubious,  equivocal, 
uncertain. 

Ambitious,  aspiring,  soaring. 

Amenable,  answerable,  accountable,  liable. 


Amends,  satisfaction,  equivalent 

Amend,  mend,  better,  correct,  rectify,  im< 
prove,  repair. 

Amiable,  lovely,  pleasing,  charming,  en- 
gaging, fascinating. 

Amicable,  friendly,  sociable,  social,  amiable, 
cordial. 

Ample,  full,  ptentiful,  copious,  abundant, 
complete,  spacious. 

Amuse,  entertain,  please,  divert,  enliven, 
recreate. 

Amusement,  pleasure,  diversion,  recreation, 
pastime,  sport. 

Analogy,  resemblance,  comparison,  simi- 
larity. 

Ancestors,  forefathers,  ancestry,  predeces- 
sors. 

Ancient,  old,  antiquated,  antique,  aged. 

Anger,  enrage,  incense,  exasperate,  irritate. 

Angry,  enraged,  incensed,  raging,  furious, 
passionate. 

Anguish,  pain,  distress,  suffering,  woe,  tor- 
ture, torment. 

Animate,  quicken,  enliven,  exhilarate,  cheer, 
revive,  inspirit,  inspire. 

Animation,  life,  vivacity,  spirit,  liveliness, 
exhilaration,  sprightliness,  buoyancy. 

Annals,  chronicles,  records. 

Annex,  add,  attach,  append,  subjoin. 

Annihilate,  destroy,  annul  extinguish. 

Announce,  make  known,  publish,  adver- 
tise. 

Annoy,  vex,  tease,  chafe,  molest,  incom- 
mode. 

Annul,  revoke,  abolish,  abrogate,  repeal, 
cancel. 

Anomalous,  irregular,  abnormal,  eccentric. 

Antagonism,  animosity,  enmity,  opposition. 

Antagonistic,  hostile,  opposite,  adverse. 

Anterior,  preceding,  previous,  prior. 

Antipathy,  aversion,  repugnance,  opposi- 
tion, hatred,  antagonism. 

Anxiety,  care,  solicitude,  attention,  intent- 
ness, eagerness. 

Apathetic,  insensible,  impassive,  insensi- 
ble, indifferent. 

Apocryphal,  uncertain,  unauthentic,  legen- 
dary. 

Apparent,  visible,  clear,  plain,  transparent. 

Appeal,  refer,  invoke,  call  upon. 

Appease,  pacify,  quiet,  calm,  compose, 
soothe. 

Appellation,  name,  denomination. 


A DICTIONARY  OF  SYNONYMOUS  WORDS. 


691 

Appended,  added,  joined,  affixed. 

Applaud,  praise,  extol,  commend,  approve. 

Appoint,  ordain,  depute,  order,  constitute. 

Apportion,  distribute,  allot,  appropriate. 

Approbation,  approval,  concurrence,  assent, 
consent. 

Approval,  assent,  approbation. 

Apt,  suitable,  pertinent,  prompt,  ready, 
quick. 

Arbitrary,  despotic,  imperious,  domineer- 
ing. 

Arbitrator,  arbiter,  judge,  umpire,  referee. 

Argue,  discuss,  dispute,  debate. 

Arouse,  stir  up,  awaken,  excite,  stimulate. 

Arrange,  put  in  order,  place,  assort,  clas- 
sify. 

Arrant,  notorious,  flagrant,  heinous,  mon- 
strous. 

Array,  rank,  order,  disposal,  disposition. 

Array,  range,  place,  draw  up,  dress,  deck 

I out. 

Arrogance,  assumption,  haughtiness,  pride, 
loftiness. 

Artifice,  trick,  stratagem,  deception,  cheat, 
imposture,  delusion, 

Artless,  fair,  honest,  ingenuous,  frank,  can- 
did. 

Ascend,  climb,  mount,  rise,  scale. 

Ascendency,  superiority,  authority,  sway. 

Ask,  request,  entreat,  solicit,  demand. 

Aspect,  appearance,  complexion,  feature, 
air,  look,  mien. 

Asperse,  accuse  falsely,  malign,  slander, 
traduce,  defame,  scandalize. 

Assemble,  congregate,  collect,  gather, 
mustqr. 

Assent,  consent,  accede,  adquiesce,  comply. 

Assert,  declare,  aver,  protest,  maintain. 

Assign,  adduce,  allege,  advance,  bring  for- 
ward, appoint. 

Assist,  help,  aid,  co-operate,  relieve,  succor. 

Associate,  colleague,  ally,  partner,  coadju- 
tor. 

Association,  company,  society,  partnership, 
companionship. 

Assuage,  compose,  pacify,  allay,  soothe, 
conciliate. 

Assume,  arrogate,  usurp,  appropriate. 

Assurance,  confidence,  certainty,  conscious- 
ness. 

Athletic,  stalwart,  powerful,  brawny,  mus- 
cular. 

Atrocious,  villainous,  notorious,  monstrous. 


Attack,  assault,  encounter,  charge. 

Attach,  subjoin,  annex,  connect,  stick. 
Attachment,  affection,  devotion,  fondness, 
love. 

Attend,  accompany,  escort. 

Attentive,  careful,  intent,  wistful. 

Attire,  dress,  apparel,  garments,  clothes. 
Attitude,  posture,  gesture,  gesticulation, 
action. 

Attractive,  winning,  charming,  fascinating. 
Audacious,  assuming,  forward,  presumptu- 
ous. 

Augment,  increase,  enlarge,  extend. 
August,  majestic,  noble,  dignified. 
Auspices,  protection,  favor,  influence. 
Auspicious,  fortunate,  favorable,  propitious. 
Authoritative,  commanding,  swaying,  im- 
perative. 

Authority,  weight,  force,  domination. 
Authorized,  empowered,  commissioned. 
Auxiliary,  assistant,  helping,  furthering. 
Avail,  profit,  use,  benefit,  service,  utility. 
Avarice,  covetuousness,  greediness. 
Avocation,  employment,  calling,  business. 
Avow,  declare,  acknowledge,  recognize. 
Awaken,  arouse,  stir  up,  excite. 

Awkward,  rough,  clumsy,  unpolished. 
Awry,  crooked,  bent,  curved,  inflected. 

BAD,  wicked,  evil,  unsound. 

Baffle,  defeat,  discomfit,  bewilder. 

Balmy,  fragrant,  sweet-scented,  perfumed. 
Baneful,  hurtful,  destructive,  pernicious. 
Banquet,  feast,  fete,  entertainment. 
Barbarous,  savage,  brutal,  cruel,  inhuman. 
Barely,  hardly,  merely,  scantily,  scarcely. 
Bargain,  agreement,  convention,  compact. 
Base,  low,  mean,  groveling,  ignoble. 

Battle,  conflict,  contest,  fight. 

Bear,  sustain,  support,  carry,  maintain,  con- 
vey. 

Bearing,  manner,  deportment,  behavior, 
Beastly,  brutish,  brutal,  sensual. 

Beau,  sweetheart,  wooer,  lover,  suitor. 
Beautiful,  elegant,  beauteous,  handsome, 
fair,  pretty. 

Becoming,  befitting,  comely,  proper. 
Beginning,  commencement,  outset,  open- 
ing. 

Beguile,  amuse,  deceive,  mislead. 

Blamable,  culpable,  reprehensible,  censur- 
able, faulty. 

Blame,  censure,  reprove,  condemn. 


A DICTIONARY  OF  SYNONYMOUS  WORDS. 


695 


Bland,  soft,  gentle,  mild,  kind,  gracious. 

Blameless,  innocent,  guiltless,  faultless, 
spotless,  stainless,  sinless. 

Blast,  blight,  destroy,  wither,  shrivel. 

Blatant,  noisy,  bellowing,  vociferous,  clam- 
orous. 

Blemish,  stain,  sully,  spot,  blur,  tarnish,  mar, 
soil,  injure. 

Blend,  mix,  mingle,  commingle,  combine, 
fuse,  merge. 

Blind,  sightless,'  eyeless,  ignorant. 

Blockhead,  simpleton,  numskull,  ignoramus. 

Bloodshed,  butchery,  slaughter,  massacre. 

Blot,  stain,  spot,  foul,  discolor,  pollute,  blur, 
tarnish,  sully. 

Blow,  stroke,  knock,  shock,  misfortune,  cal- 
amity. 

Bluff,  surly,  blustering,  swaggering,  brusque 
bullying,  coarse,  discourteous. 

Blunt,  dull,  pointless,  obtuse,  coarse,  un- 
civil. 

Blustering.  See  Bluff. 

Boasting,  bragging,  vaunting,  bravado,  vain- 
glory. 

Bode,  forebode,  foreshadow,  foreshow,  por- 
tend, augur. 

Bodily,  corporal,  corporeal,  material,  phy- 
sical. 

Boisterous,  noisy,  turbulant,  violent,  furi- 
ous, impetuous. 

Bold,  daring,  courageous,  brave. 

Booty,  plunder,  pillage,  spoils,  prey. 

Border,  brink,  margin,  confine,  brim. 

Bore,  perforate,  pierce,  penetrate. 

Boundless,  unbounded,  unlimited,  in- 
finite. 

Bountiful,  liberal,  munificent,  generous, 
abundant. 

Branch,  bough,  limb,  shoot,  off-shoot,  twig, 
sprig,  spray. 

Brand,  stigmatize,  denounce,  disgrace. 

Brave,  courageous,  fearless,  dauntless,  bold. 

Brawny,  muscular,  sinewy,  athletic,  stal- 
wart, powerful,  robust. 

Break,  burst,  rend,  sever,  shatter,  crack, 
fracture,  demolish,  destroy. 

Brevity,  shortness,  conciseness,  terseness. 

Brief,  short,  concise,  succinct,  condensed, 
terse. 

Bright,  clear,  shining,  sparkling,  gleaming, 
radiant,  brilliant. 

Brilliant,  splendid,  glittering. 

Brisk,  lively,  active,  quick,  agile,  nimble, 


Broil,  affray,  fray,  feud,  quarrel,  brawl. 

Brittle,  fragile,  frail,  frangible. 

Broad,  wide,  large,  extensive,  expanded, 
ample,  spacious. 

Broken-hearted,  inconsolable,  comfortless, 
forlorn,  sorrowful. 

Brotherhood,  fraternity,  association,  society, 
fellowship. 

Brotherly,  fraternal,  kind,  affectionate,  ten- 
der. 

Bruise,  contuse,  break,  crush,  bray,  pound. 

Brutal,  cruel,  inhuman,  unfeeling,  merciless, 
ruthless,  savage,  brutish,  beastly. 

Brutish,  stupid,  irrational,  gross. 

Build,  erect,  construct,  make,  raise. 

Bullying,  blustering,  overbearing,  bluff. 

Bulwark,  bastion,  rampart,  fortress,  citadel, 
fortification. 

Burden,  load,  cumber,  encumber,  overlay. 

Burdensome,  weighty,  ponderous,  cumber- 
some, grievous,  oppressive,  troublesome. 

Burial,  sepulture,  interment,  entombment. 

Burlesque,  mockery,  parody,  caiicature, 
farce,  travesty,  mimicry. 

Burning,  hot,  fiery,  ardent,  glowing,  fervent. 

Burst,  break,  rend,  split,  explode,  disrupt. 

Bury,  inter,  inhume,  entomb,  hide,  conceal. 

Business,  employment,  calling,  vocation, 
occupation?  trade,  profession. 

But,  except,  excepting,  notwithstanding. 

By  and  by,  soon,  before  long,  presently, 
shortly. 

Bystander,  looker-on,  spectator,  beholder, 
observer. 

CABAL,  faction,  combination,  political  in- 
trigue, plot,  confederacy. 

Calamitous,  ill-fated,  fatal,  hapless,  unlucky. 

Calculate,  compute,  reckon,  estimate. 

Call  back,  recall,  recant,  retract. 

Calling,  employment,  business,  vocation, 
work,  occupation,  profession,  pursuit. 

Callous,  hardened,  obdurate,  unfeeling,  in- 
sensible, apathetic,  cruel. 

Calumniate,  slander,  traduce,  vilify,  malign, 
asperse,  defame,  libel. 

Calumnious,  slanderous,  defamatory  scur- 
rilous, abusive. 

Cancel,  obliterate,  efface,  blot  out,  annul, 
abolish,  repeal,  rescind,  abrogate,  nullify. 

Canvass,  sift,  examine,  discuss,  solicit,  ap- 
ply for. 

Capable,  able,  competent,  qualified,  efficient. 


A DICTIONARY  OF  SYNONYMOUS  WORDS. 


Capableness,  competence,  capacity,  ability. 

Capacious,  roomy,  ample,  spacious,  wide, 
extensive. 

Caprice,  whim,  humor,  freak,  fancy,  crotchet, 
vagary. 

Capricious,  whimsical,  fanciful,  freakish, 
fickle,  fitful. 

Captious,  critical,  cynical,  petulant,  cross, 
irritable. 

Captivity,  bondage,  subjection,  slavery,  im- 
prisonment. 

Care,  anxiety,  solicitude,  concern,  trouble, 
heed. 

Careful,  thoughtful,  attentive,  watchful, 
cautious. 

Careless,  heedless,  negligent,  regardless, 
listless. 

Carnage,  slaughter,  massacre,  bloodshed. 

Carnal,  fleshy,  sensual,  worldly,  impure, 
lustful. 

Carol,  warble,  sing,  chirp,  chant. 

Carousal,  revel,  festivity,  banquet. 

Carriage,  walk,  bearing,  behavior,  deport- 
ment, conduct,  vehicle,  conveyance. 

Carry,  bear,  convey,  transport,  sustain. 

Carry  on,  conduct,  manage,  transact,  regu- 
late. 

Carry  through,  accomplish,  complete,  con- 
summate. 

Case,  occurrence,  circumstance,  plight,  pre- 
dicament. 

Cash,  money,  coin,  specie,  currency. 

Cast,  mould,  figure,  aspect,  character,  man- 
ner, look,  mien. 

Cast,  throw,  fling,  hurl,  pitch,  project,  con- 
struct. 

Cast  down,  disheartened,  discouraged, 
downcast,  melancholy. 

Casualty,  accident,  fortuity,  chance,  occur- 
rence, misfortune. 

Catch,  overtake,  grasp,  seize,  capture, 
clutch. 

Cause,  reason,  incentive,  inducement,  in- 
citement, impulse. 

Cause,  occasion,  induce,  provoke,  incite. 

Cautious,  careful,  prudent,  vigilant. 

Cavity,  hollow,  chasm,  opening. 

Cede,  surrender,  relinquish,  quit,  forego. 

Celebrate,  commend,  applaud,  extol. 

Celebrated,  famous,  renowned,  illustrious, 
glorious. 

Celerity,  quickness,  speed,  rapidity,  ve- 
locity. 


Celestial,  heavenly,  divine,  godlike,  angelic. 

Censure,  blame,  reprove,  reprehend. 

Certain,  sure,  unquestionable,  unfailing. 

Certify,  testify,  vouch,  declare. 

Cessation,  intermission,  rest,  pause,  discon- 
tinuance. 

Chafe,  fret,  irritate,  gall,  vex,  chagrin. 

Champion,  leader,  chieftain,  head. 

Chance,  accident,  fortune,  casualty,  nazard, 
luck. 

Change,  alter,  transform,  exchange,  barter. 

Change,  variety,  alteration,  alternation,  vi- 
cissitude. 

Changeable,  variable,  unsteady,  undecided, 
wavering,  hesitating,  restless,  fitful,  ca- 
pricious. 

Character,  cast,  description,  nature,  dispo- 
sition, reputation. 

Characteristic,  peculiar  to,  sign  of,  feature, 
lineament. 

Characterize,  name,  designate,  denominate, 
describe. 

Charge,  accuse,  impeach,  arraign,  incuk 
pate. 

Charge,  care,  custody,  ward,  trust,  manage- 
ment, cost,  price,  expense,  account,  fee, 
bill,  assault,  shock. 

Charity,  kindness,  benignity,  beneficence, 
benevolence. 

Charm,  enchant,  fascinate,  bewitch,  enrap- 
ture, captivate. 

Chary,  wary,  careful,  cautious,  prudent. 

Chasten,  chastise,  correct,  punish. 

Chat,  chatter,  prattle,  prate,  babble,  gossip. 

Cheat,  defraud,  gull,  dupe,  trick,  beguile, 
deceive,  delude. 

Cheat,  deception,  imposture,  fraud,  delu- 
sion, artifice,  deceit,  trick. 

Check,  curb,  restrain,  repress,  control,  coun- 
teract, reprove,  rebuke. 

Cheer,  exhilarate,  animate,  inspire,  glad- 
den, comfort,  solace. 

Cheerfulness,  gayety,  sprightliness,  merri- 
ment, mirth,  liveliness,  vivacity. 

Cheerless,  comfortless,  disconsolate,  incon- 
solable, desolate,  forlorn. 

Cherish,  nourish,  nurture,  nurse,  foster, 
sustain. 

Chief,  principal,  supreme,  paramount, 
leader. 

Choice,  rare,  select,  option. 

Choose,  prefer,  select,  elect,  call,  pick. 

Circuitous,  roundabout,  tortuous,  tiresome. 


A DICTIONARY  OF  SYNONYMOUS  WORDS. 


G97 


Circumspection,  caution,  watchfulness,  vig- 
ilance. 

Circumstance,  situation,  condition,  posi- 
tion, fact,  incident. 

Civil,  polite,  complaisant,  affable,  courteous, 
obliging,  well-bred. 

Civilize,  polish,  humanize,  cultivate,  refine. 

Clamor,  outcry,  fuss,  noise,  hubbub,  up- 
roar. 

Clandestine,  hidden,  secret,  private. 

Clause,  stipulation,  proviso,  term,  article. 

Clear,  absolve,  acquit,  liberate,  deliver,  re- 
lease, set  free,  unbind. 

Clear,  apparent,  palpable,  visible,  plain,  ev- 
ident, manifest,  unmistakable,  distinct. 

Clearly,  obviously,  distinctly,  explicitly. 

Clemency,  mercy,  mildness,  mitigation. 

Clever,  skillful,  expert,  adroit. 

Climb,  scale,  mount,  soar,  ascend. 

Cling,  hold,  stick,  adhere,  attach. 

Cloak,  mask,  veil,  cover,  blind. 

Close,  conclude,  shut,  end,  terminate,  finish. 

Clothes,  garments,  vestments,  dress,  attire, 
array,  raiment,  vesture,  drapery. 

Cloudy,  dim,  obscure,  dusky,  indistinct. 

Clutch,  grasp,  lay  hold  on,  catch,  seize, 

gr|P- 

Coalition,  union,  alliance,  confederacy, 
league,  combination. 

Coarse,  rough,  rude,  rugged,  gruff,  harsh. 

Coincide,  agree,  correspond,  concur. 

Coincidence,  concurrence,  correspondence, 
agreement. 

Colleague,  fellow,  compeer,  companion. 

Collect,  gather,  assemble,  muster. 

Collected,  composed,  placid,  calm,  serene. 

Colossal,  large,  gigantic,  huge,  enormous, 
vast. 

Combat,  engagement,  conflict,  contest, 
fight,  action,  battle. 

Combat,  oppose,  resist,  withstand,  thwart. 

Combination,  alliance,  union,  league. 

Comely,  becoming,  decent,  seemly,  agreea- 
able,  graceful. 

Comfortless,  cheerless,  forlorn,  disconso- 
late. 

Comic,  funny,  laughable,  droll,  ludicrous. 

Commence,  begin,  enter  upon. 

Commend,  praise,  applaud,  extol,  recom- 
mend. 

Commendable,  praisewothy,  laudable. 

Comment,  observation,  remark,  elucida- 
tion. 


Commerce,  dealing,  trade,  traffic,  inter- 
course. 

Commit,  perpetrate,  intrust,  confide,  con- 
sign. 

Commodious,  convenient,  useful,  suitable. 

Communicate,  make  known,  divulge,  dis- 
close. 

Communication,  intercourse,  correspond- 
ence, commerce. 

Community,  society,  commonwealth,  social 
state. 

Companion,  comrade,  partner,  ally,  associ- 
ate, confederate. 

Company,  association,  society,  assembly, 
assemblage,  audience,  auditory,  corpora- 
tion, troop. 

Comparison,  simile,  similitude,  illustra- 
tion. 

Compassion,  pity,  commiseration,  sympa- 
thy. 

Compassionate,  kind,  merciful,  clement, 
gracious. 

Compel,  force,  constrain,  enforce,  oblige. 

Compendious,  brief,  short,  succinct,  con- 
cise. 

Compensate,  recompense,  make  amends, 
remunerate. 

Competent,  able,  capable,  efficient,  quali- 
fied, fitted. 

Competitor,  candidate,  rival,  aspirant. 

Complaint,  malady,  disease,  distemper,  dis- 
order. 

Complex,  compound,  complicated,  involved, 
intricate. 

Complexion,  aspect,  appearance,  feature, 
lineament. 

Complicated,  complex,  compound,  involved. 

Compliment,  praise,  flatter,  adulate,  ap- 
plaud. 

Composed,  calm,  serene,  sober,  serious, 
placid,  imperturbable. 

Composure,  tranquillity,  serenity,  sedate- 
ness, self-possession. 

Compound,  composite,  complex. 

Compound,  mix,  combine,  intermingle. 

Comprehend,  comprise,  include,  embrace 
grasp,  see,  understand,  perceive. 

Comprise,  include,  contain,  embody. 

Comprehensive,  broad,  wide,  extensive,  ca- 
pacious. 

Compress,  condense,  reduce. 

Comprise,  include,  comprehend,  embrace. 

Compromise,  settle,  involve,  endanger. 


A DICTIONARY  OF  SYNONYMOUS  WORDS. 


Compunction,  remorse,  regret,  sorrow. 

Comrade,  companion,  associate,  partner, 
ally,  mate. 

Conceal,  hide,  secrete,  cover,  screen,  dis- 
guise, dissemble. 

Concede,  yield,  surrender,  grant,  admit. 

Conceit,  vanity,  egotism. 

Concert,  concord,  harmony,  musical  enter- 
tainment. 

Concise,  short,  brief,  curt,  laconic,  terse. 

Conclude,  end,  close,  terminate,  finish,  de- 
cide, determine. 

Conclusion,  termination,  result,  end,  close, 
inference,  deduction,  decision. 

Conclusive,  decisive,  final,  definitive,  indis- 
putable. 

Concourse,  crowd,  throng,  assemblage. 

Condemn,  blame,  censure,  reprove,  disap- 
prove. 

Conduct,  management,  behavior,  deport- 
ment, demeanor. 

Confess,  admit,  grant,  concede,  acknowl- 
edge, avow. 

Confidence,  faith,  trust,  belief,  assurance, 
courage. 

Conflict,  contest,  struggle,  fight,  battle. 

Confound,  amaze,  perplex,  bewilder,  stupefy, 
dumbfound. 

Confound,  confuse,  blend,  mix,  intermingle. 

Confront,  encounter,  resist. 

Confused,  involved,  complex,  embarrassed, 
abashed. 

Confusion,  misrule,  turmoil,  commotion, 
anarchy. 

Confute,  disprove,  refute. 

Conjure,  beseech,  implore,  entreat. 

Connect,  join,  link,  unite. 

Connection,  affinity,  relationship,  kindred, 
kinsman. 

Conquer,  subjugate,  surmount,  overthrow. 

Conscientious,  equitable,  upright,  high- 
minded. 

Consent,  assent,  concurrence,  acquiescence. 

Consequence,  weight,  effect,  result,  issue. 

Consider,  reflect,  deliberate,  regard,  weigh. 

Considerate,  reflective,  circumspect,  atten* 
tive. 

Consideration,  deliberation,  reflection,  con- 
templation. 

Consistent,  congruous,  accordant,  agree- 
ing. 

Console,  solace,  encourage. 

Conspiracy,  intrigue,  plot,  treason. 


Constancy,  firmness,  stability,  steadiness. 
Constant,  steady,  continual,  perpetual,  faith- 
ful, true. 

Consternation,  amazement,  astonishment, 
terror. 

Constitution,  frame,  temper,  temperament, 
character. 

Constrain,  compel,  force,  oblige,  coerce, 
drive. 

Construct,  build,  form,  compose,  erect. 
Consume,  destroy,  absorb,  burn,  devour. 
Consummate,  finish,  accomplish,  execute. 
Contain,  enclose,  embrace,  comprise. 
Contemptuous,  scornful,  disdainful,  inso- 
lent. 

Contend,  strive,  compete,  cope,  argue,  main- 
tain. 

Content,  satisfied,  contented,  pleased. 
Contention,  strife,  bickering,  dissension. 
Contest,  strife,  conflict,  combat,  fight. 
Contiguous,  touching,  adjacent,  adjoining. 
Contingency,  chance,  possibility,  event,  oc- 
currence. 

Continuation,  continuance,  duration,  per- 
petuation. 

Continue,  stay,  remain,  persevere,  persist 
Contortion,  distortion,  twisting,  writhing. 
Contract,  abridge,  abbreviate,  compress. 
Contract,  agreement,  covenant,  compact. 
Contradict,  confute,  refute,  oppose. 
Contrition,  repentance,  penitence,  remorse. 
Contrivance,  device,  scheme,  plan. 

Control,  curb,  repress,  guide,  manage. 
Controversy,  quarrel,  strife,  contention. 
Convenient,  adapted,  suitable,  fitted. 
Converse,  talk,  speak,  discourse. 

Converse,  opposite,  reverse,  contrary,  coun- 
ter. 

Convert,  change,  alter,  turn,  transform. 
Convey,  transport,  transfer,  remove. 
Conviction,  assurance,  belief. 

Convivial,  festal,  jovial,  social. 

Cool,  not  warm,  collected,  calm,  dispassion- 
ate. 

Copy,  transcribe,  imitate. 

Cordial,  sincere,  warm,  hearty,  heartfelt. 
Correct,  right,  true,  accurate,  faultless. 
Correspondent,  answerable,  suitable. 
Counsel,  counselor,  attorney,  lawyer. 
Counterfeit,  forged,  spurious,  sham,  feign, 
simulate. 

Couple,  pair,  brace. 

Courage,  bravery,  spirit,  valor,  heroism. 


A DICTIOM  akY  OF  SYNONYMOUS  WORDS. 


699 


Course,  way,  road,  route,  passage,  race. 
Courtesy,  civility,  urbanity,  politeness. 
Covert,  secret,  disguised,  hidden,  concealed. 
Covetousness,  stinginess,  avarice,  parsi- 
mony. 

Cowardice,  fear,  timidity,  poltroonery. 
Cowardly,  dastardly,  pusillanimous,  timor- 
ous. 

Craftsman,  artificer,  mechanic,  workman. 
Crafty,  artful,  cunning,  wily,  tricky,  sly, 
subtle. 

Crave,  ask,  solicit,  implore,  pray. 

Crazy,  insane,  mad,  demented. 

Credulity,  gullibility,  simplicity. 

Crest,  top,  summit,  apex,  crown. 

Crew,  company,  gang,  set. 

Crime,  offense,  misdeed,  felony. 

Criminal,  felon,  malefactor,  culprit. 
Criminate,  charge,  implicate,  accuse,  ar- 
raign, impeach. 

Criticise,  examine,  scan,  discuss. 

Criticism,  stricture,  animadversion. 

Cross,  irritable,  peevish,  snappish. 
Crotchety,  freakish,  wayward. 

Cruel,  barbarous,  inhuman,  brutal,  hard- 
hearted. 

Cultivate,  till,  promote,  foster. 

Cunning,  crafty,  artful,  tricky. 

Cupidity,  avarice,  covetousness. 

Curb,  restrain,  hold,  check. 

Curiosity,  rarity,  wonder. 

Curious,  inquiring,  inquisitive,  prying, 
rare. 

Curse,  execration,  imprecation,  denuncia- 
tion. 

Cursory,  summary,  hasty,  slight. 

Curtail,  shorten,  abbreviate,  contract. 
Custody,  keeping,  guardianship,  care. 
Custom,  usage,  practice,  habit. 

Cut,  sever,  sunder,  shear. 

Cutting,  sharp,  bitter,  sarcastic,  stinging, 
severe. 

DALLY,  delay,  dawdle,  fondle. 

Damage,  injury,  loss,  mischief. 

Damp,  moderate,  slack,  dishearten. 

Danger,  peril,  risk,  hazard. 

Dare,  brave,  hazard,  risk,  defy,  challenge. 
Daring,  bold,  courageous,  fearless. 

Dash,  cast,  throw,  drive,  rush. 

Date,  time,  age,  period. 

Daunt,  frighten,  intimidate,  appall. 
Dauntless,  valiant,  fearless,  intrepid. 


Dawn,  gleam,  begin,  rise. 

Dead,  deceased,  defunct,  departed,  heavy, 
unconscious. 

Deadly,  mortal,  fatal,  destructive. 

Dealing,  trade,  traffic,  intercourse. 

Dear,  costly,  expensive,  beloved. 

Debase,  lower,  degrade,  impair. 

Debatable,  doubtful,  uncertain,  disputable. 

Debate,  discuss,  contend,  dispute,  contro- 
vert. 

Debauch,  corrupt,  pollute,  defile,  ravish. 

Decay,  wasting  away,  decadence. 

Decayed,  rotten,  corrupt,  unsound,  decom- 
posed. 

Deceit,  deception,  cheat,  trick,  delusion, 
fraud. 

Deceitful,  deceptive,  fallacious,  fraudulent. 

Decent,  becoming,  respectable,  decorous. 

Decide,  determine,  settle,  resolve. 

Decipher,  unravel,  solve,  unfold,  explain. 

Decision,  judgment,  determination,  conclu- 
sion. 

Decisive,  conclusive,  convincing,  decided. 

Declamatory,  rhetorical,  high-sounding. 

Declaration,  ordinance,  profession,  asser- 
tion, affirmation. 

Declare,  aver,  state,  affirm,  express,  pro- 
fess. 

Decorum,  propriety,  decency,  dignity,  or- 
der. 

Decoy,  allure,  entice,  tempt,  seduce. 

Decrease,  diminish,  decline,  curtail,  re- 
duce. 

Decree,  order,  law,  ordinance,  manifesto, 
decision,  proclamation,  verdict. 

Decrepit,  enfeebled,  superannuated,  infirm. 

Decry,  disparage,  depreciate,  detract. 

Deem,  consider,  think,  believe,  suppose. 

Deep,  low,  sagacious,  penetrating,  design- 
ing, mysterious. 

Deface,  disfigure,  deform,  spoil. 

Defame,  slander,  vilify,  asperse,  traduce. 

Default,  failure,  defect,  want,  absence. 

Defeat,  conquer,  overcome,  overpower,  over- 
throw, rout. 

Defect,  flaw,  fault,  blemish. 

Definite,  exact,  correct,  determined. 

Deformity,  ugliness,  hideousness,  mons- 
trosity. 

Defray,  liquidate,  pay,  discharge. 

Degenerate,  deteriorate,  decline,  retro- 
grade. 

Degree,  grade,,  extent,  measure,  quantity. 


700 


A DICTIONARY  OF  SYNONYMOUS  WORDS. 


Dejected,  dispirited,  gloomy,  desponding. 
Deliberate,  consider,  meditate,  consult. 
Deliberate,  purposed,  intentional,  designed. 
Delight,  enjoyment,  pleasure,  happiness, 
transport,  ecstacy,  gladness,  rapture, 
bliss. 

Demonstrate,  prove,  show,  illustrate. 

Deny,  refuse,  reject,  contradict. 

Depart,  leave,  quit,  start,  retire. 
Department,  section,  division,  office,  branch. 
Deprive,  strip,  bereave,  rob,  divest. 

Depute,  appoint,  commission,  charge,  in- 
trust. 

Derision,  scorn,  contempt,  disrespect. 
Derivation,  origin,  source,  cause. 

Describe,  draw,  portray,  explain,  illustrate. 
Desecrate,  profane,  misuse,  abuse,  pollute. 
Desert,  wild,  waste,  solitude,  void. 

Deserve,  merit,  earn,  win. 

Design,  delineation,  sketch,  cunning,  art- 
fulness. 

Desist,  cease,  stop,  drop,  abstain. 

Desolate,  bereaved,  forlorn,  forsaken. 
Despair,  hopelessness,  despondency,  des- 
peration. 

Desperate,  daring,  audacious,  determined. 
Destination,  intention,  design,  consign- 
ment. 

Destine,  purpose,  intend,  design,  devote. 
Destructive,  hurtful,  noxious,  injurious. 
Desultory,  rambling,  loose,  unmethodical, 
unsettled. 

Detail,  particularize,  enumerate,  specify. 
Detect,  discover,  descry,  unmask,  expose. 
Deter,  warn,  dissuade,  discourage,  terrify. 
Detract,  lessen,  deteriorate,  diminish. 
Develop,  amplify,  expand,  enlarge. 

Device,  artifice,  expedient,  contrivance. 
Devious,  tortuous,  circuitous,  distorted. 
Devoid,  void,  wanting,  destitutec 
Devolve,  impose,  place,  charge,  befall. 
Devoted,  attached,  fond,  absorbed,  given. 
Devotion,  piety,  devoutness,  dedication, 
love. 

Dictate,  prompt,  enjoin,  order,  command. 
Dictatorial,  imperative,  imperious,  over- 
bearing. 

Die,  expire,  depart,  perish,  decline. 
Difference,  discord,  dissent,  estrangement, 
variety. 

Difficult,  arduous,  troublesome,  intricate, 
perplexing. 

Digest,  arrange,  dispose,  classify,  study. 


Diffuse,  discursive,  prolix,  diluted. 

Dignified,  exalted,  noble,  lofty,  grand. 

Dignify,  exalt,  advance,  elevate,  honor, 
adorn. 

Dilapidation,  ruin,  decay,  downfall. 

Dilate,  widen,  expand,  enlarge,  swell. 

Dilatory,  slow,  procrastinating,  loitering. 

Diligence,  assiduity,  application,  care,  heed, 
industry. 

Diminish,  reduce,  contract,  curtail,  re- 
trench. 

Diplomatic,  clever,  politic,  sagacious. 

Dire,  dreadful,  dismal,  horrible,  fearful. 

Direct,  regulate,  control,  command. 

Dirty,  unclean,  foul,  filthy,  soiled. 

Disadvantage,  injury,  damage,  prejudice, 
hurt. 

Disarrange,  disorder,  disturb,  displace. 

Discern,  observe,  recognize,  discriminate, 
perceive. 

Discernible,  visible,  conspicuous,  palpable. 

Discharge,  dismiss,  discard,  acquit,  release. 

Discipline,  training,  instruction,  order,  con- 
trol, punishment. 

Disclose,  discover,  confess,  divulge. 

Disconcert,  disturb,  defeat,  upset,  discomfit 

Disconsolate,  desolate,  forlorn,  melancholy, 
unhappy. 

Discover,  reveal,  disclose,  unearth,  invent, 
ascertain,  discern. 

Discredit,  disbelieve,  distrust,  disgrace. 

Discreet,  prudent,  cautious,  wary. 

Disdain,  contempt,  scorn,  haughtiness. 

Disease,  complaint,  malady,  sickness. 

Disgrace,  dishonor,  discredit,  reproach, 
shame,  infamy. 

Disguise,  conceal,  cloak,  dissemble. 

Disgusting,  loathsome,  sickening,  distaste- 
ful, revolting. 

Dishonest,  unfair,  fraudulent,  deceitful, 
cheating,  deceptive. 

Dishonor  disgrace,  ravish,  pollute. 

Dislike,  displeasure,  distaste,  repugnance, 
aversion. 

Dismal,  gloomy,  lonesome,  sorrowful,  mel- 
ancholy 

Disobedient,  undutiful,  refractory,  unruly. 

Disorder,  confusion,  disease,  complaint. 

Disorderly,  irregular,  lawless,  unruly. 

Disown,  disclaim,  deny,  ignore,  repudiate 

Display,  show,  exhibit,  parade. 

Displease,  offend,  vex,  anger  irritate. 

Disposition,  temper,  inclination  , humor. 


A DICTIONARY  OF  SYNONYMOUS  WORDS. 


70f 


Dispute,  debate,  controversy,  discussion, 
quarrel. 

Disregard,  neglect,  slight,  overlook,  de- 
spise. 

Disreputable,  disgraceful,  dishonorable. 

Dissolute,  licentious,  wanton,  vicious. 

Distance,  interval,  remoteness,  space. 

Distant,  remote,  separate,  indistinct,  ob- 
scure. 

Distasteful,  disagreeable,  offensive,  repug- 
nant. 

Distinct,  clear,  plain,  different,  separate. 

Distinguished,  conspicuous,  famous,  re- 
nowned, illustrious. 

Distribute,  share,  apportion,  diffuse,  scatter. 

Distrust,  doubt,  suspicion,  disbelief,  mis- 
giving. 

Disturb,  agitate,  confuse,  annoy,  trouble, 
plague,  vex,  worry. 

Diversion,  sport,  amusement,  pastime,  re- 
creation. 

Divine,  Godlike,  sacred,  heavenly. 

Dogmatic,  positive,  authoritative,  arro- 
gant. 

Dominion,  power,  rule,  sway,  territory,  em- 
pire. 

Doom,  sentence,  judgment,  condemnation, 
destiny,  verdict. 

Doubt,  uncertainty,  suspense,  indecision, 
distrust. 

Dread,  fear,  terror,  horror,  dismay. 

Dress,  clothes,  attire,  apparel,  costume. 

Drill,  train,  teach,  discipline,  exercise. 

Drive,  urge  on,  impel,  compel,  guide,  di- 
rect. 

Droll,  odd,  queer,  whimsical,  funny,  com- 
ical. 

Drowsy,  sleepy,  stupid,  torpid. 

Dubious,  doubtful,  equivocal,  uncertain. 

Dunce,  numscull,  dullard,  simpleton. 

Dutiful,  obedient,  duteous,  submissive. 

Dwell,  inhabit,  reside,  lodge, sojourn,  linger. 

EAGER,  hot,  ardent,  impassioned,  impa- 
tient. 

Earn,  acquire,  win,  gain,  achieve. 

Earnest,  ardent,  serious,  grave. 

Ease,  calm,  alleviate,  allay,  appease. 

Eccentric,  irregular,  singular,  odd. 

Eclipse,  shade,  overcast,  cloud. 

Economical,  sparing,  saving,  provident, 
thrifty. 

Edge,  border,  brink,  rim,  brim,  margin. 


Educate,  teach,  train,  instruct,  develop. 

Efface,  blot  out,  obliterate,  wipe  out,  cancel. 

Effect,  consequence;  result,  execution,  ope- 
ration. 

Efficient,  effectual,  competent,  capable. 

Eliminate,  drive  out,  expel,  eject,  cast  out. 

Embolden,  inspirit,  animate,  encourage, 
cheer. 

Embrace,  clasp,  hug,  comprise,  compre- 
hend. 

Eminent,  distinguished,  conspicuous,  fa- 
mous. 

Encircle,  embrace,  encompass,  surround, 

Enclose,  fence  in,  confine,  circumscribe. 

Encounter,  attack,  conflict,  combat,  assault. 

End,  result,  conclusion,  upshot,  extremity, 
sequel. 

Endanger,  imperil,  peril,  hazard,  jeopard- 
ize. 

Endless,  everlasting,  perpetual,  deathless, 
undying. 

Endorse,  superscribe,  ratify,  confirm. 

Endurance,  continuation,  duration,  forti- 
tude. 

Endure,  last,  continue,  support,  bear,  sus- 
tain, suffer. 

Energetic,  effectual,  efficacious,  powerful, 
binding. 

Energy,  force,  vigor,  efficacy,  potency, 
strength. 

Engagement,  word,  promise,  battle,  action, 
combat. 

Engross,  busy,  occupy,  engage,  monopo- 
lize. 

Engulf,  imbibe,  drown,  submerge,  bury, 
entomb,  overwhelm. 

Enjoyment,  pleasure,  gratification. 

Enlarge,  increase,  extend,  augment. 

Enlighten,  illumine,  illuminate,  instruct, 
inform. 

Enmity,  animosity,  hatred,  hostility. 

Enormous,  colossal,  huge,  vast,  immense, 
prodigious. 

Enough,  sufficient,  plenty,  abundance. 

Enrapture,  enchant,  fascinate,  charm,  cap- 
tivate. 

Entangle,  perplex,  embarrass,  inveigle,  im- 
plicate. 

Enterprise,  adventure,  undertaking,  effort, 
attempt. 

Entrance,  entry,  inlet,  ingress,  porch,  pop 
tab 

Entrance,  charm,  enchant,  fascinate. 


702 


A DICTIONARY  OF  SYNONYMOUS  WORDS. 


Entrap,  catch,  insnare,  entangle. 

Entreat,  beg,  crave,  solicit,  beseech,  im- 
plore. 

Enumerate,  tell  over,  relate,  narrate,  re- 
count. 

Envy,  jealousy,  suspicion,  grudging. 

Epitome,  abridgment,  abstract. 

Equal,  companion,  peer,  compeer. 

Equal,  uniform,  alike,  adequate. 

Equitable,  just,  fair,  honest,  impartial,  rea- 
sonable. 

Erring,  misguided,  misled. 

Especially,  specially,  mainly,  chiefly. 

Estate,  domain,  lands,  property,  posses- 
sions. 

Esteem,  appreciate,  respect,  regard,  rever- 
ence, venerate. 

Estimate,  value,  measure,  calculate. 

Evasion,  shift,  subterfuge,  prevarication. 

Event,  occurrence,  adventure,  issue. 

Ever,  always,  eternally,  everlastingly,  ever- 
more, incessantly. 

Everlasting,  endless,  infinite. 

Evidence,  testimony,  proof,  declaration. 

Evil,  wicked,  unfair,  mischief,  harm. 

Evince,  argue,  prove,  evidence,  demon- 
strate. 

Exaggerated,  overstated,  heightened,  en- 
larged. 

Exceed,  excel,  surpass,  transcend. 

Excellence,  superiority,  perfection. 

Except,  unless,  save,  saving. 

Excessive,  unreasonable,  immoderate,  inor- 
dinate, extravagant. 

Exchange,  change,  commute,  interchange. 

Exclusive,  sole,  only,  alone. 

Excuse,  plea,  justification,  pretense,  pre- 
text, pretension. 

Execrable,  abominable,  hateful,  accursed. 

Execute,  accomplish,  fulfil,  effect,  complete, 
finish. 

Exemption,  immunity,  freedom,  privilege. 

Exercise,  exertion,  practice,  use,  employ- 
ment. 

Exercise,  exert,  practice,  use. 

Exhale,  emit,  give  out,  evaporate. 

Exhaust,  spend,  drain,  empty,  consume. 

Exile,  banishment,  expulsion,  ostracism. 

Exist,  live,  remain,  continue,  endure. 

Exonerate,  clear,  discharge,  absolve,  justify. 

Exorbitant,  extravagant,  excessive,  immod- 
erate, extortionate. 

Expand,  open,  unfold,  diffuse,  dilate,  extend. 


Expectation,  hope,  confidence,  trust. 

Expect,  anticipate,  foresee,  wait  for. 

Expedient,  fit,  necessary,  essential,  requi- 
site. 

Expel,  eject,  exclude,  dispossess,  displace, 
excommunicate. 

Expert,  skilled,  experienced,  clever,  dexter- 
ous, adept. 

Expiration,  close,  termination,  cessation, 
completion. 

Expire,  die,  perish,  decease. 

Explanatory,  descriptive,  elucidatory. 

Explicit,  express,  plain,  definite,  posi- 
tive. 

Explore,  search,  examine,  view,  investi- 
gate. 

Express,  declare,  assert,  indicate,  denote, 
represent,  signify. 

Expunge,  obliterate,  efface,  erase. 

Exquisite,  delicate,  choice,  delicious,  per 
feet,  matchless. 

Extend,  reach,  enlarge,  amplify,  expand 
increase. 

Extensive,  wide,  spacious,  capacious,  ex- 
panded. 

Exterminate,  eradicate,  destroy,  annihilate. 

Extol,  laud,  eulogize,  praise,  celebrate. 

Extort,  exact,  wrest,  wring,  despoil. 

Extract,  elicit,  select,  cite,  quote. 

Extraordinary,  remarkable,  wonderful,  unu- 
sual, strange. 

Extravagance,  waste,  prodigality,  wasteful- 
ness. 

FACE,  meet,  brave,  oppose,  encounter. 

Facetious,  jocose,  jocular,  humorous. 

Falsehood,  untruth,  story,  lie,  falsity. 

Fame,  reputation,  glory,  renown,  honor. 

Family,  household,  house,  lineage,  ances- 
try, race. 

Fanciful,  ideal,  fantastical,  whimsical. 

Fancy,  imagination,  notion,  conceit. 

Farming,  tillage,  agriculture,  culture. 

Farthest,  extreme,  remotest,  utmost. 

Fashion,  form,  mould,  shape,  fit. 

Fashion,  custom,  manner,  mode,  form. 

Fatal,  deadly,  mortal,  inevitable. 

Favor,  benefit,  kindness,  civility,  grace. 

Fearless,  brave,  bold,  courageous, dauntless, 
daring,  gallant. 

Fearful,  afraid,  timid,  nervous,  timorous. 

Feeling,  emotion,  sentiment,  sensation, 
sensibility. 


A DICTIONARY  OF  SYNONYMOUS  WORDS. 


703 


Feign,  pretend,  simulate,  dissemble,  in- 
vent. 

Felicity,  bliss,  blessedness,  blissfulness. 

Ferocious,  ravenous,  voracious,  cruel,  in- 
human. 

Fertile,  teeming,  productive,  rich,  luxu- 
riant. 

Fervid,  glowing,  impassioned,  fervent, 
warm. 

Festal,  festive,  convivial,  joyous. 

Feud,  fray,  affray,  quarrel,  dispute. 

Fickle,  unstable,  inconstant,  restless,  vari- 
able. 

Fiction,  romance,  invention,  falsehood. 

Fidelity,  faithfulness,  honesty,  integrity. 

Fierce,  furious,  violent,  savage. 

Fight,  action,  engagement,  combat,  con- 
flict, contention. 

Figure,  image,  emblem,  type,  symbol, 
shape. 

Fill,  satisfy,  content,  store,  stuff. 

Filthy,  dirty,  dingy,  unclean,  gross. 

Final,  ending,  ultimate,  conclusive,  decis- 
ive. 

Finical,  overnice,  foppish,  spruce. 

Finish,  complete,  perfect,  conclude. 

Firm,  fast,  steadfast,  solid,  strong,  robust, 
decided. 

First,  foremost,  leading,  earliest. 

Fitful,  fickle,  inconstant,  restless,  impul- 
sive. 

Fitted,  suited,  adapted,  qualified,  compe- 
tent. 

Fix,  fasten,  tie,  link,  settle,  establish. 

Flagrant,  glaring,  enormous,  atrocious. 

Flashy,  showy,  gaudy,  tawdry. 

Flat,  level,  even,  insipid,  spiritless,  life- 
less. 

Fleeting,  temporary,  transient,  transitory, 
short-lived. 

Fleetness,  quickness,  swiftness,  speed,  ra- 
pidity. 

Flexible,  pliable,  supple,  yielding. 

Flight,  flying,  soaring,  fleeing. 

Flimsy,  slight,  weak,  shallow. 

Fling,  hurl,  throw,  cast. 

Flood,  deluge,  overflow,  submerge. 

Flourish,  thrive,  prosper,  wave. 

Fluent,  flowing,  voluble,  ready,  smooth. 

Fluster,  agitate,  excite,  confuse. 

Foe,  enemy,  opponent,  adversary. 

Foible,  failing,  fault,  weakness. 

Fold,  wrap,  envelop. 


Follow,  chase,  copy,  obey,  observe. 

Folly,  foolishness,  silliness,  nonsense,  ab- 
surdity. 

Fondness,  affection,  love,  attachment. 

Fool,  idiot,  simpleton,  buffoon,  clown. 
Foolish,  senseless,  simple,  irrational,  pre- 
posterous, ridiculous. 

Footing,  foothold,  standing,  condition. 
Forbid,  prohibit,  interdict. 

Forbidding,  repulsive,  offensive.- 
Forcible,  strong,  powerful,  vigorous,  ener- 
getic,  impressive. 

Foregoing,  antecedent,  anterior. 

Foreign,  strange,  extraneous,  alien. 
Forerunner,  harbinger,  precursor,  herald. 
Foresight,  forethought,  forecast,  premedita- 
tion. 

Form,  ceremony,  observance,  fashion,  ap- 
pearance. 

Form,  make,  create,  produce,  arrange. 
Formal,  precise,  exact,  stiff,  methodical. 
Formidable,  terrible,  fearful,  shocking. 
Fortitude,  endurance,  resolution,  fearless- 
ness. 

Forward,  advance,  promote,  prefer. 

Foul,  filthy,  dirty,  unclean,  defiled. 
Fractiousness,  snappishness,  peevishness, 
petulance. 

Fragile,  brittle,  frail,  delicate,  feeble. 
Fragments,  pieces,  scraps,  chips,  remains. 
Free,  release,  deliver,  rescue,  liberate,  eman- 
cipate, exempt. 

Freedom,  liberty,  independence. 

Fresh,  new,  novel,  recent,  modern. 

Fretful,  peevish,  petulant,  fractious. 

Fright,  alarm,  dismay,  consternation,  panic. 
Frighten,  scare,  affright,  dismay,  terrify. 
Frivolous,  trifling,  trivial,  petty. 

Front,  face,  confront,  encounter. 

Froward,  cross,  untoward,  captious,  frac- 
tious. 

Frugal,  provident,  economical,  saving. 
Fruitless,  vain,  useless,  idle,  abortive. 
Frustrate,  defeat,  foil,  disappoint.. 

Fulfil,  accomplish,  effect,  complete. 

GALE,  storm,  tempest,  gust. 

Gallant,  gay,  splendid,  brave,  courageous, 
heroic. 

Garrulous,  babbling,  talkative,  chattering. 
Gaudy,  showy,  glittering,  bespangled. 
Gaunt,  emaciated,  spare,  lean,  thin. 

Gay,  merry,  jolly,  sprightly,  cheerful. 


704 


A DICTIONARY  OF  SYNONYMOUS  WORDS. 


Generation,  origination,  race,  stock,  off- 
spring. 

Generous,  noble,  magnanimous,  liberal, 
munificent,  bountiful. 

Genial,  cheering,  cordial,  hearty,  merry. 
Genteel,  polished,  well-bred,  graceful,  po- 
lite. 

Gentle,  amiable,  placid,  meek,  tender,  soft. 
Germinate,  sprout,  bud,  shoot,  vegetate. 
Gesture,  gesticulation,  action. 

Ghost,  spectre,  spirit,  apparition,  vision. 
Gibe,  jeer,  mock,  deride. 

Giddy,  unsteady,  flighty,  thoughtless. 

Gift,  donation,  benefaction,  alms,  gratuity, 
boon,  faculty. 

Gird,  belt,  encircle,  enclose,  encompass. 
Girdle,  belt,  brace,  band. 

Give,  bestow,  grant,  confer,  furnish. 

Glad,  delighted,  gratified,  elated,  joyful. 
Glitter,  gleam,  shine,  glisten,  radiate. 
Glitter,  show,  brightness,  brilliance. 

Gloom,  cloud,  cloudiness,  dulness,  sadness. 
Glorious,  illustrious,  famous,  celebrated 
distinguished,  noble,  exalted. 

Godly,  holy  pious,  devout,  righteous,  di- 
vine. 

Good,  virtuous,  upright,  just,  excellent. 
Good-humored,  good-natured,  cheerful, 
amiable. 

Goodly,  excellent,  comely,  pleasant,  desira- 
ble. 

Goodness,  virtue,  benevolence,  excellence, 
value. 

Grace,  favor,  mercy,  pardon. 

Graceful,  comely,  elegant,  beautiful,  lovely. 
Grade,  rank,  standing,  degree. 

Gradual,  slow,  regular,  progressive. 
Grandeur,  pomp,  magnificence,  display. 
Ground,  rest,  base,  establish. 

Group,  assembly,  assemblage,  collection, 
clump.  » 

Grow,  increase,  expand,  advance. 

Grudge,  malice,  rancor,  spite,  aversion. 
Gruff,  rough,  rugged,  rude,  harsh. 
Guarantee,  warrant,  secure,  verify. 

Guard,  shield,  security,  defence,  sentinel. 
Guardian,  protector,  conservator,  preserver. 
Guess,  conjecture,  surmise,  reckon,  fancy. 
Guide,  lead,  direct,  regulate,  manage. 
Guise,  manner,  aspect,  mien,  habit,  dress. 

HALT,  rest,  falter,  limp,  hobble. 

Hand,  operative,  workman,  artisan 


Handle,  manage,  use,  wield,  feel. 

Happy,  prosperous,  successful,  fortunate. 
Harass,  distress,  perplex,  worry,  vex. 
Hardened,  hard,  unfeeling,  insensible. 
Harm,  evil,  misfortune,  mischief,  injury. 
Harsh,  severe,  rigorous,  gruff,  rugged, 
Hasten,  accelerate,  quicken,  expedite, 
hurry. 

Hasty,  quick,  rash,  excitable,  fiery. 

Hate,  detest,  abominate,  loathe,  dislike. 
Hateful,  detestable,  execrable,  abominable. 
Havoc,  destruction,  desolation,  devasta- 
tion. 

Hazard,  risk,  dare,  adventure. 

Headstrong,  obstinate,  stubborn,  forward. 
Heal,  cure,  remedy,  reconcile. 

Healthy,  hearty,  hale,  sound,  strong. 

Hear,  hearken,  overhear,  listen. 

Help,  aid,  assist,  succor,  relieve. 

Heroic,  brave,  bold,  intrepid,  gallant. 
Hesitate,  falter,  pause,  scruple. 

Hidden,  secret,  mysterious. 

Hide,  conceal,  disguise,  screen. 

Hideous,  grim,  grisly,  horrible. 

High,  tall,  elevated,  proud. 

Hint,  suggest,  intimate,  insinuate. 

Hire,  pay,  salary,  wages. 

Honest,  honorable,  virtuous,  sincere. 
Hope,  expectation,  trust,  confidence. 
Horrible,  dreadful,  awful,  fearful,  terrific. 
Horror,  terror,  dread,  fright,  dismay. 
Horse,  steed,  courser,  charger. 

Huge,  bulky,  large,  great,  immense,  stu- 
pendous. 

Humane,  kind,  tender,  merciful,  benevo- 
lent. 

Humanity,  kindness,  tenderness,  benevo= 
lence,  humanitary,  human  race. 

Humble,  lower,  mortify,  degrade,  debase. 
Humor,  temper,  mood,  caprice,  drollery, 
fun. 

Hurl,  fling,  cast,  throw,  sling. 

Hurry,  hasten,  speed,  quicken. 

Hurtful,  mischievous,  noxious,  detrimen- 
tal, prejudicial. 


IGNOMINIOUS,  mean,  shameful,  dis- 
honorable, infamy,  reproach. 

Ill  will,  enmity,  hatred,  antipathy. 

Illegal,  unlawful,  illegitimate. 

Illiterate,  unlearned,  untaught,  uninstruct- 
ed. 


A DICTIONARY  OF  SYNONYMOUS  WORDS. 


705 


Illness,  sickness,  indisposition,  disorder. 

Illustrious,  celebrated,  noble,  eminent,  re- 
nowned. 

Image,  likeness,  picture,  representation. 

Imagine,  conceive,  fancy,  apprehend,  think. 

Imbibe,  absorb,  swallow  up,  consume. 

Imbolden,  inspirit,  animate,  encourage. 

Immediate,  pressing,  instant,  proximate. 

Immense,  enormous,  huge,  prodigious,  im- 
measurable. 

Immodest,  shameful,  indecent,  indecorous. 

Immure,  imprison,  confine,  incarcerate. 

Impart,  bestow,  give,  communicate,  reveal, 
discover. 

Impartial,  just,  equitable,  unprejudiced. 

Impassioned,  glowing,  fiery,  impetus,  spir- 
ited. 

Impel,  move,  incite,  instigate,  encourage, 
embolden,  stimulate. 

Imperfect,  defective,  faulty,  incomplete. 

Imperfection,  deficiency,  defect,  fault, 
failing. 

Impertinent,  unmannerly,  meddling,  intru- 
sive, officious. 

Impetuous,  violent,  furious,  boisterous, 
passionate. 

Impious,  irreverent,  profane,  godless, 
wicked. 

Imposing,  impressive,  striking,  command- 
ing^ grand. 

Imposition,  cheat,  fraud,  imposture. 

Impotent,  powerless,  unable,  weak,  help- 
less, enfeebled. 

Impression,  imprint,  sentiment,  sensation. 

Improvement,  progress,  proficiency,  ad- 
vancement. 

Improvident,  careless,  incautious,  impru- 
dent. 

Impudence,  confidence,  insolence,  rude- 
ness. 

Impudent,  bold,  impertinent,  forward,  rude, 
insolent. 

Impulsive,  rash,  hasty,  forcible,  violent. 

Imputation,  blame,  censure,  reproach, 
charge. 

Inability,  weakness,  incapacity,. 

Inanimate,  lifeless,  dead,  defunct,  inert,  ex- 
tinct. 

Incapable,  unable,  inadequate,  incompe- 
tent. 

Incapacity,  disability,  inability,  incompe- 
tency. 


Incessant,  unceasing,  continual,  perpetual. 

Incident,  event,  occurrence,  circumstance. 

Incidental,  accidental,  casual,  contingent. 

Inclement,  severe,  harsh,  rigorous,  stormy. 

Include,  embrace,  contain,  comprehend, 
hold,  inclose. 

Incoherent,  unconnected,  loose,  inconse- 
quential. 

Incommode,  inconvenience,  annoy,  molest, 
disturb. 

Incompetent,  incapable,  unable,  insuffi- 
cient. 

Incomplete,  imperfect,  defective. 

Increase,  extend,  advance,  heighten,  expand, 
raise,  enhance,  magnify. 

Increase,  augmentation,  accession,  enlarge- 
ment, addition,  growth. 

Indecent,  improper,  indelicate,  immodest. 

Indicate,  show,  mark,  denote,  designate. 

Indifferent,  apathetic,  unconcerned,  care- 
less. 

Indigence,  poverty,  want,  destitution,  pri- 
vation. 

Indignation,  displeasure,  anger,  exaspera- 
tion, wrath. 

Indiscriminate,  promiscuous,  confused,  un- 
distinguishing. 

Indispensable,  necessary,  essential,  requi- 
site. 

Indisputable,  undoubted,  sure,  certain,  in- 
fallible. 

Indistinct,  confused,  uncertain,  indiscrimin- 
ate, imperfect. 

Indolent,  idle,  lazy,  listless,  inactive. 

Induce,  persuade,  influence,  move,  actuate, 
prompt. 

Industrious,  diligent,  laborious,  assiduous, 
busy. 

Ineffectual,  fruitless,  useless,  unavailing, 
ineffective. 

Inequality,  disparity,  inadequacy. 

Inert,  inactive,  passive,  indolent. 

Inevitable,  unavoidable,  certain,  irresisti- 
ble. 

Infamous,  shameful,  ignominious,  disgrace- 
ful. 

Infect,  pollute,  contaminate,  corrupt. 

Infectious,  contagious,  pestilential,  catch- 
ing. 

Inference,  deduction,  conclusion,  conse- 
quence. 

Infidelity,  distrust,  incredulity,  disbelief 


M 


A DICTIONARY  OF  SYNONYMOUS  WORDS. 


Infinite,  illimitable,  unlimited,  immense. 
Infirm,  weak,  feeble,  enfeebled. 

Inflame,  anger,  enrage,  incense,  aggravate, 
exasperate. 

Inform,  tell,  report,  acquaint,  apprise. 
Information,  advice,  counsel,  instruction. 
Infringe,  invade,  intrude,  break,  violate. 
Infuse,  instil,  implant,  inspire,  impart. 
Ingenuous,  candid,  generous,  open,  frank, 
sincere. 

Inhuman,  cruel,  savage,  barbarous,  ruth- 
less. 

Injurious,  hurtful,  pernicious,  deleterious. 
Injustice,  wrong,  iniquity,  grievance. 
Inquiry,  investigation,  examination,  inter- 
rogation. 

Inquisitive,  prying,  curious,  peering. 

Insane,  deranged,  delirious,  demented. 
Inscribe,  dedicate,  devote,  impress. 

Inside,  interior,  within,  inland. 

Insipid,  dull,  tasteless,  vapid,  lifeless. 

Insist,  persist,  persevere,  urge. 

Insnare,  entrap,  decoy,  allure,  entoil,  en- 
tangle. 

Inspect,  examine,  overhaul,  supervise. 
Instability,  mutability,  fickleness. 

Instigate,  animate,  incite,  stimulate,  en- 
courage. 

Instil,  inculcate,  infuse,  insinuate. 

Instruct,  teach,  educate,  enlighten,  initiate. 
Instruction,  advice,  counsel,  information- 
education. 

Instrument,  tool,  implement,  medium. 
Instrumental,  conducive,  assistant,  helping. 
Insurrection,  rebellion,  revolt,  sedition. 
Integrity,  uprightness,  honesty,  entirety. 
Intellect,  brains,  mind,  intelligence,  ability, 
talent,  genius. 

Intelligent,  understanding,  instructed. 
Intelligible,  clear,  obvious,  plain. 
Intemperate,  excessively,  immoderate, 
drunken. 

Intend,  design,  purpose,  contemplate. 
Intercede,  interpose,  mediate,  plead. 
Intercourse,  connection,  commerce,  inti- 
macy. 

Interdict,  forbid,  prohibit,  debar. 

Interest,  concern,  profit,  benefit,  share. 
Interior,  internal,  inward,  inner,  inside. 
Interpretation,  explanation,  sense,  exposi- 
tion, solution. 

Intimacy,  fellowship,  familiarity,  friend- 
ship. 


Intimate,  familiar,  friendly,  conversant. 

Intimate,  suggest,  insinuate. 

Intimidate,  alarm,  frighten,  affright,  brow, 
beat. 

Intoxicated,  drunk,  muddled,  tipsy 

Intoxication,  drunkenness,  inebriation,  in- 
ebriety. 

Intrigue,  conspiracy,  artifice,  ruse,  amour, 
love  affair. 

Intrinsic,  genuine,  real,  true,  inherent. 

Introduce,  present,  make  known,  usher  in. 

Introduction,  presentation,  preface,  pre- 
lude. 

Introductory,  preliminary,  preparatory. 

Intrude,  obtrude,  infringe,  trespass. 

Intrust,  confide,  commit,  consign. 

Invalidate,  nullify,  make  void,  overthrow, 
vacate. 

Invaluable,  inestimable,  priceless,  pre- 
cious. 

Invasion,  incursion,  irruption,  inroad. 

Invective,  railing,  abuse,  sarcasm. 

Inveigle,  entice,  delude,  seduce. 

Invent,  contrive,  frame,  fabricate,  forge, 
feign. 

Inventor,  creator,  author,  originator. 

Inventory,  schedule,  register. 

Invert,  reverse,  overturn,  overthrow. 

Investigation,  examination,  research,  scru* 
tiny,  inquiry. 

Inveterate,  confirmed,  chronic,  deep- 
rooted. 

Involve,  include,  implicate,  compromise, 
complicate. 

Inward,  internal,  inner,  interior. 

Irony,  satire,  sarcasm,  ridicule. 

Irregular,  unnatural,  unsystematic,  disor- 
derly, erratic. 

Irreligious,  profane,  godless,  impious. 

Irresistible,  resistless,  all-powerful,  mighty. 

Irresolute,  wavering,  vacillating,  unde- 
termined. 

Irritable,  excitable,  irascible,  fretful,  peev- 
ish, 

Issue,  emerge,  proceed,  rise,  spring,  ema 
nate. 

JUDGMENT,  discernment,  sagacity,  sen* 
tence,  decision. 

Judicious,  discerning,  wise,  sage. 

Junction,  union,  alliance,  connection. 

Justify,  excuse,  exonerate,  defend. 

Justness,  accuracy,  correctness. 


A DICTIONARY  OF  SYNONYMOUS  WORDS. 


Jut,  project,  protrude,  bulge. 

KEEN,  sharp,  penetrating,  cutting. 

Keep,  retain,  detain,  preserve,  maintain. 
Key,  explanation,  translation,  solution. 
Kill,  murder,  assassinate,  slay. 

Kind,  thoughtful,  gentle,  meek,  tender, 
indulgent. 

Kindred,  affinity,  relatives,  related. 

LABOR,  work,  task,  exertion,  duties. 
Lame,  crippled,  halt,  defective,  imperfect 
Lament,  bewail,  bemoan,  regret,  grieve 
for. 

Language,  speech,  tongue,  expression,  dic- 
tion, dialect. 

Languid,  exhausted,  flagging,  faint,  spii> 
itless. 

Large,  great,  vast,  immense,  bulky. 
Lascivious,  lustful,  lewd,  wanton. 

Lash,  whip,  scourge,  beat,  bind. 

Lasting,  enduring,  durable,  abiding,  per- 
manent, perpetual. 

Laud,  praise,  applaud,  extol,  magnify, 
commend. 

Lazy,  indolent,  slothful,  sluggish,  idle. 
Lead,  conduct,  precede,  induce,  influence. 
Leader,  chief,  director,  head,  guide. 
Leading,  chief,  principal,  governing. 

Lean,  incline,  bend,  slope. 

Leap,  jump,  spring,  bounce. 

Learned,  scholarly,  versed,  knowing. 
Learner,  scholar,  student,  pupil,  beginner. 
Legend,  marvellous  story,  fable,  fiction. 
Legitimate,  lawfully,  begotten,  fairly  de- 
duced. 

Level,  horizontal,  plain,  smooth,  flat. 
Levity,  lightness,  flightiness,  vanity. 
Liable,  exposed,  subject,  responsible. 
Liberal,  noble-minded,  bounteous,  plenti- 
ful, munificent. 

Lie,  falsehood,  falsity,  fabrication. 

Life,  existence,  vitality,  vivacity,  activity. 
Light,  bright,  whitish,  easy,  not  difficult, 
slight. 

Likeness,  similarity,  representation,  pic- 
ture, portrait. 

Liking,  fondness,  inclination,  partiality. 
Limit,  bound,  boundary,  border,  confine. 
Lineage,  descendants,  race,  ancestry,  fam- 
ily. 

Listen,  hearken,  hear,  heed. 

Listless,  careless,  heedless,  indifferent. 


Y07 

Literature,  learning,  letters,  literary  works 
Little,  small,  dwarf,  tiny,  slight. 

Live,  exist,  subsist,  dwell. 

Livelihood,  living,  support,  sustenance. 
Lively,  vigorous,  active,  quick,  spirited. 
Loose,  unfastened,  unrestrained,  slack,  im 
definite,  dissolute,  licentious,  wanton. 
Loss,  damage,  detriment,  injury,  priva 
tion. 

Lot,  fate,  destiny,  fortune. 

Loud,  noisy,  clamorous,  vociferous. 

Love,  affection,  regard,  attachment. 
Lovely,  pleasing,  charming,  amiable, 

MAD,  wild,  frantic,  furious,  rabid. 
Madness,  insanity,  lunacy,  mania,  frenzy 
Magnanimous,  dignified,  noble,  exalted? 
lofty. 

Magnificence,  splendor,  grandeur. 
Magnitude,  greatness,  size,  bulk. 

Maintain,  assert,  hold,  support,  sustain. 
Maintenance,  living,  livelihood,  subsist 
ence. 

Majestic,  dignified,  noble,  stately. 

Make,  create,  form,  shape. 

Malady,  ailment,  disease,  disorder,  sick 
ness. 

Malediction,  curse,  imprecation,  anathema 
Malefactor,  criminal,  culprit,  convict. 
Malice,  spite,  grudge,  pique. 

Malicious,  virulent,  wicked. 

Management,  direction,  superintendent 
Manager,  director,  supervisor,  overseer. 
Mangle,  lacerate,  mutilate,  hack. 

Mania,  madness,  insanity,  rage. 

Manifest,  show,  reveal,  exhibit. 

Manifest,  clear,  evident,  open,  plain. 
Manifold,  various,  sundry,  several. 

Manly,  vigorous,  manful,  brave,  fearless, 
noble,  masculine. 

Manner,  way,  method,  style,  habit,  custom, 
air,  look,  appearance. 

Mannerly,  gentlemanly,  civil,  polite. 
Margin,  edge,  border,  brink,  limit. 

Mark,  sign,  symbol,  character,  impression, 
symptom,  track,  badge. 

Masculine,  manly,  vigorous,  brave,  cour- 
ageous. 

Massacre,  carnage,  slaughter,  butchery. 
Massive,  bulky,  weighty,  heavy. 

Master,  director,  ruler. 

Master,  overpower,  overcome,  conquer 
Masterly,  skilful,  clever,  expert. 


708 


A DICTIONARY  OF  SYNONYMOUS  WORDS. 


Matchless,  unequaled,  peerless,  incompara- 
ble, inimitable. 

Matrimony,  marriage,  wedlock,  wedding. 
Matter,  material,  affair,  business,  concern, 
question,  subject. 

Mature,  ripe,  perfected,  ready,  mellow,  fit. 
Maudlin,  silly,  sickly,  sentimental. 
Mawkish,  loathsome,  squeamish. 

Maybe,  perhaps,  possibly,  perchance. 
Meagre,  poor,  barren,  lank,  emaciated, 
gaunt. 

Mean,  abject,  vile,  ignoble,  degraded,  stingy. 
Mean,  intend,  signify,  design,  purpose,  in- 
dicate. 

Meaning,  signification,  import,  sense. 
Meddlesome,  meddling,  officious,  obtru- 
sive. 

Memory,  remembrance,  retention,  recollec- 
tion. 

Menace,  threat,  threatening. 

Mend,  repair,  correct,  improve,  better,  rec- 
tify. 

Menial,  servant,  domestic,  hireling. 

Mental,  intellectual,  metaphysical,  ideal. 
Merchant,  trader,  tradesman,  dealer. 
Merciful,  compassionate,  tender,  humane, 
gracious. 

Merciless,  cruel,  unfeeling,  unmerciful. 
Mercy,  leniency,  clemency,  tenderness. 
Merriment,  mirth,  jollity,  conviviality. 
Merry,  jovial,  mirthful,  joyous,  lively, 
sprightly. 

Method,  manner,  process,  regularity,  sys- 
tem, rule. 

Middling,  ordinary,  moderate,  tolerably. 
Might,  power,  strength,  force,  ability. 
Mighty,  powerful,  potent,  strong,  valiant. 
Migratory,  roving,  wandering. 

Mild,  meek,  gentle,  tender. 

Mind,  intellect,  understanding. 

Mindful,  heedful,  observant,  attentive. 
Mingle,  mix,  amalgamate,  confuse. 
Minister,  clergyman,  parson,  preacher. 
Minute,  slight,  particular,  exact. 
Miscellany,  mixture,  diversity,  variety. 
Miscreant,  caitiff,  villain,  knave,  ruffian. 
Miserable,  wretched,  unhappy,  distressed. 
Miserly,  niggardl}',  avaricious,  covetous. 
Misfortune,  calamity,  disaster,  mishap. 
Misguide,  mislead,  beguile,  deceive. 
Mistake,  err,  fail,  misconceive. 

Misty,  murky,  dark,  dim,  obscure,  cloudy. 
Mitigate,  alleviate,  relieve,  abate. 


Mix,  mingle,  blend,  intermix. 

Mob,  crowd,  concourse,  throng. 

Mode,  method,  process,  course,  means. 
Moderate,  temperate,  sober,  abstinent. 
Moderation,  temperance,  sobriety. 
Moreover,  besides,  furthermore,  likewise 
Morning,  morn,  dawn,  sunrise. 

Morose,  gloomy,  sullen,  surly. 

Mortify,  humiliate,  humble,  annoy. 

Mostly,  mainly,  chiefly. 

Motive,  incentive,  impulse,  cause,  reason. 
Mouldy,  musty,  mildewed. 

Mount,  arise,  rise,  ascend,  climb. 

Mourn,  lament,  grieve,  bewail. 

Mournful,  sad,  sorrowful,  grievous,  piteous* 
Move,  impel,  incite,  induce,  instigate. 
Moving,  affecting,  touching,  impressive. 
Much,  abundant,  considerable,  ample,  plen- 
teous. 

Multitude,  crowd,  throng,  host. 

Murmur,  mutter,  complain,  repine. 
Muscular,  strong,  stalwart,  athletic,  lusty. 
Muster,  collect,  rally,  gather,  assemble. 
Mutable,  variable,  inconstant,  unsteady, 
fickle. 

Mutinous,  insurgent,  seditious,  riotous. 

NAME,  appellation,  designation,  title,  rep- 
utation, character,  fame,  credit. 

Narrate,  tell,  recount,  describe,  enumerate* 
Narrow,  bigoted,  illiberal,  confined. 

Nasty,  filthy,  unclean,  impure,  indecent. 
Nation,  people,  community,  state. 

Native,  real,  genuine,  mother. 

Naturally,  consequently,  necessarily. 
Nausea,  qualm,  sea-sickness,  loathing,  aver- 
sion. 

Neat,  nice,  spruce,  trim,  pure. 

Necessary,  needful,  expedient,  essential. 
Need,  necessity,  poverty,  indigence,  pen- 
ury. 

Needless,  unnecessary,  useless. 

Needy,  poor,  indigent,  destitute. 

Negligent,  neglectful,  heedless,  careless, 
thoughtless. 

Neighborhood,  vicinity,  nearness,  prox- 
imity. 

Nerve,  firmness,  courage,  force,  pluck,  res- 
olution. 

Nettle,  sting,  aggravate,  provoke,  enrage. 
Niggardly,  miserly,  griping,  avaricious, 
saving. 

Nigh,  near,  close,  adjacent. 


A DICTIONARY  OF  SYNONYMOUS  WORDS. 


. 709 


Nimble,  active,  quick,  agile,  swift,  alert, 
brisk,  lively. 

Nobility,  rank,  dignity,  greatness,  aristoc- 
racy. 

Noise,  outcry,  clamor,  din,  uproar,  tumult. 

Nonsense,  folly,  absurdity,  trash. 

Nonsensical,  absurd,  silly,  foolish,  prepos- 
terous. 

Notable,  remarkable,  signal,  striking,  no- 
torious. 

Notable,  busy,  diligent,  careful. 

Note,  mark,  token,  remark,  observation, 
comment. 

Notify,  publish,  announce,  acquaint,  com- 
municate. 

Notion,  opinion,  belief,  sentiment,  impres- 
sion. 

Nourishing,  nutritious,  nutritive. 

Nourishment,  food,  nutriment,  aliment,  sus- 
tenance. 

Noxious,  hurtful,  deleterious,  baneful,  un- 
wholesome. 


OBEDIENT,  submissive,  dutiful,  respect- 
ful. 

Object,  aim,  purpose,  design. 

Object,  oppose,  contravene,  impeach. 

Obligation,  duty,  favor,  contract,  bond. 

Oblige,  compel,  bind,  engage,  force. 

Obloquy,  censure,  odium,  reproach,  abuse, 
disgrace. 

Obnoxious,  offensive,  hateful,  unpopular. 

Obscene,  lewd,  indecent,  indelicate,  dis- 
gusting. 

Obscure,  dim,  cloudy,  indistinct,  unknown, 
humble,  unintelligible. 

Observance,  performance,  ceremony,  solem- 
nity, rite,  custom. 

Observe,  notice,  watch,  perceive,  respect, 
regard. 

Observer,  beholder,  spectator,  by-stander. 

Obsolete,  disused,  antiquated,  ancient. 

Obstacle,  obstruction,  difficulty,  check,  bar- 
rier. 

Obvious,  evident,  manifest,  clear,  open,  ap- 
parent. 

Occasion,  need,  opportunity,  opening,  rea- 
son, cause. 

Occult,  secret,  unknown,  invisible,  dark, 
mysterious. 

Occupation,  profession,  business,  trade,  vo- 
cation, calling. 


Occurrence,  event,  affair,  adventure. 

Odd,  whimsical,  queer,  peculiar,  droll,  un- 
even, unmatched. 

Odor,  smell,  scent,  perfume,  fragrance. 

Offence,  injury,  wrong,  insult,  outrage,  in- 

■ dignity,  crime. 

Offend,  displease,  anger,  irritate,  shock, 
pain. 

Off-hand,  unpremeditated,  extempore,  un- 
studied. 

Office,  duty,  employment,  business,  ser- 
vice, post. 

Officer,  functionary,  official,  director. 

Officious,  obtrusive,  intermeddling,  inter- 
fering. 

Omission,  failure,  oversight,  neglect,  de- 
fault. 

Omnipotent,  almighty,  irresistible. 

Onerous,  laborious,  oppressive,  toilsome, 
responsible. 

Onset,  assault,  attack,  charge,  encounter. 

Open,  unshut,  free,  frank,  unreserved,  gen- 
uine, barefaced,  undisguised. 

Opportune,  seasonable,  timely,  proper. 

Opportunity,  occasion,  chance,  opening. 

Oppose,  combat,  hinder,  resist,  contradict. 

Oppressive,  heavy,  cruel,  severe,  unjust. 

Opprobrious,  abusive,  insulting,  offensive, 
shameful. 

Opprobrium,  disgrace,  odium, infamy,  igno- 
miny. 

Option,  choice,  preference,  election. 

Oration,  address,  speech,  discourse. 

Ordain,  appoint,  consecrate,  prescribe. 

Ordinance,  decree,  law,  statute,  edict. 

Ordinary,  common,  vulgar,  plain,  conven- 
tional, habitual,  usual. 

Organization,  structure,  form. 

Orifice,  aperture,  opening. 

Origin,  commencement,  original,  rise, 
source,  cause. 

Original,  first,  primary,  pristine,  primeval, 
peculiar. 

Originate,  create,  spring,  issue,  proceed. 

Ostensible,  manifest,  visible,  outward,  col- 
orable. 

Outcast,  reprobate?  vagrant,  vagabond. 

Outcry,  cry,  clamor,  noise,  scream. 

Outdo,  exceed,  excel,  surpass. 

Outlandish,  strange,  foreign,  alien. 

Outline,  sketch,  plan,  draft. 

Outrage,  injury,  insult,  offence. 

Outward,  outer,  external,  exterior. 


710 


A DICTIONARY  OF  SYNONYMOUS  WORDS. 


Overcome,  overthrow,  crush,  conquer,  van- 
quish. 

Overjoyed,  enraptured,  delighted. 

Overlook,  oversee,  survey,  review,  excuse, 
pardon. 

Overreach,  cheat,  swindle,  outwit,  circum- 
vent. 

Overruling,  governing,  controlling,  supe- 
rior. 

Oversight,  inspection,  supervision,  neglect, 
mistake,  error. 

Overweening,  conceited,  haughty,  egotisti- 
cal. 

Overwhelm,  drown,  overcome,  overpower, 
subdue,  crush. 

Own,  possess,  hold,  acknowledge,  admit? 
confess,  allow. 

PAIN,  agony,  distress,  suffering. 

Painstaking,  attentive,  laborious,  diligent. 

| Paint,  color,  represent,  delineate. 

Palid,  pale,  wan,  whitish,  faint. 

Palpable,  clear,  distinct,  plain,  evident. 

Palpitate,  flutter,  paint,  throb. 

Paltry,  pitiful,  mean,  sorry,  despicable. 

Panegyric,  eulogy,  encomium,  praise, 

Pang,  throe,  anguish,  pain,  distress. 

Pant,  palpitate,  gasp,  throb,  long. 

Parallel,  equal,  like,  similar. 

Parsimonious,  stingy,  niggardly,  miserly. 

Parson,  clergyman,  curate,  minister. 

Part,  separate,  divide,  sever,  disunite. 

Partial,  biassed,  prejudiced,  limited. 

Particular,  singular,  exact,  punctual. 

Particularly,  primarily,  especially,  chiefly. 

Partisan,  supporter,  follower,  disciple. 

Partner,  colleague,  associate,  sharer. 

Party,  confederacy,  faction,  clique,  league. 

Passage,  journey,  road,  route,  channel, 
clause. 

Passion,  emotion,  vehemence,  impetuosi- 
ty, love,  affection. 

Passive,  inactive,  unresisting,  submissive, 
patient,  resigned. 

Pastime,  amusement,  recreation,  sport, 

P>ay: 

Pathetic,  touching,  affecting,  moving. 

Paucity,  fewness,  lack,  deficiency. 

Pay,  wages,  compensation,  salary,  recom- 
pense. 

Peace,  quiet,  calm,  rest,  harmony. 

Peevish,  touchy,  captious,  fractious,  fretful, 

K petulant. 


Pellucid,  translucent,  lucid,  transparent, 
clear. 

Penalty,  fine,  forfeiture. 

Pendant,  protruding,  hanging,  drooping. 

Penetrate,  pierce,  fathom,  reach. 

Penetration,  insight,  sharpness,  acuteness, 
discrimination. 

Penurious,  sparing,  niggardly,  stingy. 

Penury,  poverty,  beggary,  destitution,  pri- 
vation. 

People,  populace,  mob,  nation,  tribe,  race. 

Perception,  seeing,  sensibility,  sensation, 
apprehension. 

Peremptory,  absolute,  arbitrary,  despotic, 
imperative. 

Perfect,  complete,  finished,  mature,  ripe. 

Perfidious,  faithless,  treacherous,  unfaithful. 

Performance,  act,  exploit,  work,  enterprise. 

Perilous,  dangerous,  hazardous,  insecure. 

Period,  time,  date,  era,  epoch,  end. 

Permanent,  durable,  abiding,  enduring.^ 
steadfast,  constant. 

Pernicious,  destructive,  ruinous,  baneful. 

Perpetual,  constant,  continuous,  eternal 
incessant,  ceaseless. 

Perplex,  embarrass,  confuse,  bewilder,  en- 
tangle. 

Persecute,  oppress,  harrow,  afflict,  annoy. 

Pertain,  belong,  appertain,  concern. 

Pertinacious,  obstinate,  stubborn,  deter- 
mined. 

Pervade,  diffuse,  spread,  permeate. 

Perverse,  awkward,  cross,  petulant,  peevish, 
stubborn. 

Pestilential,  infectious,  pernicious,  noxious, 
baneful,  destructive,  deadly. 

Petition,  prayer,  supplication,  request. 

Phantom,  apparition,  spectre,  ghost. 

Philanthropic,  charitable,  kind,  benevolent. 

Physical,  material,  corporeal,  natural. 

Pierce,  penetrate,  drill. 

Piety,  religion,  holiness,  devotion,  godli- 
ness. 

Pillage,  rapine,  spoil,  plunder,  booty. 

Pillar,  column,  shaft,  support. 

Pine,  droop,  languish,  fade,  wither,  decay. 

Pious,  holy,  godly,  religious. 

Piquant,  smart,  keen,  biting,  harsh,  cutting. 

Pique,  spite,  grudge,  resentment. 

Pity,  compassion,  sympathy,  mercy. 

Placid,  gentle,  peaceful,  quiet,  calm,  mild. 

Plague,  tease,  worry,  torment,  tantalize, 
molest. 


A DICTIONARY  OF  SYNONYMOUS  WORDS. 


711 


Plan,  design,  drawing,  scheme,  project, 
contrivance,  stratagem. 

Plaudit,  applause,  acclamation,  approba- 
tion. 

Plausible,  apparently,  specious,  ostensible. 

Play,  amusement,  recreation,  diversion, 
game,  scope,  opportunity. 

Plead,  argue,  apologize,  vindicate,  exoner- 
ate, justify. 

Pleasant,  agreeable,  delightful,  delicious, 
satisfactory,  cheerful,  merry. 

Pleasing,  agreeable,  gratifying,  pleasant. 

Pleasure,  comfort,  enjoyment,  satisfaction, 
delight,  joy,  rapture. 

Plentiful,  plenteous,  abundant,  ample,  pro*- 
fuse. 

Plenty,  enough,  abundance,  profusion. 

Pliable,  pliant,  flexible,  supple,  docile. 

Plodding,  drudging,  laborious. 

Plot,  scheme,  conspiracy,  stratagem,  com- 
bination. 

Plot,  devise,  frame,  contrive,  conspire. 

Pluck,  courage,  mettle,  spirit,  nerve. 

Plump,  round,  fat,  chubby,  fleshy. 

Plunder,  pillage,  booty,  spoil. 

Plunge,  immerce,  dive. 

Ply,  practise,  exercise,  work. 

Poignant,  sharp,  keen,  biting,  severe,  in- 
tense. 

Pointed,  sharp,  marked,  severe. 

Policy,  system,  management,  prudence, 
cunning. 

Polish,  brighten,  burnish,  refine. 

Polite,  polished,  refined,  accomplished, 
courteous,  courtly. 

Pollute,  corrupt,  contaminate,  soil,  infect, 
deprave. 

Pomp,  parade,  display,  splendor,  grandeur, 
show,  ceremony. 

Popular,  prevailing,  current,  favorite,  liked. 

Portend,  foreshow,  betoken,  augur,  threat- 
en, indicate. 

Position,  locality,  situation,  spot,  gesture, 
attitude. 

Practice,  custom,  usage,  exercise. 

Praise,  applause,  exaltation,  honor. 

Praiseworthy,  laudable,  honorable,  com- 
mendable. 

Prank,  freak,  trick,  escapade. 

Prate,  tattle,  chatter,  prattle,  gossip. 

Preamble,  preface,  introduction. 

Precarious,  doubtful,  dubious,  unsettled, 
perilous. 


Precedence,  priority,  pre-eminence,  prefer 
ence. 

Precept,  command,  injunction,  direction, 
law,  doctrine. 

Preceptor,  teacher,  instructor,  schoolmas- 
ter. 

Precipitous,  abrupt,  rash,  dangerous. 

Precise,  accurate,  correct,  particular,  ex- 
plicit. 

Precision,  exactness,  accuracy,  nicety. 

Precursory,  premonitory,  preceding. 

Predatory,  marauding,  ravenous,  rapacious, 
greedy. 

Predict,  foretell,  prophesy,  forecast,  fore- 
shadow. 

Predilection,  preference,  fondness,  preju- 
dice. 

Pre-eminent,  superior,  supreme  noble. 

Prefer,  select,  advance,  further. 

Preference,  choice,  precedence. 

Preferment,  promotion,  exaltation. 

Pregnant,  teeming,  replete,  fruitful,  with 
child. 

Premature,  too  hasty,  rash,  untimely. 

Premeditation,  forethought,  deliberation. 

Premium,  reward,  recompense,  bounty, 
prize. 

Prepare,  qualify,  furnish,  provide,  adapt, 
arrange. 

Preponderate,  overbalance,  outweigh,  pre- 
vail. 

Prepossessing,  winning,  charming. 

Present,  nigh,  immediate,  instant,  current. 

Presentiment,  foreboding,  foretaste,  fore- 
thought. 

Presently,  shortly,  immediately,  directly. 

Preserve,  save,  defend,  protect,  maintain. 

Preside,  direct,  control,  superintend. 

Presume,  infer,  think,  conjecture,  believe. 

Presumptuous,  presuming,  forward,  arro- 
gant, bold,  rash,  foolhardy. 

Prevail,  predominate,  obtain,  succeed. 

Prevailing,  prevalent,  ruling,  ascendant. 

Prevalence,  influence,  custom,  power. 

Prevaricate,  quibble,  cavil,  equivocate. 

Prevent,  impede,  thwart,  obviate,  hinder, 
obstruct. 

Previous,  preceding,  foregoing,  anterior. 

Prey,  food,  victim,  spoil,  ravage. 

Price,  cost,  expense,  value,  worth. 

Pride,  arrogance,  haughtiness,  vanity,  self 
esteem,  loftiness. 

Prim,  precise,  formal,  stiff,  priggish. 


713 


A DICTIONARY  OF  SYNONYMOUS  WORDS. 


Primary,  first,  earliest,  original,  primeval. 

Princely,  royal,  stately,  august,  noble. 

Principal,  chief,  leading,  first,  highest,  su- 
preme. 

Priority,  precedence,  preference. 

Pristine,  primitive,  original,  infantine. 

Privacy,  solitude,  seclusion,  retreat,  se- 
crecy. 

Privation,  loss,  bereavement,  destitution, 
poverty. 

Prize,  assess,  value,  appraise. 

Probability,  chance,  appearance. 

Probity,  rectitude,  uprightness,  honesty, 
integrity. 

Proceed,  move,  advance,  pass. 

Procession,  caravan,  cavalcade,  cortege. 

Proclaim,  announce,  publish,  advertise, 
utter. 

Proclamation,  announcement,  decree,  no- 
tice. 

Proclivity,  proneness,  tendency,  inclina- 
tion. 

Prodigy,  wonder,  monster,  miracle. 

Produce,  give,  cause,  show,  exhibit,  extend, 
prolong. 

Produce,  product,  fruit,  effect,  consequence, 
amount. 

Production,  origination,  formation,  pro- 
duct. 

Profane,  impious,  irreligious,  impure,  god- 
less, irreverent. 

Profession,  business,  trade,  occupation, 
calling,  employment. 

Proffer,  offer,  propose,  volunteer. 

Proficiency,  improvement,  skill,  dexterity. 

Proficient,  skilful,  competent,  trained. 

Profit,  gain,  benefit,  service,  use. 

Progress,  progression,  movement,  improve- 
ment. 

Prohibit,  check,  repress,  prevent,  forbid. 

Project,  scheme,  device,  design. 

Project,  cast,  throw,  shoot,  discharge,  hurl. 

Prominent,  eminent,  conspicuous,  marked, 
leading. 

Promiscuous,  mixed,  mingled,  indiscrimin- 
ate. 

Promise,  word,  engagement,  pledge. 

Promptitude,  readiness,  promptness,  ac- 
tivity. 

Promulgate,  announce,  advertise,  proclaim, 
declare. 

Pronounce,  speak,  utter,  deliver,  enunci- 
ate. 


Proof,  evidence,  testimony,  trial,  experi- 
ment. 

Prop,  maintain,  sustain,  support,  stay. 
Propagate,  circulate,  diffuse,  disseminate. 
Propriety,  fitness,  justness,  decorum. 
Prorogue,  adjourn,  postpone,  delay. 
Prosecute,  continue,  persevere,  persist, 
carry. 

Prospect,  landscape,  perspective,  scene, 
hope. 

Prosper,  succeed,  grow  rich,  thrive. 
Protection,  preservation,  guard,  shelter. 
Protest,  assert,  affirm,  declare,  assure. 
Protract,  prolong,  continue,  delay,  defer. 
Protrude,  project,  bulge. 

Proud,  vain,  lofty,  arrogant,  assuming, 
haughty. 

Prove,  examine,  demonstrate,  establish, 
verify. 

Proverb,  maxim,  aphorism,  saying,  by- 
word. 

Provide,  procure,  prepare,  furnish,  supply, 
arrange. 

Provident,  cautious,  thrifty,  prudent. 
Provoke,  irritate,  exasperate,  incite,  tanta- 
lize. 

Prowess,  courage,  heroism,  fearlessness. 
Puerile,  youthful,  boyish,  childish,  silly. 
Punctilious,  formal,  precise. 

Pure,  unmixed,  unspotted,  unsullied. 
Purify,  clarify,  clear,  cleanse. 

Purloin,  steal,  pilfer,  filch. 

Purport,  tenor,  sense,  meaning. 

Purpose,  design,  intention,  view. 

Purpose,  propose,  intend,  mean. 

Pursue,  chase,  track,  prosecute. 

Push,  thrust,  impel,  drive. 

QUAIL,  flinch,  quake,  tremble. 

Quaint,  fanciful,  whimsical,  singular. 

Quake,  shake,  tremble,  shudder. 
Qualification,  capacity,  fitness,  capability. 
Qualified,  fitted,  competent,  suitable. 
Qualify,  prepare,  capacitate,  enable. 
Quality,  property,  peculiarity,  character, 
temper. 

Quandary,  puzzle,  perplexity,  uncertainty. 
Quantity,  amount,  sum,  portion,  part,  di- 
vision. 

Quarrel,  altercation,  broil,  dispute,  disa- 
greement, variance. 

Quarrelsome,  pugnacious,  fiery. 

Quarter,  region,  district,  locality 


A DICTIONARY  OF  SYNONYMOUS  WORDS. 


713 


Quash,  crush,  suppress,  nullify,  cancel. 

Queer,  strange,  singular,  quaint,  whimsi- 
cal. 

Queil,  crush,  subdue,  repress,  suppress, 
overpower. 

Quiescence,  rest,  repose,  quiet,  quietude, 
silence. 

Quiet,  calm,  compose,  still,  hush,  pacify. 

Quiet,  calm,  tranquil,  peaceable,  silent,  gen- 
tle, inoffensive. 

Quit,  leave,  relinquish,  abandon,  forsake, 
resign. 

Quite,  altogether,  completely,  wholly,  en- 
tirely. 

Quotation,  citation,  extract,  passage. 

Quote,  cite,  adduce,  note,  repeat,  allege. 

RACK,  strain,  torture,  agonize. 

Racy,  pungent,  spicy,  spirited,  lively,  vi- 
vacious. 

Radiance,  brightness,  splendor,  brilliance, 
glare. 

Radiant,  beaming,  lustrous  shining,  spark- 
ling. 

Radiate,  shine,  gleam,  sparkle. 

Radical,  fundamental,  original,  inherent, 
constitutional. 

Raiment,  clothing,  dress,  garments,  ap- 
parel. 

Raise,  elevate,  heighten,  increase,  exalt, 
collect. 

Ramble,  jaunt,  tour,  excursion,  strolling. 

Rampant,  luxuriant,  wanton,  rank,  furious. 

Rancid,  sour,  fetid,  tainted,  musty. 

Rancor,  malignity,  malice,  enmity,  bitter- 
ness, grudge. 

Random,  chance,  casual,  accidental. 

Ransom,  emancipate,  free,  liberate,  re- 
deem. 

Rant,  empty,  declamation,  boasting. 

Rapidity,  speed,  haste,  celerity,  fleetness, 
quickness,  despatch. 

Rapture,  ecstacy,  transport,  bliss. 

Rare,  scarce,  uncommon,  unusual. 

Rascal,  scoundrel,  rogue,  scamp,  vaga- 
bond. 

Rash,  hasty,  precipitate,  venturesome, 
thoughtless,  reckless,  careless. 

Rashness,  precipitation,  hastiness,  indis- 
cretion. 

Rate,  appraise,  estimate,  appreciate,  scold, 
abuse. 

Raving,  distracted,  furious,  angry. 


Ravish,  transport,  enchant,  charm,  violate, 
abuse. 

Ready,  prepared,  prompt  dexterous. 

Real,  literal,  practical,  positive,  certain, 
true. 

Realize,  accomplish^  achieve,  effect,  gain. 

Rear,  elevate,  erect,  breed,  raise. 

Reason,  motive,  design,  proof,  cause,  pur- 
pose. 

Reason,  deduce,  trace,  infer,  conclude. 

Reasonable,  intelligent,  wise,  judicious, 
fair,  right. 

Rebuff,  repulse,  rebuke,  reprove,  scold. 

Recant,  recall,  retract,  revoke. 

Receipt,  reception,  admission,  discharge. 

Receive,  accept,  admit,  entertain. 

Reception,  receiving,  receipt,  admission. 

Reciprocal,  mutual,  alternate,  interchange- 
able. 

Recital,  recitation,  narrative,  statement. 

Recite,  relate,  tell,  repeat,  rehearse. 

Reckless,  heedless,  regardless,  careless. 

Reckon,  calculate,  enumerate,  count. 

Recognize,  acknowledge,  confess,  concede, 
remember. 

Recollect,  remember,  think  of,  recall. 

Recompense,  compensate,  repay,  redeem, 
remunerate. 

Recount,  relate,  rehearse,  describe,  enu- 
merate. 

Recover,  regain,  reclaim,  repair,  recruit,  re- 
store. 

Recreant,  cowardly,  dastardly,  fearful, 
false. 

Recreation,  pastime,  play,  amusement, 
game. 

Rectitude,  justice,  integrity,  virtue. 

Redress,  remedy,  repair,  abatement,  re- 
lief. 

Reduce,  lessen,  diminish,  lower,  shorten, 
curtail,  conquer. 

Redundant,  unnecessary,  excessive,  luxu- 
riant. 

Reference,  regard,  relation,  allusion. 

Referring,  respecting,  regarding,  about, 
relative  to. 

Refined,  polite,  polished,  genteel. 

Reflect,  consider,  think,  ponder,  reprove. 

Refuge,  asylum,  protection,  sanctuary, 
shelter. 

Refund,  reimburse,  repay,  return,  restore. 

Refuse,  dregs,  dross,  scum,  rubbish. 

Refute,  disprove,  falsify,  negative. 


714 


A DICTIONARY  OF  SYNONYMOUS  WORDS. 


Regain,  recover,  retrieve,  get  back. 

Regardless,  needless,  unmindful,  reckless, 
inconsiderate. 

Regret,  grief,  sorrow,  repentance,  remorse. 

Regular,  orderly,  systematical,  customary, 
ordinary,  periodical. 

Reject,  refuse,  cast,  aside,  renounce,  repu- 
diate. 

Rejoice,  delight,  gladden,  triumph. 

Related,  kindred,  connected,  allied. 

Relation,  narration,  recital,  narrative,  ac- 
count, relative. 

Relatives,  relations,  kindred,  kinsmen. 

Relax,  slacken,  loosen,  soften. 

Release,  let  go,  disengage,  liberate. 

Relevant,  pertinent,  appropriate,  applicar 
ble. 

Relieve,  ease,  help,  succor,  alleviate. 

Religious,  devotional,  godly,  holy,  sacred. 

Relinquish,  give  up,  forego,  forsake,  aban- 
don, renounce. 

Relish,  taste,  flavor,  appetite,  enjoyment. 

Reluctant,  unwilling,  averse,  loath,  disin- 
clined. 

Remain,  continue,  last,  abide,  sojourn, 
wait. 

Remedial,  healing,  curative,  corrective. 

Remedy,  relief,  redress,  reparation,  spe- 
cific. 

Remembrance,  memory,  recollection,  me- 
morial, token,  memento. 

Remit,  abate,  resign,  concede,  surrender, 
pardon. 

Remorse,  compunction,  penitence. 

Remorseless,  unrelenting,  relentless,  cruel, 
merciless. 

Remote,  distant,  secluded,  foreign,  indi- 
rect. 

Remove,  transfer,  withdraw,  suppress,  eject, 
oust. 

Remuneration,  payment,  recompense,  re- 
ward, salary,  wages. 

Renounce,  disown,  reject,  abjure,  abandon, 
forsake. 

Renowned,  celebrated,  famous,  illustrious. 

Repeal,  revoke,  abolish. 

Repine,  murmur,  grumble,  complain,  envy. 

Reply,  answer,  response,  rejoinder. 

Report,  announce,  communicate,  relate, 
circulate. 

Represent,  paint,  sketch,  delineate,  play. 

Representative,  agent,  deputy,  proxy. 


Reproach,  blame,  upbraid,  rebuke,  re- 
prove. 

Reprobate,  villain,  miscreant,  castaway. 

Reproduce,  propagate,  imitate,  copy. 

Repulsive,  forbidding,  odious,  ugly. 

Reputable,  creditable,  honorable,  respecta- 
ble. 

Request,  beseech,  entreat,  demand. 

Requite,  reward,  compensate,  recompense^ 
repay. 

Reserve,  modesty,  reservation. 

Resident,  occupant,  dweller,  tenant. 

Resign,  relinquish,  abandon,  abdicate. 

Resist,  oppose,  check,  hinder. 

Resolute,  determined,  decided,  steady,  con* 
stant. 

Resound,  echo,  re-echo,  ring,  respond. 

Resources,  means,  material,  expedients. 

Respect,  regard,  prefer,  venerate. 

Respectable,  good,  laudable,  esteemed,, 
fair. 

Rest,  repose,  slumber,  quiet,  peace,  tran- 
quillity. 

Restive,  obstinate,  stubborn,  uneasy. 

Result,  termination,  conclusion,  conse- 
quence. 

Retain,  keep,  restrain,  detain,  engage. 

Retaliate,  repay,  revenge,  requite. 

Retard,  impede,  obstruct,  detain. 

Retire,  leave,  depart,  recede,  retreat. 

Retirement,  privacy,  retreat,  solitude. 

Retort,  reply,  answer,  repartee. 

Retreat,  departure,  asylum,  refuge,  haunt, 
den. 

Retrench,  reduce,  abbreviate,  contract, 
economize, 

Reveal,  disclose,  show,  expose,  publish. 

Revel,  feast,  luxuriate,  banquet,  wallow. 

Revenge,  vengeance,  retaliation,  requital. 

Revengeful,  spiteful,  resentful,  vindictive. 

Reverence,  honor,  respect,  veneration. 

Review,  retrospect,  survey,  revisal. 

Revile,  calumniate,  slander,  reproach,  scan- 
dalize. 

Revive,  refresh,  renew,  renovate,  animate. 

Reward,  recompense,  remuneration, 
bounty. 

Rhetorical,  declamatory,  oratorical,  spir- 
ited. 

Rich,  wealthy,  plentiful,  abundant,  fertile, 
fruitful,  superb. 

Ridicule,  mock,  deride,  chaff,  sneer  at* 
banter. 


A DICTIONARY  OF  SYNONYMOUS  WORDS. 


715 


Ridiculous,  laughable,  comical,  absurd, 
grotesque,  droll. 

Rifle,  ransack,  despoil,  fleece,  pillage,  plun- 
der. 

Right,  straight,  direct,  awful,  correct,  just, 
fair. 

Rightly,  fairly,  correctly,  properly. 

Rigid,  inflexible,  severe,  strict,  unyield- 
ing, stern,  harsh. 

Riot,  tumult,  disturbance,  confusion,  fray, 
mutiny. 

Rise,  arise,  ascend,  climb,  break  forth. 

Rise,  fountainhead,  origin,  beginning,  ele- 
vation. 

Risible,  laughable,  ludicrous,  comical. 

Risk,  hazard,  peril,  venture,  dare. 

Road,  thoroughfare,  highway,  path. 

Roam,  ramble,  wander,  stray. 

Roar,  bellow,  yell,  resound,  vociferate. 

Robbery,  plundering,  larceny,  depredation. 

Robust,  vigorous,  stout,  lusty,  healthy,  sin- 
ewy, muscular. 

Rogue,  rascal,  villain,  scoundrel,  swindler, 
sharper. 

Romantic,  wild,  extravagant,  sentimental. 

Room,  chamber,  boudoir,  space,  scope. 

Root,  origin,  foundation,  bottom. 

Round,  circular,  complete,  plump,  smooth. 

Rouse,  wake  up,  awaken,  excite,  provoke, 
animate. 

Rout,  overthrow,  defeat,  scatter. 

Route,  road,  course,  march,  direction. 

Rove,  ramble,  roam,  range,  stroll. 

Rubbish,  debris,  litter,  refuse,  trash,  non- 
sense. 

Rude,  rough,  imperfect,  rugged,  coarse,  un- 
polished, awkward,  clumsy. 

Rueful,  woful,  piteous,  doleful,  grievous,  dis- 
mal. 

Ruin,  destruction,  shipwreck,  desolation, 
defeat,  mischief. 

Ruinous,  destructive,  pernicious,  wasteful. 

Rule,  govern,  manage,  direct,  command. 

Rule,  government,  mastery,  regulation,  law, 
authority,  method,  system. 

Ruling,  reigning,  controlling,  dominant, 
prevalent. 

Run,  hasten,  hurry,  speed,  race,  scamper. 

SAFE,  unharmed,  secure,  certain,  reliable, 
substantial. 

Sagacious,  shrewd,  discerning,  wise,  pru- 
. dent,  discriminating,  intelligent. 


Salary,  wages,  hire,  remuneration. 

Salient,  remarkable,  prominent,  projecting. 

Salubrious,  healthful,  healing,  sanitary. 

Salutation,  address,  welcome,  congratula* 
tion. 

Sample,  specimen,  model,  example. 

Sanative,  sanitary,  wholesome,  healing. 

Sanction,  confirm,  countenance,  encourage, 
support. 

Sarcasm,  satire,  irony,  ridicule,  mockery. 

Satisfaction,  gratification,  recompense,  re- 
muneration, contentment. 

Satisfy,  please,  gratify,  gorge. 

Saucy,  impertinent,  impudent,  insolent, 
flippant. 

Savage,  cruel,  inhuman,  brutal,  merciless, 
bloodthirsty,  fierce. 

Scandalize,  shock,  disgust,  offend,  traduce, 
defame,  slander. 

Scanty,  pinched,  insufficient,  slender, 
meagre. 

Scarce,  uncommon,  unique,  wanting,  unu- 
sual. 

Scatter,  spread,  disseminate,  disperse. 

Scorn,  contempt,  disdain,  mockery. 

Scraggy,  lean,  thin,  skinny. 

Scrap,  bit,  fragment,  piece,  morsel. 

Scribe,  penman,  writer,  copyist. 

Scrupulous,  strict,  conscientious,  precise. 

Scurrilous,  abusive,  reproachful,  opprobri- 
ous, foul. 

Seaich,  inquiry,  examination,  research, 
pursuit. 

Seasonable,  opportune,  convenient,  suita- 
ble. 

Seclusion,  privacy,  retirement,  secrecy,  re- 
treat, separation. 

Secondary,  second,  inferior,  under,  subor- 
dinate. 

Secret,  hidden,  concealed,  unknown,  pri- 
vate, sly. 

Security,  safety,  protection,  guarantee,  de- 
posit. 

Sedate,  grave,  serious,  composed,  calm, 
quiet. 

Sedative,  composing,  soothing,  assuasive. 

Sedition,  insurrection,  rebellion,  revolt, 
mutiny,  riot. 

Seduce,  mislead,  entice,  corrupt,  deprave, 
attract,  decoy. 

Sedulous,  industrious,  indefatigable,  assid* 
uous,  constant,  persevering. 


716 


A DICTIONARY  OF  SYNONYMOUS  WORDS. 


See,  perceive,  observe,  witness,  discern,  dis- 
cover, understand. 

Seek,  trace,  solicit,  examine,  discover,  de- 
tect. 

Seemly,  becoming,  decent,  decorous, 
< ^mely. 

Seize,  catch,  grasp,  snatch,  capture,  arrest. 

Self-conceit,  vanity,  self-esteem,  egotism. 

Self-willed,  headstrong,  stubborn,  wilful. 

Selfish,  greedy,  sordid,  mean,  mercenary, 
illiberal. 

Send,  despatch,  forward,  diffuse,  impel. 

Sensation,  perception,  impression,  senti- 
ment, feeling. 

Sense,  understanding,  reason,  judgment, 
consciousness,  wisdom,  import. 

Senseless,  unconscious,  unreasonable,  fool- 
ish, nonsensical. 

Sensible,  reasonable,  intelligent,  judicious, 
sound,  aware. 

Sentence,  decision,  judgment,  decree,  pass- 
age, phrase. 

Sentiment,  thought,  feeling,  susceptibility, 
emotion,  conviction. 

Separate,  distinct,  disconnected,  disjoined, 
severed, 

Serene,  calm,  undisturbed,  tranquil,  peace- 
ful. 

Serious,  grave,  solemn,  earnest,  important. 

Serve,  assist,  help,  attend,  minister. 

Service,  employment,  use,  benefit,  utility. 

Servile,  slavish,  cringing,  menial,  low, 
sneaking. 

Shadowy,  obscure,  cloudy,  gloomy,  myste- 
rious, uncertain. 

Shake,  convulse,  tremble,  quiver,  shiver. 

Shallow,  superficial,  flimsy,  simple. 

Sham,  pretence,  humbug,  imposture. 

Shame,  disgrace,  dishonor,  infamy. 

Shame,  abash,  humiliate,  disgrace. 

Shameful,  disgraceful,  scandalous,  outra- 
geous, dishonorable. 

Shape,  form,  fashion,  mould,  cast,  model. 

Sharp,  sarcastic,  keen,  shrewd,  discerning, 
penetrating. 

Shelter,  cover,  harbor,  asylum,  sanctuary, 
security. 

Shine,  give  light,  glow,  glitter,  sparkle, 
radiate. 

Shining,  brilliant,  bright,  splendid,  illus- 
trious. 

Shock,  offend,  disgust,  dismay,  terrify. 

;bhort,  brief,  concise,  compendious,  succinct. 


Show,  exhibition,  spectacle,  display,  pre- 
tence. 

Showy,  gorgeous,  pompous,  ostentatious, 
pretentious. 

Shrill,  piercing,  thrilling,  acute,  sharp. 

Shun,  avoid,  keep  clear  of,  evade,  elude. 

Sight,  seeing,  vision,  show,  spectacle. 

Sign,  mark,  proof,  symbol,  signal,  badge, 
omen. 

Significant,  expressive,  forcible,  weighty, 
momentous. 

Signify,  mean,  express,  declare,  intimate. 

Sin,  wickedness,  crime,  ungodliness,  evil. 

Sincere,  unvarnished,  genuine,  true,  frank, 
candid. 

Single,  unmarried,  singular,  particular,  in- 
dividual. 

Sinister,  unfair,  dishonest,  evil,  unlucky. 

Sink,  decline,  decrease,  suppress,  sub- 
merge. 

Size,  greatness,  magnitude,  largeness,  di 
mension. 

Slacken,  loosen,  unbind,  moderate. 

Slander,  defame,  asperse,  calumniate 
abuse. 

Slaughter,  bloodshed,  carnage,  butchery. 

Sleepy,  sluggish,  lazy,  somnolent. 

Slender,  small,  trivial,  slight,  slim,  thin. 

Slippery,  smooth,  unsafe,  deceptive. 

Slothful,  sluggish,  lazy,  idle. 

Slovenly,  loose,  negligent,  disorderly. 

Small,  little,  slight,  inconsiderable,  unim 
portant. 

Smart,  sharp,  severe,  quick,  keen,  acute, 
witty. 

Smooth,  level,  plain,  polished,  insinuating. 

Smother,  suppress,  strangle,  choke,  suffo- 
cate. 

Snarling,  snappish,  crabbed,  peevish. 

Sneak,  skulk,  lurk,  crouch,  cringe. 

Sneer,  scoff,  gibe,  mock,  jeer,  taunt. 

Snub,  rebuke,  reprimand,  humiliate,  mor- 
tify. 

Sober,  temperate,  calm,  reasonable,  self- 

possessed,  serious. 

Sociable,  social,  genial,  friendly,  convivial, 
conversible. 

Society,  association,  fellowship,  company, 
community,  corporation. 

Soft,  flexible,  yielding,  docile,  gentle,  ten- 
der. 

Soften,  mollify,  mitigate,  abate,  moderate 


A DICTIONARY  OF  SYNONYMOUS  WORDS. 


717 


Sojourn,  dwell,  reside,  abide,  rest. 

Solace,  comfort,  consolation,  sympathy. 

Solemn,  grave,  formal,  sacred,  religious, 
devotional. 

Solicit,  beseech,  beg,  petition,  ask,  urge, 
importune,  invite. 

Solicitous,  desirous,  uneasy,  earnest,  care- 
ful. 

Soon,  shortly,  early,  promptly. 

Soothe,  appease,  relieve,  calm,  quiet. 

Sorrow,  affliction,  grief,  sadness,  mourning. 

Sort,  species,  quality,  condition,  character. 

Soul,  spirit,  life,  intellect,  courage. 

Sour,  acid,  sharp,  harsh,  morose,  peevish. 

Source,  origin,  spring,  original,  commence- 
ment. 

Sparkle,  shine,  gleam,  flash. 

Speak,  talk,  converse,  discourse,  pronounce, 

Special,  particular,  peculiar,  specific,  dis- 
tinctive. 

Specify,  designate,  mention,  determine, 
state. 

Specimen,  sample,  model,  pattern,  instance. 

Spectacle,  display,  exhibition,  scene,  repre- 
sentation, pageant. 

Spectator,  observer,  witness,  beholder. 

Speculate,  meditate,  consider. 

Sphere,  ball,  globe,  circuit,  department. 

Spirit,  breath,  life,  soul,  ghost,  courage, 
temper. 

Spirited,  lively,  sprightly,  buoyancy,  cour- 
ageous. 

Splendid,  brilliant,  showy,  magnificent, 
glorious,  illustrious. 

Spontaneous,  voluntary,  willing. 

Short,  diversion,  amusement,  recreation, 
pastime. 

Spot,  speck,  blemish,  reproach,  place. 

Spotless,  unspotted,  unsullied,  pure,  inno- 
cent. 

Spread,  cover,  overlay,  circulate,  propagate, 
disseminate. 

Spruce,  trim,  smart,  neat,  dandified. 

Spurious,  counterfeit,  false,  fictitious, 
forged. 

Spurn,  reject,  disdain,  scout,  scorn. 

Squeeze,  press,  pinch,  embrace,  oppress. 

Staid,  steady,  grave,  sedate,  demure. 

Stain,  dye,  color,  blemish,  spot,  shame. 

Steady,  firm,  fixed,  constant. 

Steal,  purloin,  pilfer. 

Steep,  abrupt,  hilly,  craggy. 

Stigma,  mark,  infamy,  disgrace. 


Still,  peaceful,  serene,  quiet,  calm. 
Stimulate,  spur,  animate,  encourage. 
Stingy,  close,  mean,  sparing. 

Stipend,  remuneration,  pay,  wages,  salary. 
Stipulate,  bargain,  contract,  engage. 

Stoop,  bend,  yield,  condescend. 

Stop,  close,  seal,  arrest,  check,  hinder. 
Store,  stock,  supply,  hard,  provision,  trea- 
sury. 

Stormy,  boisterous,  blustering,  roaring. 
Stout,  robust,  vigorous,  stalwart. 

Stranger,  foreigner,  alien. 

Stratagem,  deception,  imposture,  delusion, 
plan,  device. 

Strength,  power,  might,  authority,  force. 
Strengthen,  fortify,  re-enforce,  consolidate. 
Strenuous,  vigorous,  vehement,  ardent. 
Strict,  correct,  exact,  stringent,  severe. 
Striking,  marvellous,  admirable,  astonish- 
ing. 

Strip,  despoil,  rob,  rifle. 

Strive,  labor,  contend,  contest,  endeavor. 
Strong,  powerful,  fortified,  robust. 
Structure,  construction,  building,  edifice. 
Stubborn,  unbending,  hard,  obstinate, 
headstrong. 

Studious,  thoughtful,  careful,  attentive. 
Stupid,  stolid,  heavy-headed. 

Sturdy,  robust,  strong,  muscular. 

Subdue,  conquer,  overcome,  overpower. 
Subject,  matter,  question,  material. 
Sublime,  elevated,  lofty,  majestic,  grand, 
noble. 

Substance,  matter,  material,  body,  mean- 
ing, import. 

Substantial,  material,  true,  solid,  massive. 
Subtle,  artful,  cunning,  crafty,  shrewd. 
Subtract,  withdraw,  take  away,  remove. 
Succeed,  prosper,  thrive,  flourish,  follow. 
Success,  good  fortune,  prosperity,  victory. 
Successful,  fortunate,  lucky,  happy. 
Succor,  assist,  support,  comfort,  alleviate. 
Sudden,  unexpected,  hasty,  quick,  rash. 
Suffer,  tolerate,  allow,  let,  permit,  support, 
sustain. 

Sufficiency,  competence,  enough,  plenty, 
abundance. 

Suggest,  intimate,  insinuate,  allude  to,  pro* 
pose. 

Suit,  petition,  action  at  law,  cause,  court* 
ship,  wooing 

Suitable,  fitting,  becoming,  agreeable,  ap- 
propriate, proper,  convenient 


718 


A DICTIONARY  OF  SYNONYMOUS  WORDS. 


Sulky,  cross,  morose,  fretful,  ill-tempered. 

Summary,  abstract,  abridgment,  digest, 
resume. 

Sumptuous,  costly,  expensive,  princely 

Sunder,  part,  separate,  divide,  sever. 

Sundry,  several,  divers,  various. 

Superb,  magnificent,  elegant,  grand,  splen- 
did, princely. 

Superfluous,  superabundant,  useless,  unne- 
cessary. 

Superior,  higher,  surpassing. 

Superlative,  highest,  greatest,  extreme, 
consummate. 

Supine,  indolent,  listless,  negligent,  inat- 
tentive, careless. 

Supple,  flexible,  compliant,  fawning. 

Supplicate,  pray,  beseech,  implore. 

Support,  foundation,  assistance,  influence, 
patronage,  food. 

Support,  sustain,  uphold,  befriend,  help, 
promote,  cherish,  defend,  suffer. 

Suppose,  presume,  imagine,  conceive,  re- 
gard, think. 

Suppress,  repress,  crush,  overpower,  re- 
strain, conceal,  stifle,  smother. 

Surly,  morose,  ill-natured,  splenetic, 
gloomy. 

Surpass,  exceed,  excel,  outdo,  eclipse, 
surmount. 

Surprising,  astonishing,  unexpected,  extra- 
ordinary. 

Surrender,  yield,  relinquish,  resign,  aban- 
don. 

Surreptitious,  underhand,  unauthorized, 
fruadulent. 

Surround,  encompass,  encircle 

Survey,  examine,  inspect,  overlook,  super- 
intend. 

Suspense,  doubt,  uncertainty,  indecision, 
solicitude. 

Suspicious,  mistrustful,  doubtful,  question- 
able. 

Sustain,  maintain,  support,  nourish,  com- 
fort, relieve. 

Swallow,  absorb,  imbibe,  consume,  devour, 
exhaust. 

Swamp,  marsh,  morass,  slough. 

Swarm,  cluster,  multitude,  crowd. 

Sway,  influence,  authority,  rule,  power, 
supremacy. 

Sweet,  pleasing,  agreeable,  pure,  fresh,  fra- 
grant, lovely. 

Swell,  expand,  increase,  enlarge,  distend. 

Swirt,  rapid,  speedy,  quick,  nimble,  prompt. 


Synonymous,  equivalent,  tantamount,  iden- 
tical. 

System,  method,  regularity,  rule. 

TACT,  address,  skill,  faculty,  discrimina- 
tion, judgment. 

Taint,  contaminate,  stain,  sully,  corrupt, 
pollute. 

Take,  catch,  seize,  accept,  receive,  capture. 

Tale,  story,  fiction,  romance,  legend. 

Talent,  gift,  endowment,  ability,  genius, 
cleverness. 

Talk,  speech,  chat,  gossip,  discourse,  report. 

Tangle,  snarl,  insnare,  complicate. 

Tantalize,  tease,  torment,  provoke,  irritate. 

Tardy,  dilatory,  sluggish,  slow,  behind- 
hand, reluctant. 

Tarnish,  soil,  dull,  stain,  blemish,  taint. 

Tarry,  await,  loiter,  delay,  linger,  remain, 
continue. 

Taunt,  reproach,  censure,  sneer,  scoff. 

Teach,  instruct,  educate,  train,  inform,  en- 
lighten, advise. 

Tedious,  slow,  dilatory,  wearisome,  irksome, 
sluggish. 

Teeming,  fertile,  pregnant,  fruitful,  full. 

Tell,  number,  count,  mention,  communi- 
cate, ascertain. 

Temerity,  audacity,  rashness,  heedlessness. 

Temper,  irritability,  disposition,  tempera- 
ment, constitution. 

Temperate,  moderate,  sober,  calm,  sedate. 

Tempest,  gale,  storm,  hurricane,  tumult, 
excitement. 

Tempestuous,  violent,  boisterous,  stormy, 
windy. 

Temporal,  worldly,  terrestrial,  secular. 

Tenacious,  retentive,  adhesive,  stubborn. 

Tend,  incline,  lean,  aim,  contribute,  con- 
duce. 

Tender,  delicate,  feeble,  gentle,  mild,  indu) 
genh 

Tenderness,  softness,  delicacy,  sensibility, 
kindness. 

Tenet,  doctrine,  opinion,  principle,  dogma. 

Tenor,  course,  intent,  purport,  character 
stamp. 

Tension,  strain,  force,  stretch. 

Term,  boundary,  limit,  condition. 

Terminate,  limit,  close,  complete,  finish, 
conclude. 

Terrible,  awful,  dreadful,  fearful,  shocking, 
horrible. 

Terrify,  frighten,  alarm,  scare. 


A DICTIONARY  OF  SYNONYMOUS  WORDS. 


719 


Territory,  domain,  country,  region. 

Terse,  compact,  concise,  forcible,  energetic. 

Test,  proof,  standard,  criterion,  experience, 
experiment. 

Testify,  depose,  affirm,  swear,  attest,  wit- 
ness, confirm. 

Testimony,  evidence,  proof,  confirmation, 
affirmation. 

Testy,  peevish,  irritable,  fretful,  petulant, 
fractious. 

Thankful,  grateful,  obliged,  beholden. 

Theft,  thievery,  stealing,  robbery,  depreda- 
tion. 

Theme,  subject,  topic,  discourse. 

Theory,  speculation,  assumption,  doctrine, 
supposition. 

Thick,  compact,  crowded,  muddy,  turbid, 
stupid. 

Thin,  slender,  small,  fine,  lean,  diluted, 
watery. 

Think,  meditate,  consider,  reflect,  contem- 
plate, conceive. 

Thorough,  complete,  entire,  perfect,  pow- 
erful. 

Thought,  conception,  imagination,  medita- 
tion, reflection,  deliberation. 

Thoughtless,  inconsiderate,  inattentive, 
careless. 

Thorny,  prickly,  troublesome,  harassing. 

Threatening,  menacing,  impending. 

Thrifty,  careful,  prudent,  economical. 

Thrive,  prosper,  increase,  flourish,  be  suc- 
cessful, succeed. 

Throng,  crowd,  assemblage,  concourse, 
swarm. 

Thrust,  push,  drive,  force,  press. 

Thwart,  cross,  oppose,  frustrate,  defeat. 

Tide,  current,  stream,  course,  movement. 

Tidings,  intelligence,  report,  information. 

Tie,  bind,  restrain,  oblige,  secure. 

Time,  duration,  season,  period,  age,  date. 

Timely,  seasonable,  opportune,  judicious. 

Timid,  timorous,  afraid,  dastardly. 

Tinge,  flavor,  taste,  dye. 

Tint,  shade,  color,  stain,  complexion. 

Tiny,  small,  diminutive. 

Tippling,  drinking,  swilling. 

Tipsy,  drunk,  intoxicated,  inebriated. 

Tire,  exhaust,  iatigue,  weary,  harass. 

Token,  mark,  sign,  note,  symptom,  indica- 
tion. 

Tone,  style,  manner,  pitch. 

Tongue,  speech,  language,  talk,  discourse. 


Top,  summit,  head,  crown,  surface. 

Topic,  subject,  theme,  question,  matter. 
Torment,  tease,  worry,  persecute,  pain. 
Torpid,  benumbed,  dull,  stupid,  sluggish. 
Torpid,  heaviness,  laziness. 

Torrid,  parching,  scorching,  sultry. 

Tough,  strong,  hard,  firm. 

Tour,  excursion,  ramble. 

Tow,  draw,  haul,  pull. 

Trace,  derive,  follow,  pursue,  track. 

Track,  way,  path,  trace,  trail. 

Trade,  commerce,  occupation,  employment, 
office. 

Traduce,  slander,  vilify,  calumniate,  ma- 
iign. 

Train,  educate,  instruct,  drill. 

Traitorous,  treacherous,  false,  faithless,  per- 
fidious. 

Trammel,  shackle,  clog,  chain. 

Transact,  perform,  conduct,  manage. 
Transaction,  negotiation,  occurrence. 
Transcend,  exceed,  excel,  eclipse. 
Transcendent,  superior,  surpassing,  match- 
less, peerless. 

Transfer,  convey,  remove,  transmit,  assign. 
Transgress,  violate,  infringe,  offend,  tres- 
pass. 

Transient,  transitory,  fleeting,  passing, 
temporary,  momentary. 

Trappings,  ornaments,  decorations. 

Trash,  dross,  trifles,  nonsense, 

Travel,  journey,  excursion,  voyage. 
Treacherous,  faithless,  treasonable,  false- 
hearted, insidious. 

Treasure,  riches,  wealth,  stock,  store. 
Tremendous,  dreadful,  awful,  fearful. 
Tremulous,  trembling,  quivering,  vibrating. 
Tribulation,  affliction,  grief,  distress,  mis- 
ery. 

Tribute,  tax,  duty,  custom,  contribution. 
Trick,  fraud,  cheat,  stratagem,  guile,  impo- 
sition. 

Triumphant,  elated,  victorious,  exultant. 
Trivial,  trifling,  frivolous,  unimportant. 
Trouble,  distress,  agitate,  annoy,  grieve, 
oppress. 

Trouble,  affliction,  distress,  grief,  tribula- 
tion. 

Troublesome,  tiresome,  irksome,  grievous. 
Troublous,  trying,  troublesome,  afflictive. 
Truant,  idling,  loitering,  shirking. 

Trust,  confidence,  reliance,  expectation, 
charge,  credit. 


720 


A DICTIONARY  OF  SYNONYMOUS  WORDS. 


Trustworthy,  faithful,  honest,  reliable. 

Truth,  reality,  veracity,  faithfulness,  fidel- 
ity- 

Tuition,  training,  teaching,  discipline. 

Tumid,  swollen,  distended,  inflated, 

Tumult,  uproar,  commotion,  disturbance, 
excitement. 

Tumultuous,  disorderly,  disturbed,  con- 
fused, riotous. 

Turn,  revolve,  whirl,  change,  alter. 

UMBRAGE,  offense,  displeasure,  dissatis- 
faction. 

Umpire,  referee,  arbitrator,  judge. 

Unadvised,  thoughtless,  indiscreet,  incon- 
siderate. 

Unaffected,  unshaken,  real,  natural,  simple. 

Unalterable,  changeless,  stable,  permanent. 

Unanimity,  accord,  agreement,  concord. 

Unanswerable,  unquestionable,  undeniable. 

Unassuming,  unpretending,  modest,  hum- 
ble. 

Unbelief,  disbelief,  distrust,  free-thinking. 

Unblemished,  pure,  spotless,  unspotted. 

Unbridled,  wanton,  licentious,  dissolute. 

Unceasing,  continual,  perpetual,  everlast- 
ing. 

Uncertain,  dubious,  questionable,  ambigu- 
ous, indistinct. 

Uncivil,  discourteous,  disrespectful. 

Unconcerned,  careless,  indifferent. 

Uncouth,  strange,  clumsy. 

Understanding,  knowledge,  intellect,  judg- 
ment, reason. 

Undertake,  set  about,  engage  in,  promise. 

Undisturbed,  unmolested,  tranquil,  peace- 
ful, serene,  unruffled. 

Unequal,  uneven,  insufficient,  ill-matched. 

Unequalled,  matchless,  unparalleled,  unri- 
valed. 

Unfaithful,  faithless,  false,  perfidious,  dis- 
loyal. 

U nfavorable,  unpropitious,  inauspicious,  dis- 
couraging. 

Unfeeling,  insensible,  cruel,  hard-hearted. 

Unfeigned,  undisguised,  clear,  sincere. 

Unfit,  improper,  inappropriate,  unqualified. 

Unfit,  disable,  disqualify. 

Unfitness,  incapacity,  disqualification,  in- 
competency. 

Unfold,  expand,  display,  disclose,  unbosom. 

Unfortunate,  unlucky,  unsuccessful,  un- 
happy,  miserable. 


Unfrequented,  unvisited,  uninhabited,  de* 
serted. 

Unfriendly,  unkind,  disobliging,  unfavora- 
ble, ungenial. 

Ungrateful,  thankless,  unthankful,  disa- 
greeable. 

Uunhappy,  afflicted,  painful,  deplorable, 
unfortunate. 

Unite,  join,  connect,  attach. 

Unity,  concord,  agreement,  harmony. 

Unmistakable,  clear,  plain,  evident,  man- 
ifest. 

Unnecessary,  needless,  useless. 

Unpardonable,  unjustifiable,  inexcusable. 

Unpleasant,  disagreeable,  offensive. 

Unprecedented,  unexampled,  unrivalled, 
unequaled. 

Uphold,  maintain,  sustain,  support,  vindi- 
cate. 

Upright,  perpendicular,  erect,  just,  honor- 
able. 

Uprightness,  honesty,  fairness,  goodness, 
honor. 

Uproar,  tumult,  row,  disturbance. 

Urbanity,  politeness,  courtesy,  courteous- 
ness. 

Urge,  instigate,  stimulate,  press,  induce, 
solicit. 

Usage,  custom,  fashion,  practice. 

Use,  employ,  exercise,  occupy,  practice. 

Useful,  advantageous,  serviceable,  helpful. 

Useless,  unserviceable,  profitless. 

Usual,  common,  accustomed,  habitual. 


VAGRANT,  wanderer,  beggar,  vaga< 
bond. 

Vague,  unsettled,  undetermined. 

Vain,  useless,  fruitless,  empty. 

Valiant,  brave,  valorous,  courageous. 

Valid,  weighty,  strong,  powerful. 

Valor,  courage,  bravery,  heroism. 

Valuable,  precious,  estimable. 

Value,  reckon,  appreciate,  estimate. 
Vanish,  disappear,  fade,  melt. 

Vanity,  conceit,  affectedness. 

Vanquish,  defeat,  conquer,  subdue,  dis- 
comfit. 

Variable,  changeable,  unsteady,  inconstant. 
Variance,  disagreement,  dissension. 
Variation,  change,  diversity,  deviation. 
Variety,  difference,  diversity,  change. 

Veil,  screen,  mask,  cover,  disguise. 


A DICTIONARY  OF  SYNONYMOUS  WORDS. 


Velocity,  swiftness,  quickness,  fleetness. 
Venture,  speculation,  chance. 

Verbal,  spoken,  literal,  unwritten. 

Verdict,  judgment,  decision,  answer. 

Verge,  border,  brim,  brink,  margin. 
Versatile,  unsteady,  changeable,  unfixed, 
wavering. 

Versed,  skilled,  practised,  conversant. 
Version,  interpretation,  reading. 

Vex,  worry,  tease,  harass  annoy. 

Vice,  iniquity,  guilt,  depravity,  wickedness. 
Viciousf  depraved,  corrupt,  debase,  im- 
pure. 

Victim,  sacrifice,  prey. 

Victorious,  conquering,  successful. 

View,  scene,  prospect,  survey,  landscape, 
aspect. 

Vigorous,  robust,  healthy,  strong,  powerful. 
Vilify,  debase,  degrade,  slnnder,  decry,  de- 
fame. 

Villain,  rascal,  scoundrel,  ruffian. 

Vindicate,  justify,  uphold,  support. 

Violate,  infringe,  injure,  abuse,  ravish,  de- 
bauch. 

Violence,  fury,  rage,  vehemence. 

Violent,  outrageous,  raving,  passionate. 
Virgin,  maid,  maiden,  damsel,  maidenly, 
pure,  untouched,  fresh. 

Vision,  sight,  apparition,  delusion,  dream. 
Visionary,  delusive,  imaginary,  fanciful,  im- 
practicable, romantic. 

Vital,  living,  necessary,  essential,  indis- 
pensable. 

Vitiate,  taint,  corrupt,  spoil. 

Vivacious,  lively,  sprightly,  brisk,  merry. 
Vivid,  lively,  animated,  stirring,  striking, 
clear. 

Vocation,  calling,  trade,  occupation,  business 
profession,  office. 

Volume,  book,  work,  bulk,  capacity,  dimen- 
sions. 

Vouch,  attest,  assure,  warrant,  promise. 
Vouchsafe,  condescend,  grant,  concede. 
Vulgar,  common  general,  rude,  coarse, 
vjle. 

WAIT,  await,  abide,  remain,  tarry. 

Waive,  forego,  relinquish. 

Wake,  awaken,  arouse,  excite,  kindle. 
Wakeful,  sleepless,  watchful,  observant. 
Wander,  stroll,  ramble,  stray. 

Wandering,  vagrant,  roving,  strolling. 
Want,  need,  lack,  desire,  wish. 


721 

Want,  poverty,  penury. 

Wanton,  licentious,  unbridled,  dissolute, 
loose. 

Warm,  affectionate,  attached,  devoted. 
Weal,  prosperity,  welfare,  well-being. 
Wealth,  plenty,  abundance,  mammon,  lucre. 
Weary,  exhaust,  fag,  harass. 

Weep,  cry,  sob,  lament,  bewail. 

Well-bred,  well-mannered,  polite. 

Weight,  gravity,  burden,  load,  conse- 
quences. 

Welcome,  agreeaoie,  pleasing,  gratifying. 
Welfare,  prosperity,  success,  happiness. 
Win,  gain,  procure,  achieve,  accomplish. 
Winning,  fascinating,  attractive,  charming. 
Wisdom,  sagacity,  prudence,  discretion, 
knowledge. 

Wise,  sagacious,  judicious,  discreet,  pru- 
dent, skilled,  clever. 

Wit,  understanding,  intellect,  imagination. 
Witchcraft,  enchantment,  sorcery,  magic. 
Wonder,  surprise,  astonishment,  amaze- 
ment, marvel,  prodigy,  miracle. 
Wonderful,  wondrous,  surprising,  astonish- 
ing. 

Wonderful,  marvellous,  wondrous,  amaz- 
ing. 

Work,  employment,  business,  occupation. 
Workman,  craftsman,  artificer,  journeyman, 
operative. 

Worry,  plague,  tease,  torment. 

Wrath,  passion,  exasperation,  indignation. 
Wrathful,  angry,  infuriated,  raging. 
Wreathe,  twist,  interweave,  enfold. 

Wreck,  debris,  ruins,  rubbish. 

Writhe,  twist,  wrench,  wring,  wriggle. 
Wrong,  incorrect,  erroneous,  unsuitable. 
Wrong,  abuse,  oppress,  aggrieve. 

Wrongful,  unjust,  unfair,  dishonest. 

Wry,  twisted,  distorted. 

YEARN,  long  for,  desire,  crave. 

Yearly,  per  annum. 

Yet,  nevertheless,  notwithstanding. 

Yield,  give  in,  concede,  relinquish. 

Yoke,  couple,  connect,  associate. 

Youth,  youngster,  boy,  lad. 

ZEAL,  ardor,  fervor,  warmth,  energy. 
Zealot,  fanatic,  visionaryc 
Zenith,  height,  summit. 

Zest,  relish,  flavor,  gusto,  gust,  pleasure* 
enjoyment. 


WILLIAM  PITT,  EARL  OF  CHATHAM. 

Born  at  Bocounoc,  Cornwall,  Eng.,  Nov.  15,  1708.  Educated  at  Eaton  and  Trinity 
College,  Oxford.  Entered  Parliament,  1735.  First  took  prominent  part  in  debates, 
I741-  Returned  to  the  next  Parliament.  Appointed  one  of  the  joint  Vice-Treasurers 
for  Ireland,  Feb.  22,  1746  ; Paymaster-General,  May  6,  and  Secretary  of  State,  Dec., 
1756.  Resigned  in  following  April,  but  recalled  by  the  King,  June  11,  and  became 
Premier.  Resigned  Oct.  1761,  receiving  a pension  for  the  lives  of  himself,  wife  and  son. 
Attempts  were  made  in  1763,  1765,  1766,  to  bring  him  into  the  cabinet  again,  and  in  Aug. 
1766,  he  consented  to  form  a new  Ministry.  His  memory  is  precious  to  Americans, 
because  of  his  declaration  in  1766,  that  the  Kingdom  had  no  right  to  levy  a tax  upon  the 
Colonies,  and  his  steadfast  opposition  *o  all  measures  repressive  to  the  Colonists.  Died 
May  11,  i’7-7§. 


Literary  Department. 

CONTAINING 

Selections  prom  the  Best  Authors, 


RHETORICAL,  DRAMATIC  AND  CLASSIC 


Literary  Department. 


/ 

SPEECHES  AND  RHETORICAL  SELECTIONS  FROM  CELEBRATED 
ORATORS  AND  AMERICAN  PATRIOTS. 


THE  TRUE  GRANDEUR  OF  NATIONS— BY  CHARLES  SUMNER. 

Boston , July  4,  1845. 

N our  age  there  can  be  no  peace  that  is  not  honorable  ; there  can  be  no  war 
that  is  not  dishonorable.  The  true  honor  of  a nation  is  to  be  found  only 
in  deeds  of  justice,  and  in  the  happinesss  of  its  people,  all  of  which  are 
inconsistent  with  war.  In  the  clear  eye  of  Christian  judgment  vain  are 
its  victories  ; infamous  are  its  spoils.  He  is  the  true  benefactor  and  alone 
worthy  of  honor  who  brings  comfort  where  before  was  wretchedness;  who  dries 
the  tear  of  sorrow ; who  pours  oil  into  the  wounds  of  the  unfortunate  ; who  feeds 
the  hungry  and  clothes  the  naked ; who  unlooses  the  fetters  of  the  slave  ; who  does 
justice  ; who  enlightens  the  ignorant ; who  enlivens  and  exhalts,  by  his  virtuous  genius 
in  art,  in  literature,  in  science,  the  hours  of  life  ; who,  by  words  or  actions,  inspires  a love 
for  God  and  for  man.  This  is  the  Christian  hero  ; this  is  the  man  of  honor  in  a Chris- 
tian land.  He  is  no  benefactor,  nor  deserving  of  honor,  whatever  may  be  his  worldly  re- 
nown, whose  life  is  passed  in  acts  of  force ; who  renounces  the  great  law  of  Christian 
brotherhood  ; whose  vocation  is  blood  ; whotriumps  in  battle  over  his  fellow-men.  Well 
may  old  Sir  Thomas  Browne  exclaim,  “ the  world  does  not  know  its  greatest  men  ; ” for 
thus  far  it  has  chiefly  discerned  the  violent  brood  of  battle,  the  armed  men  springing  up 
from  the  dragons  teeth  sown  by  Hate,  and  cared  little  for  the  truly  good  men,  children 
of  love,  Cromwells  guiltless  of  their  country’s  blood,  whose  steps  on  earth  have  been  as 
noiseless  as  an  angel’s  wing. 

It  is  not  to  be  disguised  that  these  views  differ  from  the  generally  received  opinions 
of  the  world  down  to  this  day.  The  voice  of  man  has  been  given  to  the  praise  of  military 
chieftains,  and  the  honors  of  victory  have  been  chanted  even  by  the  lips  of  woman.  The 
mother,  while  rocking  her  infant  on  her  knees,  has  stamped  on  his  tender  mind,  at  that 
age  more  impresible  than  wax,  the  images  of  war  ; she  has  nursed  his  slumbers  with  its 
melodies ; she  has  pleased  his  waking  hours  with  its  stories,  and  selected  for  his  play- 


726 


SPEECHES  AND  RHETORICAL  SELECTIONS. 


things  the  plume  and  the  sword.  As  the  boy  advances  to  youth  he  is  fed,  like  Achilles, 
not  only  on  honey  and  milk,  but  on  bear’s  flesh  and  lion’s  marrow. 

And  when  the  youth  becomes  a man,  his  country  invites  his  services  in  war,  and 
holds  before  his  bewildered  imagination  the  highest  prizes  of  honor.  For  him  is 
the  pen  of  the  historian  and  the  verse  of  the  poet.  His  soul  swells  at  the  thought  that  he 
also  is  a soldier  ; that  his  name  shall  be  entered  on  the  list  of  those  who  have  borne  arms 
in  the  cause  of  their  country. 

It  is  not  strange  then  that  the  spirit  of  war  still  finds  a home  among  us  ; nor  that  its 
honors  are  still  regarded.  This  fact  may  seem  to  give  point  to  the  bitter  philosophy  of 
Hobbes,  who  held  that  the  natural  state  of  mankind  was  war,  and  to  sustain  the  exulting 
language  of  the  soldier  in  our  day,  who  has  said  : “ War  is  the  condition  of  this  world- 

From  man  to  the  smallest  insect,  all  are  at  strife  ; and  the  glory  of  arms,  which  cannot 
be  obtained  without  the  exercise  of  honor,  fortitude,  courage,  obedience,  modesty  and 
temperance,  excites  the  brave  man’s  patriotism,  and  is  a chastening  correction  of  the 
rich  man’s  pride.” 

Who  has  told  you,  fond  man  ! to  regard  that  as  a glory  when  performed  by  a nation, 
which  is  condemned  as  a crime  and  a barbarism,  when  committed  by  an  individual  ? We 
are  struck  with  horror,  and  our  hair  stands  on  end,  at  the  report  of  a single  murder  ; we 
think  of  the  soul  that  has  been  hurried  to  its  final  account ; we  seek  the  murderer  ; and 
the  law  puts  forth  all  its  energies  to  secure  his  punishment.  Viewed  in  the  clear  light  of 
truth,  what  are  war  and  battle  but  organized  murder ; murder  of  malice  aforethought ; in 
cold  blood:  through  the  operation  of  an  extensive  machinery  of  crime;  with  innumerable 
hands  ; at  incalculable  cost  of  money  ; through  subtle  contrivances  of  cunning  and  skill ; 
or  by  the  savage  brutal  assult  ? Was  not  the  Scythian  right,  when  he  said  to  Alex- 
ander, “ Thou  boastest,  that  the  only  design  of  thy  marches  is  to  extirpate  robbers  ; thou 
thyself  art  the  greatest  robber  in  the  world.”  The  various  modes  which  have  been  pro- 
posed for  the  determination  of  disputes  between  nations  are  Negotiation,  Arbitration* 
Meditation  and  a Congress  of  Nations,  all  of  them  practicable  and  calculated  to  secure 
peaceful  justice.  Let  it  be  said,  then,  that  war  is  a necessity,  and  may  our  country  aim 
at  the  true  glory  of  taking  the  lead  in  the  recognition  of  these  as  the  only  proper  modes  of 
determining  justice  between  nations.  Such  a glory,  unlike  the  earthly  fame  of  battles* 
shall  be  immortal  as  the  stars,  dropping  perpetual  light  upon  the  souls  of  men. 

EDWARD  EVERETT  ON  THE  CHARACTER  OF  LA  FAYETTE. 

ERE  have  been  those  who  have  denied  to  La  Fayette  the  name  of  a 
great  man.  What  is  greatness  ? Does  goodness  belong  to  greatness, 
and  make  an  essential  part  of  it  ? Is  there  yet  enough  of  virtue  left  in 
the  world  to  echo  the  sentiment  that 

“ ’Tis  phrase  absurd  to  call  a villain  great  ? ” 

If  there  is,  who,  I would  ask,  of  all  the  prominent  names  in  history  has  run  through 
such  a career  with  so  little  reproach,  justly  or  unjustly  bestowed  ? Are  military  courage 
and  conduct  the  measure  of  greatness  ? La  Fayette  was  intrusted  by  Washington  with 
all  kinds  of  service — the  laborious  and  complicated,  which  required  skill  and  patience ; 


SPEECHES  AND  RHETORICAL  SELECTIONS. 


727 


the  perilous,  that  demanded  nerve — and  we  see  him  keeping  up  a pursuit,  effecting  a 
retreat,  out-manoeuvring  a wary  adversary  with  a superior  force,  harmonizing  the  action 
of  French  regular  troops  and  American  militia,  commanding  an  assault  at  the  point  of 
tne  bayonet ; and  all  with  entire  success  and  brilliant  reputation.  Is  the  readiness  to 
meet  vast  responsibility  a proof  of  greatness  ? The  Memoirs  of  Mr.  Jefferson  show  us 
that  there  was  a moment  in  1789  when  La  Fayette  took  upon  himself,  as  the  head  of 
the  military  force,  the  entire  responsibility  of  laying  down  the  basis  of  the  revolution. 
Is  the  cool  and  brave  administration  of  gigantic  power  a mark  of  greatness  ? In  all  the 
whirlwind  of  the  revolution,  and  when,  as  commander-in-chief  of  the  National  Guard,  an 
organized  force  of  three  millions  of  men,  who,  for  any  popular  purpose,  needed  but  a 
word,  a look,  to  put  them  in  motion— and  he  their  idol — we  behold  him  ever  calm,  col- 
lected, disinterested,  as  free  from  affectation  as  selfishness,  clothed  not  less  with  humility 
than  with  power.  Is  the  fortitude  required  to  resist  the  multitude  pressing  onward 
their  leader  to  glorious  crime  a part  of  greatness  ? Behold  him  the  fugitive  and  the 
victim,  when  he  might  have  been  the  chief  of  the  revolution.  Is  the  solitary  and 
unaided  opposition  of  a good  citizen  to  the  pretensions  of  an  absolute  ruler,  whose  power 
was  as  boundless  as  his  ambition,  an  effort  of  greatness  ? Read  the  letter  of  La  Fayette 
to  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  refusing  to  vote  for  him  as  consul  for  life.  Is  the  voluntary 
return  in  advancing  years  to  the  direction  of  affairs  at  a moment  like  that,  when,  in 
1815,  the  ponderous  machinery  of  the  French  empire  was  flying  asunder — stunning, 
rending,  crushing  thousands  on  every  side — a mark  of  greatness  ? Contemplate  La 
Fayette  at  the  tribune,  in  Paris,  when  allied  Europe  was  thundering  at  its  gates,  when 
Napoleon  yet  stood  in  his  desperation  and  at  bay.  Are  dignity,  propriety,  cheerfulness, 
unerring  discretion  in  new  and  conspicuous  stations  of  extraordinary  delicacy,  a sign  of 
greatness?  Watch  his  progress  in  this  country  in  1824  and  1825  ; hear  him  say  the 
right  word  at  the  right  time  in  a series  of  interviews,  public  and  private,  crowding  on 
each  other  every  day  for  a twelvemonth,  throughout  the  Union,  with  every  description 
of  persons,  without  ever  wounding  for  a moment  the  self-love  of  others,  or  forgetting 
the  dignity  of  his  own  position.  Lastly,  is  it  any  proof  of  greatness  to  be  able,  at  the 
age  of  seventy-three,  to  take  the  lead  in  a successful  and  bloodless  revolution — to  change 
the  dynasty — to  organize,  exercise  and  abdicate  a military  command  of  three  and  a half 
millions  of  men — to  take  up,  to  perform  and  lay  down  the  most  momentous,  delicate  and 
perilous  duties  without  passion,  without  hurry,  without  selfishness  ? Is  it  great  to  dis- 
regard the  bribes  of  title,  office,  money — to  live,  to  labor  and  suffer  for  great  public 
ends  alone — to  adhere  to  principle  under  all  circumstances — to  stand  before  Europe  and 
America  conspicuous  for  sixty  years,  in  the  most  responsible  stations,  the  acknowledged 
admiration  of  all  good  men  ? 

There  is  not  throughout  the  world  a friend  of  liberty  who  has  not  dropped  his 
head  when  he  has  heard  that  La  Fayette  is  no  more.  Poland,  Italy,  Greece,  Spain, 
Ireland,  the  South  American  republics — every  country  where  man  is  struggling  to 
recover  his  birthright — has  lost  a benefactor — a patron — in  La  Fayette.  But  you,  young 
men,  at  whose  command  I speak,  for  you  a bright  and  particular  loadstar  is  hencefor- 
ward fixed  in  the  front  of  heaven.  What  young  man  that  reflects  on  the  history  of 
La  Fayette — that  sees  him  in  the  morning  of  his  days  the  associate  of  sages,  the  friend 
of  Washington — but  will  start  with  new  vigor  on  the  path  of  duty  and  renown  ? 


728 


SPEECHES  AND  RHETORICAL  SELECTIONS. 


BRUTUS  TO  THE  EOMAUS. 


Shakespeare. 

E patient  till  the  last.  Romans,  countrymen,  and  lovers  ! hear  me  for  my 
cause  ; and  be  silent,  that  you  may  hear  ; believe  me  for  mine  honor,  and 
have  respect  to  mine  honor,  that  you  may  believe  ; censure  me  in  your 
wisdom,  and  awake  your  senses,  that  you  may  the  better  judge.  If  there 
be  any  in  this  assembly,  any  dear  friend  of  Caesar’s,  to  him  I say  that 
Brutus’  love  to  Caesar  was  no  less  than  his.  If  then  that  friend  demand  why  Brutus 
rose  against  Caesar,  this  is  my  answer, — Not  that  I loved  Caesar  less,  but  that  I loved 
Rome  more.  Had  you  rather  Caesar  were  living,  and  die  all  slaves  , than  that  Caesar 
were  dead,  to  live  all  free  men  ? As  Caesar  loved  me,  I weep  for  him  ; as  he  was  fortu- 
nate, I rejoice  at  it ; as  he  was  valiant,  I honor  him  ; but  as  he  was  ambitious,  I slew 
him.  There  is  tears,  for  his  love  ; joy,  for  his  fortune  ; honor,  for  his  valor  ; and  death, 
for  his  ambition.  Who  is  here  so  base  that  would  be  a bondman  ? If  any,  speak  ; for 
him  have  I offended.  Who  is  here  so  rude,  that  would  not  be  a Roman  ? If  any,  speak  ; 
for  him  have  I offended.  Who  is  here  so  vile  that  will  not  love  his  country  ? If  any, 
speak  ; for  him  have  I offended.  I pause  for  a reply.  * * * Then  none 

have  I offended.  I have  done  no  more  to  Caesar  than  you  shall  do  to  Brutus.  The 
question  of  his  death  is  enrolled  in  the  Capitol  ; his  glory  not  extenuated,  wherein  he 
was  worthy  ; nor  his  offences  enforced,  for  which  he  suffered  death.  * * * 

Here  comes  his  body,  mourned  by  Mark  Antony  ; who,  though  he  had  no  hand 
in  his  death,  shall  receive  the  benefit  of  his  dying,  a place  in  the  commonwealth  ; as 
which  of  you  shall  not  ? With  this  I depart ; that,  as  I slew  my  best  lover  for  the 
good  of  Rome,  I have  the  same  dagger  for  myself,  when  it  shall  please  my  country  to 
need  my  death. 

FAREWELL  TO  THE  ARMY— GEORGE  WASHINGTON. 


Princeton , November  2,  1783. 

E United  States  in  Congress  assembled,  after  giving  the  most  honorable 
testimony  to  the  merits  of  the  federal  armies,  and  presenting  them  with 
the  thanks  of  their  country  for  their  long,  eminent  and  faithful  services, 
having  thought  proper  by  their  proclamation  bearing  date  the  18th  of 
October  last,  to  discharge  such  part  of  the  troops  as  were  engaged  for 
the  war,  and  to  permit  the  officers  on  furlough  to  retire  from  service,  from  and  after  to- 
morrow ; which  proclamation  having  been  communicated  in  the  public  papers  for  the 
information  and  government  of  all  concerned,  it  only  remains  for  the  Commander- 
in-Chief  to  address  himself  once  more,  and  that  for  the  last  time,  to  the  armies  of 
the  United  States  (however  widely  dispersed  the  individuals  who  composed  them  may 
be),  and  to  bid  them  an  affectionate,  a long  farewell. 

But  before  the  Commander-in-Chief  takes  his  final  leave  of  those  he  holds  most 
dear,  he  wishes  to  indulge  himself  a few  moments  in  calling  to  mind  a slight  review  of 
the  past.  He  will  then  take  the  liberty  of  exploring  with  his  military  friends  their  future 
prospects,  of  advising  the  general  line  of  conduct  which,  in  his  opinion,  ought  to  be  pur- 
sued ; and  he  will  conclude  the  address  by  expressing  the  obligations  he  feels  himself 
under  for  the  spirited  and  able  assistance  he  has  experienced  from  them,  in  the  perform- 
ance of  an  arduous  office. 


SPEECHES  AND  RHETORICAL  SELECTIONS. 


729 


A contemplation  of  the  complete  attainment  (at  a period  earlier  than  could  have 
been  expected)  of  the  object,  for  which  we  contended  against  so  formidable  a power,  can- 
not but  inspire  us  with  astonishment  and  gratitude.  The  disadvantageous  circumstances 
on  our  part,  under  which  the  war  was  undertaken,  can  never  be  forgotten.  The  singular 
interposition  of  Providence  in  our  feeble  condition  were  such  as  could  scarcely  escape 
the  attention  of  the  most  unobserving  ; while  the  unparalleled  perseverance  of  the 
•armies  of  the  United  States,  through  almost  every  possible  suffering  and  discouragement 
or  the  space  of  eight  long  years,  was  little  short  of  a standing  miracle. 

It  is  not  the  meaning  nor  within  the  compass  of  this  address  to  detail  the  hardships 
peculiarly  incident  to  our  service,  or  to  describe  the  distresses,  which  in  several  instances 
have  resulted  from  the  extremes  of  hunger  and  nakedness,  combined  with  the  rigors  of 
an  inclement  season  ; nor  is  it  necessary  to  dwell  on  the  dark  side  of  our  past  affairs. 
Every  American  officer  and  soldier  must  now  console  himself  for  any  unpleasant  cir- 
cumstances which  may  have  occurred  by  a recollection  of  the  uncommon  scenes  of  which 
he  has  been  called  to  act  no  inglorious  part,  and  the  astonishing  events  of  which  he  has 
been  a witness  ; events,  which  have  seldom,  if  ever  before,  taken  place  on  the  stage  of 
human  action  ; nor  can  they  probably  ever  happen  again.  For  who  has  before  seen  a 
disciplined  army  formed  at  once  from  such  raw  materials  ? Who  that  was  not  a witness 
could  imagine  that  the  most  violent  local  prejudices  would  cease  so  soon,  and  that  men, 
who  came  from  the  different  parts  of  the  continent,  strongly  disposed  by  the  habits  of 
education  to  despise  and  quarrel  with  t^ach  other,  would  instantly  become  but  one  patri- 
otic band  of  brothers  ? Or  who  that  was  not  on  the  spot  can  trace  the  steps  by  which 
such  a wonderful  revolution  has  been  effected,  and  such  a glorious  period  put  to  all  our 
warlike  toils  ? 

It  is  universally  acknowledged  that  the  enlarged  prospects  of  happiness,  opened  by 
the  confirmation  of  our  independence  and  sovereignty,  almost  exceed  the  power  of  de- 
scription. And  shall  not  the  brave  men,  who  have  contributed  so  essentially  to  these 
inestimable  acquisitions,  retiring  victorious  from  the  field  of  war  to  the  field  of  agricul- 
ture, participate  in  all  the  blessings  which  have  been  obtained  ? * * * * 

The  Commander-in-Chief  conceives  little  is  now  wanting,  to  enable  the  soldiers  to 
change  the  military  character  into  that  of  the  citizen,  but  that  steady  and  decent  tenor 
of  behavior,  which  has  generally  distinguished,  not  only  the  army  under  his  immediate 
command,  but  the  different  detachments  and  separate  armies  through  the  course  of  the 
war.  From  their  good  sense  and  prudence  he  anticipates  the  happiest  consequences  ; 
and,  while  he  congratulates  them  on  the  glorious  occasion,  which  renders  their  services 
in  the  field  no  longer  necessary,  he  wishes  to  express  the  strong  obligations  he  feels  him- 
self under  for  the  assistance  he  has  received  from  every  class  and  in  every  instance.  He 
presents  his  thanks  in  the  most  serious  and  affectionate  manner  to  the  general  officers, 
as  well  for  their  counsel  on  many  interesting  occasions,  as  for  their  ardor  in  promoting 
the  success  of  the  plans  he  had  adopted ; to  the  commandants  of  regiments  and  corps, 
and  to  the  other  officers,  for  their  great  zeal  and  attention  in  carrying  his  orders  promptly 
into  execution  ; to  the  staff,  for  their  alacrity  and  exactness  in  performing  the  duties  of 
their  several  departments ; and  to  the  non-commissioned  officers  and  private  soldiers, 
for  their  extraordinary  patience  and  suffering,  as  well  as  their  invincible  fortitude  in 


730 


SPEECHES  AND  kHEtOKicAL  SELECTIONS. 


action.  To  the  various  branches  of  the  army,  the  General  takes  this  last  and  solemn 
opportunity  of  professing  his  inviolable  attachment  and  friendship.  He  wishes  more 
than  bare  professions  were  in  his  power ; that  he  were  really  able  to  be  useful  to  them  all 
in  future  life.  He  flatters  himself,  however,  they  will  do  him  the  justice  to  believe,  that 
whatever  could  with  propriety  be  attempted  by  him  has  been  done. 

And  being  now  to  conclude  these  his  last  public  orders,  to  take  his  ultimate  leave  in 
a short  time  of  the  military  character,  and  to  bid  a final  adieu  to  the  armies  he  has  so 
long  had  the  honor  to  command,  he  can  only  again  offer  in  their  behalf  his  recommen- 
dations to  their  grateful  country,  and  his  prayers  to  the  God  of  armies.  May  ample  jus- 
tice be  done  them  here,  and  may  the  choicest  of  Heaven’s  favors,  both  here  and  hereaf- 
ter, attend  those,  who,  under  the  Divine  auspices,  have  secured  innumerable  blessings 
for  others.  With  these  wishes  and  his  benediction,  the  Commander-in-Chief  is  about  to 
retire  from  service.  The  curtain  of  separation  will  soon  be  drawn,  and  the  military  scene 
to  him  will  be  closed  forever. 

RESIGNATION  OF  COMMISSION— GEORGE  WASHINGTON. 

New  York , December  23,  1783. 

R.  President  : The  great  events  on  which  my  resignation  depended, 

having  at  length  taken  place,  I have  now  the  honor  of  offering  my  sincere 
congratulations  to  Congress,  and  of  presenting  myself  before  them  to  sur- 
render into  their  hands  the  trust  committed  to  me,  and  to  claim  the  in- 
dulgence of  retiring  from  the  service  of  my  country. 

Happy  in  the  confirmation  of  our  independence  and  sovereignty,  and  pleased  with 
the  opportunity  afforded  the  United  States  of  becoming  a respectable  nation,  I resign, 
with  satisfaction,  the  appointment  I accepted  with  diffidence  ; a diffidence  in  my  abili- 
ties to  accomplish  so  arduous  a task,  which,  however,  was  superseded  by  a confidence  in 
the  rectitude  of  our  cause,  the  support  of  the  Supreme  Power  of  the  union,  and  the 
patronage  of  Heaven. 

The  successful  termination  of  the  war  has  verified  the  most  sanguine  expectations  , 
and  my  gratitude  for  the  interposition  of  Providence,  and  the  assistance  I have  received 
from  my  countrymen,  increases  with  every  review  of  the  momentous  contest. 

While  I repeat  my  obligations  to  the  army  in  general,  I should  do  injustice  to  my 
own  feelings,  not  to  acknowledge,  in  this  place,  the  peculiar  services  and  distinguished 
merits  of  the  persons  who  have  been  attached  to  my  person  during  the  war.  It  was  im- 
possible the  choice  of  confidential  officers  to  compose  my  family  could  have  been  more 
fortunate.  Permit  me,  sir,  to  recommend  in  particular  those  who  have  continued  in  the 
service  to  the  present  moment  as  worthy  of  the  favorable  notice  and  patronage  of  Con- 
gress. 

I consider  it  as  an  indispensable  duty  to  close  this  last  solemn  act  of  my  official  life, 
by  commending  the  interests  of  our  dearest  country  to  the  protection  of  Almighty  God, 
and  those  who  have  the  superintendence  of  them  to  his  holy  keeping. 

Having  now  finished  the  work  assigned  me,  I retire  from  the  great  theatre  of  action  ; 
and,  bidding  an  affectionate  farewell  to  this  august  body,  under  whose  orders  I have  long 
acted,  I here  offer  my  commission,  and  take  my  leave  of  all  the  employments  of  public 
life. 


SPEECHES  AND  RHETORICAL  SELECTIONS. 


731 


DANIEL  WEBSTER’S  REPLY  TO  HAYNE. 

The  Senate , January  2 6,  1830. 

R.  President  : When  the  mariner  has  been  tossed,  for  many  days,  in 

thick  weather,  and  on  an  unknown  sea,  he  naturally  avails  himself  of  the 
first  pause  in  the  storm,  the  earliest  glance  of  the  sun,  to  take  his  lati- 
tude and  ascertain  how  far  the  elements  have  driven  him  from  his  true 
course.  Let  us  imitate  this  prudence,  and  before  we  float  farther  refer 
to  the  point  from  which  we  departed,  that  we  may  at  least  be  able  to  conjecture  where  we 
now  are.  Mr.  President,  in  carrying  his  warfare,  such  as  it  was,  into  New  England,  the 
honorable  gentleman  all  along  professes  to  be  acting  on  the  defensive.  He  desires  to 
consider  me  as  having  assailed  South  Carolina,  and  insists  that  he  comes  forth  only  as 
her  champion  and  in  her  defence.  Sir,  I do  not  admit  that  I made  any  attack  whatever 
on  South  Carolina.  Nothing  like  it.  The  honorable  member,  in  his  first  speech,  ex- 
pressed opinions  in  regard  to  revenue  and  some  other  topics,  which  I heard  both  with 
pain  and  surprise.  I told  the  gentleman  that  I was  aware  that  such  sentiments  were  en- 
tertained out  of  the  government,  but  had  not  expected  to  find  them  advanced  in  it ; that 
I knew  there  were  persons  in  the  South  who  speak  of  our  Union  with  indifference,  or 
doubt,  taking  pains  to  magnify  its  evils  and  to  say  nothing  of  its  benefits ; that  the 
honorable  member  himself,  I was  sure,  could  never  be  one  of  these ; and  I regretted 
the  expression  of  such  opinions  as  he  had  avowed,  because  I thought  their  obvious  ten- 
dency was  to  encourage  feelings  of  disrespect  to  the  Union  and  to  weaken  its  connec- 
tion. 

I understand  the  honorable  gentleman  from  South  Carolina  to  maintain  that  it  is  a 
right  of  the  State  legislatures  to  interfere  whenever,  in  their  judgment,  this  government 
transcends  its  constitutional  limits,  and  to  arrest  the  operation  of  its  laws. 

I understand  him  to  maintain  this  right  as  a right  existing  under  the  constitution, 
not  as  a right  to  overthrow  it,  on  the  ground  of  extreme  necessity,  such  as  would  justify 
violent  revolution. 

I understand  him  to  maintain  an  authority,  on  the  part  of  the  States,  thus  to  inter- 
fere, tor  the  purpose  of  correcting  the  exercise  of  power  by  the  general  government,  of 
checking  it,  and  of  compelling  it  to  conform  to  their  opinion  of  the  extent  of  its  power. 

I understand  him  to  maintain  that  the  ultimate  power  of  judging  of  the  constitu- 
tional extent  of  its  own  authority  is  not  lodged  exclusively  in  the  general  government 
or  any  branch  of  it ; but  that,  on  the  contrary,  the  States  may  lawfully  decide  for  them- 
selves, and  each  State  for  itself,  whether,  in  a given  case,  the  act  of  the  general  govern- 
ment transcends  its  power. 

I understand  him  to  insist  that,  if  the  exigency  of  the  case,  in  the  opinion  of  any 
State  government,  require  it,  such  State  government  may,  by  its  own  sovereign  author- 
ity, annul  an  act  of  the  general  government  which  it  deems  plainly  and  palpably  uncon- 
stitutional. 

This  is  the  sum  of  what  I understand  from  him  to  be  the  South  Carolina  doctrine. 
a propose  to  consider  it  and  to  compare  it  with  the  constitution.  Allow  me  to  say,  as  a 
preliminary  remark,  that  I call  this  the  South  Carolina  doctrine,  only  because  the  gentle- 


732 


SPEECHES  AND  RHETORICAL  SELECTIONS. 


man  himself  has  so  denominated  it.  I do  not  feel  at  liberty  to  say  that  South  Carolina, 
as  a State,  has  ever  advanced  these  sentiments.  I hope  she  has  not,  and  never  may. 
That  a great  majority  of  her  people  are  opposed  to  the  tariff  laws  is  doubtless  true.  That 
a majority,  somewhat  less  than  that  just  mentioned,  conscientiously  believe  these  laws 
unconstitutional,  may  probably  also  be  true.  But  that  any  majority  holds  to  the  right 
of  direct  State  interference,  at  State  discretion,  the  right  of  nullifying  acts  of  Congress 
by  acts  of  State  legislation,  is  more  than  I know,  and  what  I shall  be  slow  to  believe. 

So,  sir,  I understand  the  gentleman,  and  am  happy  to  find  that  I did  not  misunder- 
stand him.  What  he  contends  for  is,  that  it  is  constitutional  to  interrupt  the  administra- 
tion of  the  Constitution  itself,  in  the  hands  of  those  who  are  chosen  and  sworn  to 
administer  it,  by  the  direct  interference,  in  form  of  law,  of  the  States,  in  virtue  of  their 
sovereign  capacity.  The  inherent  right  in  the  people  to  reform  their  government  I do 
not  deny  ; and  they  have  another  right,  and  that  is,  to  resist  unconstitutional  laws  with- 
out overturning  the  government.  It  is  no  doctrine  of  mine,  that  unconstitutional  laws 
bind  the  people.  The  great  question  is,  whose  prerogative  is  it  to  decide  on  the  consti- 
tutionality or  unconstitutionality  of  the  laws  ? On  that  the  main  debate  hinges.  I say 
the  right  of  a State  to  annul  a law  of  Congress  cannot  be  maintained  but  on  the  ground 
of  the  unalienable  right  of  man  to  resist  oppression  ; that  is  to  say,  upon  the  ground  of 
revolution.  I admit  that  there  is  an  ultimate  violent  remedy,  above  the  Constitution, 
and  in  defiance  of  the  Constitution,  which  may  be  resorted  to,  when  a revolution  is  to  be 
justified.  But  I do  not  admit  that,  under  the  Constitution,  and  in  conformity  with  it, 
there  is  any  mode  in  which  a State  government,  as  a member  of  the  Union,  can  interfere 
and  stop  the  progress  of  the  general  government,  by  force  of  her  own  laws,  under  any 
circumstances  whatever. 

I profess,  sir,  in  my  career  hitherto,  to  have  kept  steadily  in  view  the  prosperity  and 
honor  of  the  whole  country,  and  the  preservation  of  our  Federal  Union.  It  is  to  that 
Union  we  owe  our  safety  at  home  and  our  consideration  and  dignity  abroad.  It  is  to  that 
Union  that  we  are  chiefly  indebted  for  whatever  makes  us  most  proud  of  our  country. 
While  the  Union  lasts,  we  have  high,  exciting,  gratifying  prospects  spread  out  before  us, 
for  us  and  our  children.  Beyond  that  I seek  not  to  penetrate  the  veil.  God  grant  that, 
in  my  day  at  least,  that  curtain  may  not  rise.  God  grant  that  on  my  vision  never  may 
be  opened  what  lies  behind.  When  my  eyes  shall  be  turned  to  behold,  for  the  last 
time,  the  sun  in  heaven,  may  I not  see  him  shining  on  the  broken  and  dishonored  frag- 
ments of  a once  glorious  Union  ; on  States  dissevered,  discordant,  belligerent ; on  a land 
rent  with  civil  feuds,  or  drenched,  it  may  be,  in  fraternal  blood  ! Let  their  last  feeble 
and  lingering  glance,  rather,  behold  the  gorgeous  ensign  of  the  republic,  now  known  and 
honored  throughout  the  earth,  still  full  high  advanced,  its  arms  and  trophies  streaming  in 
their  original  lustre,  not  a stripe  erased  or  polluted,  not  a single  star  obscured — bearing 
for  its  motto  no  such  miserable  interrogatory  as,  What  is  all  this  worth  ? nor  those  other 
words  of  delusion  and  folly,  Liberty  first,  and  Union  afterwards  ; but  everywhere,  spread 
all  over  in  characters  of  living  light,  blazing  on  all  its  ample  folds,  as  they  float  over  the 
sea  and  over  the  land,  and  in  every  wind  under  the  whole  heavens,  that  other  sentiment, 
dear  to  every  true  American  heart — Liberty  and  Union,  now  and  forever,  one  and  in- 
separable ! 


SPEECHES  AND  RHETORICAL  SELECTIONS. 


733 


EULOGY  ON  WEBSTER  —BY  RUFUS  CHOATE. 

Dartmouth  College , July , 27,  1853. 

T would  be  a strange  neglect  of  a beautiful  and  approved  custom  oi  the 
schools  of  learning,  and  of  one  of  the  most  pious  and  appropriate 
of  the  offices  of  literature,  if  the  college  in  which  the  intellectual  life 
of  Daniel  Webster  began,  and  to  which  his  name  imparts  charm  and 
illustration,  should  give  no  formal  expression  to  her  grief  in  the  common 
sorrow  : if  she  should  not  draw  near,  of  the  most  sad,  in  the  procession  of  the  bereaved 
to  the  tomb  at  the  sea,  nor  find  in  all  her  classic  shades,  one  affectionate  and  grateful  leaf 
to  set  in  the  garland  with  which  they  have  bound  the  brow  of  her  child,  the  mightiest  de- 
parted. Others  mourn  and  praise  him  by  his  more  distant  and  more  general  titles  to 
fame  and  remembrance  ; his  supremacy  of  intellect,  his  statesmanship  of  so  many  years, 
his  eloquence  of  reason  and  of  the  heart,  his  love  of  country  incorruptible,  conscientious, 
and  ruling  every  hour  and  act ; that  greatness  combined  of  genius,  of  character,  of  man- 
ner, of  place,  of  achievement,  which  was  just  now  among  us,  and  is  not,  and  yet  lives  still 
and  forever  more.  You  come,  his  cherished  mother,  to  own  a closer  tie,  to  indulge  an 
emotion  more  personal  and  more  fond — grief  and  exultation  contending  for  mastery,  as 
in  the  bosom  of  the  desolated  parent,  whose  tears  could  not  hinder  him  from  exclaiming, 
“ I would  not  exchange  my  dead  son  for  any  living  one  of  Christendom.” 

Many  places  in  our  American  world  have  spoken  his  eulogy.  To  all  places  the  ser- 
vice was  befitting,  for  his  renown,  is  it  not  of  the  treasures  of  the  whole  country  ? To 
some  it  belonged  with  a strong  local  propriety  to  discharge  it.  In  the  halls  of  Congress 
where  the  majestic  form  seems  ever  to  stand  and  the  tones  to  linger,  the  decorated  scene 
of  his  larger  labors  and  most  diffusive  glory  ; in  the  courts  of  law,  to  whose  gladsome 
light  he  loved  to  return — putting  on  again  the  robes  of  that  profession,  ancient  as 
magistracy,  noble  as  virtue,  necessary  as  justice,  in  which  he  found  the  beginning  of  his 
honors  ; and  in  Faneuil  Hall,  whose  air  breathes  and  burns  of  him  ; in  the  commercial 
cities,  to  whose  pursuits  his  displomacy  secured  a peaceful  sea ; in  the  cities  of  the  in- 
land, around  which  his  capacious  public  affections,  and  wise  discernment,  aimed  ever  to 
develop  the  uncounted  resources  of  that  other,  and  that  larger,  and  that  newer  America  ; 
in  the  pulpit,  whose  place  among  the  higher  influences  which  exalt  a state,  our  guide  in 
life,  our  consolation  in  death,  he  appreciated  profoundly,  and  vindicated  by  weightiest  ar- 
gument and  testimony,  of  whose  offices  it  is  among  the  fittest,  to  mark  and  point  the 
moral  of  the  great  things  of  the  world,  the  excellency  of  dignity,  and  the  excellency  of 
power  passing  away  as  the  pride  of  the  wave — passing  from  our  eye  to  take  on  immor- 
tality ; in  these  places,  and  such  as  these,  there  seemed  a reason  beyond,  and  other,  than 
the  universal  calamity,  for  such  honors  of  the  grave.  But  if  so,  how  fit  a place  is  this, 
for  such  a service.  We  are  among  the  scenes  where  the  youth  of  Webster  awoke  first 
and  fully  to  the  life  of  the  mind.  We  stand,  as  it  Were,  at  the  sources,  physical,  social, 
moral,  intellectual,  of  that  exceeding  greatness. 

It  was  while  Mr.  Webster  was  ascending  through  the  long  gradations  of  the  legal 
profession  to  its  highest  rank,  that  by  a parallel  series  of  display  on  a stage,  and  in  parts 
totally  distinct,  by  other  studies,  thoughts  and  actions,  he  rose  also  to  be  at  his 
death  the  first  of  American  statesmen.  The  last  of  the  mighty  rivals  was  dead  before 


734 


SPEECHES  AND  RHETORICAL  SELECTIONS. 


fiim  and  he  stood  alone.  Give  this  aspect  also  of  his  greatness  a passing  glance.  His 
public  life  began  in  May,  1813,  in  the  House  of  Representatives  in  Congress,  to  which 
this  state  had  elected  him.  It  ended  when  he  died.  If  you  except  the  interval  between 
his  removal  from  New  Hampshire  and  his  election  in  Massachusetts,  it  was  a public  life 
of  forty  years.  By  what  political  morality  and  by  what  enlarged  patriotism,  embracing 
the  whole  country,  that  life  was  guided,  I shall  consider  hereafter.  Let  me  now  fix  your 
attention  rather  on  the  magnitude  and  variety  and  actual  value  of  the  service.  Consider 
that  from  the  day  he  went  upon  the  Committee  of  Foreign  Relations,  in  1813,  in  the  time  of 
war,  and  more  and  more,  the  longer  he  lived  and  the  higher  he  rose,  he  was  a man  whose 
great  talents  and  devotion  to  public  duty  placed  and  kept  him  in  a position  of  associated 
or  sole  command ; command  in  the  political  connection  to  which  he  belonged,  command 
in  opposition,  command  in  power,  and  appreciate  the  responsibilities  which  that  implies 
what  care,  what  prudenee,  what  mastery  of  the  whole  ground — exacting  for  the  conduct 
of  a party,  as  Gibbons  says  of  Fox,  abilities  and  civil  discretion  equal  to  the  conduct  of  an 
empire.  Consider  the  work  he  did  in  that  life  of  forty  years — the  range  of  subjects  invest- 
igated and  discussed , composing  the  whole  theory  and  practice  of  our  organic  and  ad- 
ministrative politics,  foreign  and  domestic,  the  vast  body  of  instructive  thought  he  pro- 
duced and  put  in  possession  of  the  country  ; how  much  he  achieved  in  Congress  as  well 
as  at  the  bar,  to  fix  the  true  interpretation,  as  well  as  to  impress  the  transcendent  value 
of  the  constitution  itself,  as  much  altogether  as  any  jurist  or  statesman  since  its  adoption. 

But  it  is  time  that  this  eulogy  was  spoken.  My  heart  goes  back  into  the  coffin  there 
with  him  and  I would  pause.  I went — it  is  a day  or  two  since — alone,  again  to  see  the 
home,  which  he  so  dearly  loved,  the  chamber  where  he  died,  the  grave  in  which  they  laid 
him — all  habited  as  when 

“ His  look  drew  audience  still  as  night, 

Or  summer’s  noontide  air.” 

The  great  mind  still  seemed  to  preside  ; the  great  presence  to  be  with  you  ; you 
might  expect  again  to  hear  the  rich  and  playful  tones  of  the  voice  of  the  old  hospitality. 
Yet  a moment  more,  and  all  the  scene  took  on  the  aspect  of  one  great  monument,  in- 
scribed with  his  name  and  sacred  to  his  memory.  And  such  it  shall  be  in  all  the  future 
of  America.  The  sensation  of  desolateness,  and  loneliness,  and  darkness,  with  which  you 
see  it  now,  will  pass  away ; the  sharp  grief  of  love  and  friendship  will  become  soothed ; 
men  will  repair  thither  as  they  are  wont  to  commemorate  the  great  days  of  history  ; the 
same  glance  shall  take  in,  and  the  same  emotions  shall  greet  and  bless  the  Harbor  of  the 
Pilgrims  and  the  tomb  of  Webster. 

THE  CONSEQUENCES  OF  SECESSION— HENRY  CLAY. 

Senate  Chamber , February  6,  1850. 

IR  : This  union  is  threatened  with  subversion.  I want,  Mr.  President, 
to  take  a very  rapid  glance  at  the  course  of  public  measures  in  this 
Union,  presently.  I want,  however,  before  I do  that,  to  ask  the  Senate 
to  look  back  upon  the  career  which  this  country  has  run  since  the  adop- 
tion of  this  constitution  down  to  the  present  dav.  Was  there  ever  a 
nation  upon  which  the  sun  of  heaven  has  shone  that  has  exhibited  so  much  of 


SPEECHES  AND  RHETORICAL  SELECTIONS. 


735 


prosperity  ? At  the  commencement  of  this  Government  our  population  amounted  to 
about  four  millions.  Our  territory  was  limited  chiefly  and  principally  to  the  border  upon 
the  Atlantic  ocean  and  that  which  includes  the  southern  shores  of  the  interior  lakes  of 
our  country. 

Our  country  now  extends  from  the  northern  provinces  of  Great  Britain  to  the  Rio 
Grande  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  on  one  side,  and  from  the  Atlantic  ocean  to  the  Pacific 
on  the  other  side — the  largest  extent  of  territory  under  any  government  that  exists  on 
the  face  of  the  earth,  with  only  two  solitary  exceptions.  Our  tonnage,  from  being  noth- 
ing, has  risen  in  magnitude  and  amount  so  as  to  rival  that  of  the  nation  who  has  been 
proudly  characterized  “ the  mistress  of  the  ocean.”  We  have  gone  through  many  wars — 
wars,  too,  with  the  very  nation  with  whom  we  broke  off  in  1776,  as  weak  and  feeble  col- 
onies, and  asserted  our  independence  as  a member  of  the  family  ot  nations.  And,  sir, 
we  came  out  of  that  struggle,  unequal  as  it  was — armed  as  she  was  at  all  points,  in  con- 
sequence of  just  having  come  out  of  her  long  struggles  with  other  European  nations,  and 
unarmed  as  we  were  at  all  points,  in  consequence  of  the  habits  and  nature  of  our 
country. 

Sir,  our  prosperity  is  unbounded — nay,  Mr.  President,  I sometimes  fear  that  it  is  in 
the  wantonness  of  that  prosperity  that  many  of  the  threatening  ills  of  the  moment  have 
arisen.  Wild  and  erratic  schemes  have  sprung  up  throughout  the  whole  country,  some 
of  which  have  even  found  their  way  into  legislative  halls  ; and  there  is  a restlessness  ex- 
isting among  us  which  I fear  will  require  the  chastisement  of  Heaven  to  bring  us  back 
to  a sense  of  the  immeasurable  benefits  and  blessings  which  have  been  bestowed  upon 
us  by  Providence.  At  this  moment — with  the  exception  of  here  and  there  a particular 
department  in  the  manufacturing  business  of  the  country — all  is  prosperity  and  peace 
and  the  nation  is  rich  and  powerful.  Our  country  has  grown  to  a magnitude,  to  a power 
and  greatness,  such  as  to  command  the  respect,  if  it  does  not  awe  the  apprehensions,  of 
the  powers  of  the  earth,  with  whom  we  come  in  contact. 

Mr.  President,  I am  directly  opposed  to  any  purpose  of  secession  or  separation.  I am 
for  staying  within  the  Union,  and  defying  any  portion  of  this  Confederacy  to  expel  me  or 
drive  me  out  of  the  Union.  I am  for  staying  within  the  Union  and  fighting  for  my 
rights,  if  necessary,  with  the  sword,  within  the  bounds  and  under  the  safeguard  of  the 
Union.  I am  for  vindicating  those  rights,  not  by  being  driven  out  of  the  Union  harshly 
and  unceremoniously  by  any  portion  of  this  Confederacy.  Here  I am  within  it,  and  here 
I mean  to  stand  and  die,  as  far  as  my  individual  wishes  and  purposes  can  go — within  it 
to  protect  my  property  and  defend  myself,  defying  all  the  powers  on  earth  to  expel  me  or 
drive  me  from  the  situation  in  which  I am  placed.  And  would  there  not  be  more  safety 
in  fighting  within  the  Union  than  out  of  it  ? Suppose  your  rights  to  be  violated,  suppose 
wrong  to  be  done  you,  aggressions  to  be  perpetrated  upon  you,  can  you  not  better  vindi- 
cate them — if  you  have  occasion  to  resort  to  the  last  necessity,  the  sword,  for  a restora- 
tion of  those  rights — within,  and  with  the  sympathies  of  a large  portion  of  the  popula- 
tion of  the  Union,  than  by  being  without  the  Union,  when  a large  portion  of  the  pop- 
ulation have  sympathies  adverse  to  your  own?  You  can  vindicate  your  rights  within 
the  Union  better  than  if  expelled  from  the  Union,  and  driven  from  it  without  ceremony 
and  without  authority. 


736 


* SPEECHES  AND  RHETORICAL  SELECTIONS. 


Mr.  President,  I have  said  what  I solemnly  believe,  that  dissolution  of  the  Union  and 
war  are  identical  and  inevitable  ; that  they  are  convertible  terms  ; and  such  a war  as  it  would 
be  following  a dissolution  of  the  Union!  Sir,  we  may  search  the  pages  of  history,  and 
none  so  ferocious,  so  bloody,  so  implacable,  so  exterminating — not  even  the  wars  of  Greece, 
including  those  of  the  Commoners  of  England  and  the  revolutions  of  France — none, 
none  of  them  all  would  rage  with  such  violence,  or  be  characterized  with  such  bloodshed 
and  enormities  as  would  the  war  which  must  succeed,  if  that  event  ever  happens,  the  dissolu- 
tion of  the  Union.  And  what  would  be  its  termination  ? Standing  armies,  and  navies, 
to  an  extent  stretching  the  revenue  of  each  portion  of  the  dissevered  members,  would 
take  place.  An  exterminating  war  would  follow — not,  sir,  a war  of  two  or  three  years’ 
duration,  but  a war  of  interminable  duration — and  exterminating  wars  would  ensue  un- 
til, after  the  struggles  and  exhaustion  of  both  parties,  some  Philip  or  Alexander,  some 
Caesar  or  Napoleon,  would  arise  and  cut  the  Gordian  knot,  and  solve  the  problem  of  the 
capacity  of  man  for  self-government,  and  crush  the  liberties  of  both  the  severed  portions  of 
this  common  empire.  Can  you  doubt  it  ? 

Look  at  all  history — consult  her  pages,  ancient  or  modern — look  at  human  nature ; 
look  at  the  contest  in  which  you  would  be  engaged  in  the  supposition  of  war  following 
upon  the  dissolution  of  the  Union,  such  as  I have  suggested;  and  I ask  you  if  it  is  pos-( 
sible  for  you  to  doubt  that  the  final  disposition  of  the  whole  would  be  some  despot  tread- 
ing down  the  liberties  of  the  people — the  final  result  would  be  the  extinction  of  this  last 
and  glorious  light  which  is  leading  all  mankind,  who  are  gazing’  upon  it,  in  the  hope  and 
anxious  expectation  that  the  liberty  which  prevails  here  will  sooner  or  later  be  diffused 
throughout  the  whole  of  the  civilized  world.  Sir,  can  you  lightly  contem- 
plate these  consequences  ? Can  you  yield  yourself  to  the  tyranny  of  passion,  amid  the 
dangers  which  I have  depicted  in  colors  far  too  tame  of  what  the  result  would  be  if  that 
direful  event  to  which  I have  referred  should  ever  occur  ? Sir,  I implore  gentlemen,  I 
adjure  them,  whether  from  the  South  or  the  North,  by  all  that  they  hold  dear  in  this 
world — by  all  their  love  of  liberty — by  all  their  veneration  for  their  ancestors — by  all 
their  regard  for  posterity — by  all  their  gratitude  to  Him  who  has  bestowed  on  them  such 
unnumbered  and  countless  blessings — by  all  the  duties  which  they  owe  to  mankind — and 
by  all  the  duties  which  they  owe  to  themselves,  to  pause,  solemnly  to  pause  at  the  edge 
of  the  precipice,  before  the  fearful  and  dangerous  leap  is  taken  into  the  yawning  abyss 
below,  from  which  none  who  ever  take  it  shall  return  in  safety. 

Finally,  Mr.  President,  and  in  conclusion,  I implore,  as  the  best  blessing  which 
Heaven  can  bestow  upon  me,  upon  earth,  that  if  the  direful  event  of  the  dissolution  of 
this  Union  is  to  happen,  I shall  not  survive  to  behold  the  sad  and  heart-rending  spectacle. 

KOSSUTH’S  FAREWELL  TO  HIS  COUNTRY. 

[Louis  Kossuth,  ex-Governor  of  Hungary,  was  born  in  1807.  The  events  of  his  life  belong  to  history 
rather  than  literary  biography.] 

AREWELL,  my  beloved  country!  Farewell,  land  of  the  Magyar!  Fare- 
well, thou  land  of  sorrow ! I shall  never  more  behold  the  summits 
of  thy  mountains.  I shall  never  again  give  the  name  of  my  country 
to  that  cherished  soil  where  I drank  from  my  mother’s  bosom  the  milks 
of  justice  and  liberty.  Pardon,  oh  ! pardon  him  who  is  henceforth  con- 


SPEECHES  AND  RHETORICAL  SELECTIONS. 


737 


demned  to  wander  far  from  thee,  because  he  combated  for  thy  happiness.  Pardon  one 
who  can  only  call  free  that  spot  of  thy  soil  where  he  now  kneels  with  a few  of  the  faith- 
ful children  of  conquered  Hungary  ! My  last  looks  are  fixed  on  my  country,  and  I see 
thee  overwhelmed  with  anguish.  I look  into  the  future  ; but  that  future  is  overshadowed. 
Thy  plains  are  covered  with  blood,  the  redness  of  which  pitiless  destruction  will  change 
to  black,  the  emblem  of  mourning  for  the  victories  thy  sons  have  gained  over  the 
sacrilegious  enemies  of  thy  sacred  soil. 

My  country,  it  is  not  the  iron  of  the  stranger  that  hath  dug  thy  grave  ; it  is  not  the 
thunder  of  fourteen  nations,  all  arrayed  against  thee,  that  hath  destroyed  thee  ; and  it  is 
not  the  fifteenth  nation,  traversing  the  Carpathians,  that  has  caused  thee  to  drop  thy 
arms.  No  ! thou  hast  been  betrayed — thou  hast  been  sold,  my  country  ; thy  death  sen- 
tence hath  been  written,  beloved  of  my  heart,  by  him  whose  love  for  thee  I never  dared 
to  doubt.  Yes,  in  the  fervor  of  my  boldest  thoughts  I should  have  almost  as  soon 
doubted  of  the  existence  of  the  Omnipotent,  as  have  believed  that  he  could  ever  be  a 
traitor  to  his  country.  Thou  hast  been  betrayed  by  him  into  whose  hands  I had  but  a 
little  space  before  deposited  the  power  of  our  country,  which  he  swore  to  defend,  even 
to  the  last  drop  of  his  heart’s  blood.  He  hath  done  treason  to  his  mother  ; for  the  glit- 
ter of  gold  hath  been  for  him  more  seductive  than  that  of  the  blood  shed  to  save  his 
country.  Base  gain  had  more  value  in  his  eyes  than  his  country,  and  his  God  has  aban- 
doned him,  as  he  had  abandoned  his  God  for  his  allies  of  hell. 

My  principles  have  not  been  those  of  Washington  ; nor  yet  my  acts  those  of  TelL 
I desired  a free  nation,  free  as  man  cannot  be  made  but  by  God.  And  thou  art  fallen  ; 
faded  as  the  lily,  but  which  in  another  season  puts  forth  its  flower  still  more  lovely  than 
before.  Thou  art  dead  ; for  hath  not  thy  winter  come  on?  but  it  will  not  endure  so  long 
as  that  of  thy  companion  under  the  frozen  sky  of  Siberia.  No.  Fifteen  nations  have 
dug  thy  tomb.  But  the  hosts  of  the  sixteenth  will  come  to  save  thee.  Be  faithful,  as 
thou  hast  been  even  to  the  present.  Lift  up  thy  heart  in  prayer  for  the  departed  ; but 
do  not  raise  thy  own  hymn  until  thou  hearest  the  thunders  of  the  liberating  people  echo 
along  thy  mountains,  and  bellow  in  the  depth  of  thy  valleys. 

Farewell,  beloved  companions!  Farewell,  comrades,  countrymen!  May  the 
thought  of  God  and  may  the  angels  of  liberty  forever  be  with  you.  I will  proclaim  you 
to  the  civilized  world  as  heroes  ; and  the  cause  of  a heroic  people  will  be  cherished  by 
the  freest  nation  on  earth,  the  freest  of  all  free  people. 

Farewell,  thou  land  dyed  with  the  blood  of  the  brave  ! Guard  those  red  marks,  they 
will  one  day  bear  testimony  on  thy  behalf. 

And  thou,  farewell,  O youthful  monarch  of  the  Hungarians!  Forget  not  that  my 
nation  is  not  destined  for  thee.  Heaven  inspires  me  with  the  confidence  that  the  day 
will  dawn  when  it  shall  be  proved  to  thee  even  on  the  ruined  walls  of  Buda. 

May  the  Almighty  bless  thee,  my  beloved  country  ! Believe,  hope  and  love ! 

THE  REV.  NEWMAN  HALL  ON  THE  DIGNITY  OF  LABOR. 

HAT  a concurrent  testimony  is  given  by  the  entire  universe  to  the 
dignity  of  toil.  Things  inanimate  and  things  irrational  combine  with 
men  and  angels  to  proclaim  the  law  of  Him  who  made  them  all.  The 
restless  atmosphere,  the  rolling  rivers  and  the  heaving  ocean,  nature’s 
vast  laboratory  never  at  rest;  countless  agencies  in  the  heavens 


738 


SPEECHES  AND  RHETORICAL  SELECTIONS. 


tbove  and  in  the  earth  beneath,  and  in  the  waters  under  the  earth  ; the  unwearied  sun 
coming  forth  from  his  chamber,  and  rejoicing  as  a strong  man  to  run  a race  ; the  change 
ful  moon,  whose  never-slumbering  influence  the  never-resting  tides  obey ; the  planets, 
never  pausing  in  the  mighty  sweep  of  their  majestic  march  ; the  sparkling  stars,  never 
ceasing  to  show  forth  the  handiwork  of  Him  who  bade  them  shine  ; the  busy  swarms  of 
insect  life  ; the  ant  providing  her  meat  in  the  summer  and  gathering  her  food  in  the  har- 
vest ; the  birds  exuberant  in  their  flight,  pouring  forth  the  melody  of  their  song ; the 
beasts  of  the  forest  rejoicing  in  the  gladness  of  activity  ; primeval  man  amid  the  bowers 
of  Eden ; paradise  untainted  by  sin,  yet  honored  by  toil  ; fallen  man,  with  labor  still 
permitted  him,  an  alleviation  of  his  woe,  and  an  earnest  of  his  recovery  ; redeemed  man, 
divinely  instructed,  assisted,  encouraged,  honored  in  his  toil  ; the  innumerable  company 
of  angels,  never  resting  in  their  service,  never  wearied  in  their  worship ; the  glorious 
Creator  of  the  universe,  who  never  slumbereth  or  sleepeth  ; all,  all,  bear  testimony  to  the 
dignity  of  labor. 

Working  men  ! walk  worthy  of  your  vocation  ! You  have  a noble  escutcheon  ; dis- 
grace it  not  l There  is  nothing  really  mean  and  low  but  sin  ! Stoop  not  from  your 
lofty  throne  to  defile  yourselves  by  contamination  with  intemperance,  licentiousness,  or 
any  form  of  evil.  Labor  allied  with  virtue  may  look  up  to  heaven  and  not  blush,  while 
all  worldly  dignities,  prostituted  to  vice,  will  leave  their  owner  without  a corner  of  the 
universe  in  which  to  hide  his  shame.  You  will  most  successfully  prove  the  honor  of 
toil  by  illustrating  in  your  own  persons  its  alliance  with  a sober,  righteous  and  godly 
life. 

If,  while  thus  laboring  on  earth,  you  anticipate  the  rest  of  heaven,  and  can  say,  as 
did  a poor  man  once,  who,  when  pitied  on  account  of  his  humble  lot,  said,  taking  off  his 
hat,  “ Sir,  I am  the  son  of  a King,  I am  a child  of  God,  and  when  I die  angels  will  carry 
me  from  this  Union  Workhouse  direct  to  the  Court  of  Heaven.”  Oh  ! when  I have 
shown  you  such  a spectacle,  I will  ask  : “ Is  there  not  dignity  in  labor  ? ” 

BENJAMIN  DISRAELI  ON  THE  DEATH  OF  WELLINGTON. 


j]HE  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  rose,  and  while  the  House  lent  him  its 
deepest  attention,  spoke  as  follows  : 

“ The  House  of  Commons  is  called  upon  to-night  to  fulfil  a sorrowful, 
but  a noble  duty.  It  has  to  recognize,  in  the  face  of  the  country  and  of 
the  civilized  world,  the  loss  of  the  most  illustrious  of  our  citizens, 
and  to  offer  to  the  ashes  of  the  great  departed  the  solemn  anguish  of  a bereaved  nation. 
The  princely  personage  who  has  left  us  was  born  in  an  age  more  fertile  of  great 
events  than  any  period  of  recorded  time.  Of  these  vast  incidents  the  most  con- 
spicuous were  his  own  deeds,  and  these  were  performed  with  the  smallest  means, 
and  in  defiance  of  the  greatest  obstacles.  He  was,  therefore,  not  only  a great  man, 
but  the  greatest  man  of  a great  age.  Amid  the  chaos  and  conflagration  wnich 
attended  the  end  of  the  last  century  there  rose  one  of  those  beings  who  seem  oorn 
to  master  mankind.  It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  Napoleon  combined  the  imperial 
ardor  of  Alexander  with  the  strategy  of  Hannibal.  The  kings  of  the  earth  fell  before 


SPEECHES  AND  RHETORICAL  SELECTIONS. 


739 


his  fiery  and  subtle  genius,  and  at  the  head  of  all  the  power  of  Europe  he  denounced 
destruction  to  the  only  land  that  dared  to  be  free.  The  providential  superintendence  of 
this  world  seems  seldom  more  manifest  than  in  the  dispensation  which  ordained  that  the 
French  Emperor  and  Wellesley  should  be  born  in  the  same  year  ; that  in  the  same  year 
they  should  have  embraced  the  same  profession  ; and  that,  natives  of  distant  islands, 
they  should  both  have  sought  their  military  education  in  that  illustrious  land  which  each 
in  his  turn  was  destined  to  subjugate.  During  the  long  struggle  for  our  freedom,  our 
glory,  I may  say  our  existence,  Wellesley  fought  and  won  fifteen  pitched  battles,  all 
of  the  highest  class,  concluding  with  one  of  those  crowning  victories  which  give  a color 
and  aspect  to  history.  During  this  period  that  can  be  said  of  him  which  can  be  said  of 
no  other  captain — that  he  captured  three  thousand  cannon  from  the  enemy  and  never 
lost  a single  gun.  The  greatness  of  his  exploits  was  only  equalled  by  the  difficulties 
he  overcame.  He  had  to  encounter  at  the  same  time  a feeble  Government,  a factious 
Opposition  and  a distrustful  people,  scandalous  allies,  and  the  most  powerful  enemy  in. 
the  world.  He  gained  victories  with  starving  troops,  and  carried  on  sieges  without 
tools  ; and,  as  if  to  complete  the  fatality  which  in  this  sense  always  awaited  him,  when 
he  had  succeeded  in  creating  an  army  worthy  of  Roman  legions,  and  of  himself,  this 
invincible  host  was  broken  up  on  the  eve  of  the  greatest  conjuncture  of  his  life,  and  he 
entered  the  field  of  Waterloo  with  raw  levies  and  discomfited  allies. 

“ But  the  star  of  Wellesley  never  paled.  He  has  been  called  fortunate,  for  fortune 
is  a divinity  that  ever  favors  those  who  are  alike  sagacious  and  intrepid,  inventive  and 
patient.  It  was  his  character  that  created  his  career.  This  alike  achieved  his  exploits 
and  guarded  him  from  vicissitudes.  It  was  his  sublime  self-control  that  regulated  his 
lofty  fate.  It  has  been  the  fashion  of  late  years  to  disparage  the  military  character. 
Forty  years  of  peace  have  hardly  qualified  us  to  be  aware  how  considerable  and  how 
complex  are  the  qualities  which  are  necessary  for  the  formation  of  a great  general.  It  is 
not  enough  to  say  that  he  must  be  an  engineer,  a geographer,  learned  in  human  nature, 
adroit  in  managing  mankind  ; that  he  must  be  able  to  perform  the  highest  duties  of  a 
minister  of  state  and  sink  to  the  humblest  offices  of  a commissary  and  a clerk  ; but  he  has 
to  display  all  this  knowledge  and  he  must  do  all  these  things  at  the  same  time,  and  under 
extraordinary  circumstances.  At  the  same  moment  he  must  think  of  the  eve  and  the 
morrow — of  his  flanks  and  of  his  reserves  ; he  must  carry  with  him  ammunition,  pro- 
visions, hospitals  ; he  must  calculate  at  the  same  time  the  state  of  the  weather  and  the 
moral  qualities  of  man ; and  all  these  elements,  which  are  perpetually  changing,  he  must 
combine  amid  overwhelming  cold  or  overpowering  heat — sometimes  amid  famine — often 
amid  the  thunder  of  artillery.  Behind  all  this,  too,  is  the  ever-present  image  of  his 
country,  and  the  dreadful  alternative  whether  that  country  is  to  receive  him  with  cypress 
or  laurel.  But  all  these  conflicting  ideas  must  be  driven  from  the  mind  of  the  military 
leader,  for  he  must  think — and  not  only  think — he  must  think  with  the  rapidity  of  light- 
ning, for  on  a moment  more  or  less  depends  the  fate  of  the  finest  combination,  and  on  a 
moment  more  or  less  depends  glory  or  shame.  Doubtless,  all  this  may  be  done  in  an 
ordinary  manner  by  an  ordinary  man  ; as  we  see  every  day  of  our  lives  ordinary  men 
making  successful  Ministers  of  State,  successful  speakers,  successful  authors.  But  to  do 
ail  this  with  genius  is  sublime.  Doubtless,  to  think  deeply  and  clearly  in  the  recess  of  a 


740 


SPEECHES  AND  RHETORICAL  SELECTIONS. 


Cabinet  is  a fine  intellectual  demonstration,  but  to  think  with  equal  depth  and  equal 
clearness  amid  bullets  is  the  most  complete  exercise  of  the  human  faculties.  Although 
the  military  career  of  the  Duke  of  Wellington  fills  so  large  a space  in  history,  it  was  only 
a comparatively  small  section  of  his  prolonged  and  illustrious  life.  Only  eight  years 
elapsed  from  Vimeira  to  Waterloo,  and  from  the  date  of  his  first  commission  to  the  last 
cannon-shot  on  the  field  of  battle  scarcely  twenty  years  can  be  counted.  After  all  his 
triumphs  he  was  destined  for  another  career,  and,  if  not  in  the  prime,  certainly. in  the 
perfection  of  manhood,  he  commenced  a civil  career  scarcely  less  eminent  than  those 
military  achievements  which  will  live  for  ever  in  history.  Thrice  was  he  the  ambassador 
of  his  Sovereign  to  those  great  historic  congresses  that  settled  the  affairs  of  Europe  ; 
twice  was  he  Secretary  of  State ; twice  was  he  Commander-in-Chief,  and  once  he  was 
Prime  Minister  of  England.  His  labors  for  his  country  lasted  to  the  end.  A few 
months  ago  he  favored  the  present  advisers  of  the  Crown  with  his  thoughts  on  the  Bur- 
mese War,  expressed  in  a state  paper  characterized  by  all  his  sagacity  and  experience ; 
and  he  died  the  active  chieftain  of  that  famous  army  to  which  he  has  left  the  tradition  of 
his  glory. 

“ There  was  one  passage  in  the  life  of  the  Duke  of  Wellington,  which  should  hardly 
be  passed  unnoticed  on  such  an  occasion,  and  in  such  a scene  as  this.  It  is  our  pride 
that  he  was  one  of  ourselves ; it  is  our  pride  that  Sir  Arthur  Wellesley  sat  upon  these 
benches.  Tested  by  the  ambition  and  the  success  of  ordinary  men,  his  career  heret 
though  brief,  was  distinguished.  He  entered  Royal  Councils  and  held  a high  ministerial 
post.  But  his  House  of  Commons  success  must  not  be  measured  by  his  seat  at  the 
Privy  Council  and  his  Irish  Secretaryship.  He  achieved  a success  here  which,  the  great- 
est ministers  and  the  most  brilliant  orators  can  never  hope  to  rival.  That  was  a parlia- 
mentary success  unequaled  when  he  rose  in  his  seat  to  receive  the  thanks  of  Mr.  Speaker 
for  a glorious  victory ; or,  later  still,  when  he  appeared  at  the  bar  of  this  house,  and 
received,  Sir,  from  one  of  your  predecessors,  in  memorable  language,  the  thanks  of  a 
grateful  country  for  accumulated  triumphs.  There  is  one  consolation  which  all  English- 
men must  feel  under  this  bereavement.  It  is,  that  they  were  so  well  and  so  completely 
acquainted  with  this  great  man.  Never  did  a person  of  such  mark  live  so  long,  and  so 
much  in  the  public  eye.” 


LORD  BROUGHAM’S  SPEECH  ON  THE  REFORM  BILL. 


E stand  in  a truly  critical  position.  If  we  reject  the  bill  through  feai 
of  being  thought  to  be  intimidated,  we  may  lead  the  life  of  retirement 
and  quiet,  but  the  hearts  of  the  millions  of  our  fellow-citizens  are  gone 
forever ; their  affections  are  estranged ; we,  and  our  order  and  its 
privileges,  are  the  objects  of  the  people’s  hatred,  as  the  only  obstacles 
which  stand  between  them  and  the  gratification  of  their  most  passionate  desire. 
The  whole  body  of  the  aristocracy  must  expect  to  share  this  fate,  and  be  exposed  to  feel- 
ings such  as  these.  For  I hear  it  constantly  said  the  bill  is  rejected  by  all  the  aristocracy. 
Favour,  and  a good  number  of  supporters,  our  adversaries  allow  it  has  among  the  people; 
the  ministers,  too,  are  for  it ; but  the  aristocracy,  say  they,  are  strenuously  opposed  to  it. 


SPEECHES  AND  RHETORICAL  SELECTIONS. 


741 


J broadly  deny  this  assertion.  What ! my  lords,  the  aristocracy  set  themselves  in  a mass 
against  the  people  ; — they  who  sprang  from  the  people — are  inseparably  connected  with 
the  people — are  supported  by  the  people — are  the  natural  chiefs  of  the  people  ? They 
set  themselves  against  the  people,  for  whom  peers  are  ennobled,  bishops  consecrated, 
kings  anointed, — the  people,  to  serve  whom  Parliament  itself  has  an  existence,  and  the 
monarchy  and  all  its  institutions  are  constituted,  and  without  whom  none  of  them  could 
exist  for  an  hour  ? This  assertion  of  unreflecting  men  is  too  monstrous  to  be  endured. 
As  a member  of  this  House,  I deny  it  with  indignation— -I  repel  it  with  scorn,  as  a cal- 
umny upon  us  all.  And  yet  there  are  those  who,  even  within  these  walls,  speak  of  the 
bill  augmenting  so  much  the  strength  of  the  democracy  as  to  endanger  the  other  orders 
of  the  state  ; and  so  they  charge  its  authors  with  promoting  anarchy  and  rapine.  Why 
my  lords,  have  its  authors  nothing  to  fear  from  democratic  spoliation  ? The  fact  is,  that 
there  are  members  of  the  present  cabinet  who  possess,  one  or  two  of  them  alone,  far 
more  property  than  any  two  administrations  within  my  recollection  ; and  all  of  them 
have  ample  wealth.  I need  hardly  say,  I include  not  myself,  who  have  little  or  none. 
But  even  of  myself  I will  say,  that  whatever  I have  depends  on  the  stability  of  existing , 
institutions  ; and  it  is  as  dear  to  me  as  the  princely  possessions  of  any  amongst  you-  ’ 
Permit  me  to  say,  that  in  becoming  a member  of  your  House,  I staked  my  all  on  the: 
aristocratic  institutions  of  the  state  ; I abandoned  certain  wealth,  a large  income,  and 
much  real  power  in  the  state,  for  an  office  of  great  trouble,  heavy  responsibility,  and 
very  uncertain  duration.  I say,  I gave  up  substantial  power  for  the  shadow  of  it,  and. 
for  distinction  depending  upon  accident.  I quitted  the  elevated  situation  of  representa- 
tive of  Yorkshire,  and  a leading  member  of  the  Commons.  I descended  from  a position 
quite  lofty  enough  to  satisfy  any  man’s  ambition,  and  my  lot  became  bound  up  in  the 
stability  of  this  House.  Then,  have  I not  a right  to  throw  myself  on  your  justice,  and 
to  desire  that  you  will  not  put  in  jeopardy  all  I have  now  left  ? 

But  among  the  awful  considerations  that  now  bow  down  my  mind,  there  is  one 
which  stands  pre-eminent  above  the  rest.  You  are  the  highest  judicature  in  the  realm  ; 
you  sit  here  as  judges,  and  decide  all  causes,  civil  and  criminal,  without  appeal.  It  is  a 
judge’s  first  duty  never  to  pronounce  sentence,  in  the  most  trifling  case,  without  hearing. 
Will  you  make  this  the  exception  ? Are  you  really  prepared  to  determine,  but  not  to 
hear,  the  mighty  cause  upon  which  a nation’s  hopes  and  fears  hang  ? You  are  ! Then 
beware  of  your  decision ! Rouse  not,  I beseech  you,  a peace-loving,  but  a resolute  peo- 
ple— alienate  not  from  your  body  the  affections  of  a whole  empire.  As  your  friend,  as 
the  friend  of  my  order,  as  the  friend  of  my  country,  as  the  faithful  servant  of  my  sover- 
eign, I counsel  you  to  assist  with  your  utmost  efforts  in  preserving  the  peace,  and  uphold- 
ing and  perpetuating  the  constitution.  Therefore  I pray  and  I exhort  you  not  to  reject 
this  measure.  By  all  you  hold  most  dear — by  all  the  ties  that  bind  every  one  of  us  to 
our  common  order  and  our  common  country,  I solemnly  adjure  you— I warn  you— I im- 
plore you — yea,  on  my  bended  knees,  I supplicate  you — Reject  not  this  bill ! 


742 


SPEECHES  AND  RHETORICAL  SELECTIONS. 


PATRICK  HENRY’S  ADDRESS  TO  THE  ASSEMBLY  OF  VIRGINIA. 

F WE  wish  to  be  free, -if  we  wish  to  preserve  inviolate  those  inestimable 
privileges  for  which  we  have  been  so  long  contending,  if  we  mean  not 
basely  to  abandon  the  noble  struggle  in  which  we  have  been  so  long 
engaged,  and  which  we  have  pledged  ourselves  never  to  abandon  until 
the  glorious  object  of  our  contest  shall  be  obtained,  we  must  fight — I 
repeat  it,  Sir,  we  must  fight  1 An  appeal  to  arms,  and  to  the  God  of  hosts,  is  all 
that  is  left  us  ! 

They  tell  us,  Sir,  that  we  are  weak — unable  to  cope  with  so  formidable  an  adversary, 
But  when  shall  we  be  stronger  ? Will  it  be  the  next  week,  or  the  next  year  ? Will  it  be 
when  we  are  totally  disarmed,  and  when  a British  guard  shall  be  stationed  in  every  house  ? 
-Shall  we  gather  strength  by  irresolution  and  inaction  ? Shall  we  acquire  the  means  of 
effectual  resistance  by  lying  supinely  on  our  backs,  and  hugging  the  delusive  phantom  of 
hope  until  our  enemies  shall  have  bound  us  hand  and  foot  ? Sir,  we  are  not  weak,  if  we 
make  a proper  use  of  those  means  which  the  God  of  nature  hath  placed  in  our  power. 
Three  millions  of  people,  armed  in  the  holy  cause  of  liberty,  and  in  such  a country  as 
that  which  we  possess,  are  invincible  by  any  force  which  our  enemy  can  send  against  us. 
Besides,  Sir,  we  shall  not  fight  our  battles  alone.  There  is  a just  God  who  presides  over 
the  destinies  of  nations,  and  who  will  raise  up  friends  to  fight  our  battles  for  us.  The 
battle,  Sir,  is  not  to  the  strong  alone  ; it  is  to  the  vigilant,  the  active, -the  brave.  Besides, 
Sir,  we  have  no  election.  If  we  were  base  enough  to  desire  it,  it  is  now  too  late  to  retire 
from  the  contest ; there  is  no  retreat  but  in  submission  and  slavery.  Our  chains  are 
forged  ; their  clanking  may  be  heard  on  the  plains  of  Boston  : the  war  is  inevitable,  and 
let  it  come ; I repeat,  it,  Sir — let  it  come ! It  is  in  vain,  Sir,  to  extenuate  the  matter. 
Gentlemen  may  cry  peace,  peace  ! but  there  is  no  peace  ! The  war  is  actually  begun ! 
The  next  gale  that  sweeps  from  the  north  will  bring  to  our  ears  the  clash  of  resounding 
arms  ! Our  brethren  are  already  in  the  field  ! why  stand  we  here  idle  ! What  is  it  that 
gentlemen  wish  ? What  would  they  have  ? Is  life  so  dear,  or  peace  so  sweet,  as  to  be 
purchased  at  the  price  of  chains  and  slavery?  Forbid  it,  Almighty  God!  I know  not 
what  course  others  may  take ; but  as  for  me — give  me  liberty,  or  give  me  death  ! 

LORD  CHATHAM’S  PROTEST  AGAINST  THE  AMERICAN  WAR. 

( William  Pitt , Earl  of  Chatham .) 

RISE,  my  lords,  to  declare  my  sentiments  on  this  most  solemn  and  seri- 
ous subject.  It  has  imposed  a load  upon  my  mind,  which,  I fear,  nothing 
can  remove ; but  which  impels  me  to  endeavor  its  alleviation,  by  a free 
and  unreserved  communication  of  my  sentiments. 

In  the  first  part  of  the  address  I have  the  honor  of  heartily  con- 
curring with  the  noble  earl  who  moved  it.  No  man  feels  sincerer  joy  than  I do  ; none 
can  offer  more  genuine  congratulation  on  every  accession  of  strength  to  the  Protestant 
succession.  But  I muse  stop  here.  My  courtly  complaisance  will  carry  me  no  further. 
I will  not  join  in  congratulation  on  misfortune  and  disgrace.  I cannot  concur  in  a blind 


SPEECHES  AND  RHETORICAL  SELECTIONS. 


743 


and  servile  address,  which  approves,  and  endeavors  to  sanctify,  the  monstrous  measures 
which  have  heaped  disgrace  and  misfortune  upon  us.  This,  my  lords,  is  a perilous  and 
tremendous  moment ! It  is  not  a time  for  adulation.  The  smoothness  of  flattery  can- 
not now  avail,  cannot  save  us  in  this  rugged  and  awful  crisis.  It  is  now  necessary  to 
instruct  the  throne  in  the  language  of  truth.  We  must  dispel  the  delusion  and  the 
darkness  which  envelop  it : and  display,  in  its  full  danger  and  true  colors,  the  ruin  that 
is  brought  to  our  doors. 

My  lords,  this  ruinous  and  ignominious  situation,  where  we  cannot  act  with  success, 
nor  suffer  with  honor,  calls  upon  us  to  remonstrate  in  the  strongest  and  loudest  language 
of  truth,  to  rescue  the  ear  of  Majesty  from  the  delusions  which  surround  it.  The  des- 
perate state  of  our  arms  abroad  is  in  part  known.  No  man  thinks  more  highly  of  them 
than  I do.  I love  and  honor  the  English  troops.  I know  their  virtues  and  their  valor. 
I know  they  can  achieve  anything  except  impossibilities  ; and  I know  that  the  conquest 
•of  English  America  is  an  impossibility.  My  lords,  you  cannot  conquer  America.  What 
is  your  present  situation  there  ? We  do  not  know  the  worst ; but  we  know  that  in  three 
■campaigns  we  have  done  nothing  and  suffered  much.  You  may  swell  every  expense,  and 
every  effort,  still  more  extravagantly  ; pile  and  accumulate  every  assistance  you  can  buy 
or  borrow  ; traffic  and  barter  with  every  little  pitiful  German  prince  that  sells  and  sends 
his  subjects  to  the  shambles  of  a foreign  prince  ; your  efforts  are  for  ever  vain  and  impo- 
tent ; doubly  so  from  this  mercenary  aid  on  v/hich  you  rely.  For  it  irritates,  to  an  incu- 
rable resentment,  the  minds  of  your  enemies,  to  overrun  them  with  the  mercenary  sons  of 
rapine  and  plunder  ; devoting  them  and  their  possessions  to  the  rapacity  of  hireling  cru- 
elty. If  I were  an  American,  as  I am  an  Englishman,  while  a foreign  troop  was  landed 
in  my  country,  I never  would  lay  down  my  arms — never — never — never  ! 

But,  my  lords,  this  barbarous  measure  has  been  defended,  not  only  on  the  principles 
of  policy  and  necessity,  but  also  on  those  of  morality  ; for,  said  Lord  Suffolk,  “it  was 
perfectly  justifiable  to  use  all  the  means  that  God  and  nature  put  into  our  hands!” 

I am  astonished  ! — shocked  1 to  hear  such  principles  confessed — to  hear  them 
avowed  in  this  House,  or  in  this  country  ; principles  equally  unconstitutional,  inhuman, 
and  unchristian ! 

My  lords,  I am  old  and  weak,  and  at  present  unable  to  say  more  ; but  my  feelings 
and  indignation  were  too  strong  to  have  said  less.  I could  not  have  slept  this  night  in 
my  bed,  nor  reposed  my  head  on  my  pillow,  without  giving  this  vent  to  my  eternal  abhor- 
rence of  such  preposterous  and  enormous  principles. 

DANIEL  WEBSTER  AT  THE  CENTENARY  CELEBRATION  OF 

WASHINGTON. 

\Daniel  Webster , one  of  the  greatest  statesmen  and  orators , was  born  in  1782;  died  1852.] 

RISE,  gentlemen,  to  propose  to  you  the  name  of  that  great  man,  in 
commemoration  of  whose  birth,  and  in  honor  of  whose  character  and 
services  we  are  here  assembled  I am  sure  that  I express  a sentiment  com- 
mon to  every  one  present  when  I say,  that  there  is  something  more  than 
ordinarily  solemn  and  affecting  upon  this  occasion.  We  are  met  to 
testify  our  regard  for  him,  whose  name  is  intimately  blended  with  whatever  belongs 


744 


SPEECHES  AND  RHETORICAL  SELECTIONS. 


most  essentially  to  the  prosperity,  the  liberty,  the  free  institutions,  and  the  renown  of 
our  country.  That  name  was  of  power  to  rally  a nation,  in  the  hour  of  thick-thronging 
public  disaster  and  calamities ; that  name  shone,  amid  the  storm  of  war,  a beacon  light 
to  cheer  and  guide  the  country’s  friends  ; its  flame,  too,  like  a meteor,  to  repel  her  foes. 
That  name,  in  the  days  of  peace,  was  a loadstone,  attracting  to  itself  a whole  people’s  con- 
fidence, a whole  people’s  love,  and  the  whole  world’s  respect ; that  name,  descending 
with  all  time,  spread  over  the  whole  earth,  and  uttered  in  all  the  languages  belonging 
to  the  tribes  and  races  of  men,  will  forever  be  pronounced  with  affectionate  gratitude  by 
every  one  in  whose  breast  there  shall  arise  an  aspiration  for  human  rights  and  human 
liberty. 

We  perform  this  grateful  duty,  gentlemen,  at  the  expiration  of  a hundred  years  from 
his  birth,  near  the  place  so  cherished  and  beloved  by  him,  where  his  dust  now  reposes, 
and  in  the  capital  which  bears  his  own  immortal  name. 

A true  lover  of  the  virtue  of  patriotism  delights  to  contemplate  its  purest  models  ; 
and  that  love  of  country  may  be  well  suspected  which  affects  to  soar  so  high  into  the 
regions  of  sentiment  as  to  be  lost  and  absorbed  in  the  abstract  feeling,  and  becomes  too 
elevated,  or  too  refined,  to  glow  either  with  power  in  the  commendation  or  the  love  of 
individual  benefactors.  All  this  is  immaterial.  It  is  as  if  one  should  be  so  enthusiastic 
a lover  of  poetry  as  to  care  nothing  for  Homer  or  Milton  ; so  passionately  attached  to 
eloquence  as  to  be  indifferent  to  Tully  and  Chatham  ; or  such  a devotee  to  the  arts,  in 
such  an  ecstacy  with  the  elements  of  beauty,  proportion,  and  expression,  as  to  regard  the 
masterpieces  of  Raphael  and  Michael  Angelo  with  coldness  or  contempt. 

Gentlemen,  we  are  at  the  point  of  a century  from  the  birth  of  Washington  ; and 
what  a century  it  has  been  ! During  its  course  the  human  mind  has  seemed  to  proceed 
with  a sort  of  geometric  velocity,  accomplishing  more  than  had  been  done  in  fives  or 
tens  of  centuries  preceding.  Washington  stands  at  the  commencement  of  a new  era, 
as  well  as  at  the  head  of  the  New  World.  A century  from  the  birth  of  Washington  has 
changed  the  world.  The  country  of  Washington  has  been  the  theatre  on  which  a great 
part  of  that  change  has  been  wrought  ; and  Washington  himself  a principal  agent  by 
which  it  has  been  accomplished.  His  age  and  his  country  are  equally  full  of  wonders, 
and  of  both  he  is  the  chief. 

If  the  prediction  of  the  poet,  uttered  a few  years  before  his  birth,  be  true  ; if  indeed 
it  be  designed  by  Providence  that  the  proudest  exhibition  of  human  character  and  human 
affairs  shall  be  made  on  this  theatre  of  the  Western  World  ; if  it  be  true  that 

u The  first  four  acts  already  past, 

A fifth  shall  close  the  drama  with  the  day  ; 

Time’s  noblest  offspring  is  the  last,” 

how  could  this  imposing,  swelling,  final  scene  be  appropriately  opened  ; how  could  its 
intense  interest  be  adequately  sustained,  but  by  the  introduction  of  just  such  a character 
as  our  Washington. 

Washington  had  attained  his  manhood  when  that  spark  of  liberty  was  struck  out  in' 
his  own  country,  which  has  since  kindled  into  a flame,  and  shot  its  beam  over  the 
earth.  In  the  flow  of  a century  from  his  birth,  the  world  has  changed  in  science,  in  arts, 
in  the  extent  of  its  comme^ca,  in  the  improvement  of  navigation,  and  in  all  that  relates 
to  the  civilization  of  man. 


SPEECHES  AND  RHETORICAL  SELECTIONS. 


745 


DANIEL  WEBSTER  ON  CRIME  ITS  OWN  DETECTOR. 

ENTLEMEN  : This  is  a most  extraordinary  case.  In  some  respects  it 
has  hardly  a precedent  anywhere — certainly  none  in  our  New  England 
history0  An  aged  man,  without  an  enemy  in  the  world,  in  his  own 
house,  and  in  his  own  bed,  is  made  the  victim  of  a butcherly  murder,  for 
mere  pay.  Deep  sleep  had  fallen  on  the  destined  victim,  and  on  all  be- 
neath his  roof.  A healthful  old  man,  to  whom  sleep  was  sweet — the  first  sound  slumbers 
of  the  night  hold  him  in  their  soft  but  strong  embrace. 

The  assassin  enters  through  the  window,  already  prepared,  into  an  unoccupied  apart- 
ment; with  noiseless  foot  he  paces  the  lonely  hall,  half  lighted  by  the  moon  ; he  winds 
up  the  ascent  of  the  stairs,  and  reaches  the  door  of  the  chamber.  Of  this  he  moves  the 
lock,  by  soft  and  continued  pressure,  till  it  turns  on  its  hinges  ; and  he  enters  and  beholds 
his  victim  before  him.  The  room  was  uncommonly  light.  The  face  of  the  innocent 
sleeper  was  turned  from  the  murderer  ; and  the  beams  of  the  moon  resting  on  the  gray 
locks  of  his  aged  temple,  showed  him  where  to  strike.  The  fatal  blow  is  given,  and  the 
victim  passes,  without  a struggle  or  a motion,  from  the  repose  of  sleep  to  the  repose  of 
death ! It  is  the  assassin’s  purpose  to  make  sure  work  ; and  he  yet  plies  the  dagger, 
though  it  was  obvious  that  life  had  been  destroyed  by  the  blow  of  the  bludgeon.  He 
even  raises  the  aged  arm,  that  he  may  not  fail  of  his  aim  at  the  heart,  and  replaces  it 
again  over  the  wounds  of  the  poniard  ! To  finish  the  picture,  he  explores  the  wrist  for 
the  pulse!  he  feels  it,  and  ascertains  that  it  beats  no  longer!  It  is  accomplished— the 
deed  is  done  ! He  retreats — retraces  his  steps  to  the  window,  passes  through  as  he  came 
in,  and  escapes.  He  has  done  the  murder  ; no  eye  has  seen  him,  no  ear  has  heard  him  i 
the  secret  is  his  own,  and  he  is  safe  ! 

Ah  ! gentlemen,  that  was  a dreadful  mistake.  Such  a secret  can  be  safe  nowhere. 
The  whole  creation  of  God  has  neither  nook  nor  corner  where  the  guilty  can  bestow  it 
and  say  it  is  safe.  Not  to  speak  of  that  Eye  that  glances  through  all  disguises,  and  be- 
holds everything  as  in  the  splendor  of  noon, — such  secrets  of  guilt  are  never  safe  ; 
“ murder  will  out.’P  True  it  is  that  Providence  hath  so  ordained,  and  doth  so  govern  things 
that  those  who  break  the  great  law  of  Heaven,  by  shedding  man’s  blood,  seldom  succeed 
in  avoiding  discovery.  Especially  in  a case  exciting  so  much  attention  as  this,  discovery 
must  and  will  come,  sooner  or  later.  A thousand  eyes  turn  at  once  to  explore  every  man, 
every  thing,  every  circumstance,  connected  with  the  time  and  place ; a thousand  ears 
catch  every  whisper ; a thousand  excited  minds  intently  dwell  on  the  scene  ; shedding 
all  their  light,  and  ready  to  kindle  the  slightest  circumstance  into  a blaze  of  discovery. 
Meantime  the  guilty  soul  cannot  keep  its  own  secret.  It  is  false  to  itself — or  rather  it 
feels  an  irresistible  impulse  of  conscience  to  be  true  to  itself — it  labors  under  its  guilty 
possession,  and  knows  not  what  to  do  with  it.  The  human  heart  was  not  made  for  the 
residence  of  such  an  inhabitant ; it  finds  itself  preyed  on  by  a torment  which  it  dares  not 
acknowledge  to  God  or  man.  A vulture  is  devouring  it,  and  it  asks  no  sympathy  or  as- 
sistance either  from  heaven  or  earth.  The  secret  which  the  murderer  possesses  soon 
comes  to  possess  him  ; and  like  the  evil  spirits  of  which  we  read,  it  overcomes  him,  and 
leads  him  whithersoever  it  will.  He  feels  it  beating  at  his  heart,  rising  to  his  throat,  and 
demanding  disclosure.  He  thinks  the  whole  world  sees  it  in  his  face,  reads  it  in  his 


746 


SPEECHES  AND  RHETORICAL  SELECTIONS. 


eyes,  and  almost  hears  its  workings  in  the  very  silence  of  his  thoughts.  It  has  become 
his  master ; — it  betrays  his  discretion  : it  breaks  down  his  courage  ; it  conquers  his  pru- 
dence. When  suspicions,  from  without,  begin  to  embarrass  him,  and  the  net  of  circum- 
stances to  entangle  him,  the  fatal  secret  struggles  with  still  greater  violence  to  burst 
forth.  It  must  be  confessed ; it  will  be  confessed  ; there  is  no  refuge  from  confession 
but  in  suicide,  and  suicide  is  confession. 

SPARTACUS  TO  THE  GLADIATORS. 

E call  me  chief ; and  ye  do  well  to  call  him  chief  who  for  twelve  long 
years  has  met  upon  the  arena  every  shape  of  man  or  beast  the  broad 
empire  of  Rome  could  furnish,  and  who  never  yet  lowered  his  arm.  Ij 
there  be  one  among  you  who  can  say  that  ever,  in  public  fight  or  private 
brawl,  my  actions  did  belie  my  tongue,  let  him  stand  forth  and  say  it.  If 
there  be  three  in  all  your  company  dare  face  me  on  the  bloody  sands,  let  them  come 
on.  And  yet  I was  not  always  thus — a hired  butcher,  a savage  chief  of  still  more 
savage  men  . My  ancestors  came  from  old  Sparta,  and  settled  among  the  vine-clad 
rocks  and  citron  groves  of  Syrasella.  My  early  life  ran  quiet  as  the  brooks  by  which  I 
sported  ; and  when,  at  noon,  I gathered  the  sheep  beneath  the  shade,  and  played  upon 
the  shepherd’s  flute,  there  was  a friend,  the  son  of  a neighbor,  to  join  me  in  the  pastime. 
We  led  our  flocks  to  the  same  pasture,  and  partook  together  our  rustic  meal.  One 
evening,  after  the  sheep  were  folded,  and  we  were  all  seated  beneath  the  myrtle  which 
shaded  our  cottage,  my  grandsire,  an  old  man,  was  telling  of  Marathon  and  Leuctra,  and 
how,  in  ancient  times,  a little  band  of  Spartans,  in  a defile  of  the  mountains,  had  with- 
stood a whole  army.  I did  not  then  know  what  war  was  ; but  my  cheeks  burned,  I knew 
not  why,  and  I clasped  the  knees  of  that  venerable  man,  until  my  mother,  parting  the 
hair  from  off  my  forehead,  kissed  my  throbbing  temples  and  bade  me  go  to  rest  and  think 
no  more  of  those  old  tales  and  savage  wars.  That  very  night  the  Romans  landed  on  our 
coast.  I saw  the  breast  that  had  nourished  me  trampled  by  the  hoof  of  the  war-horse — 
the  bleeding  body  of  my  father  flung  amidst  the  blazing  rafters  of  our  dwelling.  To-day 
I killed  a man  in  the  arena ; and,  when  I broke  his  helmet-clasps,  behold,  he  was  my 
friend.  He  knew  me,  smiled  faintly,  gasped  and  died  ; — the  same  sweet  smile  upon  his 
lips  that  I had  marked,  when,  in  adventurous  boyhood,  we  scaled  the  lofty  cliff  to  pluck 
the  first  ripe  grapes,  and  bear  them  home  in  childish  triumph ! I told  the  praetor  that 
the  dead  man  had  been  my  friend,  generous  and  brave ; and  I begged  that  I might  bear 
away  the  body,  to  burn  it  on  a funeral  pile,  and  mourn  over  its  ashes.  Ay  ! upon  my 
knees,  amid  the  dust  and  blood  of  the  arena,  I begged  that  poor  boon,  while  all  the  as- 
sembled maids  and  matrons,  and  the  holy  virgins  they  call  Vestals,  and  the  rabble, 
shouted  in  derision,  deeming  it  rare  sport,  forsooth,  to  see  Rome’s  fiercest  gladiator  turn 
pale  and  tremble  at  the  sight  of  that  bleeding  piece  of  clay  ! And  the  praetor  drew  back 
as  I were  pollution,  and  sternly  said : “ Let  the  carrion  rot ; there  are  no  noble  men  but 
Romans.”  And  so,  fellow-gladiators,  must  you,  and  so  must  I,  die  like  dogs.  O,  Rome ! 
Rome  ! thou  hast  been  a tender  nurse  to  me.  Ay  ! thou  hast  given  to  that  poor,  gentle, 
timid  shepherd  lad,  who  never  knew  a harsher  tone  than  a flute-note,  muscles  of  iron  and 
a heart  of  flint ; taught  him  to  drive  the  sword  througn  plaited  mail  and  links  of  rugged 
brass,  and  warm  it  in  the  marrow  of  his  foe  : — to  gaze  into  the  glaring  eyeballs  of  the 


SPEECHES  AND  RHETORICAL  SELECTIONS. 


74? 


fierce  Numidian  lion,  even  as  a boy  upon  a laughing  girl ! And  he  shall  pay  thee  back; 
until  the  yellow  Tiber  is  red  as  frothing  wine,  and  in  its  deepest  ooze  thy  life-blood  lies 
curdled  ! 

Ye  stand  here  now  like  giants,  as  ye  are  ! The  strength  of  brass  is  in  your  toughened 
sinews ; but  to-morrow  some  Roman  Adonis,  breathing  sweet  perfume  from  his  curly 
locks,  shall  with  his  lily  fingers  pat  your  red  brawn,  and  bet  his  sesterces  upon  your 
blood.  Hark  ! hear  ye  yon  lion  roaring  in  his  den  ? ’Tis  three  days  since  he  has  tasted 
flesh  ; but  to-morrow  he  shall  break  his  fast  upon  yours, — and  a dainty  meal  for  him  ye 
will  be ! If  ye  are  beasts,  then  stand  here,  like  fat  oxen,  waiting  for  the  butcher’s  knife  I 
If  ye  are  men,  follow  me ! Strike  down  yon  guard,  gain  the  mountain  passes,  and  then 
do  bloody  work,  as  did  your  sires  at  old  Thermopylae!  Is  Sparta  dead  ? Is  the  old  Gre- 
cian spirit  frozen  in  your  veins,  that  you  do  crouch  and  cower  like  a belabored  hound 
beneath  his  master’s  lash?  O,  comrades!  warriors!  Thracians!  if  we  must  fight, 
let  us  fight  for  ourselves  ! If  we  must  slaughter,  let  us  slaughter  our  oppressors  ! If  we 
must  die,  let  it  be  under  the  clear  sky,  by  the  bright  waters,  in  noble,  honorable  battle! 


SELECTIONS  FROM  CLASSIC  AUTHORS. 


A GLASS  OF  COLD  WATER, 

John  B.  Gough. 

HERE  is  the  liquor  which  God  the  eternal  brews  for  all  his  children  ? 
Not  in  the  simmering  still,  over  smoky  fires  choked  with  poisonous  gases, 
and  surrounded  with  the  stench  of  sickening  odors,  and  rank  corruptions, 
doth  your  Father  in  heaven  prepare  the  precious  essence  of  life,  the  pure 
cold  water.  But  in  the  green  glade  and  grassy  dell,  where  the  red  deer 
wanders,  and  the  child  loves  to  play ; there  God  brews  it.  And  down,  low  down, 
in  the  deepest  valleys,  where  the  fountains  murmur  and  the  rills  sing ; and  high 
upon  the  tall  mountain  tops,  where  the  naked  granite  glitters  like  gold  in  the  sun  ; 
where  the  storm-cloud  broods,  and  the  thunder-storms  crash  ; and  away  far  out  on 
the  wild,  wild  sea,  where  the  hurricane  howls  music,  and  the  big  waves  roar  ; the  chorus 
sweeping  the  march  of  God : there  he  brews  it — that  beverage  of  life  and  health-giving 
water.  And  everywhere  it  is  a thing  of  beauty,  gleaming  in  the  dew-drop  ; singing  in 
the  summer  rain  ; shining  in  the  ice-gem,  till  the  leaves  all  seem  turned  to  living  jewels  ; 
spreading  a golden  veil  over  the  setting  sun  ; or  a white  gauze  around  the  midnight  moon, 
sporting  in  the  cataract;  sleeping  in  the  glacier;  dancing  in  the  hail-shower; 
folding  its  bright  snow  curtains  softly  about  the  wintry  world ; anrl  waving  the  many- 


748 


SELECTIONS  IN  PROSE. 


colored  iris,  that  seraph’s  zone  of  the  sky,  whose  warp  is  the  rain-drop  of  earth,  whose 
woof  is  the  sunbeam  of  heaven  ; all  chequered  over  with  celestial  flowers,  by  the  mystic 
hand  of  refraction. 

Still  always  it  is  beautiful,  that  life-giving  water  ; no  poison  bubbles  on  its  brink  ; its 
foam  brings  not  madness  and  murder  ; no  blood  stains  its  liquid  glass  ; pale  widows  and 
starving  orphans  weep  no  burning  tears  in  its  depths  ; no  drunken,  shrieking  ghost  from 
the  grave  curses  it  in  the  words  of  eternal  despair  ; speak  on  my  friends  would  you  ex- 
change it  for  demon’s  drink,  alcohol  ? 

THE  DEATH  OF  PAUL  DOMBEY. 


By  Charles  Dickens. 

NE  night  he  had  been  thinking  of  his  mother,  and  her  picture  in  the  draw- 
ing-room down  stairs,  and  had  thought  she  must  have  loved  sweet 
Florence  better  than  his  father  did,  to  have  held  her  in  her  arms 
when  she  felt  that  she  was  dying  ; for  even  he,  her  brother,  who  had 
such  dear  love  for  her,  could  have  no  greater  wish  than  that.  The 
train  of  thought  suggested  to  him  to  inquire  if  he  had  ever  seen  his  mother ; for 
he  could  not  remember  whether  they  had  told  him  yes  or  no,  the  river  running  very 
fast,  and  confusing  his  mind.  “Floy,  did  I ever  see  mamma?”  “No,  darling,  why?” 
“ Did  I never  see  any  kind  face,  like  mamma’s,  looking  at  me  when  I was  a baby,  Floy?” 
he  asked,  incredulously,  as  if  he  had  some  vision  of  a face  before  him.  “ Oh  yes,  dear !” 
“ Whose,  Floy  ? ” “Your  old  nurse’s;  often.”  “And  where  is  my  old  nurse  ?”  said 
Paul.  “ Is  she  dead  too  ? Floy,  are  we  all  dead,  except  you  ? ” 

There  was  a hurry  in  the  room,  for  an  instant — longer,  perhaps  ; but  it  seemed  no 
more — then  all  was  still  again  ; and  Florence,  with  her  face  quite  colorless,  but  smiling, 
held  his  head  upon  her  arm.  Her  arm  trembled  very  much.  “ Show  me  that  old  nurse. 
Floy,  if  you  please  ?”  “ She  is  not  here,  darling.  She  shall  come  to-morrow.” — “Thank 

you,  Floy  ! ” 

“ And  who  is  this  ? Is  this  my  old  nurse  ?”  said  the  child,  regarding  with  a radiant 
smile  a figure  coming  in.  Yes,  yes!  No  other  stranger  would  have  shed  those  tears  at 
sight  of  him,  and  called  him  her  dear  boy,  her  pretty  boy,  her  own  dear  blighted  child. 
No  other  woman  would  have  stooped  down  by  his  bed,  and  taken  up  his  wasted 
hand  and  put  it  to  her  lips  and  breast,  as  one  who  had  some  right  to  fondle  it.  N6  other 
woman  would  have  so  forgotten  everybody  there  but  him  and  Floy,  and  been  so  full  of 
tenderness  and  pity.  “ Floy,  this  is  a kind, good, face.”  said  Paul.  “ I am  glad  to  see  it 
.again.  Don’t  go  away,  old  nurse  ! Stay  here  ! ” 

“ Now  lay  me  down,”  he  said  ; “and,  Floy,  come  close  to  me,  and  let  me  see  you  ! ” 
Sister  and  brother  wound  their  arms  around  each  other,  and  the  golden  light  came 
streaming  in,  and  fell  upon  them,  locked  together.  “ How  fast  the  river  runs,  between 
its  green  banks  and  the  rushes,  Floy  ! But  it’s  very  near  the  sea.  I hear  the  waves  ! 
They  always  said  so.”  Presently  he  told  her  that  the  motion  of  the  boat  upon  the  stream 
was  lulling  him  to  rest.  How  green  the  banks  were  now,  how  bright  the  flowers  grow- 
ing on  them,  and  how  tall  the  rushes  ! Now  the  boat  was  out  at  sea,  but  gliding  smoothly 
on ; and  now  there  was  a shore  before  them.  Who  stood  on  the  bank  ? He  put  his 
hands  together,  as  he  had  been  used  to  do  a-t  his  prayers.  He  did  not  remove  his  arms, 


SELECTIONS  IN  PROSE. 


749 


to  do  it ; but  they  saw  him  fold  them  so  behind  her  neck.  “ Mamma  is  like  you,  Floy  ; 
I know  her  by  the  face ! But  tell  them  that  the  print  upon  the  stairs  at  school  is  not 
divine  enough.  The  light  about  the  head  is  shining  on  me  as  I go ! ” 

The  golden  ripple  on  the  wall  came  back  again,  and  nothing  else  stirred  in  the  room. 
The  old,  old  fashion  ! The  fashion  that  came  in  with  our  first  garments,  and  will  last 
unchanged  until  our  race  has  run  its  course,  and  the  wide  firmament  is  rolled  up  like  a 
scroll.  The  old,  old  fashion — Death ! O,  thank  God,  all  who  see  it.  for  that  older 
fashion  yet,  of  Immortality  ! And  look  upon  us,  angels  of  young  children,  with  regards 
not  quite  estranged,  when  the  swift  river  bears  us  to  the  ocean ! 

THE  DEATH  OF  LITTLE  NELL. 

Charles  Dickens. 

HEN  morning  came,  and  they  could  speak  more  calmly  on  the  subject 
of  their  grief,  they  heard  how  her  life  had  closed. 

She  had  been  dead  two  days.  They  were  all  about  her  at  the 
time,  knowing  that  the  end  was  drawing  on.  She  died  soon  after  day- 
break. They  had  read  and  talked  to  her  in  the  earlier  portion  of  the 
night,  but  as  the  hours  crept  on  she  sunk  to  sleep.  They  could  tell,  by  what  she  faintly 
uttered  in  her  dreams,  that  they  were  of  her  journeyings  with  the  old  man  ; they  were 
of  no  painful  scenes,  but  of  people  who  had  helped  and  used  them  kindly,  for  she  often 
. said  “ God  bless  you!”  with  great  fervor.  Waking,  she  never  wandered  in  her  mind 
but  once,  and  that  was  of  beautiful  music  which  she  said  was  in  the  air.  God  knows. 
It  may  have  been. 

Opening  her  eyes  at  last,  from  a very  quiet  sleep,  she  begged  that  they  would  kiss 
her  once  again.  That  done,  she  turned  to  the  old  man  with  a lovely  smile  upon  her  face 
— such,  they  said,  as  they  had  never  seen,  and  never  could  forget — and  clung  with  both 
her  arms  about  his  neck.  They  did  not  know  that  she  was  dead,  at  first. 

She  had  spoken  very  often  of  the  two  sisters,  who,  she  said,  were  like  dear  friends 
to  her.  She  wished  they  could  be  told  how  much  she  thought  about  them,  and  how  she 
had  watched  them  as  they  walked  together  by  the  river  side  at  night.  She  would  like 
to  see  poor  Kit,  she  had  often  said  of  late.  She  wished  there  was  somebody  to  take  her 
love  to  Kit. 

* * * * * * 

And  anon  the  bell — the  bell  she  had  so  often  heard,  by  night  and  day,  and  listened 
to  with  solemn  pleasure  almost  as  a living  voice — rang  its  remorseless  toll,  for  her,  so 
young,  so  beautiful,  so  good.  Decrepit  age,  and  vigorous  life,  and  blooming  youth,  and 
helpless  infancy,  poured  forth — on  crutches,  in  the  pride  of  strength  and  health,  in  the 
full  blush  of  promise,  in  the  mere  dawn  of  life— to  gather  round  her  tomb. 


750 


SELECTIONS  IN  PROSE. 


ON  THE  FATE  OF  ROBERT  BURNS. 

Thomas  Carlyle, 

ONTEMPLATING  the  sad  end  of  Burns — how  he  sank  unaided  by  any 
real  help,  uncheered  by  any  wise  sympathy — generous  minds  have  some* 
times  figured  to  themselves,  with  a reproachful  sorrow,  that  much  might 
have  been  done  for  him  ; that,  by  counsel,  true  affection  and  friendly 
ministrations,  he  might  have  been  saved  to  himself  and  the  world.  But 
it  seems  dubious  whether  the  richest,  wisest,  and  most  benevolent  individual  could  have 
lent  Burns  any  effectual  help. 

We  have  already  stated  our  doubts  whether  direct  pecuniary  help,  had  it  been  offered, 
would  have  been  accepted,  or  could  have  proved  very  effectual.  We  shall  readily  admit, 
however,  that  much  was  to  be  done  for  Burns  ; that  many  a poisoned  arrow  might  have 
been  warded  from  his  bosom  ; many  an  entanglement  in  his  path  cut  asunder  by  the 
hand  of  the  powerful ; light  and  heat,  shed  on  him  from  high  places,  would  have  made 
his  humble  atmosphere  more  genial ; and  the  softest  heart  then  breathing,  might  have 
lived  and  died  with  fewer  pangs.  Still  we  do  not  think  that  the  blame  of  Burns’s  failure 
lies  chiefly  with  the  world.  The  world,  it  seems  to  us,  treated  him  with  more,  rather 
than  with  less  kindness  than  it  usually  shows  to  such  men.  It  has  ever,  we  fear,  shown 
but  small  favor  to  its  teachers:  hunger  and  nakedness,  perils  and  reviling,  the  prison, 
the  poison-chalice,  the  Cross,  have,  in  most  times  and  countries,  been  the  market-price 
it  has  offered  for  wisdom — the  welcome  with  which  it  has  treated  those  who  have 
come  to  enlighten  and  purify  it.  Homer  and  Socrates,  and  the  Christian  Apostles, 
belong  to  old  days  ; but  the  world’s  martyrology  was  not  completed  with  these.  Roger 
Bacon  and  Galileo  languished  in  priestly  dungeons;  Tasso  pines  in  the  cell  of  a mad 
house;  Camoens  dies  begging  on  the  streets  of  Lisbon.  So  neglected,  so  “ persecuted 
they  the  Prophets,”  not  in  Judea  only,  but  in  all  places  where  men  have  been.  We  reckon 
that  every  poet  of  Burns’s  order  is,  or  should  be  a Prophet  and  Teacher  to  his  age  ; that 
he  has  no  right  to  expect  kindness,  but  rather  is  bound  to  do  it ; that  Burns,  in  particu- 
lar, experienced  fully  the  usual  proportion  of  goodness  ; and  that  the  blame  of  his  failure 
as  we  have  said,  lies  not  chiefly  with  the  world.  Where  then  does  it  lie  ? We  are  forced 
to  answer,  with  himself  : It  is  his  inward  not  his  outward  misfortunes,  that  brings  him 
to  the  dust. 

CHARACTER  OF  NAPOLEON  BONAPARTE. 

Charles  P.  Phillips . 

E is  fallen!  We  may  now  pause  before  that  splendid  prodigy,  which 
towered  amongst  us  like  some  ancient  ruin,  whose  frown  terrified  the 
glance  its  magnificence  attracted. 

Grand,  gloomy,  and  peculiar,  he  sat  upon  the  throne,  a sceptered 
hermit,  wrapt  in  the  solitude  of  his  own  originality. 

A mind  bold,  independent,  and  decisive — a will,  despotic  in  its  dictates — an  energy 
that  distanced  expedition,  and  a conscience  pliable  to  every  touch  of  interest,  marked  the 
outline  of  this  extraordinary  character — the  most  extraordinary,  perhaps,  that,  in  the 
annals  of  this  world,  ever  rose,  or  reigned,  or  felL 


ROBERT  EMMET’S  SPELtii  FROM  THE  DOCK. 


751 


Flung  into  life  in  the  midst  of  a Revolution  that  quickened  every  energy  of  a people 
who  acknowledged  no  superior,  he  commenced  his  course  a stranger  by  birth  and  a 
scholar  by  charity ! 

With  no  friend  but  his  sword,  and  no  fortune  but  his  talents,  he  rushed  into  the  lists 
where  rank  and  genius  had  arrayed  themselves,  and  competition  fled  from  him  as  from 
the  glance  of  destiny.  He  knew  no  motive  but  interest ; he  acknowledged  no  criterion 
but  success ; he  worshipped  no  god  but  ambition,  and  with  an  eastern  devotion  he  knelt 
at  the  shrine  of  his  idolatry.  Subsidiary  to  this,  there  was  no  creed  that  he  did  not  pro- 
fess, there  was  no  opinion  that  he  did  not  promulgate  ; in  the  hope  of  a dynasty,  he  up- 
held the  crescent ; for  the  sake  of  a divorce,  he  bowed  before  the  cross  ; the  orphan  of 
St.  Louis,  he  became  the  adopted  child  of  the  Republic:  and  with  a parricidal  ingrati- 
tude, on  the  ruins  both  of  the  throne  and  the  tribune  he  reared  the  fabric  of  his  des- 
potism. 

But  if  his  fortune  was  great,  his  genius  was  transcendent ; decision  flashed  upon  his 
counsels  ; and  it  was  the  same  to  decide  and  to  perform.  To  inferior  intellects,  his  com- 
binations appeared  perfectly  impossible,  his  plans  perfectly  impracticable  ; but  in  his 
hands  simplicity  marked  their  development,  and  success  vindicated  their  adoption. 

His  person  partook  the  character  of  his  mind — if  the  one  never  yielded  in  the 
cabinet,  the  other  never  bent  in  the  held. 


ROBERT  EMMET’S  SPEECH  FROM  THE  DOCK. 

It  was  late  at  night — after  nine — and  Emmet  had  been  standing  at  the  bar 
all  the  long,  weary  day.  His  counsel  applied  for  an  adjournment  till  morning.  The 
request  was  peremptorily  refused.  Then  the  clerk  of  the  crown  went  through  the 
form  used  on  such  occasions,  and  asked  the  prisoner  at  the  bar  what  he  had  to  say 
why  judgment  of  death  and  execution  should  not  be  awarded  against  him  according  to 
law.  And  then  the  young  man,  stepping  to  the  front  of  the  dock,  spoke  that  death- 
less oration  which  takes  captive  both  the  heart  and  the  mind  of  all  who  read  it,  and 
which,  though  there  were  nothing  else  linked  with  his  name,  would  preserve  the  mem- 
ory of  Emmet  through  numberless  cycles  yet  to  come.  We  give  in  full,  with  the  inter- 
ruptions that  impeded  its  delivery,  this 

“SPEECH  FROM  THE  DOCK.” 

“ My  Lords — I am  asked  what  have  I to  say  why  sentence  of  death  should  not 
be  pronounced  on  me,  according  to  law.  I have  nothing  to  say  that  can  alter  your 
predetermination,  nor  that  it  will  become  me  to  say,  with  any  view  to  the  mitigation 
of  that  sentence  which  you  are  to  pronounce,  and  I must  abide  by.  But  I have 
that  to  say  which  interests  me  more  than  life,  and  which  you  have  labored  to  destroy. 
I have  much  to  say  why  my  reputation  should  be  rescued  from  the  load  of  false 
accusations  and  calumny  which  has  been  cast  upon  it.  I do  not  imagine  that,  seated 
where  you  are,  your  mind  can  be  so  free  from  prejudice  as  to  receive  the  least  impres- 


752 


ROBERT  EMMET’S  SPEECH  FROM  THE  DOCK. 


sion  from  what  I am  going  to  utter.  I have  no  hopes  that  I can  anchor  my  character 
in  the  breast  of  a court  constituted  and  trammeled  as  this  is.  I only  wish,  and  that  is 
the  utmost  that  I expect,  that  your  lordships  may  suffer  it  to  float  down  your  memories 
untainted  by  the  foul  breath  of  prejudice,  until  it  finds  some  more  hospitable  harbor  to 
shelter  it  from  the  storms  by  which  it  is  buffeted.  Was  I only  to  suffer  death,  after 
being  adjudged  guilty  by  your  tribunal,  I should  bow  in  silence,  and  meet  the  fate  that 
awaits  me  without  a murmur ; but  the  sentence  of  the  law  which  delivers  my  body  to 
the  executioner,  will,  through  the  ministry  of  the  law,  labor  in  its  own  vindication  tc ' 
consign  my  character  to  obloquy  ; for  there  must  be  guilt  somewhere,  whether  in  the 
sentence  of  the  court  or  in  the  catastrophe,  time  must  determine.  A man  in  my  situa- 
tion has  not  only  to  encounter  the  difficulties  of  fortune,  and  the  force  of  power  over 
minds  which  it  has  corrupted  or  subjugated,  but  the  difficulties  of  established  prejudice. 

The  man  dies,  but  his  memory  lives.  That  mine  may 
not  perish,  that  it  may  live  in  the  respect  of  my  coun- 
trymen, I seize  upon  this  opportunity  to  vindicate  my- 
self from  some  of  the  charges  alleged  against  me. 
When  my  spirit  shall  be  wafted  to  a more  friendly  port 
— when  my  shade  shall  have  joined  the  bands  of  those' 
martyred  heroes  who  have  shed  their  blood  on  the  scaf- 
fold and  in  the  field  in  the  defense  of  their  country  and 
of  virtue,  this  is  my  hope — I wish  that  my  memory  and 
name  may  animate  those  who  survive  me,  while  I look 
down  with  complacency  on  the  destruction  of  that 
perfidious  government  which  upholds  its  domination  by 
blasphemy  of  the  Most  High — which  displays  its  power 
over  man,  as  over  the  beasts  of  the  forest — which  sets 
man  upon  his  brother,  and  lifts  his  hand,  in  the  name 
of  God,  against  the  throat  of  his  fellow  who  believes 
or  doubts  a little  more  or  a little  less  than  the  government  standard— a government 
which  is  steeled  to  barbarity  by  the  cries  of  the  orphans,  and  the  tears  of  the  widows 
it  has  made.” 

[Here  Lord  Norbury  interrupted  Mr.  Emmet,  saying  “ that  the  mean  and  wicked 
enthusiasts  who  felt  as  he  did  were  not  equal  to  the  accomplishment  of  their  wild 
designs.”] 

“ I appeal  to  the  immaculate  God — I swear  by  the  Throne  of  Heaven,  before 
which  I must  shortly  appear— by  the  blood  of  the  murdered  patriots  who  have  gone 
before  me— that  my  conduct  has  been,  through  all  my  purposes,  governed  only  by  the 
conviction  which  I have  uttered,  and  by  no  other  view  than  that  of  the  emancipation  ot 
my  country  from  the  superhuman  oppression  under  which  she  has  so  long  and  too 
patiently  travailed ; and  I confidently  hope  that,  wild  and  chimerical  as  it  may  appear, 
there  is  still  union  and  strength  in  Ireland  to  accomplish  this  noblest  of  enterprises.  Of 
this  I speak  with  the  confidence  of  intimate  knowledge,  and  with  the  consolation  that 
appertains  to  that  confidence.  Think  not,  my  lords,  I say  this  for  the  petty  gratification 
of  giving  you  a transitory  uneasiness.  A man  who  never  yet  raised  his  voice  to  assert  a 


ROBERT  EMMET’S  SPEECH  FROM  THE  DOCK. 


753 


lie  will  not  hazard  his  character  with  posterity  by  asserting  a falsehood  on  a subject  so 
important  to  his  country,  and  on  an  occasion  like  this.  Yes,  my  lords,  a man  who  does 
not  wish  to  have  his  epitaph  written  until  his  country  is  liberated,  will  not  leave  a 
weapon  in  the  power  of  envy,  or  a pretense  tc  impeach  the  probity  which  he  means  to 
preserve,  even  in  the  grave  to  which  tyranny  consigns  him.” 

[Here  he  was  again  interrupted  by  the  court.] 

“Again  I say,  that  what  I have  spoken  was  not  intended  for  your  lordship,  whose 
situation  I commiserate  rather  than  envy — my  expressions  were  for  my  countrymen. 
If  there  is  a true  Irishman  present,  let  my  last  words  cheer  him  in  the  hour  of  his  afflic. 
tion.” 

[Here  he  was  again  interrupted.  Lord  Norbury  said  he  did  not  sit  there  to  hear 
treason.  ] 

“ I have  always  understood  it  to  be  the  duty  of  a judge,  when  a prisoner  has  been 
convicted,  to  pronounce  the  sentence  of  the  law.  I have  also  understood  that'  judges 
sometimes  think  it  their  duty  to  hear  with  patience,  and  to  speak  with  humanity ; to 
exhort  the  victim  of  the  laws,  and  to  offer,  with  tender  benignity,  their  opinions  of  the 
motives  by  which  he  was  actuated  in  the  crime  of  which  he  was  adjudged  guilty. 
That  a judge  has  thought  it  his  duty  so  to  have  done,  I have  no  doubt  ; but  where  is 
the  boasted  freedom  of  your  institutions — where  is  the  vaunted  impartiality,  clemency, 
and  mildness  of  your  courts  of  justice,  if  an  unfortunate  prisoner,  whom  your  policy, 
and  not  justice,  is  about  to  deliver  into  the  hands  of  the  executioner,  is  not  suffered  to 
explain  his  motives  sincerely  and  truly,  and  to  vindicate  the  principles  by  which  he 
was  actuated?  My  lords,  it  may  be  a part  of  the  system  of  angry  justice  to  bow  a 
man’s  mind  by  humiliation  to  the  purposed  ignominy  of  the  scaffold  ; but  worse  to  me 
than  the  purposed  shame,  or  the  scaffold’s  terrors,  would  be  the  shame  of  such  foul  and 
unfounded  imputations  as  have  been  laid  against  me  in  this  court.  You,  my  lord,  are 
a judge ; I am  the  supposed  culprit.  I am  a man  ; you  are  a man  also.  By  a revolu- 
tion of  power  we  might  change  places,  though  we  never  could  change  characters.  If  I 
stand  at  the  bar  of  this  court  and  dare  not  vindicate  my  character,  what  a farce  is  your 
justice ! If  I stand  at  this  bar  and  dare  not  vindicate  my  character,  how  dare  you 
calumniate  it?  Does  the  sentence  of  death,  which  your  unhallowed  policy  inflicts  on 
my  body,  condemn  my  tongue  to  silence  and  my  reputation  to  reproach  ? Your  execu- 
tioner may  abridge  the  period  of  my  existence  ; but  while  I exist  I shall  not  forbear 
to  vindicate  my  character  and  motives  from  your  aspersions,  and,  as  a man  to  whom 
fame  is  dearer  than  life,  I will  make  the  last  use  of  that  life  in  doing  justice  to  that 
reputation  which  is  to  live  after  me,  and  which  is  the  only  legacy  I can  leave  to  those 
I honor  and  love,  and  for  whom  I am  proud  to  perish.  As  men,  my  lords,  we  must 
appear  on  the  great  day  at  one  common  tribunal ; and  it  will  then  remain  for  the 
Searcher  of  all  hearts  to  show  a collective  universe  who  was  engaged  in  the  most  vir- 
tuous-actions, or  swayed  by  the  purest  motives — my  country’s  oppressor,  or” 

[Here  he  was  interrupted,  and  told  to  listen  to  the  sentence  of  the  law.] 

“ My  lords,  will  a dying  man*  be  denied  the  legal  privilege  of  exculpating  himsell 
in  the  eyes  of  the  community  from  an  undeserved  reproach,  thrown  upon  him  during 
his  trial,  by  charging  him  with  ambition,  and  attempting  to  cast  away  for  a paltry  con 


754 


ROBERT  EMMET’S  SPEECH  FROM  THE  DOCK. 


sideration  the  liberties  of  his  country  ? Why  did  your  lordships  insult  me  ? Or  rather, 
why  insult  justice,  in  demanding  of  me  why  sentence  of  death  should  not  be  pro- 
nounced against  me  ? I know,  my  lords,  that  form  prescribes  that  you  should  ask  the 
question.  The  form  also  presents  the  right  of  answering.  This,  no  doubt,  may  be. 
dispensed  with,  and  so  might  the  whole  ceremony  of  the  trial,  since  sentence  was 
already  pronounced  at  the  castle  before  the  jury  was  empaneled.  Your  lordships 
are  but  the  priests  of  the  oracle,  and  I insists  on  the  whole  of  the  forms.” 

[Here  Mr.  Emmet  paused,  and  the  court  desired  him  to  proceed.] 

“I  am  charged  with  being  an  emissary  of  France.  An  emissary  of  France!  and 
for  what  end?  It  is  alleged  that  I wished  to  sell  the  independence  ofimy  country; 
and  for  what  end?  Was  this  the  object  of  my  ambition?  And  is  this  the  mode  by 
which  £ tribunal  of  justice  reconciles  contradictions  ? No;  I am  no  emissary  ; and  my 
ambition  was  to  hold  a place  among  the  deliverers  of  my  country,  not  in  power  nor  in 
profit,  but  in  the  glory  of  the  accomplishment.  Sell  my  country’s  independence  to 
France  ! and  for  what  ? Was  it  for  a change  of  masters?  No,  but  for  my  ambition. 
O my  country!  was  it  personal  ambition  that  could  influence  me?  Had  it  been  the 
soul  of  my  actions,  could  I not,  by  my  education  and  fortune,  by  the  rank  and  consid- 
eration of  my  family,  have  placed  myself  among  the  proudest  of  your  oppressors? 
My  country  was  my  idol.  To  it  I sacrificed  every  selfish,  every  endearing  sentiment ; 
and  for  it  I now  offer  up  myself,  O God!  No,  my  lords;  I acted  as  an  Irishman, 
determined  on  delivering  my  country  from  the  yoke  of  a foreign  and  unrelenting 
tyranny,  and  the  more  galling  yoke  of  a domestic  faction  which  is  its  joint  partner  and 
perpetrator  in  the  patricide — from  the  ignominy  existing  with  an  exterior  of  splendor 
and  a conscious  depravity.  It  was  the  wish  of  my  heart  to  extricate  my  country  from 
this  doubly  riveted  despotism — I wished  to  place  her  independence  beyond  the  reach 
of  any  power  on  earth.  I wished  to  exalt  her  to  that  proud  station  in  the  world. 
Connection  with  France  was,  indeed,  intended,  but  only  as  far  as  mutual  interest  would 
sanction  or  require.  Were  the  French  to  assume  any  authority  inconsistent  with  the 
purest  independence,  it  would  be  the  signal  for  their  destruction.  We  sought  their 
aid — and  we  sought  it  as  we  had  assurance  we  should  obtain  it — as  auxiliaries  in  war, 
and  allies  in  peace.  Were  the  French  to  come  as  invaders  or  enemies,  uninvited  by  the 
wishes  of  the  people,  I should  oppose  them  to  the  utmost  of  my  strength.  Yes! 
my  countrymen,  I should  advise  you  to  meet  them  upon  the  beach,  with  a sword  ii? 
one  hand  and  a torch  in  the  other.  I would  meet  them  with  all  the  destructive  fury 
of  war.  I would  animate  my  countrymen  to  immolate  them  in  their  boats,  before 
they  had  contaminated  the  soil  of  my  country.  If  they  succeeded  in  landing,  and  if 
forced  to  retire  before  superior  discipline,  I would  dispute  every  inch  of  ground,  burn 
every  blade  of  grass,  and  the  last  intrenchment  of  liberty  should  be  my  grave.  What 
I could  not  do  myself,  if  I should  fall,  I should  leave  as  a last  charge  to  my  country- 
men to  accomplish  ;•  because  I should  feel  conscious  that  life,  any  more  than  death,  is 
unprofitable  when  a foreign  nation  holds  my  country  in  subjection.  But  it  was  not  as 
an  enemy  that  the  succors  of  France  were  to  land.  I looked,  indeed,  for  the  assistance 
of  France  : but  I wished  to  prove  to  France  and  to  the  world  that  Irishmen  deserved 
to  be  assisted — that  they  were  indignant  at  slavery,  and  ready  to  assert  the  independ- 


ROBERT  EMMET’S  SPEECH  FkoM  THE  DOCK. 


755 


cnee  and  liberty  of  their  country ; I wished  to  procure  for  my  country  the  guarantee 
which  Washington  procured  for  America — to  procure  an  aid  which,  by  its  example, 
would  be  as  important  as  its  valor ; disciplined,  gallant,  pregnant  with  science  and 
experience  ; that  of  a people  who  would  perceive  the  good,  and  polish  the  rough  points 
of  our  character.  They  would  come  to  us  as  strangers,  and  leave  us  as  friends,  after 
sharing  in  our  perils  and  elevating  our  destiny.  These  were  my  objects  ; not  to  receive 
new  task-masters,  but  to  expel  old  tyrants.  It  was  for  these  ends  I sought  aid  from 
France;  because  France,  even  as  an  enemy,  could  not  be  more  implacable  than  the 
enemy  already  in  the  bosom  of  my  country.” 

[Here  he  was  interrupted  by  the  court.] 

“ I have  been  charged  with  that  importance  in  the  emancipation  of  my  country  as 
to  be  considered  the  key-stone  of  the  combination  of  Irishmen ; or,  as  your  lordship 
expressed  it,  ‘the  life  and  blood  of  the  conspiracy.’  You  do  me  honor  overmuch  ; you 
have  given  to  the  subaltern  all  the  credit  of  a superior.  There  are  men  engaged  in 
this  conspiracy  who  are  not  only  superior  to  me,  but  even  to  your  own  conceptions  of 
yourself,  my  lord — men  before  the  splendor  of  whose  genius  and  virtues  I should  bow 
with  respectful  deference,  and  who  would  think  themselves  disgraced  by  shaking  your 
blood-stained  hand.” 

[Here  he  was  interrupted.] 

“ What,  my  lord ! shall  you  tell  me,  on  the  passage  to  the  scaffold  which  that 
tyranny  of  which  you  are  only  the  intermediary  executioner  has  erected  for  my  mur- 
der, that  I am  accountable  for  all  the  blood  that  has  and  will  be  shed  in  this  struggle 
of  the  oppressed  against  the  oppressor — shall  you  tell  me  this,  and  must  I be  so  very 
3.  slave  as  not  to  repel  it?  I do  not  fear  to  approach  the  Omnipotent  Judge  to  answer 
for  the  conduct  of  my  whole  life  ; and  am  I to  be  appalled  and  falsified  by  a mere 
remnant  of  mortality  here  ? By  you,  too,  although  if  it  were  possible  to  collect  all  the 
innocent  blood  that  you  have  shed  in  your  unhallowed  ministry  in  one  great  reservoir 
your  lordship  might  swim  in  it.” 

[Here  the  judge  interfered.] 

“ Let  no  man  dare,  when  I am  dead,  to  charge  me  with  dishonor ; let  no  man 
attaint  my  memory  by  believing  that  I could  have  engaged  in  any  cause  but  tljat  of 
my  country’s  liberty  and  independence  ; or  that  I could  have  become  the  pliant  min- 
ion of  power  in  the  oppression  and  misery  of  my  country.  The  proclamation  of  the 
provisional  government  speaks  for  our  views  ; no  inference  can  be  tortured  from  it  to 
countenance  barbarity  or  debasement  at  home,  or  subjection,  humiliation,  or  treachery 
from  abroad.  I would  not  have  submitted  to  a foreign  oppressor,  for  the  same  reason 
that  I would  resist  the  foreign  and  domestic  oppressor.  In  the  dignity  of  freedom,  I 
/would  have  fought  upon  the  threshold  of  my  country,  and  its  enemy  should  enter  only 
by  passing  over  my  lifeless  corpse.  And  am  I,  who  lived  but  for  my  country,  and  who 
have  subjected  myself  to  the  dangers  of  the  jealous  and  watchful  oppressor  and  the 
bondage  of  the  grave  only  to  give  my  countrymen  their  rights  and  my  country  her 
independence,  am  I to  be  loaded  with  calumny,  and  not  suffered  to  resent  it?  No' 
God  forbid  ! ” 

Here  Lord  Norbury  told  Mr.  Emmet  that  his  sentiments  and  language  disgrace*. 


756 


ROBERT  EMMET’S  SPEECH  FROM  THE  DOCK. 


his  family  and  his  education,  but  more  particularly  his  father,  Dr.  Emmet,  who  was  a 
man,  if  alive,  that  would  not  countenance  such  opinions.  To  which  Mr.  Emmet 
replied : — 

“ If  the  spirits  of  the  illustrious  dead  participate  in  the  concerns  and  cares  of  those 
who  were  dear  to  them  in  this  transitory  life,  O ever  dear  and  venerated  shade  of  my 
departed  father ! look  down  with  scrutiny  upon  the  conduct  of  your  suffering  son,  and 
see  if  I have,  even  for  a moment,  deviated  from  those  principles  of  morality  and  patri- 
otism which  it  was  your  care  to  instill  into  my  youthful  mind,  and  for  which  I am 
now  about  to  offer  up  my  life.  My  lords,  you  are  impatient  for  the  sacrifice.  The 
blood  which  you  seek  is  not  congealed  by  the  artificial  terrors  which  surround  your  vic- 
tim— it  circulates  warmly  and  unruffled  through  the  channels  which  God  created  for 
noble  purposes,  but  which  you  are  now  bent  to  destroy  for  purposes  so  grievous  that 
they  cry  to  heaven.  Be  yet  patient ! I have  but  a few  more  words  to  say — I am 
going  to  my  cold  and  silent  grave — my  lamp  of  life  is  nearly  extinguished — my  race  is 
run — the  grave  opens  to  receive  me,  and  I sink  into  its  bosom.  I have  but  one  request 
to  ask  at  my  departure  from  this  world,  it  is — THE  CHARITY  OF  ITS  SILENCE.  Let  no 
man  write  my  epitaph  ; for  as  no  man  who  knows  my  motives  dare  now  vindicate 
them,  let  not  prejudice  or  ignorance  asperse  them.  Let  them  and  me  rest  in  obscurity 
and  peace,  and  my  tomb  remain  uninscribed,  and  my  memory  in  oblivion,  until  other 
times  and  other  men  can  do  justice  to  my  character.  When  my  country  takes  her 
place  among  the  nations  of  the  earth,  then  and  not  till  then , let  my  epitaph  be  written. 
I have  done.” 

People  of  the  present  day  who  find  their  feelings  overmasteringly  swayed  on 
reading  an  imperfect  report  of  Robert  Emmet’s  last  speech — for  none  but  imperfect 
reports  have  come  down  to  us — can  hardly  form  even  a faint  conception  of  its  tremen- 
dous effect  upon  those  who  heard  it — officials,  civil  and  military,  every  one — as  in  firm 
clear  tones,  the  voice  rising  and  falling  in  harmonious  cadences,  it  came  from  the  dock 
in  the  dim,  candle-lit  court ; the  foredoomed  prisoner’s  slight  figure,  clothed  in  black, 
moving  rapidly  to  and  fro,  or  bending  and  rising  under  the  weight  of  his  emotions ; 
the  projecting  serious  brow  more  solemn  than  ever,  the  pale  somber  face  lit  up  with  a 
spiritual  beauty,  and  the  eyes  flashing  with  a light  that  seemed  to  cleave  the  semi- 
darkness as  his  indignant  glances  sought  the  bloated  visage  of  Norbury.  Even  that 
eternal  disgrace  to  the  judicial  bench  seems  to  have  had  the  less  demoniacal  part  of  his 
nature  touched,  for  in  passing  sentence  he  exhibited  an  emotion  never  previously  dis- 
played by  him  on  any  similar  grave  occasion.  But,  all  the  same,  he  decreed  Emmet’s 
doom  in  due  form,  and  appointed  the  following  day  for  the  execution. 

The  temporary  scaffold  erected  in  front  of  St.  Catherine’s  Church  in  Thomas-street 
was  formed  chiefly  of  empty  barrels  with  boards  laid  across  them.  Two  upright  posts 
supported  a transverse  beam  from  which  the  rope  depended.  A single  loose  plank 
beneath  the  rope,  and  some  eight  or  nine  feet  from  the  ground,  was  the  station  the 
condemned  man  was  to  occupy  for  a few  brief  minutes.  Nothing  more  easy  of  ascent 
than  a ladder  led  up  to  it.  The  whole  was  fenced  round  with  an  imposing  display  oi 
military  forces.  When  Emmet  arrived  at  the  foot  of  the  structure  his  arms  were  tied 
and  in  consequence  it  became  necessary  to  aid  him  in  ascending  the  ladder,  but  his 


SELECT  PIECES  FOR  RECITATION. 


757 


step  was  quick  and  firm,  and  free  from  every  trace  of  fear.  A Protestant  clergyman 
attended  him.  The  victim  of  the  law  spoke  a few  words  from  the  scaffold  to  those 
around — “ I die  in  peace,  and  with  sentiments  of  universal  love  and  kindness  toward 
all  men.”  His  silver  tones  pierced  the  ears  not  only  of  the  crowd  which  swayed  in 
silent  wrath  behind  the  soldiery,  but  of  the  many  who  far  down  the  street  on  either 
sides  thronged  the  windows.  Then  the  black  cap  was  drawn  over  his  face,  and  ahand« 
kerchief  put  into  his  hand,  the  fall  of  which  was  to  have  been  the  signal  for  the  execu- 
tioner; but  that  functionary  dispensed  with  any  such  formality,  and  unexpectedly 
tilted  over  one  end  of  the  plank.  In  an  instant  the  body  of  Robert  Emmet  was  dang- 
ling at  the  end  of  a rope.  One  convulsive  movement  passed  through  the  frame,  and 
then  all  was  still.  The  lamp  of  his  life  was  extinguished. 


FROM  THE  PENS  OF  FAMOUS  AUTHORS. 


THE  DESERTED  VILLAGE. 

Oliver  Goldsmith. 

fWEET  Auburn  ! loveliest  village  of  the  plain. 
Where  health  and  plenty  cheered  the  labor- 
ing swain. 

Where  smiling  spring  its  earliest  visit  paid, 
And  parting  summer’s  lingering  blooms  delayed; 
Dear  lovely  bowers  of  innocence  and  ease, 

Seats  of  my  youth,  when  every  sport  could  please  ; 
How  often  have  I loitered  o’er  thy  green, 

Where  humble  happiness  endeared  each  scene  ! 

How  often  have  I paused  on  every  charm, 

The  sheltered  cot,  the  cultivated  farm; 

The  never-failing  brook,  the  busy  mill; 

The  decent  church  that  topped  the  neighboring  hill; 
The  hawthorn  bush,  with  seats  beneath  the  shade, 
For  talking  age,  and  whispering  lovers  made’ 

How  often  have  I blessed  the  coming  day, 

When  toil  remitting  lent  its  turn  to  play, 

And  all  the  village  train,  from  labor  free, 

/ Lead  up  their  sports  beneath  the  spreading  tree  : 
While  many  a pastime  circled  in  the  shade, 

The  young  contending  as  the  old  surveyed; 

And  many  a gambol  frolicked  o’er  the  ground, 

And  sleights  of  art,  and  feats  of  strength  went  round. 
And  still,  as  each  repeated  pleasure  tired, 
Succeeding  sports  the  mirthful  band  inspired; 

The  dancing  pair  that  simply  sought  renown, 

By  holding  out  to  tire  each  other  down; 

The  swain,  mistrustless  of  his  smutted  face, 


While  secret  laughter  tittered  round  the  place; 

The  bashful  virgin’s  sidelong  looks  of  love, 

The  matron’s  glance  that  would  those  looks  .e 
prove  — 

These  were  thy  charms,  sweet  village ! sports  like 
these, 

With  sweet  succession,  taught  e’en  toil  to  please. 

Sweet  was  the  sound,  when  oft,  at  evening’s  close. 
Up  yonder  hill  the  village  murmur  rose; 

There,  as  I passed,  with  careless  steps  and  slow, 
The  mingling  notes  came  softened  from  below; 

The  swain  responsive  as  the  milk-maid  sung. 

The  sober  herd  that  lowed  to  meet  their  young; 

The  noisy  geese  that  gabbled  o’er  the  pool. 

The  playful  children  just  let  loose  from  school; 

The  watch-dog’s  voice  that  bayed  the  whispering 
wind, 

And  the  loud  laugh  that  spoke  the  vacant  mind; 
These  all  in  sweet  confusion  sought  the  shade, 

And  filled  each  pause  the  nightingale  had  made. 

Near  yonder  copse,  where  once  the  garden  smiled, 
And  still  where  many  a garden  flower  grows  wild; 
There,  where  a few  torn  shrubs  the  place  disclose, 
The  village  preacher’s  modest  mansion  rose. 

A man  he  was  to  all  the  country  dear, 

And  passing  rich  with  forty  pounds  a year. 

Remote  from  towns  he  ran  his  godly  race, 

Nor  e’er  had  changed,  nor  wished  to  change,  htft 
place; 

Unskillful  he  to  fawn,  or  seek  for  power, 

By  doctrines  fashioned  to  the  varying  hour; 


758 


THE  DESERTED  VILLAGE. 


Far  other  aims  his  heart  had  learned  to  prize, 

More  bent  to  raise  the  wretched  than  to  rise. 

His  house  was  known  to  all  the  vagrant  train; 

He  chid  their  wanderings,  but  relieved  their  pain. 
The  long  remembered  beggar  was  his  guest, 

Whose  beard  descending  swept  his  aged  breast; 

The  ruined  spendthrift,  now  no  longer  proud, 
Claimed  kindred  there,  and  had  his  claims  allowed; 
The  broken  soldier,  kindly  bade  to  stay, 

Sat  by  his  fire,  and  talked  the  night  away; 

Wept  o’er  his  wounds,  or  tales  of  sorrow  done, 
Shouldered  his  crutch,  and  showed  how  fields  were 
won. 

Pleased  with  his  guests,  the  good  man  learned  to 
glow, 

And  quite  forgot  their  vices  in  their  woe; 

Careless  their  merits  or  their  faults  to  scan, 

His  pity  gave  ere  charity  began. 

Thus  to  relieve  the  wretched  was  his  pride, 

And  even  his  failings  leaned  to  virtue’s  side; 

But,  in  his  duty  prompt  at  every  call, 

He  watched  and  wept,  he  prayed  and  felt  for  all. 
And,  as  a bird  each  fond  endearment  tries. 

To  tempt  her  new-fledged  offspring  to  the  skies; 

He  tried  each  art,  reproved  each  dull  delay. 

Allured  to  brighter  worlds,  and  led  the  way. 

Beside  the  bed  where  parting  life  was  laid. 

And  sorrow,  guilt,  and  pain,  by  turns  dismayed. 

The  reverend  champion  stood.  At  his  control 
Despair  and  anguish  fled  the  struggling  soul! 
Comfort  came  down  the  trembling  wretch  to  raise. 
And  his  last  faltering  accents  whispered  praise. 

At  church,  with  meek  and  unaffected  grace, 

His  looks  adorned  the  venerable  place; 

Truth  from  his  lips  prevailed  with  double  sway, 

And  fools,  who  came  to  scoff,  remained  to  pray. 

The  service  past,  around  the  pious  man, 

With  steady  zeal,  each  honest  rustic  ran; 

Ev’n  children  followed  with  endearing  wile, 

And  plucked  his  gown,  to  share  the  good  man's 
smile. 

His  ready  smile  a parent’s  warmth  expressed. 

Their  welfare  pleased  him,  and  their  cares  distressed; 
To  them  his  heart,  his  love,  his  griefs,  were  given, 
But  all  his  serious  thoughts  had  rest  in  heaven. 

As  some  tall  cliff  that  lifts  its  awful  form, 

Swells  from  the  vale,  and  midway  leaves  the  storm. 
Though  round  its  breast  the  rolling  clouds  are  spread 
Eternal  sunshine  settles  on  its  head. 

Beside  yon  straggling  fence  that  skirts  the  way, 
With  blossomed  furze  unprofitably  gay, 

There,  in  his  noisy  mansion,  skilled  to  rule. 

The  village  master  taught  his  little  school. 

A man  severe  he  was,  and  stern  to  view ; 

I knew  him  well,  and  every  truant  knew. 


Well  had  the  boding  tremblers  learned  to  trace, 

The  day’s  disasters  in  his  morning  face ; 

Full  well  they  laughed,  with  counterfeited  glee, 

At  all  his  jokes,  for  many  a joke  had  he; 

Full  well  the  busy  whisper,  circling  round, 
Conveyed  the  dismal  tidings  when  he  frowned: 

Yet  he  was  kind;  or,  if  severe  in  aught, 

The  love  he  bore  to  learning  was  in  fault. 

The  village  all  declared  how  much  he  knew; 

’Twas  certain  he  could  write,  and  cipher  too; 

Lands  he  could  measure,  terms  and  tides  presage, 
And  even  the  story  ran  that  he  could  gauge  ; 

In  arguing  too,  the  parson  owned  his  skill. 

For  e'  en  though  vanquished,  he  could  argue  still : 
While  words  of  learned  length,  and  thundering 
sound, 

Amazed  the  gazing  rustics  ranged  around; 

And  still  they  gazed,  and  still  the  wonder  grew 
That  one  small  head  could  carry  all  he  knew. 

But  past  is  all  his  fame  : the  very  spot 
Where  many  a time  he  triumphed,  is  forgot. 

Near  yonder  thorn  that  lifts  its  head  on  high. 
Where  once  the  sign-post  caught  the  passing  eye, 
Low  lies  that  house  where  nut-brown  draughts  in« 
spired. 

Where  gray-beard  mirth  and  smiling  toil  retired; 
Where  village  statesmen  talked  with  looks  profound 
And  news  much  older  than  their  ale  went  round. 
Imagination  fondly  stoops  to  trace 
The  parlor  splendors  of  that  festive  place  ; 

The  whitewashed  wall,  the  nicely-sanded  floor, 

The  varnished  clock  that  clicked  behind  the  door; 
The  chest,  contrived  a double  debt  to  pay, 

A bed  by  night,  a chest  of  drawers  by  day; 

The  pictures  placed  for  ornament  and  use, 

The  Twelve  Good  Rules,  the  Royal  game  of  Goose* 
The  hearth,  except  when  winter  chilled  the  day. 
With  aspen  boughs,  and  flowers,  and  fennel  gay; 
While  broken  tea-cups,  wisely  kept  for  show 
Ranged  o’er  the  chimney,  glistened  in  a row. 

Yes,  let  the  rich  deride,  the  proud  disdain 
These  simple  blessings  of  the  lowly  train  ; 

To  me  more  dear,  congenial  to  my  heart. 

One  native  charm,  than  all  the  gloss  of  art : 
Spontaneous  joys,  where  Nature  has  its  play, 

The  soul  adopts,  and  owns  their  first-born  sway; 
Lightly  they  frolic  o’er  the  vacant  mind, 

Unenvied,  unmolested,  unconfined: 

But  the  long  pomp,  the  midnight  masquerade. 

With  all  the  freaks  of  wanton  wealth  arrayed. 

In  these,  ere  triflers  half  their  wish  obtain. 

The  toiling  pleasure  sickens  into  pain; 

And,  even  while  fashion’s  brightest  arts  deco? 

The  heart  distrusting  asks— if  this  be  joy? 


SELECT  PIECES  FOR  RECITATION. 


759 


THE  POET  AND  THE  POSE. 

John  Gay. 

[John  Gay,  one  of  the  most  genial,  gentle,  and 
worthiest  of  poets  and  dramatists,  was  born  at  Barn- 
stable, England,  in  1668.  He  came  of  a good  fam- 
ily ; and  both  parents  dying  when  he  was  but  six 
years  of  age,  he  was  apprenticed  to  a silk-mercer  in 
London.  Disliking  the  drudgery  of  a retail  store, 
he  obtained  the  cancelling  of  his  indentures,  and 
devoted  himself  to  literature.  He  published  “ Rural 
Sports,”  a descriptive  poem,  which  he  dedicated  to 
Pope,  through  life  his  admirer  and  friend.  In  1714 
He  published  his  “Shepherd’s  Week,”  a pastoral, 
and  obtained  the  post  of  secretary  to  Lord  Claren- 
don on  his  appointment  of  Envoy-Extraordinary  to 
Hanover;  in  1727  his  “Beggars’  Opera”  came  out, 
ran  for  sixty-two  successive  nights,  and  not  only 
became  the  rage  at  the  time,  but  has  remained  ever 
since  one  of  the  most  popular  pieces  ever  produced 
on  the  British  stage.  He  soon  amassed  3000/ by  his 
writings.  This  he  determined  to  keep  “entire  and 
sacred,”  being  at  the  same  time  received  into  the 
house  of  his  early  patrons  the  Duke  and  Duchess  of 
Queensbury.  Here  he  amused  himself  by  adding  to 
his  “ Fables.”  He  died  suddenly,  of  fever,  Decem- 
ber 4,  1732,  aged  44,  and  was  buried  in  Westminster 
Abbey.] 

HATE  the  man  who  builds  his  name 
On  ruins  of  another’s  fame; 

Thus  prudes,  by  characters  o’ethrown. 
Imagine  that  they  raise  their  own; 

Thus  scribblers,  covetous  of  praise, 

Think  slander  can  transplant  the  bays. 

Beauties  and  bards  have  equal  pride. 

With  both  all  rivals  are  decried; 

Who  praises  Lesbia’s  eyes  and  feature, 

Must  call  her  sister  “awkward  creature;” 

For  the  kind  flattery’s  sure  to  charm, 

When  we  some  other  nymph  disarm. 

As  in  the  cool  of  early  day, 

A poet  sought  the  sweets  of  May, 

The  garden’s  fragrant  breath  ascends. 

And  every  stalk  with  odor  bends, 

A rose  he  pluck’d,  he  gazed,  admired, 

Thus  singing  as  the  muse  inspired: 

“Go,  rose,  my  Chloe’s  bosom  grace! 

How  happy  should  I prove, 

Might  I supply  that  envied  place 
With  never-fading  love! 

There,  Phcenix-like.  beneath  her  eye, 

Involved  in  fragrance,  burn  and  die! 

Know,  hapless  flower,  that  thou  shalt  find 
More  fragrant  roses  there, 

1 see  thy  withering  head  reclined 


With  envy  and  despair : 

One  common  fate  we  both  must  prove. 

You  die  with  envy,  I with  love,” 

“ Spare  your  comparisons,”  replied 
An  angry  rose,  who  grew  beside. 

“ Of  all  mankind  you  should  not  flout  us; 

What  can  a poet  do  without  us? 

In  every  love-song  roses  bloom; 

We  lend  you  color  and  perfume. 

Does  it  to  Chloe’s  charms  conduce 
To  found  her  praise  on  our  abuse? 

Must  we,  to  flatter  her,  be  made 
To  wither,  envy,  pine,  and  fade?” 

HOW  THEY  BROUGHT  THE  GOOD 
NEWS  FROM  GHENT. 

Robert  Browning. 

SPRANG  to  the  stirrup,  and  Joris,  and  he; 

I galloped,  Dirck  galloped,  we  galloped  all 
three; 

“Good  speed!”  cried  the  watch,  as  the  gate- 
bolts  undrew; 

“ Speed!”  echoed  the  wall  to  us  galloping  through; 
Behind  shut  the  postern,  the  lights  sank  to  rest, 

And  into  the  midnight  we  galloped  abreast. 

Not  a word  to  each  other;  we  kept  the  great  pace 
Neck  by  neck,  stride  by  stride,  never  changing  our 
place; 

I turned  in  my  saddle  and  made  its  girths  tight, 
Then  shortened  each  stirrup,  and  set  the  pique  right. 
Rebuckled  the  cheek-strap,  chained  slacker  the  bit. 
Nor  galloped  less  steadily  Roland  a whit. 

*Twas  moonset  at  starting;  but  while  we  drew  near 
Lockeren,  the  cocks  crew,  and  twilight  dawned  clear; 
At  Boom,  a great  yellow  star  came  out  to  see; 

At  Diiffield,  ’twas  morning  as  plain  as  could  be; 

And  from  Mechelen  church-steeple  we  heard  the  half- 
chime, 

So  Joris  broke  silence  with  “Yet  there  is  time!” 

At  Aershot  up  leaped  of  a sudden  the  sun, 

And  against  him  the  cattle  stood  black  every  one, 
To  stare  through  the  mist  at  us  galloping  past. 

And  I saw  my  stout  galloper  Roland  at  last, 

With  resolute  shoulders,  each  butting  away 
The  haze,  as  some  bluff  river  headland  its  spray. 

By  Hasselt,  Dirck  groaned  ; and  cried  Joris  “Stay 
spur! 

Your  Ross  galloped  bravely,  the  fault’s  not  in  her, 
We’ll  remember  at  Aix” — for  one  heard  the  quick 
wheeze 

Of  her  chest,  saw  her  stretched  neck  and  staggering 
knees, 


760 


SELECT  PIECES  FOR  RECITATION. 


And  sunk  tail,  and  horrible  heave  of  the  flank. 

As  down  on  her  haunches  she  shuddered  and  sank. 
So  we  were  left  galloping,  Joris  and  I, 

Past  Looz  and  past  Tongres,  no  cloud  in  the  sky; 
The  broad  sun  above  laughed  a pitiles  laugh, 

*Neath  our  feet  broke  the  brittle  bright  stubble  like 
chaff ; 

Till  over  by  Dalhem  a dome-spire  sprang  white, 

And  “Gallop,”  gasped  Joris,  “for  Aix  is  in  sight!” 

“How  they’ll  greet  us!”  and  all  in  a moment  his 
roan 

Rolled  neck  and  crop  over,  lay  dead  as  a stone; 

And  there  was  my  Roland  to  bear  the  whole  weight 
Of  news  which  alone  could  save  Aix  from  her  fate, 
With  his  nostrils  like  pits  full  of  blood  to  the  brim, 
And  with  circles  of  red  for  his  eye-socket’s  rim. 


Then  I cast  loose  my  buff-coat,  each  holster  let  fall. 
Shook  off  both  my  jack-boots,  let  go  belt  and  all. 
Stood  up  in  the  stirrup,  leaned,  patted  his  ear, 
Called  my  Roland  his  pet-name,  my  horse  without 
peer; 

Clapped  my  hands,  laughed  and  sang,  any  noise, 
bad  or  good, 

Till  at  length  into  Aix  Roland  galloped  and  stood. 

And  all  I remember  is,  friends  flocking  round 
As  I sat  with  his  head  ’twixt  my  knees  on  the  ground, 
And  no  voice  but  was  praising  this  Roland  of  mine, 
As  I poured  down  his  throat  our  last  measure  of 
wine, 

Which  (the  burgesses  voted  by  common  consent) 
Was  no  more  than  his  due  who  brought  good  news 
from  Ghent. 


Witty  and  Humorous  Poems. 


HEBE  SHE  GOES — AJ$D  THEBE  SHE 
GOES. 

James  Nack. 

fwo  Yankee  wags,  one  summer  day. 

Stopped  at  a tavern  on  their  way. 

Supped,  frolicked,  late  retired  to  rest, 

And  woke  to  breakfast  on  the  best. 

The  breakfast  over,  Tom  and  Will 
Sent  for  the  landlord  and  the  bill; 

Will  looked  it  over; — “Very  right — 

But  hold!  what  wonder  meets  my  sight? 

Tom!  the  surprise  is  quite  a shock!” 

“ What  wonder ? where?” — “The  clock,  the  clock!” 

Tom  and  the  landlord  in  amaze 
Stared  at  the  clock  with  stupid  gaze. 

And  for  a moment  neither  spoke; 

At  last  the  landlord  silence  broke — 

“ You  mean  the  clock  that’s  ticking  there? 

I see  no  wonder,  I declare: 

Though  maybe,  if  the  truth  were  told, 

’Tis  rather  ugly,  somewhat  old; 

Yet  time  it  keeps  to  half  a minute; 

But,  if  you  please,  what  wonder’s  in  it  ?" 

“ Tom,  don’t  you  recollect,”  said  Will, 

**  The  clock  at  Jersey,  near  the  mill, 

The  very  image  of  this  present, 

With  which  I won  the  wager  pleasant  7* 

Will  ended  with  a knowing  wink — 

Tom  scratched  his  head  and  tried  to  think. 

“ Sir,  begging  pardon  for  inquiring,” 

The  landlord  said,  with  grin  admiring 
“ What  wager  was  it  ?” 

“ You  remember 


It  happened,  Tom,  in  last  December, 

In  sport  I bet  a Jersey  Blue 
That  it  was  more  than  he  could  do 
To  make  his  finger  go  and  come 
In  keeping  with  the  pendulum, 

Repeating  till  the  hour  should  close, 

Still — ‘ Here  she  goes — and  there  she  goes  /’ 

He  lost  the  bet  in  half  a minute.” 

“ Well,  if  I would  the  deuce  is  in  it !’ 
Exclaimed  the  landlord;  “try  me  yet, 

And  fifty  dollars  be  the  bet.” 

“Agreed,  but  we  will  play  some  trick 
To  make  you  of  the  bargain  sick!” 

“ I’m  up  to  that!” 

“ Don’t  make  us  wait — 
“Begin — the  clock  is  striking  eight.” 

He  seats  himself,  and  left  and  right 
His  finger  wags  with  all  its  might, 

And  hoarse  his  voice,  and  hoarser  grows, 

With — “ Here  she  goes — and  there  she  goes  I” 

“Hold  !”  said  the  Yankee,  ‘plank  the  readyJ* 
The  landlord  wagged  his  finger  steady 
While  his  left  hand  as  well  as  able, 

Conveyed  a purse  upon  the  table. 

“ Tom!  with  the  money  let’s  be  off!” 

This  made  the  landlord  only  scoff; 

He  heard  them  running  down  the  stair, 

But  was  not  tempted  from  his  chair; 

Thought  he — “The  fools!  I’ll  bite  them  yet! 
So  poor  a trick  shan’t  win  the  bet.” 

And  loud  and  long  the  chorus  rose 
Of — ‘ ‘ Here  she  goes — and  there  she  goes  /” 

While  right  and  left  his  finger  swung. 

In  keeping  to  his  clock  and  tongue. 


SELECT  PIECES  FOR  RECITATION. 


761 


His  mother  happened  in  to  see 

Her  daughter;  “Where  is  Mrs.  B ? 

When  will  she  come,  do  you  suppose, 

Son  ?” 

‘ * Here  she  goes — and  there  she  goes  f” 

“ Here! — where?” — the  lady  in  surprise 
His  finger  followed  with  her  eyes  : 

“ Son!  why  that  steady  gaze  and  sad  ? 

Those  words — that  motion — are  you  maa  ? 

“ But  here’s  your  wife,  perhaps  she  knows. 

And” — 

“ Here  she  goes — and  there  she  goes  /” 

His  wife  surveyed  him  with  alarm, 

And  rushed  to  him  and  seized  his  arm; 

He  shook  her  off  and  fro  and  fro 
His  finger  persevered  to  go. 

While  curled  his  very  nose  with  ire 
That  she  against  him  should  conspire; 

And  with  more  furious  tone  arose 

The — * * Here  she  goes — and  there  she  goes  f* 

“ Lawks!”  screamed  the  wife,  “ I’m  in  a whirl! 
Run  down  and  bring  the  little  girl; 

She  is  his  darling,  and  who  knows 
But  ” 

“ Here  she  goes — and  there  she  goes  f* 

* Lawks!  he  is  mad!  What  made  him  thus 
Good  Lord!  what  will  become  of  us? 

Run  for  a doctor— run,  run,  run — 

For  Doctor  Brown  and  Doctor  Dun, 

And  Doctor  Black  and  Doctor  White, 

And  Doctor  Grey,  with  all  your  might!” 

The  doctors  came  and  looked  and  wondered, 

And  shook  their  heads  and  paused  and  pondered. 
Then  one  proposed  he  should  be  bled — 

* No,  leeched,  you  mean,”  the  other  said— 

“ Clap  on  a blister!”  roared  another — 

“No!  cup  him” — “No!  trepan  him,  brother.” 

A sixth  would  recommend  a purge — 

The  next  would  an  emetic  urge — 

The  eighth,  just  come  from  a dissection, 

His  verdict  gave  for  an  injection; 

The  last  produced  a box  of  pills, 

A certain  cure  for  earthly  ills  : 

“ I had  a patient  yesternight,” 

Quoth  he,  “ and  wretched  was  her  plight, 

And  as  the  only  means  to  save  her. 

Three  dozen  patent  pills  I gave  her; 

And  by  to-morrow  I suppose 
That”— 

‘ ‘ Here  she  goes — and  there  she  goes  /” 

“ You  are  all  fools!”  the  lady  said— 

“ The  way  is  just  to  shave  his  head. 

Run!  bid  the  barber  come  anon,” 


4*  Thanks,  mother!”  thought  her  clever  son; 
rt  You  help  the  knaves  that  would  have  bit  me, 

Bui  all  creation  shan’t  outwit  me!” 

Thus  to  himself  while  to  and  fro 
His  finger  perseveres  to  go, 

And  from  his  lips  no  accent  flows 
But — “ Here  she  goes — and  there  she  goes  P* 

The  barber  came — “ Lord  help  him!  what 
A queerish  customer  I’ve  got; 

But  we  must  do  our  best  to  save  him — 

So  hold  him,  gemmen,  while  I shave  him!” 

But  here  the  doctors  interpose — 

“ A woman  never” — 

“ There  she  goes  /” 

“A  woman  is  no  judge  of  physic, 

Not  even  when  her  baby  is  sick. 

He  must  be  bled” — “No,  no,  a blister”— 

‘A  purge,  you  mean” — “ I say  a clyster”— 

“No,  cup  him”— “Leech  him”— “Pills!  Pills 
Pills !” 

And  all  the  house  the  uproar  fills. 

What  means  that  smile?  what  means  that  shiver? 
The  landlord’s  limbs  with  rapture  quiver, 

And  triumph  brightens  up  his  face— 

His  finger  yet  shall  win  the  race; 

The  clock  is  on  the  stroke  of  nine — 

And  up  he  starts — “ ’Tis  mine!  ’tis  mine!” 

“ What  do  you  mean  V 

“ I mean  the  fifty; 

I never  spent  an  hour  so  thrifty — 

But  you  who  tried  to  make  me  lose, 

Go,  burst  with  envy,  if  you  choose! 

But  how  is  this  ? where  are  they  ?” 

“Who?” 

" The  gentlemen — I mean  the  two 
Came  yesterday — are  they  below  ?” 

“ They  galloped  off  an  hour  ago.” 

“Oh,  purge  me!  blister!  shave  and  bleed! 

For,  hang  the  knaves,  I’m  mad  indeed!” 

THE  SWEET  COUNTBY  COUSINS, 

dear  to  the  heart  are  the  sweet  country 
cousins, 

When  dog-days  of  summer  begin  to  draw 
near, 

When  bricks  have  grown  hot  and  when  sunstrokes  by 
dozens 

Fill  body  with  anguish  and  bosom  with  fear! 

The  green  waving  fields  and  the  sweet  smelling 
breezes, 

The  ’scaping  from  turmoil  to  quiet  and  calm. 

The  rich,  creamy  milk  which  the  ready  hand  seizes, 
Aud  e’en  the  brown  cousins  who  live  on  the  faran 


763 


SELECT  PIECES 

The  plain  country  cousins,  the  uncultured  cousins, 
The  sweet  country  cousins  who  live  on  the  farm. 

The  sweet  country  cousins;  oh,  aren’t  they  a treas- 
ure ? 

How  handy  to  have  at  the  vacation  time! 

And  paying  one’s  board  is  a too  costly  pleasure, 
When  all  can  be  had  without  spending  a dime. 
How  pleasant  to  live  on  rich  cream  and  ripe  berries. 
Fresh  golden-hued  butter  and  cakes  light  and 
warm, 

Free  use  of  the  horses,  the  carts  and  the  wherries. 

Of  sweet  country  cousins  who  live  on  the  farm! 
The  plain  country  cousins,  the  uncultured  cousins. 
The  sweet  country  cousins  who  live  on  the  farm! 

How  dear  are  the  sweet  country  cousins  in  summer! 

How  fragrant  the  meadow,  romantic  the  down! 

But  straightway  your  faces  begin  to  grow  glummer 
At  thoughts  of  their  visit  next  winter  in  town. 

The  theatre,  the  concert,  the  lectures,  the  money 
Expended  in  tickets!  the  thought  gives  a qualm; 
The  sequel  of  summer  is  not  quite  so  funny — 

Why  don’t  the  sweet  cousins  remain  on  their  farm  ? 
The  brown-visaged  cousins,  the  great  awkward 
cousins, 

The  clodhopper  cousins  should  sta}*-  on  their  farm, 

THE  QUAKER  AND  THE  ROBBER. 

Samuel  Lover. 

f TRAVELER  wended  the  wilds  among, 

With  a purse  of  gold  and  a silver  tongue; 
His  hat  it  was  broad,  and  all  drab  were  his 
clothes, 

For  he  hated  high  colours  —except  on  his  nose; 

And  he  met  with  a lady,  the  story  goes. 

The  damsel  she  cast  him  a merry  blink, 

And  the  traveler  was  nothing  loth,  I think  ! 

Her  merry  black  eye  beamed  her  bonnet  beneath, 
And  the  Quaker  he  grinn’d,  for  he’d  very  good 
teeth; 

And  he  asked,  “Art  thou  going  to  ride  on  the  heath  ?” 

I hope  you’ll  protect  me,  kind  sir,”  said  the  maid, 
“As  to  ride  this  heath  over  I am  sadly  afraid; 

For  robbers,  they  say,  here  in  numbers  abound. 

And  I wouldn’t  for  anything  I should  be  found: 

For  between  you  and  me  I have  five  hundred  pound.” 

“ If  that  is  thine  own,  dear,”  the  Quaker  said, 

M I ne’er  saw  a maiden  I sooner  would  wed; 

And  I have  another  five  hundred  just  now. 


FOR  RECITATION. 

In  the  padding  that’s  under  my  saddle-bow; 

And  I’ll  settle  it  all  upon  thee,  I vow!’ 

The  maiden  she  smiled,  and  the  rein  she  drew, 

“ Your  offer  I’ll  take  though  I’ll  not  take  you!” 

A pistol  she  held  to  the  Quaker’s  head — 

34  Now  give  me  your  gold  or  I’ll  give  you  my  lead— 
His  under  the  saddle,  I think  you  said.” 

And  the  damsel  ripp’d  up  the  saddle-bow. 

And  the  Quaker  was  ne’er  a Quaker  till  now; 

And  he  saw  by  the  fair  one  he  wish’d  for  his  bride, 
His  purse  drawn  away  with  a swaggering  stride, 

And  the  eye  that  looked  tender  now  only  defied. 

“ The  spirit  doth  move  me,  friend  Broadbrim,”  quotfe 
she, 

v To  take  all  this  filthy  temptation  from  thee; 

For  mammon  deceives,  and  beauty  is  fleeting. 
Accept  from  thy  maiden  a right  loving  greeting, 

For  much  doth  she  profit  by  this  happy  meeting. 

“And  hark,  jolly  Quaker,  so  rosy  and  sly, 

Have  righteousness  more  than  a lass  in  your  eye; 
Don’t  go  again  peeping  girl’s  bonnets  beneath. 
Remember  the  one  you  met  on  the  heath: 

Her  name’s  Jimmy  Barlow — I tell  to  your  teeth.” 

“Friend  James,”  quoth  the  Quaker,  “ pray  listen  to 
me. 

For  thou  canst  confer  a great  favor,  d’ye  see! 

The  gold  thou  hast  taken  is  not  mine,  my  friend. 
But  my  master’s — and  truly  on  thee  I depend 
To  make  it  appear  I my  trust  did  defend. 

“ So  fire  a few  shots  through  my  coat  here  and  there 
To  make  it  appear  ’twas  a desperate  affair.” 

So  Jim  he  popp’d  first  through  the  skirts  of  his  coat. 
And  then  through  his  collar,  quite  close  to  his  throat; 
“ Now  once  through  my  broadbrim,”  quoth  Ephraim, 
“ I vote.” 

“ I have  but  one  brace,”  said  bold  Jim,  “ and  they’re 
spent, 

And  I won’t  load  again  for  a make-believe  rent.” 
“Then,”  said  Ephraim,  producing  his  pistols,  “just 
give 

My  five  hundred  pounds  back,  or,  as  sure  as  you 
live, 

I’ll  make  of  your  body  a riddle  or  sieve.” 

Jim  Barlow  was  diddled — and  though  he  was  game. 
He  saw  Ephraim’s  pistol  so  deadly  in  aim, 

That  he  gave  up  the  gold,  and  he  took  to  his  scrapers; 
And  when  the  whole  story  got  into  the  papers, 

They  said  that  the  thieves  were  no  match  for  the 
Quakers. 


THE  YOUNG  PEOPLES’  RECITER, 

COMPRISING  SHORT  SELECTIONS  IN  POETRY  FROM  THE  BEST  AUTHORS. 


THE  CRY  OF  THE  CHILDREN. 

Elizabeth  Barrett  Browning. 

RUE,”  say  the  children,  “it  may  happen 
That  we  die  before  our  time. 

Little  Alice  died  last  year — the  grave  is  shapen 
Like  a snowball,  in  the  rime. 

We  looked  into  the  pit  prepared  to  take  her — 

Was  no  room  for  any  work  in  the  close  clay  ; 

From  the  sleep  wherein  she  lieth  none  will  wake  her, 
Crying,  ‘ Get  up  little  Alice  ! it  is  day.” 

If  you  listen  by  that  grave,  in  sun  and  shower, 

With  your  ear  down,  little  Alice  never  cries  ! — 

Could  we  see  her  face,  be  sure  we  should  not  know 
her, 

For  the  smile  has  time  for  growing  in  her  eyes  ! ” 

THE  SALE  OF  THE  PET  LAMB. 

Mary  Howitt. 

THOUSAND  flocks  were  on  the  hills,  a 
thousand  flocks  and  more, 

Feeding  in  sunshine  pleasantly, — they  were 
the  rich  man’s  store  : 

There  was  the  while  one  little  lamb  beside 
a cottage  door  ; 

A little  lamb  that  rested  with  the  children  ’neath 
the  tree, 

That  ate,  meek  creature,  from  their  hands,  and 
nestled  to  their  knee  : 

That  had  a place  within  their  hearts,  one  of  the 
family. 

But  want,  even  as  an  armed  man,  came  down  upon 
their  shed  : 

The  father  labor’d  all  day  long  that  his  children 
might  be  fed, 

And,  one  by  one,  their  household  things  were  sold 
to  buy  them  bread. 

That  father,  with  a downcast  eye,  upon  that  thresh- 
old stood, 

Gaunt  poverty  each  pleasant  thought  had  in  his 
heart  subdued. 

“ What  is  the  creature’s  life  to  us  ? ” said  he  ; “ ’twill 
buy  us  food.” 

Therefore,  most  sorrowful  it  was  those  children 
small  to  see, 

Most  sorrowful  to  hear  them  plead  for  the  lamb  so 
piteously  : 


**  Oh  ! mother  dear,  it  loveth  us  ; and  what  beside 
have  we  ? ” 

“ Let’s  take  him  to  the  broad  green  hill ! ” in  his 
impotent  despair, 

Said  one  strong  boy  : “ let’s  take  him  off,  the  hills 
are  wide  and  fair  ; 

I know  a little  hiding  place,  and  we  will  keep  him 
there.” 

Oh  vain  ! they  took  the  little  lamb,  and  straightway 
tied  him  down, 

With  a strong  cord  they  tied  him  fast,  and  o’er  the 
common  brown, 

And  o’er  the  hot  and  flinty  roads,  they  took  him  to 
the  town. 

Oh  ! poverty  is  a weary  thing,  ’tis  full  of  grief  and 
pain  : 

It  keepeth  down  the  soul  of  man,  as  with  an  iron 
chain  ; 

It  maketh  even  the  little  child  with  heavy  sighs  com*" 
plain. 

“WE  ARE  SEVEN.” 

William  Wordsworth 

MET  a little  cottage  girl, 

She  was  eight  years  old  she  said  J 
Her  hair  was  thick  with  many  a curl. 

That  clustered  round  her  head: 

She  had  a rustic  woodland  air, 

And  she  was  wildly  clad  : 

Her  eyes  were  fair,  and  very  fair  t 
Her  beauty  made  me  glad: 

“ Sisters  and  brothers,  little  maid, 

How  many  may  you  be?” 

“ How  many?  seven  in  all,”  she  said. 

And  wondering  looked  at  me. 

“And  where  are  they  ? I pray  you  tell.* 

She  answered,  “ Seven  are  we  : 

And  two  of  us  at  Conway  dwell. 

And  two  are  gone  to  sea  ; 

Two  of  us  in  the  churchyard  lie, 

My  sister  and  my  brother  ; 

And  in  the  churchyard  cottage  I 
Dwell  near  them  with  my  mother.” 

“You  say  that  two  at  Conway  dwell. 

And  two  are  gone  to  sea  : 

Yet  ye  are  seven — I pray  you,  tell 
Sweet  maid,  how  this  may  be.'* 


704 


THE  YOUNG  PEOPLES'  RECITER. 


Then  did  the  little  maid  reply, 

“ Seven  boys  and  girls  are  we. 

Two  of  us  in  the  churchyard  lie, 

Beneath  the  churchyard  tree.’* 

“ You  run  about  my  little  maid. 

Your  limbs  they  are  alive  ; 

If  two  are  in  the  churchyard  laid. 

Then  ye  are  only  five.” 

“ Their  graves  are  green,  they  may  be  seen 
The  little  maid  maid  replied  ; 

44  Twelve  steps  or  more  from  my  mother’s  door. 
And  they  are  side  by  side. 

44  My  stockings  there  I often  knit, 

My  kerchief  there  I hem, 

And  there  upon  the  ground  I sit--* 

And  sing  a song  to  them. 

44  And  often  after  sunset  sir, 

When  it  is  light  and  fair, 

I take  my  little  porringer, 

And  have  my  supper  there. 

44  The  first  that  died  was  sister  Jane, 

In  bed  she  moaning  lay, 

Till  God  released  her  of  her  pain  j 
And  then  she  went  away. 

44  So  in  the  churchyard  she  was  laid  j 
And  when  the  grass  was  dry, 

Together  round  her  grave  we  played. 

My  brother  John  and  I. 

44  And  when  the  ground  was  white  with  snow, 
And  I could  run  and  slide, 

My  brother  John  was  forced  to  go, 

And  he  lies  by  her  side.” 

44  How  many  are  you,  then,”  said  I, 

“ If  they  too  are  in  heaven  ? ” 

Quick  was  the  little  maid’s  reply, 

44  Oh,  master,  we  are  seven.0 
44  But  they  are  dead  ; those  two  are  dead  I 
Their  spirits  are  in  heaven  ! ” 

’Twas  throwing  words  away  : for  still 
The  little  maid  would  have  her  will. 

And  said,  “ Nay,  we  are  seven  ! ” 

THE  MAY  QUEEN. 

TENNYSON. 

OU  must  wake  and  call  me  early ; call  me 
early,  mother  dear, 

To-morrow  ’ill  be  the  happiest  time  of  all  the 
glad  New-year  : 

Of  all  the  glad  New-year,  mother,  the  maddest, 
merriest  day : 


For  I’m  to  be  Queen  o’  the  May,  mother— I’m  to  be 
Queen  o’  the  May. 

I sleep  so  sound  all  night,  mother,  that  I shall  never 
wake. 

If  you  do  not  call  me  loud  when  the  day  begins  to 
break  : 

But  I must  gather  knots  of  flowers,  and  buds  and 
garlands  gay. 

For  I’m  to  be  Queen  o’  the  May  mother — I’m  to  be 
Queen  o’  the  May. 

As  I came  up  the  valley  whom  think  ye  should 

I see, 

But  Robin  leaning  on  the  bridge  beneath  the  hazel 
tree  ? 

He  thought  of  that  sh^rp  look,  mother,  I gave  him 
yesterday, — 

But  I’m  to  be  Queen  o'  the  May,  mother — I’m  to  be 
Queen  o’  the  May. 

He  thought  I was  a ghost^  mother,  for  I was  all  in 
white, 

And  I ran  by  him  without  speaking,  like  a flash  of 
light. 

They  call  me  cruel-hearted,  but  I care  not  what  they 
say. 

For  I’m  to  be  Queen  o’  the  May,  mother — I’m  to  be 
Queen  o’  the  May. 

They  say  he’s  dying  all  for  love,  but  that  can  never  be: 

They  say  his  heart  is  breaking,  mother, — what  is  that 
to  me? 

There’s  many  a bolder  lad  ’ll  woo  me  any  summer 
day, 

For  I’m  to  be  Queen  o’  the  May,  mother — I’m  to  be 
Queen  o’  the  May. 

The  night-winds  come  and  go,  mother,  upon  the 
meadow  grass, 

And  the  happy  stars  above  them  seem  to  brighten  as 
they  pass ; 

There  will  not  be  a drop  of  rain  the  whole  of  the 
livelong  day, 

And  I’m  to  be  Queen  o’  the  May  mother — I’m  to  be 
Queen  o’  the  May. 

So  you  must  wake  and  call  me  early,  call  me  early, 
mother  dear, 

To-morrow  ’ill  be  the  happiest  time  of  all  the  glad 
New-year : 

To-morrow  ’ll  be  of  all  the  year  the  maddest,  merriest 
day, 

For  I’m  to  be  Queen  o’  the  May,  mother — I’m  to  be 
Queen  o’  the  May 


RELIGIOUS  PIECES  FOR  LITTLE  ONES. 


765 


THE  BEGGAR  MAID. 

Tennyson. 

«ER  arms  across  her  breast  she  laid  : 

She  was  more  fair  than  words  can  say  : 
Barefoooted  came  the  beggar  maid 
(L)'  Before  the  King  Cophetua. 

In  robe  and  crown  the  king  stept  down, 

To  meet  and  greet  her  on  her  way  : 

**  It’s  no  wonder,”  says  the  lords, 

,4  She  is  more  beautiful  than  day.” 

As  shines  the  moon  in  clouded  skies, 

She  in  her  poor  attire  was  seen  ; 

One  praised  her  ankles,  one  her  eyes, 

One  her  dark  hair  and  lovesome  mien. 

So  sweet  a face,  such  angel  grace, 

In  all  that  land  had  never  been. 

Cophetua  sware  a royal  oath, 

‘c  This  beggar  maid  shall  be  my  queen.** 

THE  SEA. 

Tennyson. 

I(^^REAK,  break,  break, 

On  thy  cold  gray  stones,  O Sea! 

And  I would  that  my  tongue  could  utter 
if  The  thoughts  that  arise  in  me. 

O well  for  the  fisherman’s  boy, 

That  he  shouts  with  his  sister  at  play  ! 

O well  for  the  sailor  lad, 

That  he  sings  in  his  boat  on  the  bay  z 
And  the  stately  ships  go  on 
To  their  haven  under  the  hill  ; 


But  O for  the  touch  of  a vanish’d  hand. 
And  the  sound  of  a voice  that  is  still  ! 

Break,  break,  break, 

At  the  foot  of  thy  crags,  O Sea  ! 

But  the  tender  grace  of  a day  that  is  dead 
Will  never  come  back  to  me. 

THE  SAILOR  BOY. 

Adelaide  A.  Proctor. 

Y Life  you  ask  of?  why,  you  know 
Full  soon  my  little  Life  is  told  ; 

It  has  no  great  joy  or  woe, 

For  I am  only  twelve  years  old. 
Ere  long  I hope  1 shall  have  been 
On  my  first  voyage,  and  wonders  seen. 
Some  princess  I may  help  to  free 
From  pirates  on  a far-off  sea  ; 

Or,  on  some  desert  isle  be  left, 

Of  friends  and  shipmates  all  bereft. 


LAZY  BONES. 

-BONES,  Lazy-bones,  why  are  you  here  I 
e school-bell  has  rung  twenty  minutes  of 
near ; 

Doy  who  wont  work  always  turns  out  a 
fool — 

Lazy-bones,  Lazy-bones,  hurry  to  school. 

Lazy-bones,  Lazy-bones,  taking  your  nap  ; 
You’re  not  very  tidy,  just  look  at  your  cap  ! 

A careless  lad’s  certain  to  grow  up  a fool — 
Smarten  up,  Lazy-bones  hurry  to  school. 


Religious  Pieces 


for  Little  Ones 


TO  RECITE  AT 


SUNDAY  SCHOOL  ENTERTAINMENTS  AND  CHRISTMAS  FESTIVALS. 


HOW  OFTEN  I OFFEND. 

HEN  I am  justly  blamed, 

Oh  let  me  not  reply, 

But  of  my  many  faults  ashamed. 
To  God  for  pardon  cry. 

If  God  should  judge  me  now 
For  ail  that  I have  done — 

The  thought  is  dreadful ! let  me  bow 
Before  his  blessed  Son. 


To  Thee,  O Christ ! I look, 

And  for  Thy  mercy  pray — 

Thy  blood  alone  can  blot  the  book, 

And  take  my  sins  away  ? 

THE  BURYING  GROUND. 

HE  tender  flowers  beneath  the  beam 
Their  opening  petals  spread, 

And  sweetly  they  look  down  and  smile 
Upon  the  peaceful  dead. 


RELIGIOUS  PIECES  FOR  LITTLE  ONES. 


And  like  a flower  that  from  a grave 
Extracts  its  lowly  birth, 

My  grateful  soul  desires  to  bloom 
On  this  dark  mound  of  earth. 

Her  root  should  in  the  tomb.be  fix’d, 
Where  Jesus  deign’d  to  sleep  ; 

And  beams  of  grace  should  shine  on  her 
And  dews  of  mercy  weep  ; 

Till  angels  come  to  bear  away 
The  trembler  on  their  wing 
And  plant  her  by  Thy  glorious  throng 
My  Father  and  my  King. 

THE  BABY. 

HE  parents’  lip  may  sweetly  plead 
For  babes,  unconscious  what  they  need, 
Who  know  not  wrong  from  right ; 
But  children,  who  can  read  and  pray 
Must  for  themselves  seek  out  the  way. 

And  make  it  their  delight. 

The  blessed  Jesus,  once  like  you. 

From  infancy  to  childhood  grew, 

From  childhood  up  to  youth  ; 

He  knows  your  heart,  He  knows  your 
thought. 

Oh,  pray  to  Jesus  to  be  taught 
In  wisdom,  faith,  and  truth  ! 


Thus  by  Thy  grace,  O Lord, 

True  wisdom  would  I learn. 

In  every  page  throughout  thy  Wort* 

Its  fullness  to  discern. 

Each  promise  there  bestow’d 
Is  in  rich  bounty  given, 

To  bloom  above  the  narrow  road. 

And  shade  my  path  to  heaven. 

MY  SHEPHERD. 

F Jesus  be  my  Shepherd  still. 
When  the  last  hour  shall  come. 
The  stroke  that  doth  my  body  kill, 
Will  bear  my  spirit  home  ; 
Death  cannot  make  my  soul  afraid, 

If  Jesus  light  me  through  the  shade.. 

And  when  deliver’d  from  the  tomb, 

By  Jesus  led,  I go, 

To  where  His  own  rich  pastures  bloom. 
And  living  waters  flow  ; 

Oh,  how  shall  I delight  to  see 

The  Shepherd-King  who  died  for  me ! 

No  prowling  wolf  can  enter  there, 
Where  His  redeemed  dwell ; 

To  sin,  and  death,  and  pain,  and  care, 

I shall  have  bid  farewell ; 

And  through  eternity  abide, 

Rejoicing  by  my  Shepherd’s  side. 


ALL  THAT  MOVE  AND  BREATHE. 

V^.OOK  to  the  heavens  above, 

To  earth  that  smiles  beneath, 

And  read  Jehovah’s  power  and  love 
On  all  that  move  and  breathe 

The  ocean,  land,  and  sky, 

Are  leaves  in  one  vast  book  ; 

His  glorious  hand  is  ever  nigh, 

Tis  seen  where’er  we  look. 

The  acorn  at  my  feet, 

Hid  in  its  dusty  bed, 

Shall  burst  forth  from  its  low  retreat. 

And  shade  the  path  I tread. 


WHERE  LIVING  WATERS  FLOW. 

I Y soul  is  come  of  heavenly  birth, 
f^And  why  should  sinful  joys  of  earth 
^ Confine  its  spreading  wing  ? 
While,  sounding  from  the  distant 
skies, 

Thy  gracious  summons  bid  me  rise, 

My  Saviour  and  my  King! 


I fain  would  come — I’d  break  away 
From  this  dull,  heavy  load  of  clay. 
Leave  sin  and  death  below. 

And  lay  me  at  thy  beauteous  feet. 
In  that  green  pasture’s  fair  retreat. 
Where  living  waters  flow. 


RELIGIOUS  PIECES  FOR  LITTLE  ONES. 


767 


DRIVE  THE  NAIL. 

x&X 

STRIVE  the  nail  aright,  boys, 

( Hit  it  on  the  head  ; 

Strike  with  all  your  might,  boys. 

Ere  the  time  has  fled. 

jLessons  you’ve  to  learn,  boys — 

Study  with  a will ; 

They  who  reach  the  top,  boys, 

First  must  climb  the  hill. 

Standing  at  the  foot,  boys, 

Gazing  at  the  sky  ; 

How  can  you  get  up,  boys. 

If  you  never  try  ? 

Though  you  stumble  oft,  boys, 

Never  be  downcast ; 

Try  and  try  again,  boys, 

You’ll  succeed  at  last. 

Always  persevere,  boys, 

Though  your  task  is  hard  ; 

Toil  and  happy  trust,  boys. 

Bring  their  own  reward. 

Never  give  it  up  boys  ; 

Always  say  you’ll  try  ; 

You  will  gain  the  crown,  boys, 

Surely,  by-and-by. 

THE  BOY  WHO  COULD  NOT  LIE. 

fHERE  was  once  a young  Virginian, 
and  a princely  boy  was  he. 

Yet  he  sprang  not  from  a princely  line, 
nor  was  of  high  degree ; 

But  clear  blood  mantled  in  his  cheek — the 
light  flashed  from  his  eye, 

\nd  his  presence  was  right  noble,  for  he 
never  told  a lie. 

Now  his  home  was  near  a forest,  filled  with 
lofty  branching  trees, 

And  his  wont  had  been  to  try  his  knife,  boy- 
fashion  upon  these. 

We  may  think  that  he,  not  seldom  too,  had 
snapped  the  brittle  toy, 


Before  his  father  found  a hatchet  and  bought 
it  for  his  boy. 

Who  so  proud  as  our  young  woodman  now  ? 
his  soul  is  full  of  glee, 

He  will  try  his  keen-edged  tool  at  once  upon 
the  nearest  tree  ; 

So  he  hies  him  round  his  father’s  house  and 
waves  his  axe  in  air, 

Then,  in  evil  hour,  he  spies  a favorite  pear- 
tree  planted  there. 

Oh  ! the  mischief  in  that  bold,  bright  eye! 
the  mischief  in  that  arm  ! 

For  the  noble  tree  is  ruined  ere  he  feels  the 
least  alarm. 

Yet  no  one  saw  the  ruin  wrought,  and  he 
soon  can  run  away  ; 

He  may  choke  his  fault  in  silence,  light  the 
burden  where  it  may* 

But  the  boy  was  better  than  his  thought. 
His  father  saw  the  tree : 

‘Who  has  done  all  that  mischief  there  T 
with  angry  voice  cried  he  ; 

His  son  struggled  for  a moment, — ’twas  sc 
easy  to  deny ; 

Then,  summoning  true  courage,  said,  ‘ Sir, 
I cannot  tell  a lie.’ 

Oh,  I wish  all  could  see  his  father’s  chang- 
ing features  now ; 

He  forgot  his  much-prized  tree  when  he 
read  the  boy’s  brave  brow. 

Then  he  clasped  him  in  his  arms  and  said 
(fit  words  for  son  and  sire), — • 

‘I  would  rather  lose  a thousand  trees  than 
have  my  son  a liar.’ 

So  the  fearless  boy  grew  up  to  be  a noble* 
fearless  man  ; 

Match  his  worth  and  brave  deeds  for  free- 
dom as  often  as  you  can  1 

That  will  be  a glorious  age  indeed  which  of 
patriots  yield  us  one, 

Who  achieved  such  lasting  glory  as  heroic 
Washington ! 

Home  Book  for  Children  of  all  Ages , 


DIALOGUES 

ACTING  AND  DRAMATIC  EXERCISE 

SOLILOQUIES  AND  ADDRESSES, 

From  Celebrated  Classic  Authors. 

The  student  who  carefully  studies  the  following  selections  and  endeavors  to  produce 
the  feelings  expressed  by  imagining  himself  in  the  position  of  the  original  character,  with 
judicious  practice,  can  train  himself  to  reproduce  them  with  proper  effect.  They  will  be 
found  valuable  in  cultivating  dramatic  power,  will  interest  the  family  circle  and  enter- 
tain all  who  hear  him.  They  are  taken  from  the  writings  of  the  greatest  dramatists  the 
world  has  ever  known,  and  are  models  for  all  time.  The  ambitious  youth  of  the  present 
day  need  not  fear  to  attempt  them,  as  thousands  of  others  have  done  before  him. 


BRUTUS  AND  CASSIUS. 

Cas.  That  you  have  wronged  me  doth  appear  in 
this — 

You  have  condemned  and  noted  Lucius  Pella, 

For  taking  bribes  here  of  the  Sardians  ; 

Wherein  my  letters  (praying  on  his  side, 

Because  I knew  the  man)  were  slighted  of. 

Bru.  You  wronged  yourself  to  write  in  such  a 
case. 

Cas.  In  such  a time  as  this,  it  is  not  meet 
That  every  nice  offense  should  bear  its  comment. 

Bru.  Yet  let  me  tell  you,  Cassius,  you  yourself 
Are  much  condemned  to  have  an  itching  palm  j 
To  sell  and  mart  your  offices  for  gold, 

To  undeservers. 

Cas.  I an  itching  palm  J 
You  know  that  you  are  Brutus  that  speak  this, 

Or,  by  the  gods,  this  speech  were  else  your  last  ? 
Bru.  The  name  of  Cassius  honors  this  cor- 
ruption, 

And  chastisement  doth  therefore  hide  its  head. 

Cas.  Chastisement  1 

Bru.  Remember  March,  the  ides  of  March  re- 
member! 

Did  not  great  Julius  bleed  for  justice  sake  ? 

What  villain  touched  his  body,  that  did  stab, 

And  not  for  justice  ? What ' shall  one  of  us, 

That  struck  the  foremost  man  of  all  this  world. 

But  for  supporting  robbers  ; shall  we  now 
Contaminate  our  fingers  with  base  bribes, 

And  sell  the  mighty  space  of  our  large  honors, 

For  so  much  trash  as  may  be  grasped  thus? 

I had  rather  be  a dog,  and  bay  the  moon, 

Than  such  a Roman. 

Cas.  Brutus,  bay  not  me  ! 

I’ll  not  endure  it  ; you  forget  yourself 
To  hedge  me  in  ; I am  a soldier,  I, 

Older  in  practice,  abler  than  yourself 
To  make  conditions. 


Bru.  Go  to  , you  are  not,  Cassius. 

Cas . I am  J 

Bru.  I say  you  are  not. 

Cas.  Urge  me  no  more;  I shall  forge'  myself — 
Have  mind  upon  your  health — tempt  me  no  farther? 
Bru.  Away,  slight  man  s 
Cas.  Is’t  possible  ? 

Bru.  Hear  me,  for  I will  speak. 

Must  I give  way  and  room  to  your  rash  choler? 

Shall  I be  frighted  when  a madman  stares  ? 

Cas . O gods  ! ye  gods  ! must  I endure  all  this  t 
Bru.  All  this?  ay,  more.  Fret  till  your  Droud 
heart  break ; 

Go,  show  your  slaves  how  choleric  you  are 
And  make  your  bondmen  tremble.  Must  I budget 
Must  I observe  you  ? Must  I stand  and  crouch 
Under  your  testy  humor  ? By  the  gods, 

You  shall  digest  the  venom  of  your  spleen, 

Though  it  do  split  you  ; for,  from  this  day  forth 
I’ll  use  you  for  my  mirth,  yea,  for  my  laughter. 
When  you  are  waspish. 

Cas.  Is  it  come  to  this  ? 

Bru.  Y ou  say  you  are  a better  soldier  ; 

Let  it  appear  so  ; make  your  vaunting  true, 

And  it  shall  please  me  well.  For  mine  own  part, 

I shall  be  glad  to  learn  of  noble  men. 

Cas.  You  wrong  me  every  way — you  wrong  me, 
Brutus  ; 

I said,  an  elder  soldier,  not  a better  ; 

Did  I say  better  ? 

Bru.  If  you  did,  I care  not. 

Cas.  When  Caesar  lived,  he  durst  not  thus  have 
moved  me. 

Bru.  Peace,  peace  ; you  durst  not  so  have 
tempted  him. 

Cas.  I durst  not  ? 

Bru.  No. 

Cas.  What ! durst  not  tempt  him  ? 

Bru.  For  your  life  you  durst  not. 


709 


DIALOGUES  FOR  ACTING  AND  DRAMATIC  EXERCISE. 


Cas.  Do  not  presume  too  much  upon  my  love  ; 

I may  do  that  I shall  be  sorry  for. 

Bru.  You  have  done  that  you  should  be  sorry  for. 
There  is  no  terror,  Cassius,  in  your  threats  ; 

For  I am  armed  so  strong  in  honesty, 

That  they  pass  by  me  as  the  idle  wind. 

Which  I respect  not.  I did  send  to  you 

For  certain  sums  of  gold,  which  you  denied  me  j 

For  I can  raise  no  money  by  vile  means. 

I had  rather  coin  my  heart, 

And  drop  my  blood  for  drachmas,  than  to  wring 
From  the  hard  hands  of  peasants,  their  vile  tras'h, 
By  any  indirection.  I did  send 
To  you  for  gold  to  pay  my  legions, 

Which  you  denied  me  ; was  that  done  like  Cassius  ? 
Should  I have  answered  Caius  Cassius  so? 

When  Marcus  Brutus  grows  so  covetous, 

To  lock  such  rascal-counters  from  his  friends, 

Be  ready,  gods,  with  all  your  thunderbolts, 

Dash  him  to  pieces  ! 

Cas.  I denied  you  not. 

Bru.  You  did. 

Cas.  I did  not  , he  was  but  a fool. 

That  brought  my  answerback. — Brutus  had  rived  my 
heart. 

A friend  should  bear  his  friend’s  infirmities. 

But  Brutus  makes  mine  greater  than  they  are. 

Bru.  I do  not,  till  you  practice  them  on  me. 

Cas.  You  love  me  not  1 
Bru.  I do  not  like  your  faults. 

Cas.  A friendly  eye  could  never  see  such  faults. 
Bru.  A flatterer’s  would  not,  though  they  do  ap- 
pear as  huge  as  high  Olympus. 

Cas.  Come,  Antony,  and  young  Octavius,  come  * 
Revenge  yourself  alone  on  Cassius, 

For  Cassius  is  weary  of  the  world  ; 

Hated  by  one  he  loves — braved  by  his  brother— 
Checked  like  a bondman — all  his  faults  observed. 
Set  in  a note-book — learned  and  conned  by  rote, 

To  cast  into  my  teeth — O,  I could  weep 
My  spirit  from  mine  eyes  ! — There  is  my  dagger. 

And  here  my  naked  breast  ; within,  a heart 
Dearer  than  Plutus’  mine,  richer  than  gold 
If  that  thou  be’st  a Roman,  take  it  forth. 

I that  denied  thee  gold,  will  give  my  heart  ; 

Strike  as  thou  didst  at  Caesar  ; for  I know, 

When  thou  didst  hate  him  worst,  thou  lovedst  him 
better. 

Then  ever  thou  lovedst  Cassius. 

Bru.  Sheathe  your  dagger  ; 

Be  angry  when  you  will,  it  shall  have  scope  { 

Do  whai  you  will,  dishonor  shall  be  humor. 

O Cassius  ! you  are  yoked  with  a lamb. 

That  carries  anger  as  the  flint  bears  fire  j 
Which,  much  enforced,  shows  a hasty  spark, 


And  straight  is  cold  again. 

Cas.  Hath  Cassius  lived 
To  be  but  mirth  and  laughter  to  his  Brutus, 

When  grief  and  blood  ill-tempered  vexeth  himr 

Bru.  When  I spoke  that,  I was  ill-tempered  too. 

Cas.  Do  you  confess  so  much  ? Give  me  your 
hand. 

Bru.  And  my  heart  too. 

Cas.  O Brutus  ! 

Bru.  What’s  the  matter  ? 

Cas.  Have  you  not  love  enough  to  bear  with  me, 
When  that  rash  humor  which  my  mother  gave  me. 
Makes  me  forgetful? 

Bru.  Yes,  Cassius;  and  henceforth, 

When  you  are  over-earnest  with  your  Brutus, 

He’ll  think  your  mother  chides,  and  leave  you  so. 


PRINUE  ARTHUR  AND  HUBERT! 


[Shakespeare.] 

UBERT.  Heat  me  these  irons  hot ; and 
look  thou  stand 

Within  the  arras ; when  I strike  my  fool 
Upon  the  bosom  of  the  ground,  rush  forth 
And  bind  the  boy,  which  you  shall  find 
with  me, 

Fast  to  the  chair.  Be  heedful.  Hence,  and  watch. 

First  Attendant.  I hope  your  warrant  will  bear 
out  the  deed. 

Hub.  Uncleanly  scruples!  Fear  not  you  ; look 
to’t. 


£ Exeunt  Attendants. 

Young  lad,  come  forth  ; I have  to  say  with  you. 


Enter  Arthur. 

Arth.  Good  morrow,  Hubert. 

Hub.  Good  morrow,  little  prince. 

Arth.  As  little  prince  (having  so  great  atitie 
To  be  more  prince)  as  may  be.  You  are  sad, 

Hub.  Indeed,  I have  been  merrier, 

Arth.  Mercy  on  me. 

Methinks  nobody  should  be  sad  but  I, 

Yet  I remember,  when  I was  in  France, 

Young  gentlemen  would  be  as  sad  as  night, 

Only  for  wantonness.  By  my  Christendom, 

So  I were  out  of  prison,  and  kept  sheep, 

I should  be  merry  as  the  day  is  long  ; 

And  so  I would  be  here,  but  that  I doubt 
My  uncle  practices  more  harm  to  me  ; 

He  is  afraid  c£  me,  and  I of  him, 

Is  it  my  fault  that  f was  Geffrey’s  son  P 

No,  indeed,  is’t  not.  And  I would  to  heaven 

I were  your  son,  so  you  would  love  me,  Hubert. 

Hub.  If  I talk  to  him  with  hia  innocent  prate. 

He  will  awake  my  mercy,  which  lies  dead  t 
Therefore  I will  be  sudden  and  despatch.  [Aside. 


770 


DIALOGUES  FOR  ACTING  AND  DRAMATIC  EXERCISE. 


Art..  Are  you  sick,  Hubert  ? You  look  pale  to- 
day ; 

In  sooth,  I would  you  were  a little  sick, 

That  I might  sit  all  night  and  watch  with  you. 

I warrant  I love  you  more  than  you  do  me. 

Hub.  His  words  do  take  possession  of  my 
bosom. 

Read  here,  young  Arthur.  Showing  a paper. 

How  now,  foolish  rheum  ! {Aside. 
Turning  dispiteous  torture  out  of  door  ! 

I must  be  brief,  lest  resolution  drop 

Out  at  mine  eyes,  in  tender  womanish  tears. 

Can  you  not  read  it  ? is  it  not  fair  writ  ? 

Arth.  Too  fairly,  Hubert,  for  so  foul  effect. 

Must  you  with  hot  irons  burn  out  both  mine  eyes? 
Hub.  Young  boy,  I must 
Arth.  And  will  you  ? 

Hub.  And  I will. 

Arth.  Have  you  the  heart?  When  your  head  did 
but  ache, 

vl  knit  my  handkerchief  about  your  brows 
(The  best  I had,  a princess  wrought  it  me), 

And  I did  never  ask  it  you  again  ; 

And  with  my  hand  at  midnight  held  your  head  ; 

And,  like  the  watchful  minutes  to  the  hour, 

Still  and  anon  cheer’d  up  the  heavy  time, 

Saying, What  lack  you?  and,  Where  lies  your  grief  ? 
Or,  What  good  love  may  I perform  for  you  ? 

Many  a poor  man’s  son  would  have  lain  still. 

And  ne’er  have  spoke  a loving  word  to  you  ; 

But  you  at  your  sick  service  had  a prince, 

Nay,  you  may  think  my  love  was  crafty  love. 

And  call  it  cunning.  Do,  an’  if  you  will  ; 

If  heaven  be  pleased  that  you  must  use  me  ill, 

Why,  then  you  must.  Will  you  put  out  mine  eyes  ? 
These  eyes  that  never  did,  nor  never  shall, 

So  much  as  frown  on  you  ? 

Hub.  I have  sworn  to  do  it, 

And  with  hot  irons  must  I burn  them  out. 

Arth  Ah  ! none  but  in  this  iron  age  would  do  it. 
The  iron  of  itself,  though  heat  red-hot 
Approaching  near  these  eyes,  would  drink  my  tears, 
And  quench  his  fiery  indignation, 

Even  in  the  matter  of  mine  innocence, 

Nay,  after  that,  consume  away  in  rust, 

But  for  containing  fire  to  harm  mine  eye. 

Are  you  more  stubborn-hard  than  hammer’d  iron  ? 
An’  if  an  angel  should  have  come  to  me, 

And  told  me  Hubert  should  put  out  mine  eyes, 

I would  not  have  believed  no  tongue  but  Hubert’s 
Hub.  Come  forth  ! {Stamps. 

Re-enter  Attendants,  with  cords , irons , etc. 

Do  as  I bid  you.’ 

Arth.  Oh  ! save  me,  Hubert,  save  me  ! My  eyes 
are  out 


Even  with  the  fierce  looks  of  these  bloody  men. 

Hub.  Give  me  the  iron,  I say,  and  bind  him 
here. 

Arth.  Alas  ! what  need  you  be  so  boisterous 
rough  ? 

I will  not  struggle,  I will  stand  stone  still. 

For  Heaven’s  sake,  Hubert  ! let  me  not  be  bound 
Nay,  hear  me,  Hubert  ; drive  these  men  away. 

And  I will  sit  as  quiet  as  a lamb  ; 

I will  not  stir,  nor  wince,  nor  speak  a word, 

Nor  look  upon  the  iron  angerly. 

Thrust  but  these  men  away,  and  I’ll  forgive  you 
Whatever  torment  you  do  put  me  to. 

Hub.  Go,  stand  within  ; let  me  alone  with  him. 
First  Attendant.  I am  best  pleased  to  be  from  such  a 
deed. 


{Exeunt  Attendants. 
Arth.  Alas  ! I then  have  chid  away  my  friend? 
He  hath  a stern  look,  but  a gentle  heart. 

Let  him  come  back,  that  his  compassion  may 
Give  life  to  yours. 

Hub.  Come,  boy,  prepare  yourself. 

Arth.  Is  there  no  remedy? 

Hub.  None  but  to  lose  your  eyes. 

Arth.  Oh  ! heaven  ! that  there  were  but  a mote 
in  yours, 

A grain,  a dust,  a gnat,  a wandering  hair — 

Any  annoyance  in  that  precious  sense  ; 

Then,  feeling  what  small  things  are  boisterous  there. 
Your  vile  intent  must  needs  seem  horrible. 

Hub.  Is  this  your  promise?  Go  to!  hold  your  tongue. 
Arth’  Hubert,  the  utterance  of  a brace  of 
tongues 

Must  needs  want  pleading  for  a pair  of  eyes. 

Let  me  not  hold  my  tongue  ; let  me  not,  Hubert  I 
Or,  Hubert,  if  you  will,  cut  out  my  tongue. 

So  I may  keep  mine  eyes.  O ! spare  mine  eyes  ; 
Though  to  no  use,  but  still  to  look  on  you  ! 

Lo  ! by  my  troth  ! the  instrument  is  cold, 

And  would  not  harm  me. 

Hub.  I can  heat  it,  boy. 

Arth.  No,  in  good  sooth  ; the  fire  is  dead  with 
grief, 

Being  create  for  comfort,  to  be  used 
In  undeserv’d  extremes.  See  else  yourself; 

There  is  no  malice  in  this  burning  coal  ; 

The  breath  of  heaven  hath  blown  his  spirit  out, 

And  strewed  repentant  ashes  on  his  head. 

Hub.  But  with  my  breath  I can  revive  it,  boy. 
Arth.  And  if  you  do,  you  will  but  make  it  blush. 
And  glow  with  shame  of  your  proceedings,  Hubert 
Nay,  it  perchance  will  sparkle  in  your  eyes, 

And,  like  a dog  that  Is  compelled  to  fight, 

Snatch  at  his  master,  that  doth  tarre  him  on. 

All  things  that  you  should  use  to  do  me  wrong, 
Deny  their  office  ; only  you  do  lack 


DIALOGUES  FOR  ACTING  AND  DRAMATIC  EXERCISE. 


771 


That  mercy  which  fierce  fire  and  iron  extend, 
Creatures  of  note  for  mercy-lacking  uses. 

Hub . Well,  see  to  live  ; I will  not  touch  thine 
eyes 

For  all  the  treasure  that  thine  uncle  owes. 

Yet  am  I sworn,  and  I did  purpose,  boy, 

With  this  same  very  iron  to  burn  them  out. 

Arth.  Oh  ! now  you  look  like  Hubert ! All  this 
while  you  were  disguis’d. 

Hub.  Peace  ! no  more.  Adieu  ! 

Your  uncle  must  not  know  but  you  are  dead  ! 

I’ll  fill  these  dogged  spies  with  false  reports. 

And,  pretty  child,  sleep  doubtless  and  secure, 

That  Hubert,  lor  the  wealth  of  all  the  world, 

Will  not  offend  thee. 

Arth.  Oh  ! heaven.  I thank  you,  Hubert  ! 

Hub.  Silence  ! no  more.  Go  closely  in  with  me. 
Much  danger  do  I undergo  for  thee. 

PKIULI  AND  JAFFIEE. 

Thomas  Otway. 

Pri.  No  more  ! I’ll  hear  no  more  ! Begone, 
and  leave  me. 

Jaff.  Not  hear  me  ! By  my  sufferings  but  you 
shall  : 

My  lord,  my  lord  ! I’m  not  that  abject  wretch 
You  think  me.  Patience!  where’s  the  dis- 
tance 

Throws  me  back  so  far,  but  I may  boldly  speak 
In  right,  tho’  proud  oppression  will  not  hear  me ! 
Pri.  Have  you  not  wrong’d  me  ? 

Jaff.  Could  my  nature  e’er 
Have  brook’d  injustice,  or  the  doing  wrong, 

I need  not  now  thus  low  have  bent  myself 
To  gain  a hearing  from  a cruel  father. — 

Wrong’d  you  ? 

Pri.  Yes,  wrong’d  me.  In  the  nicest  point. 

The  honor  of  my  house,  you’ve  done  me  wrong. 
When  you  first  came  home  from  travel, 

With  such  hopes  as  made  you  look’d  on 
By  all  men’s  eyes,  a youth  of  expectation, 

Pleased  with  your  seeming  virtue  I received  you  : 
Courted  and  sought  to  raise  you  to  your  merits  : 

My  house,  my  table,  nay,  my  fortune,  too, 

My  very  self  was  yours:  you  might  have  used  me 
To  your  best  service.  Like  an  open  friend 
I treated,  trusted  you,  and  thought  you  mine. 

When,  in  requital  of  my  best  endeavors, 

You  treacherously  practised  to  undo  me  : 

Seduced  the  weakness  of  my  age’s  darling, 

Mv  only  child,  and  stole  her  from  my  bosom. 

Jaff.  ’Tis  to  me  you  owe  her  : 

Childless  you  had  been  else,  and  in  the  grave 
Your  name  extinct ; no  more  Priuli  heard  of. 


You  may  remember,  scarce  five  years  are  past 
Since  in  your  brigantine  you  sail’d  to  see 
The  Adriatic  wedded  by  our  duke  : 

And  I was  with  you.  Your  unskilful  pilot 
Dash’d  us  upon  a rock  ; when  to  your  boat 
You  made  for  safety  ; enter’d  first  yourself  ; 

The  affrighted  Belvidera,  following  next, 

As  she  stood  trembling  on  the  vessel’s  side, 

Was  by  a wave  wash’d  off  into  the  deep  ; 

When  instantly  I plunged  into  the  sea, 

And  buffeting  the  billows  to  her  rescue, 

Redeem’d  her  life  with  half  the  loss  of  mine. 

Like  a rich  conquest  in  one  hand  I bore  her. 

And  with  the  other  dash’d  the  saucy  waves, 

That  throng’d  and  press’d  to  rob  me  of  my  prize. 

I brought  her : gave  her  to  your  despairing  arms  . 
Indeed,  you  thanked  me  ! but  a nobler  gratitude 
Rose  in  her  soul  ; for  from  that  hour  she  loved  me, 
Till  for  her  life  she  paid  me  with  herself. 

Pri.  You  stole  her  from  me,  like  a thief  you  stole 
her 

At  dead  of  night  ; that  cursed  hour  you  chose 
To  rifle  me  of  all  my  heart  held  dear. 

May  all  your  joys  in  her  prove  false,  like  mine  ! 

A sterile  fortune  and  a barren  bed, 

Attend  you  both  ; continual  discord  make 
Your  days  and  nights  bitter  and  grievous  still ; 

May  the  hard  hand  of  a vexatious  need 
Oppress  and  grind  you  : till  at  last  you  find 
The  curse  of  disobedience  all  your  portion  ! 

Jaff.  Half  of  your  curse  you  have  bestowed  in 
vain  ; 

Heaven  hath  already  crown’d  our  faithful  loves 
With  a young  boy,  sweet  as  his  mother’s  beauty  : 
May  he  live  to  prove  more  gentle  than  his  grandsire, 
And  happier  than  his  father  ! 

Pri.  No  more. 

Jaff.  Yes,  all  ; and  then — adieu  for  ever] 

There’s  not  a wretch  that  lives  on  common  charity 
But’s  happier  than  me  ; for  I have  known 
The  luscious  sweets  of  plenty  ; every  night 
Have  slept  with  soft  content  about  my  head, 

And  never  waked  but  to  a joyful  morning : 

Yet  now  must  fall  : like  a full  ear  of  corn, 

Whose  blossom  ’scaped,  yet’s  wither’d  in  the  riper* 
ing. 

Pri.  Home,  and  be  humble  ; study  to  retrench* 
Discharge  the  lazy  vermin  in  thy  hall, 

Those  pageants  of  thy  follv  .• 

Reduce  the  glittering  trappings  of  thy  wife 
To  humble  weeds,  fit  for  thy  little  state  ; 

Then  to  some  suburb  cottage  both  retire  ; 

Drudge  to  feed  loathsome  life ; get  brats,  and 
starve. 

Home,  home,  I say.  \Exit . 

Jaff.  Yes,  if  my  heart  wvuld  let  me — 


772 


DIALOGUES  FOR  ACTING  AND  DRAMATIC  EXERCISE. 


This  proud,  this  swelling  heart  ; home  I would  go, 
But  that  my  doors  are  hateful  to  my  eyes, 

Fill’d  and  damm’d  up  with  gaping  creditors. 

I’ve  now  not  fifty  ducats  in  the  world  ; 

Yet  still  I am  in  love  and  pleased  with  ruin. 

Oh ! Belvidera  ! — Oh  ! she  is  my  wife — 

And  we  will  bear  our  wayward  fate  together — 

But  ne’er  know  comfort  more. 

NOKYAL  AND  GLENALVON. 

The  Rev.  John  Home. 

Glenalvon.  His  port  I love : he’s  in  a proper 
mood 

To  chide  the  thunder,  if  at  him  it  roar’d.  [Aside. 
Has  Norval  seen  the  troops  ? 

Norval.  The  setting  sun 
With  yellow  radiance  lighten’d  all  the  vale  ; 

And,  as  the  warriors  moved,  each  polish’d  helm, 
Corslet,  or  spear,  glanced  back  his  gilded  beams. 
The  hill  they  climb’d,  and  halting  at  its  top, 

Of  more  than  mortal  size,  towering,  they  seem’d 
An  host  angelic  clad  in  burning  arms. 

Glen . Thou  talk’st  it  well  ; no  leader  of  our  host 
In  sounds  more  lofty  talks  of  glorious  war. 

Norv.  If  I should  e’er  acquire  a leader’s  name, 
My  speech  will  be  less  ardent.  Novelty 
Now  prompts  my  tongue,  and  youthful  admiration 
Vents  itself  freely,  since  no  part  is  mine 
Of  praise  pertaining  to  the  great  in  arms. 

Glen.  You  wrong  yourself,  brave  sir;  your  mar- 
tial deeds 

Have  rank’d  you  with  the  great.  But  mark  me, 
Norval  : 

Lord  Randolph’s  favor  now  exalts  your  youth 
Above  his  veterans  of  famous  service. 

Let  me,  who  know  these  soldiers,  counsel  you. 

Give  them  all  honor  ; seem  not  to  command  ; 

Else  they  will  hardly  brook  your  late  sprung  power, 
Which  nor  alliance  props  nor  birth  adorns. 

Norv.  Sir,  I have  been  accustom’d  all  my  days 
To  hear  and  speak  the  plain  and  simple  truth  ; 

And,  though  I have  been  told  that  there  are  men 
Who  borrow  friendship’s  tongue  to  speak  their 
scorn, 

Yet  in  such  language  I am  little  skill’d, 

Therefore  I thank  Glenalvon  for  his  counsel, 
Although  it  sounded  harshly.  Why  remind 
Me  of  my  birth  obscure?  Why  slur  my  power 
With  such  contemptuous  terms? 

Glen.  I did  not  mean 

To  gall  your  pride,  which  I now  see  is  great. 

Norv.  My  pride  ! 

Glen.  Suppress  it,  as  you  wish  to  prosper. 

Your  pride’s  excessive.  Yet,  for  Randolph’s  sake, 

I will  not  leave  you  to  its  rash  direction. 


If  thus  you  swell  and  frown  at  high-born  men, 

Will  high-born  men  endure  a shepherd’s  scorn  ? 
Norv.  A shepherd’s  scorn  ? 

Glen.  Yes  ! if  you  presume 
To  bend  on  soldiers  these  disdainful  eyes, 

As  if  you  took  the  measure  of  their  minds, 

And  said  in  secret,  you’re  no  match  for  me  ; 

What  will  become  of  you  ? 

Norv.  Hast  thou  no  fears  for  thy  presumptuous 
self? 

Glen.  Ha  ! dost  thou  threaten  me  ? 

Norv.  Didst  thou  not  hear  ? 

Glen.  Unwillingly  I did  : a nobler  foe 
Had  not  been  questioned  thus  ; but  such  as  thee— 
Norv.  Whom  dost  thou  think  me  ? 

Glen.  Norval. 

Norv.  So  I am — 

And  who  is  Norval  in  Glenalvon’s  eyes? 

Glen.  A peasant’s  son,  a wandering  beggar  boy  ; 
At  best  no  more,  even  if  he  speaks  the  truth. 

Norv.  False  as  thou  art,  dost  thou  suspect  my 
truth  ? 

Glen.  Thy  truth ! thou’rt  all  a lie  ; and  false  as 
guile 

Is  the  vainglorious  tale  thou  told’st  to  Randolph. 

Norv.  If  I were  chain’d  unarm’d,  or  bed-rid  old, 
Perhaps  I should  revile  ; but,  as  I am, 

I have  no  tongue  to  rail.  The  humble  Norval 
Is  of  a race  who  strive  not  but  with  deeds. 

Did  I not  fear  to  freeze  thy  shallow  valor 
And  make  thee  sink  too  soon  beneath  my  sword, 

I’d  tell  thee — what  thou  art  ; I know  thee  well. 

Glen.  Dost  thou  not  know  Glenalvon,  born  to 
command 

Ten  thousand  slaves  like  thee  ? 

Norv.  Villain,  no  more. 

Draw  and  defend  thy  life.  I did  design 
To  have  defied  thee  in  another  cause  : 

But  heaven  accelerates  its  vengeance  on  thee. 

Now  for  my  own  and  Lady  Randolph’s  wrongs  ! 

Lord  Ran.  [Enters.')  Hold,  I command  you  both. 
The  man  that  stirs  makes  me  his  foe. 

Norv.  Another  voice  than  thine 
That  threat  had  vainly  sounded,  noble  Randolph. 
Glen.  Hear  him,  my  lord,  he’s  wondrous  cone 
descending ; 

Mark  the  humility  of  Shepherd  Norval! 

Norv.  Now  you  may  scoff  in  safety. 

[Sheathes  his  sword , 

Lord  Ran.  Speak  not  thus, 

Taunting  each  other,  but  unfold  to  me 
The  cause  of  quarrel ; then  I judge  betwixt  you. 
Norv.  Nay,  my  good  lord,  though  I revere  you 
much, 

My  cause  I plead  not,  nor  demand  your  judgment 
I blush  to  speak,  I will  not,  cannot  speak 


SOLILOQUIES  AND  ADDRESSES 


773 


The  opprobrious  words  that  I from  him  have  borne. 
To  the  liege  lord  of  my  dear  native  land 
I owe  a subject’s  homage  : but  even  him 
And  his  high  arbitration — I’d  reject. 

Within  my  bosom  reigns  another  lord  ; 

Honor,  sole  judge  and  umpire  of  itself. 

If  my  free  speech  offend  you,  noble  Randolph, 
Revoke  your  favors,  and  let  Norval  go 
Hence  as  he  came,  alone,  but  not  dishonor’d  ! 

Lord  Ran . Thus  far  I’ll  mediate  with  impartial 
voice  : 

The  ancient  foe  of  Caledonia’s  land 
Now  waves  his  banner  o’er  her  frighted  fields. 
Suspend  your  purpose  till  your  country’s  arms 
Repel  the  bold  invader  ; then  decide 
The  private  quarrel. 

Glen . I agree  ^o  this, 

Norv . And  I. 

Glen,  Norval, 

Let  not  our  variance  mar  the  social  hour  \ 

Nor  wrong  the  hospitality  of  Randolph. 

Nor  frowning  anger,  nor  yet  wrinkled  hate, 

Shall  stain  my  countenance.  Smooth  thou  thv 
brow, 

Nor  let  our  strife  disturb  the  gentle  dame. 

Norv . Think  not  so  lightly,  sir,  of  my  resent- 
ment. 

When  we  contend  again,  our  strife  is  mortal 

OTHELLO’S  ADDRESS  TO  THE 
SENATE. 

Shakspeare. 

OST  potent,  grave,  and  reverend  signiors, 
My  very  noble  and  approved  good  mas- 
ters,— 

That  I have  ta’en  away  this  old  man's 
daughter, 

It  is  most  true  ; true,  I have  married  her  > 

The  very  head  and  front  of  my  offending 
Hath  this  extent,  no  more.  Rude  am  I in  my 
speech. 

And  little  blessed  with  the  soft  phrase  of  peace  ; 

For  since  these  arms  of  mine  had  seven  years  pith. 
Till  now  some  nine  moons  wasted,  they  have  used 
Their  dearest  action  in  the  tented  field  ; 

And  little  of  J^his  great  world  can  I speak. 

More  thampertains  to  feats  of  broil  and  battle  } 

And,  therefore,  little  shall  I grace  my  cause 
In  speaking  for  myself.  Yet,  by  your  gracious 
patience, 

I will  a round,  unvarnished  tale  deliver 
Of  my  whole  course  of  love  ; what  drugs,  what 
charms, 

What  conjuration,  and  what  mighty  magic 


(For  such  proceeding  I af\  charged  withal), 

I won  his  daughter. 

I do  beseech  you. 

Send  for  the  lady  to  the  Sagittary, 

And  let  her  speak  of  me  before  her  father; 

If  you  do  find  me  foul  in  her  reporL 
The  trust,  the  office,  I do  hold  of  you 
Not  only  take  away,  but  let  your  sent~rce 
Even  fall  upon  my  life. 

Ancient,  conduct  them : you  best  kiKw  *k  place 
And,  till  she  come  , as  truly  as  to  heaven 
I do  confess  the  vices  of  my  blood. 

So  justly  to  your  grave  ears  I’ll  present 
How  I did  thrive  in  this  fair  lady’s  love, 

And  she  in  mine. 

Her  father  loved  me ; oft  invited  me  ; 

Still  questioned  me  the  story  of  my  life, 

From  year  to  year  ; the  battles,  sieges,  fortune 
That  I have  passed, 

I ran  it  through,  even  lrom  my  boyish  days. 

To  the  very  moment  that  he  bade  me  tell  it. 
Wherein  I spoke  of  most  disastrous  chances  ; 

Of  moving  accidents  by  flood  and  field  ; 

Of  hair-breadth  ’scapes  i’  the  imminent  dead! 
breach  ; 

Of  being  taken  by  the  insolent  foe 
And  sold  to  slavery  ; of  my  redemption  thence^ 
And  portance.  in  my  traveller’s  history 
(Wherein  of  antres  vast,  and  deserts  idle, 

Rough  quarries,  rocks,  and  hills  whose  heads  toucl 
heaven, 

It  was  my  hint  to  speak),  such  was  the  process  • 
And  of  the  Cannibals  that  each  other  eat, 

The  Anthropophagi,  and  men  whose  heads 
Do  grow  beneath  their  shoulders.  These  things  t< 
hear 

Would  Desdemona  seriously  incline  ; 

But  still  the  house  affairs  would  draw  her  thence; 
Which  ever  as  she  could  with  haste  despatch. 

She’d  come  again,  and  with  a greedy  ear 
Devour  up  my  discourse  ; which  I observing, 

Took  once  a pliant  hour,  and  found  good  means 
To  draw  from  her  a prayer  of  earnest  heart. 

That  I would  all  my  pilgrimage  dilate, 

Whereof  by  parcels  she  had  something  heard. 

But  not  intentively;  I did  consent, 

And  often  did  beguile  her  of  her  tears, 

When  I did  speak  of  some  distressful  stroke 
That  my  youth  suffered.  My  story  being  done. 

She  gave  me  for  my  pains  a world  of  sighs  : 

She  swore, — In  faith,  ’twas  strange,  ’twas  passing 
strange  ; 

’Twas  pitiful,  ’twas  wondrous  pitiful — 

She  wished  she  had  not  heard  it ; yet  she  wished 
That  heaven  had  made  her  such  a man  ; she  thanked 
me, 


774 


SOLILOQUIES  AND  ADDRESSES. 


And  bade  me,  if  I had  a friend  that  loved  her. 
i should  but  teach  him  how  to  tell  my  story. 

And  that  would  woo  her.  Upon  this  hint  I spake  : 
She  loved  me  for  the  dangers  I had  passed. 

And  I loved  her  that  she  did  pity  them. 

This  only  is  the  witchcraft  I have  used  t 
Here  comes  the  lady,  let  her  witness  it. 

HOTSPUR’S  ACCOUNT  OF  THE  FOP. 

Shakespeare. 

Y liege,  I die  deny  no  prisoners. 

But  i remember,  when  the  fight  was  done. 
When  I was  dry  with  rage  and  extreme 

toil. 

Breathless  and  faint,  leaning  upon  my  sword, 

Came  there  a certain  lord,  neat,  trimly  dress’d, 
Fresh  as  a bridegroom,  and  his  chin,  new  reap’d, 
Show’d  like  a stubble-land  at  harvest  home. 

He  was  perfumed  like  a milliner  ; 

And  ’twixt  his  finger  and  his  thumb  he  held 
A pouncet-box,  which  ever  and  anon 
He  gave  his  nose. — 

Ana  still  he  smil’d  and  talk’d  ; 

And  as  the  soldiers  bore  dead  bodies  by. 

He  call’d  them  “ untaught  knaves,  unmannerly. 

To  bring  a slovenly,  unhandsome  corse, 

Betwix^  the  wind  and  his  nobility.” 

With  many  holyday  and  lady  terms 
He  question’d  me  } among  the  rest,  demanded 
My  prisoners,  in  your  majesty’s  behalf. 

I then,  all  smarting  with  my  wounds,  being  cold. 

To  be  so  pestered  with  a popinjay. 

Out  of  my  grief  ana  mj  impatience. 

Answered  neglectingly — I know  not  what — 

He  should  or  he  should  not  * for  he  made  me  mad 
To  see  him  shine  so  brisk  and  smell  so  sweet. 

And  talk  so  like  awaiting  gentlewoman 
Of  guns,  and  drums,  and  wounds  (Heaven  save  the 
mark !) 

And  telling  me  the  sovereign’st  thing  on  earth 
Was  parmaceti  for  an  inward  bruise  ; 

And  that  it  was  great  pity  (so  it  was) 


This  villainous  saltpetre  should  be  digged 
Out  of  the  bowels  of  the  harmless  earth. 

Which  many  a good  tall  fellow  had  destroyed 
So  cowardly  ; and  but  for  these  vile  guns 
He  would  himself  have  been  a soldier. 

This  bald,  disjointed  chat  of  his,  my  lord, 

I answered  indirectly  as  I said 
And,  I beseech  you,  let  not  this  report 
Come  current  for  an  accusation 
Betwixt  my  love  and  your  high  majesty. 

THE  PROGRESS  OF  LIFE. 

Shakespeare. 

fLL  the  world’s  a stage, 

And  all  the  men  and  women  merely 
play’rs ; 

They  have  their  exits  and  their  entrance-. 

And  one  man  in  his  time  plays  many  parts  j 
His  acts  being  seven  ages.  First  the  infant, 

Muling  and  puking  in  the  nurse’s  arms, 

And  then  the  whining  schoolboy,  with  his  satchel 
And  shining  morning  face,  creeping  like  snail 
Unwillingly  to  school.  And  theft  the  lover 
Sighing  like  furnace,  with  a woful  ballad 
Made  to  his  mistress*  eyebrow.  Then  a soldier 
Full  of  strange  oaths,  and  bearded  like  the  pard. 
Jealous  in  honor,  sudden  and  quick  in  quarrel. 
Seeking  the  bubble  reputation 

Ev’n  in  the  cannon’s  mouth.  And  then,  the  justice 
In  fair  round  belly,  with  good  capon  lin’d, 

With  eyes  severe,  and  beard  of  formal  cut, 

Full  of  wise  saws  and  modern  instances ; 

And  so  he  plays  his  part.  The  sixth  age  shifts 
Into  the  lean  and  slipper’d  pantaloon, 

With  spectacles  on  nose  and  pouch  on  side  ; 

His  youthful  hose,  well  sav’d,  a world  too  wide 
For  his  shrunk  shank  ; and  his  big  manly  voice, 
Turning  again  toward  childish  treble,  pipes 
And  whistles  in  his  sound.  Last  scene  of  all, 

That  ends  this  strange  eventful  history, 

Is  second  childishness  and  mere  oblivion, 

Sans  teeth,  sans  eyes,  sans  taste,  sans  ev’rything. 


BY  WASHINGTON  IRVING. 


I never  heard 

Of  any  true  affection,  but  'twas  nipt 

With  care,  that,  like  the  caterpillar,  eats 

The  leaves  of  the  spring’s  sweetest  book,  the  rose. 

Middleton . 

is  a common  practice  with  those 
who  have  outlived  the  susceptibil- 
ity of  early  feeling,  or  have  been 
brought  up  in  the  gay  heartless- 
ness of  dissipated  life,  to  laugh  at 
all  love  stories,  and  to  treat  the 
tales  of  romantic  passion  as  mere  fictions  of  novel- 
ists and  poets.  My  observations  on  human  nature 
have  induced  me  to  think  otherwise.  They  have 
convinced  me,  that  however  the  surface  of  the  char- 
acter may  be  chilled  and  frozen  by  the  cares  of  the 
world,  or  cultivated  into  mere  smiles  by  the  arts  of 
society,  still  there  are  dormant  fires  lurking  in  the 
depths  of  the  coldest  bosom,  which,  when  once  en- 
kindled, become  impetuous,  and  are  sometimes 
desolating  in  their  effects.  Indeed,  I am  a true  be- 
liever in  the  blind  deity,  and  go  to  the  full  extent  of 
his  doctrines.  Shall  I confess  it  ? — I believe  in 
broken  hearts,  and  the  possibility  of  dying  of  dis- 
appointed love.  I do  not,  however,  consider  it  a 
malady  often  fatal  to  my  own  sex;  but  I firmly  be- 
lieve that  it  withers  down  many  a lovely  woman  into 
an  early  grave. 

Man  is  the  creature  of  interest  and  ambition.  His 
nature  leads  him  forth  into  the  struggle  and  bustle 
of  the  world.  Love  is  but  the  embellishment  of  his 
early  life,  or  a song  piped  in  the  intervals  of  the  acts. 
He  seeks  for  fame,  for  fortune,  for  space  in  the 
world’s  thought,  and  dominion  over  his  fellow  men. 
But  a woman’s  whole  life  is  a history  of  the  affec- 
tions. The  heart  is  her  world  : it  is  there  her  ambi- 
tion strives  for  empire  ; it  is  there  her  avarice  seeks 
for  hidden  treasures.  She  sends  forth  her  sympa- 
thies on  adventure;  she  embarks  her  whole  soul  in 
the  traffic  of  affection;  and  if  shipwrecked,  her  case 
is  hopeless — for  it  is  a bankruptcy  of  the  heart. 

To  a man  the  disappointment  of  love  may  occa- 
sion some  bitter  pangs  : it  wounds  some  feelings  of 
tenderness — it  blasts  some  prospects  of  felicity;  but 
he  is  an  active  being — he  may  dissipate  his  thoughts 
in  the  whirl  of  varied  occupation,  or  may  plunge 
into  the  tide  of  pleasure;  or,  if  the  scene  of  disap- 
pointment be  too  full  of  painful  associations,  he  can 
shift  his  abode  at  will,  and  taking  as  it  were  the 
wings  of  the  morning,  can  “ fly  to  the  uttermost  parts 
of  the  earth,  and  be  at  rest.” 


But  woman’s  is  comparatively  a fixed,  a secluded, 
and  meditative  life.  She  is  more  the  companion  of 
her  own  thoughts  and  feelings;  and  if  they  are  turn* 
ed  to  ministers  of  sorrow,  where  shall  she  look  fof 
consolation  ? Her  lot  is  to  be  wooed  and  won;  and 
if  unhappy  in  her  love,  her  heart  is  like  some  for- 
tress that  has  been  captured,  and  sacked,  and  aban- 
doned, and  left  desolate. 

How  many  bright  eyes  grow  dim — how  many  soft 
cheeks  grow  pale — how  many  lovely  forms  fade 
away  into  the  tomb,  and  none  can  tell  the  cause  that 
blighted  their  loveliness!  As  the  dove  will  clasp  its 
wings  to  its  side,  and  cover  and  conceal  the  arrow 
that  is  preying  on  its  vitals,  so  it  is  the  nature  of 
woman  to  hide  from  the  world  the  pangs  of  wounded 
affection.  The  love  of  a delicate  female  is  always 
shy  and  silent.  Even  when  fortunate,  she  scarcely 
breathes  it  to  herself;  but  when  otherwise,  she  buries 
it  in  the  recesses  of  her  bosom,  and  there  lets  it 
cower  and  brood  among  the  ruins  of  her  peace. 
With  her  the  desire  of  the  heart  has  failed.  The 
great  charm  of  existence  is  at  an  end.  She  neglects 
all  the  cheerful  exercises  which  gladden  the  spirits, 
quicken  the  pulses,  and  send  the  tide  of  life  in 
healthful  currents  through  the  veins.  Her  rest  is 
broken — the  sweet  refreshment  of  sleep  is  poisoned 
by  melancholy  dreams — “dry  sorrow  drinks  her 
blood,”  until  her  enfeebled  frame  sinks  under  the 
slightest  external  injury.  Look  for  her,  after  a little 
while,  and  you  find  friendship  weeping  over  her  un- 
timely grave,  and  wondering  that  one,  who  but  lately 
glowed  with  all  the  radiance  of  health  and  beauty, 
should  so  speedily  be  brought  down  to  “darkness 
and  the  worm.”  You  will  be  told  of  some  wintry 
chill,  some  casual  indisposition,  that  laid  her  low;— 
but  no  one  knows  of  the  mental  malady  which  pre- 
viously sapped  her  strength,  and  made  her  so  easy  a 
prey  to  the  spoiler. 

She  is  like  some  tender  tree,  the  pride  and  beauty 
of  the  grove;  graceful  in  its  form,  bright  in  its 
foliage,  but  with  the  worm  preying  at  its  heart.  We 
find  it  suddenly  withering,  when  it  should  be  most 
fresh  and  luxuriant.  We  see  it  drooping  its  branches 
to  the  earth,  and  shedding  leaf  by  leaf,  until  wasted 
and  perished  away,  it  falls  even  in  the  stillness  of 
the  forest;  and  as  we  muse  over  the  beautiful  ruin, 
we  strive  in  vain  to  recollect  the  blast  or  thunder- 
bolt that  could  have  smitten  it  with  decay. 

I have  seen  many  instances  of  women  running  to 
waste  and  self-neglect,  and  disappearing  gradually 


THE  BROKEN  HEART. 


176 

from  the  earth,  almost  as  if  they  had  been  exhaled 
to  heaven  ; and  have  repeatedly  fancied  that  I could 
trace  their  death  through  the  various  declensions  of 
consumption,  cold,  debility,  languor,  melancholy, 
until  I reached  tbe  first  symptom  of  disappointed 
love.  But  an  instance  of  the  kind  was  lately  told  to 
me;  the  circumstances  are  well  known  in  the  coun- 
try where  they  happened,  and  I shall  but  give  them 
in  the  manner  in  which  they  were  related. 

Every  one  must  recollect  the  tragical  story  of 

young  E , the  Irish  patriot;  it  was  too  touching 

to  be  soon  forgotten.  During  the  troubles  in  Ire- 
land, he  was  tried,  condemned,  and  executed  on  a 
charge  of  treason.  His  fate  made  a deep  impression 
on  public  sympathy.  He  was  so  young — so  intelli- 
gent—so  generous — so  brave — so  everything  that  we 
are  apt  to  like  in  a young  man.  His  conduct  under 
trial,  too,  was  so  lofty  and  intrepid.  The  noble  in 
dignation  with  which  he  repelled  the  charge  of  trea- 
son against  his  country — the  eloquent  vindication  of 
his  name — and  his  pathetic  appeal  to  posterity,  in 
the  hopeless  hour  of  condemnation — all  these  enter- 
ed deeply  into  every  generous  bosom,  and  even  his 
enemies  lamented  the  stern  policy  that  dictated  his 
execution. 

But  there  was  one  heart,  whose  anguish  it  would 
be  impossible  to  describe.  In  happier  days  and 
fairer  fortunes,  he  had  won  the  affections  of  a beau- 
tiful and  interesting  girl,  the  daughter  of  a late  cel- 
ebrated Irish  barrister.  She  lqved  him  with  the  dis- 
interested fervor  of  a woman’s  first  and  early  love. 
When  every  worldly  maxim  arrayed  itself  against 
him;  when  blasted  in  fortune,  and  disgrace  and  dan- 
ger darkened  around  his  very  name,  she  loved  him  the 
more  ardently  for  his  sufferings.  If,  then,  his  fate 
could  awaken  the  sympathy  even  of  his  foes,  what 
must  have  been  the  agony  of  her,  whose  whole  soul 
was  occupied  by  his  image!  Let  those  tell  who  have 
had  the  portals  of  the  tomb  suddenly  closed  be- 
tween them  and  the  being  they  most  loved  on  earth 
— who  have  sat  at  its  threshold,  as  one  shut  out  in  a 
cold  and  lonely  world,  whence  all  that  was  most 
lovely  and  loving  had  departed. 

But  then  the  horrors  of  such  a grave!  so  fright- 
ful, so  dishonored  ! there  was  nothing  for  memory 
to  dwell  on  that  could  soothe  the  pang  of  separation 
— none  of  those  tender  though  melancholy  circum- 
stances, which  endear  the  parting  scene — nothing  to 
melt  sorrow  into  those  blessed  tears,  sent  like  the 
dews  of  heaven,  to  revive  the  heart  in  the  parting 
hour  of  anguish. 

To  render  her  widowed  situation  more  desolate, 
she  had  incurred  Jier  father’s  displeasure  by  her  un- 
fortunate attachment,  and  was  an  exile  from  the 
paternal  roof.  But  could  the  sympathy  and  kind 
offices  of  friends  have  reached  a spirit  so  shocked 
and  driven  in  by  horror,  she  would  have  experienced 
no  want  of  consolation,  for  the  Irish  are  a people  of 
quick  and  generous  sensibilities.  The  most  delicate 
and  cherishing  attentions  were  paid  her  by  families 
of  wealth  and  distinction.  She  was  led  into  society, 
and  they  tried  by  all  kinds  of  occupation  and  amuse- 
ment to  dissipate  her  grief,  and.  wean  her  from  the 
tragical  story  of  her  love'.  But  it  was  all  in  vain. 
There  are  some  strokes  of  calamity  which  scathe  and 
scorch  the  soul — which  penetrate  to  the  vital  seat  of 
happiness — and  blast  it,  never  again  to  put  forth  bud 
or  blossom.  She  never  objected  to  frequent  the  haunts 
of  pleasure,  but  was  as  much  alone  there  as  in  the 
depths  a solitude;  walking  about  in  a sad  reverie, 


apparently  unconscious  of  the  world  around  her, 
She  carried  with  her  an  inward  woe  that  mocked  at 
all  the  blandishments  of  friendship,  and  “heeded 
not  the  song  of  the  charmer,  charm  he  never  so 
wisely.” 

The  person  who  told  me  her  story  had  seen  her  at 
a masquerade.  There  can  be  no  exhibition  of  far- 
gone  wretchedness  more  striking  and  painful  than 
to  meet  in  such  a scene.  To  find  it  wandering  like 
a spectre,  lonely  and  joyless,  where  all  around  is 
gay — to  see  it  dressed  out  in  the  trappings  of  mirth, 
and  looking  so  wan  and  woe-begone  as  if  it  had 
tried  in  vain  to  cheat  the  poor  heart  into  a moment- 
ary forgetfulness  of  sorrow.  After  strolling  through 
the  splendid  rooms  and  giddy  crowd  with  an  air  of 
utter  abstraction,  she  sat  herself  down  on  the  steps 
of  an  orchestra,  and,  looking  about  for  some  time 
with  a vacant  air,  that  showed  her  insensibility  to 
the  garish  scene,  she  began,  with  the  capriciousness 
of  a sickly  heart,  to  warble  a little  plaintive  air.  She 
had  an  exquisite  voice;  but  on  this  occasion  it  was 
so  simple,  so  touching,  it  breathed  forth  such  a soul 
of  wretchedness,  that  she  drew  a crowd  mute  and 
silent  around  her,  and  melted  every  one  into  tears. 

The  story  of  one  so  true  and  tender  could  not  but 
excite  great  interest  in  a country  remarkable  for  en- 
thusiasm. It  completely  won  the  heart  of  a brave 
officer,  who  paid  his  addresses  to  her,  and  thought 
that  one  so  true  to  the  dead  could  not  but  prove 
affectionate  to  the  living.  She  declined  his  atten« 
tions,  for  her  thoughts  were  irrevocably  engrossed 
by  the  memory  of  her  former  lover.  He,  however, 
persisted  in  his  suit.  He  solicited  not  her  tender- 
ness but  her  esteem.  He  was  assisted  by  her  con- 
viction of  his  worth,  and  her  sense  of  her  own  des- 
titute and  dependent  situation,  for  she  was  existing 
on  the  kindness  of  friends.  In  a word,  he  at  length 
succeeded  in  gaining  her  hand,  though  with  the 
' solemn  assurance,  that  her  heart  was  unalterably 
another’s. 

He  took  her  with  him  to  Sicily,  hoping  that  a 
change  of  scene  might  wear  out  the  remembrance  of 
early  woes.  She  was  an  amiable  and  exemplary 
wife,  and  made  an  effort  to  be  a happy  one;  but 
nothing  could  cure  the  silent  and  devouring  melan- 
choly that  had  entered  into  her  very  soul  She 
wasted  away  in  a slow,  but  hopeless  decline,  and  at 
length  sunk  into  the  grave,  the  victim  of  a broken 
heart. 

It  was  on  her  that  Moore,  the  distinguished  Irish 
poet,  composed  the  following  lines  : — 

She  is  far  from  the  land  where  her  young  hero  sleeps, 
And  lovers  around  her  are  sighing  : 

But  coldly  she  turns  from  their  gaze,  and  weeps, 

For  her  heart  in  his  grave  is  lying. 

She  sings  the  wild  songs  of  her  dear  native  plains, 
Every  note  which  he  loved  awaking — 

Ah!  little  they  think,  who  delight  in  her  strains, 
How  the  heart  of  the  minstrel  is  breaking! 

He  had  lived  for  his  love — for  his  country  he  died, 
They  were  all  that  to  life  had  entwined  him — 
Nor  soon  shall  the  tears  of  his  country  be  dried, 

Nor  long  will  his  love  stay  behind  him! 

Oh!  make  her  a grave  where  the  sunbeams  res f. 
When  they  promise  a glorious  morrow; 

They’ll  shine  o’er  her  sleep,  like  a smile  from  the 
west, 

From  her  own  loved  island  of  sorrow! 


<7~L^r7s^f 


fL<m 


C/Z^t^7^e^,  <=>£^zr^  ce^t 

f ' 

^7  &yz^s  <>^>4uyzL^  s&J5>* 

^ ct^  Cc^£sr<* 

✓*' 


tZsm-j 


FACSIMILE  OF  LETTER  FROM  BENJAMIN  FRANKLIN  TO  MR.  STRAHAN. 


PRINCIPAL  UNIVERSITIES  AND  COLLEGES 

OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

The  statistics  embraced  in  this  table  were  communicated  by  the  Presidents  of  the  respective  Institutions, 
and  represent  their  condition  at  the  close  of  1889. 


College  Name. 


Location. 

Religious 

Denomination. 

Numb’r  of 
Instr’ctors 

Number 

of 

students. 

Volumes 

in 

Library. 

Number  of 
Graduates 
since  Organi- 
zation. 

Cleveland,  0 

Non-Sect.  ( b ). . . 

71  730 

25,000 

' 2,400  (« 

Meadville,  Pa 

Methodist  Epis. 

l8i  296 

12,500 

1,098 

Amherst,  Mass 

Yellow  Springs,  0 

Congregational. 
Unsectarian  . . . 

27  344 

T2  2TO 

53,000 

7,000 

14,729 

3,227 

Lewiston,  Me 

Berea,  Ky 

Free  Baptist.. . . 

l6 

155 

531 

Non-Sect.  {b).. 

17  334 

4,000 

44 

Boston,  Mass 

Methodist  Epis. 

no  875 

20,000 

2,412 

Brunswick,  Me 

Congregational. 

26 

261 

40,000 

3,915 

Brooklyn,  N.  Y 

Providence,  R.  I 

Non-Sectarian  . 

44 

800 

3,000 

425 

Non-Sectarian  . 

22 

285 

70,000 

3,355 

Bryn  Mawr,  Pa 

Non-Sectarian  . 

23 

117 

6,500 

26 

Buffalo,  N.  Y 

Rom.  Catholic.. 
Non-Sectarian  . 

26 

IX 

353 

80 

18,000 

33 

Washington,  D.  C 

Rom.  Catholic.. 

10 

49 

10,000 

Charleston,  S.  C 

Non-Sectarian  . 

5 

29 

10,000 

Worcester,  Mass 

Non-Sectarian  . 

30 

50 

8,000 

Waterville,  Me . 

Baptist 

12 

153 

25,000 

1,150 

New  York 

Non-Sectarian  . 

43 

L43i 

25,419 

1,348 

New  York  City 

Non-Sect,  (c)  . . 

191 

1,620 

103,000 

12,090 

Washington,  D.  C 

Non-Sectarian  . 

57 

580 

8,000 

2,442 

Mt.  Vernon,  la 

Methodist  Epis. 

24 

596 

8,500 

394 

Ithaca,  N.  Y 

Non-Sectarian  . 

96 

1,306 

103,000 

L5I5 

Lebanon,  Tenn 

C’mb.  Pres. . . . 

14 

3i7 

7,000 

2,014 

Hanover,  N.  H 

C ongregati  onal . 

48 

4i7 

70,000 

6,900 

Davidson,  N.  C 

Granville,  O 

Presbyterian. . . 
Baptist 

8 

12 

100 

170 

9,000 

13,000 

59S 

Greencastle,  Ind 

Des  Moines,  la 

Methodist  Epis. 
Baptist 

53 

11 

908 

77 

12,000 

2,000 

1,100 

20 

Carlisle,  Pa 

Madison,  N.  J 

Eminence,  Ky 

Methodist  Epis. 
Methodist  Epis. 
Disciples 

13 

6 

8 

180 

120 

126 

32.000 

35.000 
2,000 

1,438 

430 

238 

Oxford,  Ga 

Meth.  Epis.  S. . 

13 

229 

7,000 

973 

Due  West,  S.  C 

Nashville,  Tenn 

A.  R.  Pres 

6 

75 

6,500 

450 

Congregational. 

22 

508 

3,871 

134 

Franklin,  Ind.  

Baptist 

10 

175 

6,000 

hi 

Lancaster,  Pa 

Reformed  D. . . 

15 

178 

25,800 

802 

Greenville,  S.  C 

Baptist 

7 

134 

2,500 

159 

New  York 

Prot . Episcopal. 

9 

89 

19,114 

1,128 

Georgetown,  D.  C 

Clinton,  N.  Y 

Rom.  Catholic.. 

61 

555 

45,000 

i,95i 

Presbyterian . . . 

15 

153 

36,000 

2,613 

Hampden-Sidney,  Va. . . 

Non-Sectarian  . 

7 

102 

10,000 

Hanover,  Ind 

Cambridge,  Mass 

Presbyterian . . . 

13 

155 

10,000 

643 

Non-Sectarian  . 

217 

2,079 

360,000 

18,200 

Haverford,  Pa 

Or.  Friends.... 

14 

111 

17,900 

459 

Hiram,  O 

Disciples 

15 

272 

5,180 

114 

Hiwassee  Coll.,  Tenn. . . 

Meth.  Epis.  S. . 

4 

126 

2,700 

Geneva,  N.  Y 

Protestant  Epis. 

15 

66 

21,500 

1,319 

Washington,  D.  C 

Non-Sectarian  . 

4 

418 

1,310 

Bloomington,  111 

Methodist  Epis. 

21 

433 

3,500 

549 

Bloomington,  Ind 

Non-Sectarian  . 

25 

455 

12,000 

1,200 

|Grinnell,  la 

Congregational. 

27 

540 

13,000 

370 

I826. 

I815. 

1821. 

1852. 
I863. 
1865  . 

1869. 
1794. 
1854- 
1764. 

1885. 

1870. 

1881., 

1886. 

1785. , 

1888. , 
1820. . 

1847. . 
I754- • 
1821. 

1857.. 

1868. . 

1842. . 

1769. . 
1737- ■ 

1832. . 

1837.. 

1865. . 

1783. . 

1866. . 

1857.. 

1837. . 

1839. . 

1867. . 

1844. . 

1853.  ■ 

1851. . 

1517. . 
1789. 

1812. . 

1776.. 

1827. . 

1636. . 
I833- • 

1867. . 
1849  . 

1825. . 

1867. . 
IS53. ■ 

1820. . 
1847. , 


Adelbert  (a) 

Allegheny 

Amherst 

Antioch 

Bates 

Berea 

Boston  University 

Bowdoin 

Brooklyn  Polytechnic 

Brown  University 

Bryn  Mawr 

Canisius 

Case  Sc.  App’l  Science 

Catholic  University  Amer.. . . 

Charleston 

Clark  University 

Colby  University 

College  City  of  N.  Y 

Columbia 

Columbian  University 

Cornell 

Cornell  University 

Cumberland  University 

Dartmouth 

Davidson 

Denison  University 

Da  Pauw  University 

Des  Moines 

Dickinson , . . . 

Drew  Theological  Seminary. 

Eminence 

Emory 

Erskine 

Fisk  University 

Franklin 

Franklin  and  Marshall 

Furman  University 

General  Theological  Sem. . . . 

Georgetown 

Hamilton 

Hampden-Sidney 

Hanover 

Harvard  University 

Haver  ford 

Hiram 

Hiwassee 

Hobart 

Howard  University 


PRINCIPAL  UNIVERSITIES  AND  COLLEGES  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


779 


c 

« 

bo 

6 


1876. . 

1824. . 

1837.. 

1826. . 

1857. . 

i82g. . 

1847. . 

1866. . 

1866. . 

1819. . 

1863. . 

1835.  • 
1834- • 

1837.. 

1809. . 

1800. . 

1857.. 

1858.. 

1837. . 

1808. . 

1867.. 
1825.  . 

1855-  • 

1834. . 

1844. . 

1833.  • 

1870. . 

1844. . 

1859. • 

1832. . 
1746.  . 

1832. . 

1853--  • 

1885. . 

1766. . 
1853.  • 

1856. . 
1865.  . 

1827. . 

1872. . 

1874. . 
1847.  . 

1870. . 

1847. . 

1789.. 

1856. . 

1829. . 

1860. . 

1869. . 

1850. . 
1824. • 
1852.  . 

1855.. 

1884. . 

*795-. 

1836.  . 

1802. . 

1845. . 

1831. . 
1868.  . 

1874. . 

1831.. 

1880. . 


College  Name. 


Johns  Hopkins  University. . . 

Kenyon 

Knox 

Lafayette 

Lake  Forest  University.. 
Lane  Theological  Seminary. . 

Lawrence  University 

Lehigh  University 

Lincoln  University 

Madison  University 

Manhattan 

Marietta 

McKendree 

Mercer  University 

Miami  University 

Middlebury 

Monmouth 

Mount  Union 

Mount  Holyoke 

Mount  St.  Mary’s 

Muhlenberg 

Newton  Theological  Inst. . . . 
Northwestern  University. . . . 

Norwich  University 

Notre  Dame 

Oberlin 

Ohio  State  University 

Ohio  Wesleyan 

Olivet 

Pennsylvania 

Princeton  (College  of  N.J.). . 

Randolph-Macon  

Roanoke 

Rollins 

Rutgers 

Rutherford 

Seton  Hall 

Shaw  University 

Shurtleff 

Smith 

Southwestern  Bapt 

State  University  of  Iowa. . . . 
Stevens  Institute  Tech  ...... 

St.  Francis  Xavier 

St.  John’s 

St.  Lawrence  University  .... 

St.  Louis  University 

St.  Stephen’s 

Swarthmore 

Syracuse  University 

Trinity 

Trinity 

Tufts 

Tulane  University 

Union 

Union  Theological  Sem 

U.  S.  Military  Academy.. . . 

U.  S.  Naval  Academy 

University  of  Alabama 

University  of  California 

University  of  Cincinnati 

University  City  of  N.  Y . . . . 
University  of  Denver 


Location. 


Baltimore,  Md 

Gambier,  O 

Galesburg,  111 

Easton,  Pa 

Lake  Forest,  111 

Cincinnati,  O 

Appleton,  Wis 

S.  Bethlehem,  Pa 

Lincoln,  111 

Hamilton,  N.  Y. 

New  York  City 

Marietta,  O 

Lebanon,  111 

Macon,  Ga 

Oxford,  O 

Middlebury,  Vt 

Monmouth,  111 

Alliance,  O 

South  Hadley,  Mass. . . . 

Emmettsburg,  Md 

Allentown.  Pa 

Newton  Centre,  Mass. . . 

Evanston,  111 

Norwich,  Vt 

Notre  Dame,  Ind 

Oberlin,  O 

Columbus,  O 

Delaware,  O 

Olivet,  Mich 

Gettysburg,  Pa 

Princeton,  N.  J 

Ashland,  Va 

Salem,  Va 

Winter  Park,  Fla 

New  Brunswick,  N.  J. . . 
Rutherford  Col.,  N.  C . . 
South  Orange,  N.  J . . . . 

Raleigh,  N.  C 

Upper  Alton,  111 

Northampton,  Mass. . . . 

Jackson,  Tenn 

Iowa  City,  la 

Hoboken,  N.  J 

New  York  City 

Annapolis,  Md 

Canton,  N.  Y 

St.  Louis,  Mo 

Annandale,  N.  Y 

Swarthmore,  Pa 

Syracuse,  N.  Y 

Hartford,  Conn 

Trinity  College,  N.  C. . . 

College  Hill,  Mass 

New  Orleans,  La 

Schenectady,  N.  Y 

New  York  City 

West  Point,  N.  Y 

Annapolis,  Md 

Tuscaloosa,  Ala 

Berkeley,  Cal 

Cincinnati,  O 

New  York 

Denver,  Col 


Religious 

Denomination. 

Numb'r  of 
Instr’ctors 

Number 

.of 

students. 

Volumes 

in 

Library. 

Number  of 
Graduates 
since  Organi- 
zation. 

, Non-Sectarian  . 

58 

381 

35,000 

• 364 

, Protestant  Epis. 

17 

150 

' 20,000 

589 

. Non-Sectarian  . 

25 

504 

7,000 

677 

, Presbyterian . . . 

25 

309 

22,000 

1,288 

. Presbyterian . . . 

106 

1,165 

10,000 

4,500 

Presbyterian . . . 

7 

45 

16,000 

834 

Methodist  Epis. 

11 

284 

12,000 

329 

Protestant  Epis. 

33 

420 

79,000 

375 

C’mb.  Pres 

10 

200 

2,500 

225 

Baptist 

15 

137 

19,000 

x,oo7 

Rom.  Catholic.. 

3i 

376 

10,220 

450 

Congregational. 

11 

179 

42,000 

614 

Methodist  Epis. 

9 

119 

7,000 

500 

Baptist 

9 

207 

8,000 

500 

Non-Sect,  (b) . . 

11 

70 

10,000 

1,009 

Non-Sectarian  . 

9 

54 

116,000 

x,3i4 

United  Pres . . . 

15 

378 

17,000 

787 

Methodist 

18 

568 

3,500 

1,610 

Non-Sectarian  . 

34 

275 

13,000 

2,070 

Rom.  Catholic. 

25 

170 

10,000 

Evan.  Luth.. . . 
Baptist 

11 

7 

162 

56 

1,580 

8,500 

258 

1,121 

Methodist  Epis. 

100 

28,000 

Non-Sectarian  . 

7 

55 

Rom.  Catholic.. 

52 

683 

28,500 

500 

Non-Sect.  ( a ).. 

76 

1,711 

36,000 

2,049 

Non-Sectarian.. 

32 

415 

9,300 

168 

Methodist  Epis. 

25 

972 

15,000 

1,321 

Cong.  & Pr. . . . 

17 

328 

16,000 

258 

Lutheran 

13 

268 

23,000 

807 

Non-Sectarian.. 

44 

768 

70,000 

7,104 

Meth.  Epis.  So. 

15 

194 

6,000 

1,030 

Evan.  Lutheran. 

11 

140 

17,000 

304 

Non-Sectarian.. 

11 

83 

1,500 

Reformed 

23 

190 

26,000 

1,593 

Non-Sectarian  . 

6 

250 

5,000 

137 

Rom.  Catholic  . 

18 

130 

5,000 

Baptist.,  

28 

400 

5,000 

.... 

Baptist 

15 

209 

8,500 

246 

Non-Sectarian  . 

3i 

5ii 

6,000 

403 

Baptist 

6 

127 

7,5oo 

54 

Non-Sectarian.. 

57 

670 

20,650 

2,882 

Non-Sectarian.. 

17 

200 

6,000 

340 

Rom.  Catholic  . 

25 

450 

22,000 

503 

Non-Sectarian.. 

12 

146 

6,500 

402 

Non-Sectarian.. 

12 

108 

10,000 

398 

Rom.  Catholic  . 

21 

435 

32,000 

Protestant  Epis. 

7 

78 

5,7oo 

200 

Friends 

23 

242 

10,000 

250 

Methodist  Epis. 

46 

586 

33,103 

i,i55 

Protestant  Epis. 

*9 

136 

30,000 

1,000 

383 

Meth.  Epis.  So. 

9 

106 

6,200 

Universalist  . . . 

22 

142 

25,000 

600 

Non-Sect.  (< e ). . . 

63 

i,i34 

55,600 

3,271 

Non-Sectarian  . 

15 

115 

3L5oo 

4,870 

Presbyterian  . . . 

10 

166 

59,000 

1,526 

Non-Sectarian  . 

289 

33,000 

3,330 

Non-Sectarian  . 

62 

245 

30,300 

i,947 

Non-Sectarian  . 

19 

202 

12,000 

1,292 

Non-Sectarian  . 

no 

655 

40,000 

1,300 

Non-Sectarian  . 

14 

130 

122 

Non-Sectarian  . 

98 

1,050 

12,000 

7,000 

Methodist  Epis. 

40 

475 

1,500 

85 

780 


PRINCIPAL  UNIVERSITIES  AND  COLLEGES  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


Organized 

College  Name. 

Location. 

Religious 

Denomination. 

° | 
S J3 

3 w 
£ £ 

Number 

of 

students. 

Volumes 

in 

Library. 

Number  of 
Graduates 
since  Organi- 
zation. 

t8oi . . 

University  of  Georgia 

Athens,  Ga 

Non-Sectarian  . 

24 

200 

l6  OOO 

2,100 

1866. . 

Non-Sectarian  . 

33 

AO  3 

12  OOO 

440 

1836.. 

University  of  Kentucky 

Lexington,  Ky 

Disciples 

18 

‘tVJ 

341 

12,000 

470 

1837.. 

University  of  Michigan 

Ann  Arbor,  Mich.  ....  . 

Non-Sectarian  . 

79 

2,100 

70,041 

9,400 

1869. . 

University  of  Minnesota 

Minneapolis,  Minn 

Non-Sectarian  . 

104 

904 

22,000 

378 

1844. . 

University  of  Mississippi.  . . . 

Oxford,  Miss 

Non-Sectarian.. 

14 

250 

13,000 

936 

1840. . 

University  of  Missouri 

Columbia,  Mo 

Non-Sectarian  . 

40 

800 

1871. . 

Lincoln,  Neb 

Non-Sectarian  . 

23 

AI2 

2 5 , OOO 
10  OOO 

1789.. 

University  of  N.  Carolina.. . . 

Chapel  Hill,  N.  Y 

17 

186 

30,000 

1,988 

1878. . 

University  of  Pennsylvania. . 

Philadelphia,  Pa 

Non-Sectarian.. 

163 

1,322 

60,000 

1850. . 

University  of  Rochester 

Rochester,  N.  Y 

Baptist 

10 

190 

25,000 

969 

1804. . 

University  of  S.  Carolina. . . . 

Columbia,  S.  C 

Non-Sectarian  . 

29 

225 

30,000 

L975 

1794. . 

University  of  Tennessee  .... 

Knoxville,  Tenn 

Non-Sectarian  . 

38 

458 

IO,  IOO 

1856. . 

University  of  the  South  . . . 

Sewanee,  Tenn 

Protestant  Epis. 

25 

289 

32,500 

596 

1883. . 

University  of  Texas 

Austin,  Tex 

Non-Sectarian  . 

15 

2QJ. 

6 000 

134 

1800  . 

University  of  Vermont 

Burlington,  Vt 

Non-Sectarian  . 

33 

470 

40,000 

1819. . 

University  of  Virginia 

Charlottesville,  Va 

Non-Sectarian.. 

3i 

460 

50,000 

12,390 

1867. . 

University  of  W.  Virginia. . . 

Morgantown,  W.  Va. . . . 

Non-Sectarian  . 

16 

195 

5,000 

180 

1848. . 

University  of  Wisconsin 

Madison,  Wis 

Non-Sectarian  . 

64 

725 

21,000 

1,648 

1866. . 

University  of  Wooster 

Wooster,  0 

Presbyterian  . . . 

41 

73O 

11,000 

627 

1875. . 

Vanderbilt  University 

Nashville,  Tenn 

Meth.  Epis.  So. 

66 

6i3 

20,000 

1,070 

1861. . 

Vassar 

Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y. . . . 

Non- Sectarian  . 

35 

314 

18,000 

845 

1832. . 

Wabash 

Crawfordsville,  Ind. . . . 

Presbyterian  . . . 

15 

260 

28,000 

532 

1834. . 

Wake  Forest 

Wake  Forest,  N.  C . . . . 

Baptist 

12 

218 

10  000 

366 

1802. . 

Washington  & Jefferson.  . . . 

Washington,  Pa 

Presbyterian . . . 

12 

250 

11,000 

3,502 

1749. . 

Washington  & Lee  Univ. . . . 

Lexington,  Va 

Non-Sectarian  . 

16 

200 

20,000 

1857.. 

Washington  University 

St.  Louis,  Mo 

Non-Sectarian  . 

40 

450 

10,000 

623 

1868. . 

Wells 

Aurora,  N.  Y 

Presbyterian  . . . 

13 

73 

3,000 

I90 

1875. • 

Wellesley 

Wellesley,  Mass 

Non-Sectarian  . 

79 

645 

34.870 

542 

1831. . 

Wesleyan  University 

Middletown,  Conn 

Methodist  Epis. 

23 

231 

28,500 

L575 

1852. . 

Westminster 

New  Wilmington,  Pa. . . 

United  Pres... . 

10 

256 

800 

1693. . 

William  and  Mary. .... 

Williamsburg,  Va 

Non-Sectarian, . 

7 

172 

7,000 

I7Q3 . . 

William’s 

Williamstown,  Mass. . . . 

24 

312 

27,000 

3.082 

1854.. 

Wofford ....  

Spartanburg,  S.  C 

Methodist 

7 

107 

6,000 

307 

1701. . 

Yale  University 

New  Haven,  Conn 

Congregational. 

143 

L477 

200,000 

14,271 

(a)  Formerly  Western  Reserve  University.  (b)  But  distinctly  Christian. 

(c)  The  President  must  be  in  the  communion  of  the  Episcopal  Church. 

(< d ) Organically  undenominational,  historically  Congregational. 

(e)  Medical  Department  opened  in  1834;  Law  Department,  1847. 

CHAUTAUQUA  LITERARY  AND  SCIENTIFIC  CIRCLE. 

President Lewis  Miller. 

Chancellor John  H.  Vincent.  I General  Secretary A.  M.  Martin. 

Principal Jesse  L.  Hurlburt.  | Office  Secretary Miss  K.  F.  Kimball. 

The  Chautauqua  Literary  and  Scientific  Circle  was  organized  in  1878.  Its  purpose  is  to  promote  habits  of 
reading  and  study  in  nature,  art,  science,  and  in  secular  and  sacred  literature,  in  connection  with  the  routine  of 
daily  life  ; to  give  college  graduates  a review  of  the  college  course  ; to  secure  for  those  whose  educational  advan- 
tages have  been  limited  the  college  student’s  general  outlook  upon  the  world  and  life,  and  to  develop  the  habit 
of  close,  connected,  persistent  thinking. 

It  endeavors  to  encourage  individual  study  in  lines  and  by  text-books  which  shall  be  indicated  ; by  local 
circles  for  mutual  help  and  encouragement  in  such  studies  ; by  summer  courses  of  lectures  and  “students’ ses- 
sions ” at  Chautauqua,  and  by  written  reports  of  each  year’s  work. 

Any  person  may  join  the  circle  upon  payment  of  the  annual  membership  fee,  which  is  fifty  cents.  No  en- 
trance examination  is  necessary.  Persons  may  enter  for  one  year,  but  the  full  course  is  four  years,  after  which 
the  graduate  receives  a diploma.  The  course  of  studies  is  directed  from  the  centre  of  the  circle,  and  may  be 
pursued  at  home  and  in  the  local  circles.  Attendance  at  the  summer  meetings  at  Chautauqua,  N.  Y.,  is  urged, 
but  is  not  imperative.  Applications  for  membership  should  be  made  to  John  H. Vincent,  Chancellor,  Buffalo,  N.  Y. 

There  are  forty-five  Chautauqua  assemblies  in  the  United  States,  Canada,  Great  Britain,  and  South  Africa, 
with  a membership  of  a half  million  persons.  All  are  modelled  in  organization  and  methods  upon  the  original 
Chautauqua  Assembly,  but  are  independent  in  management. 


COMPENDIUM 


OF 

Political  and  Historical 
Information. 

I.— POLITICAL  INFORMATION. 


II.— HISTORICAL  AND  STATISTICAL. 


THE  AUSTRALIAN  BALLOT  SYSTEM. 


Its  History. — The  Australian  Ballot  System,  the  professed  purposes  of  which 
are  to  secure  the  secrecy  of  the  ballot  and  prevent  the  intimidation  or  corrupting  of 
the  voter,  was  practically  introduced  into  the  United  States  in  1888  by  its  adoption 
in  the  State  of  Massachusetts  and  also  in  the  city  of  Louisville,  Ky.  The  principle  of 
this  system  was  embodied  in  the  so-called  Saxton  bill,  which  passed  the  New  York 
Legislature  in  the  sessions  of  1888  and  1889,  and  was  vetoed  both  times  by  Governor 
Hill  on  the  ground  of  its  unconstitutionality,  in  that  it  would  embarrass,  hinder,  and 
impede  voters  in  exercising  the  suffrage,  and  would,  for  one  class  of  voters,  the  blind 
and  illiterate,  destroy  the  secrecy  of  the  ballot  by  compelling  an  avowal  of  their 
votes  as  a condition  of  exercising  the  right.  At  the  instance  of  Governor  Hill,  a 
reformed  ballot  bill,  or  modification  of  the  Saxton  bill,  and  allowing  unofficial  as 
well  as  official  ballots,  was  introduced  in  the  Legislature  in  the  session  of  1889,  but 
was  not  passed.  With  some  modification  the  Saxton  bill  was  passed  at  the  session 
of  1890,  and  became  a law. 

In  1889,  following  the  example  of  Massachusetts,  the  Legislatures  of  Indiana, 
Montana,  Rhode  Island,  Wisconsin,  Tennessee,  Minnesota,  Missouri,  Michigan,  and 
Connecticut,  in  the  order  given,  passed  laws  adopting  the  new  system  of  voting. 
Most  of  the  laws  passed  adhere  closely  to  the  Massachusetts  form.  The  Connecti- 
cut form  varied  from  it  more  than  the  others.  In  practice,  at  the  Massachusetts 
State  election  of  1889,  the  complete  success  of  the  new  system  was  claimed. 

The  Plan  in  Brief. — The  substantial  requirements  of  the  Australian  system 
are  as  follows:  Ballots  are  to  be  provided  at  public  expense;  none  but  these  ballots 
are  to  be  used;  on  them  are  to  be  printed  the  names  of  all  candidates  who  are  nom- 
inated either  by  conventions  or  petitions  a short  period  prior  to  the  election;  the 
ballots  are  to  be  distributed  only  by  sworn  ballot  clerks,  at  the  polls,  to  voters,  and 
for  actual  and  immediate  use  in  voting;  the  voter  is  allowed  five  minutes  in  which 
to  retire  into  a booth  conveniently  arranged,  where  he  secretly  marks  his  choice  of 
candidates  upon  the  face  of  the  ballot,  or,  if  he  prefers,  writes  the  name  of  candidates 
of  his  own  nomination  in  place  of  those  whose  names  are  already  printed.  Having 
done  this,  he  proceeds  directly  to  the  ballot-box,  and,  without  exposing  , the  face  of 
the  ballot,  or  communicating  with  any  one,  deposits  the  ballot  as  his  vote.  For  the 
benefit  of  the  blind  and  illiterate,  such  a voter  is  permitted  to  select  one  of  the  two 
ballot  clerks,  who  under  oath  of  fidelity  and  secrecy,  assists  him  to  mark  his  ballot. 
No  person  can  peddle  or  offer  any  ballot  to  another  person  within  one  hundred  feet 
of  any  polling  place  on  the  day  of  election.  If  any  person  in  preparing  a ballot 
spoils  it,  he  may  successively  obtain  others,  one  at  a time,  not  exceeding  three  in  all, 
upon  returning  each  spoiled  one.  The  ballots  thus  returned  must  be  immediately 
cancelled  and  preserved  by  the  ballot  clerk. 


782 


THE  AUSTRALIAN  BALLOT  SYSTEM. 


Advantages  Claimed  for  the  System.— The  Rhode  Island  Ballot  Reform 
Association,  while  advocating  the  adoption  of  the  Australian  system,  issued  a state- 
ment of  the  advantages  which  it  claimed  for  the  system,  and  they  were  presented 
thus : 

1.  A secret  ballot,  cast  as  proposed  in  this  plan,  interposes  the  most  effectual 
preventive  of  the  bribery  of  the  voter  ever  devised. 

2.  A secret  ballot  secures  the  voter  against  the  coercion  or  undue  solicitation  of 
others,  and  enables  the  most  dependent  elector  to  vote  as  his  conscience  dictates, 
in  perfect  freedom. 

3.  Excuse  for  assessments  of  candidates  is  taken  away.  A poor  man  is  placed 
on  an  equality  with  a rich  man  as  a candidate.  Money  will  be  less  of  a factor  in 
politics. 

4.  The  voter  will  be  “ alone  with  his  country,  his  conscience,  and  his  God and 
elections  will  be  more  than  ever  the  intelligent  and  conscientious  registering  of  the 
popular  will. 

5.  This  method  of  ballot  reform  has  been  much  discussed  in  the  United  States 
for  several  years,  and  has  received  general  favor,  being  recognized,  after  careful 
scrutiny,  as  a practical  and  salutary  measure. 

Form  OF  Ballot. — The  following  shows  the  ordinary  form  of  ballot  as  used  in 
most  of  the  States  under  this  system,  though  there  are  variations  from  it.  The  voter 
places  a cross  (X)  on  the  right-hand  side  of  the  name  of  the  person  for  whom  he 
wishes  to  vote. 


. For  Governor, 

g DAVID  B.  HILL,  Democrat, 

$ of  Chemung  County. 

Cy  For  Mayor, 

^ HUGH  J.  GRANT,  Democrat. 

C> 

WARNER  MILLER,  Republican, 
^ of  Herkimer  County. 

§ ABRAM  S.  HEWITT,  Dem.  and  Cit. 

g W.  MARTIN  JONES,  Prohibition, 
g of  Monroe  County. 

g JOEL  B.  ERHARDT,  Republican. 

r\ 

§ 

£ 

68 


Official  general 
ballot  for  the  First 
election  district  of 
the  First  Assembly 
district  in  the  elec- 
tion of  November 
5,  1889. 

Edw.  F.  Reilly, 
County  Clerk. 


No.  1. 


No.  2. 


No.  2 shows  the  ballot  after  being  folded  in  the  middle  lengthwise,  and  then 
crosswise  in  such  manner  that  the  stub  above  the  perforated  line  can  be  removed 
without  exposing  the  contents  of  the  ballot. 

Of  Advantage  to  the  Honest.— When  he  goes  to  the  polls  hereafter  he  will 
get  his  ballot  without  having  to  fight  a mob;  he  can  scratch  or  paste  religiously  in  a 
secluded  booth,  and  he  will  be  able  to  deposit  his  vote  with  a satisfactory  knowledge 
that  no  one  can  ever  know  for  whom  he  voted,  and  who  it  was  he  had  the  satisfac- 
tion of  scratching.  These  are  some  of  the  advantages  to  the  honest.  The  disadvan- 
tages to  the  corrupt  are  stillmore  satisfactory. 

The  new  Ballot  Reform  bill  makes  intimidation  impossible,  and  makes  bribery 
ridiculous.  The  voter  cannot  be  bulldozed,  because  he  makes  out  his  ballot  and 


THE  AUSTRALIAN  BALLOT  SYSTEM. 


783 


deposits  it  when  removed  from  all  outside  interference.  The  bribing  of  voters  will 
be  largely  given  up,  for  the  briber  has  no  assurance  whatever  that  the  goods  will  be 
delivered.  If  any  one  wishes  to  throw  his  entire  factory  vote  in  favor  of  certain  can- 
didates, and  threatens  his  employees  with  discharge,  he  will  now  have  no  way  of 
knowing  whether  his  employees  obey  his  dictate  or  not,  for  he  cannot  follow  them  to 
the  polls  and  see  them  deposit  the  ballots  which  he  has  prepared. 

The  Wage  Earner  Made  Independent.— Once  let  the  wage  earner  step  in- 
side the  rail  of  the  sacred  polling  place,  where  neither  Smith  nor  his  manager  can 
follow,  and  he  again  becomes  a free,  independent  citizen.  Smith  can  fill  his  em- 
ployees’ pockets  with  pasters  a hundred  feet  away,  but  he  can  never  know  what  goes 
on  within  the  shadow  of  the  booth.  An  official  ballot  must  be  cast,  and  all  official 
ballots  look  alike.  Smith’s  occupation  as  a high  toned  intimidator  will  be  gone,  and 
he  will  soon  learn  to  let  his  men  alone  as  to  their  politics. 

The  New  Method. — The  fact  that  every  little  detail  of  voting  is  plainly  set 
forth  in  the  bills  provided  for  this  system  has  terrified  some,  who  have  raised  their 
voices  against  the  plan  as  being  too  intricate  and  altogether  incomprehensible  to 
the  average  mind.  Mr.  Gladstone  once  said  that  the  purpose  of  government  was 
to  make  it  as  easy  as  possible  for  the  good  citizen  to  do  right  and  as  difficult  as  pos- 
sible for  the  bad  citizen  to  do  wrong. 

The  New  Ballot. — To  begin  with,  the  ballots  are  printed  and  distributed  by 
the  City  and  County  Governments  instead  of  by  the  political  parties.  This  is  the 
foundation  of  the  entire  system.  It  is  this  part  of  all  ballot  reform  bills  which  is  bor- 
rowed from  the  Australian  law,  and  so  the  scheme  has  come  to  be  known  as  the 
Australian  ballot  system.  In  the  printing  and  distributing  of  the  ballots  the  govern- 
ment does  not  go  outside  of  its  sphere  in  the  slightest.  On  the  contrary,  in  doing 
this  the  government  recognizes  that  it  is  its  duty  to  provide  complete  election 
machinery,  and  as  it  has  already  taken  upon  itself  the  obligation  of  furnishing  all  the 
other  machinery  of  an  election,  there  is  no  reason  why  it  should  not  logically  take 
the  entire  burden  and  print  and  distribute  the  ballots. 

New  York  System. — According  to  the  law  of  1890,  each  political  party  will 
have  its  own  particular  ballot,  so  there  will  be  a republican,  democratic,  possibly  a 
prohibition  and  a labor  party  ballot;  possibly  others,  and  an  extra  blank  ballot  which 
shall  contain  merely  the  names  of  the  offices,  leaving  the  places  for  the  candidates’ 
names  blank,  so  that  the  independent  can  make  up  his  ticket  as  he  chooses,  electing 
from  the  other  regular  tickets  or  putting  in  new  names  altogether. 

There  are  to  be  two  kinds  of  ballots — general  and  local.  The  general  ballot  is 
to  contain  the  names  of  candidates  for  national,  State,  and  county  offices.  The  local 
ballot  is  to  contain  the  names  of  candidates  for  city,  town,  and  village  offices.  The 
general  ballot  is  to  be  paid  for  by  the  county,  and  the  local  ballot  by  the  city  or  town. 

The  PLACE  OF  Voting. — The  polling  place  is  gotten  up  with  a further  view  to 
the  absolute  secrecy  of  the  ballot  which  the  voter  deposits.  A room  is  to  be  fitted 
up  for  this  especial  purpose.  Across  one  side  of  the  room,  several  feet  out  from  the 
wall,  is  run  a low  railing,  which  divides  the  room  into  two  parts,  a sort  of  lobby  out- 
side the  rail  and  the  sacred  polling  place  itself  inside,  within  which  only  the  voter 


784 


THE  AUSTRALIAN  BALLOT  SYSTEM. 


and  the  election  officers  can  step.  Close  against  the  wall  is  built  a long  shell,  which 
is  divided  by  board  walls  into  many  small  booths,  which  are  shut  out  from  each 
other  so  that  A cannot  look  over  and  see  what  ticket  B is  making  up.  Put  in  a 
couple  of  tables — one  to  hold  the  tickets  and  another  for  the  ballot  box;  make  a 
couple  of  gateways  in  the  railing,  one  near  the  door  for  entrance  to  the  booths  and 
another  near  the  ballot  box  for  exit ; place  one  of  the  tables  near  each  of  these  gates, 
and  the  polling  place  is  ready. 

Nomination  By  Petition.— It  is  possible,  too,  under  this  law,  to  run  a ticket 
practically  independent  of  the  political  factions  which  hold  conventions  and  run 
machines.  Brown  and  Kelly  and  Macy  and  Burns  and  Johnson  and  296  other  good 
citizens  may  be  so  disgusted  with  the  candidates  on  the  regular  tickets  that  they  will 
say  to  themselves:  “ Let  us  put  up  a decent  man  for  mayor,  and  put  some  real 
lawyers  on  the  judicial  bench.”  If  the  whole  three  hundred  unite  they  can  send  in 
petitions  in  favor  of  a certain  name,  and  after  some  little  formality  is  gone  through 
to  make  certain  that  the  petitions  are  genuine,  the  County  Clerk  prints  the  names 
of  their  candidates  on  a ballot,  and  it  goes  before  the  voter  on  a level  with  the  others. 
Independent  movements  are  harder  to  conduct  chiefly  because  the  machinery  for 
distributing  the  ballots  is  lacking,  but  the  independent  will  now  be  at  no  disadvantage 
in  this  regard,  and  they  can  hold  over  the  regular  parties  this  fact  as  a whip,  making 
them  put  forward  honest,  capable  men,  or  else  suffer  from  serious  opposition. 

If  the  voters  of  any  county  are  seized  with  the  idea  that  the  politicians  are  pack- 
ing the  conventions  and  nominating  assemblymen  who  do  not  in  any  way  represent 
the  best  interests  of  the  community,  they  have  their  recourse  outside  of  political 
conventions  under  this  new  plan  of  nomination  by  petition.  Fifty  good  men  and 
true  can  petition  that  their  friend  X be  placed  on  the  list  of  candidates  for  the 
assembly,  and  when  election  day  comes  round  ballots  with  X’s  name  will  be  placed 
before  the  voters  of  the  district. 

The  Stubs  Will  Tell  the  Tale. — All  these  provisions  are  hedged  about 
with  guards  and  checks,  which  make  it  extremely  difficult  to  commit  fraud.  The 
election  officials  are  to  be  chosen  in  a manner  which  will  remove  their  appointment 
from  the  regular  party  manipulators  and  machine  workers,  and  a regular  book-keep- 
ing system  has  been  provided  to  make  sure  that  the  ballots  are  not  made  away  with 
or  put  to  any  wrong  use.  The  numbered  stub  serves  as  a guard  against  trickery  on 
the  part  of  both  the  voter  and  the  election  officials.  No  trick  can  be  worked  with 
the  stub  ballot,  for  each  bears  the  signature  of  the  clerk,  its  number  is  recorded 
opposite  his  name,  and  its  number  when  voted  must  tally  with  that  which  is  on  the 
register  as  having  been  received  by  him.  All  the  stubs  are  saved  and  filed  with  the 
County  Clerk  in  proof  that  for  every  ballot  voted  or  destroyed  there  was  a charge 
made  against  a voter.  If  by  accident  a ballot  should  be  torn  or  made  useless  by  the 
voter  he  is  entitled  to  a new  set,  but  the  number  of  that  new  set  is  registered  against 
him  just  as  was  the  original. 

PASTER  Ballots. — The  act  of  1890  provides  that  “any  voter  may  take  with 
him  into  the  voting  booth  or  compartment  a printed  ballot  of  his  own  selection  to 
be  known  as  a ‘paster  ballot,’  containing  the  names  of  all  the  offices  to  be  filled  and 


THE  AUSTRALIAN  BALLOT  SYSTEM. 


785 


of  the  candidates  therefor,  for  whom  he  desires  to  vote,  which  paster  ballot  may  be 
gummed  on  the  back  thereof,  and  the  voter  may  paste  such  paster  ballot  on  any  of 
the  official  ballots  below  the  stub.”  . . . “ A paster  shall  be  so  attached  to  the  bal- 
lot that  when  the  ballot  is  folded  no  portion  of  such  paster  shall  be  visible.” 

The  Massachusetts  Method.— All  ballots  and  cards  of  instruction  and  the 
delivery  of  them  are  to  be  at  the  expense  of  the  commonwealth.  The  distribution  of 
them  to  the  voter  is  at  the  expense  of  the  city  or  town.  Nominations,  by  a political 
party  having  thrown  at  least  three  per  cent  of  the  entire  vote  cast  in  the  State. 
Nominations  of  candidates  for  any  office  to  be  filled  by  the  voters  of  the  State  at 
large,  may  be  made  by  nomination  papers  signed  in  the  aggregate  by  not  less  than 
one  thousand  qualified  voters.  In  electoral  districts  or  parts  of  districts,  nomina- 
tions can  be  made  by  persons  numbering  one  to  every  one  hundred  votes  cast  in  the 
preceding  election.  Certificates  of  nomination  and  nomination  papers  shall  be  filed 
with  the  Secretary  of  State  fourteen  days  prior  to  the  election  for  which  the  nomina- 
tions are  made.  Ballots  shall  be  so  printed  as  to  give  each  voter  a clear  opportunity 
to  designate,  by  a cross  (x)  mark  at  the  right  of  the  name  of  each  candidate  his  choice. 

On  the  back  and  outside,  when  folded,  shall  be  printed  “ Official  Ballot  for ,” 

giving  the  name  of  the  place,  the  date  of  the  election,  and  a fac-simile  of  the  signa- 
ture of  the  Secretary  of  State  or  City  Clerk.  Two  sets  of  these  ballots  are  to  be  sent 
by  different  methods  to  the  several  cities  and  towns,  each  set  to  contain  ioo  ballots 
for  every  50,  or  fraction  of  50  qualified  voters.  Compartments  or  shelves,  at  or  in 
which  the  voter  shall  be  screened  from  observation  while  marking  their  ballots,  shall 
be  provided  to  the  number  of  one  for  every  75  voters.  The  voter  receives  one  ballot 
from  the  ballot  clerk,  and  if  he  defaces  or  spoils  a ballot  he  may  receive  a second  or 
a third  on  returning  the  one  he  has  spoiled.  Those  who  are  unable  to  read,  or  from 
blindness  or  other  physical  defect  are  unable  to  mark  their  ballots,  upon  request 
may  secure  the  assistance  of  one  or  two  election  officers  who  shall  certify  to  such 
assistance  on  the  outside  of  the  ballot.  If  a voter  has  not  made  his  vote  intelligible 
to  the  officer  or  officers,  his  ballot  shall  be  marked  defective  and  not  be  counted. 

The  official  ballot  is  the  only  one  that  can  be  used. 


DUTIES  OF  OFFICERS 

OF  THE  VARIOUS 

Departments  of  Government 


DEPARTMENT  OF  STATE. 

HE  Secretary  of  State  is  charged,  under  the  direction  of  the  Presi- 
dent,  with  the  duties  appertaining  to  correspondence  with  the  public 
ministers  and  consuls  of  the  United  States,  and  with  the  representatives 
of  foreign  powers ; and  to  negotiations  of  whatever  character  relating  to 
the  foreign  affairs  of  the  United  States.  He  is  also  the  medium  of  cor- 
respondence between  the  President  and  the  chief  executive  of  the  several  States  ; he  has 
the  custody  of  the  great  seal  of  the  United  States,  and  countersigns  and  affixes  such 
seal  to  all  executive  proclamations,  to  various  commissions,  and  to  warrants  for  pardon, 
and  the  extradition  of  fugitives  from  justice.  He  is  regarded  as  the  first  in  rank  among 
the  members  of  the  Cabinet.  He  is  also  the  custodian  of  the  treaties  made  with  foreign 
states,  and  of  the  laws  of  the  United  States.  He  grants  and  issues  passports,  and  exe- 
quaturs to  foreign  consuls  in  the  United  States  are  issued  through  his  office  He  pub- 
lishes the  laws  and  resolutions  of  Congress,  amendments  to  the  Constitution,  and 
proclamations  declaring  the  admission  of  new  States  into  the  Union.  He  is  also 
charged  with  certain  annual  reports  to  Congress  relating  to  commercial  information 
received  from  diplomatic  and  consular  officers  of  the  United  States. 

The  Assistant  Secretary  of  State  becomes  the  Acting  Secretary  of  State  in 
the  absence  of  the  Secretary. 

The  Chief  Clerk  has  the  general  supervision  of  the  clerks,  employees  and  busi- 
ness of  the  Department. 

Bureau  of  Indexes  and  Archives. — The  duty  of  opening  the  mails  ; preparing, 
registering  and  indexing  daily  all  correspondence  to  and  from  the  Department ; the 
preservation  of  the  archives  ; answering  calls  of  the  Secretary,  Assistant  Secretaries, 
Chief  Clerk,  and  chiefs  of  bureaus  for  correspondence,  & c. 

Diplomatic  Bureau — In  charge  of  the  Assistant  Secretaries  of  State. — Diplo- 
matic correspondence  and  miscellaneous  correspondence  relating  thereto. 

Division  A. — Correspondence  with  France,  Germany  and  Great  Britain,  and  miscel- 
laneous correspondence  relating  to  those  countries. 

Division  B. — Correspondence  with  Argentine  Republic,  Austria,  Belgium,  Brazil, 
Chili,  Denmark,  Greece,  Italy,  Netherlands,  Paraguay,  Peru,  Portugal,  Russia  and 
Uruguay,  and  miscellaneous  correspondence  relating  to  those  countries. 

Division  C. — Correspondence  with  Barbary  States,  Bolivia,  Central  America,  Colour 
bia,  China,  Ecuador,  Egypt,  Fiji  Islands,  Friendly  and  Navigator’s  Islands,  Hawaiian 
Islands,  Hayti,  Japan,  Liberia,  Madagascar,  Mexico,  Muscat,  San  Domingo,  Siam,  Society 
Islands,  Turkey,  Venezuela,  and  other  countries,  not  assigned,  and  miscellaneous  corre- 
spondence relating  to  those  countries. 


UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA. 


,ik. 


; 


DUTIES  OF  GOVERNMENT  OFFICERS. 


787 


THE  TREASURY  DEPARTMENT. 

The  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  has  charge  of  the  national  finances.  He 
digests  and  prepares  plans  for  the  improvement  and  management  of  the  revenue  and 
support  of  the  public  credit ; he  superintends  the  collection  of  revenue,  and  prescribes  the 
forms  of  keeping  and  rendering  all  public  accounts,  and  making  returns  ; grants  all  warrants 
for  money  to  be  issued  from  the  Treasury  in  pursuance  of  appropriations  by  law ; makes 
report  and  gives  information  to  Congress,  as  required,  respecting  all  matters  referred  to 
him  by  them,  and  generally  performs  all  such  services  relative  to  the  finances  as  directed  ; 
controls  the  erection  of  public  buildings,  the  coinage  and  printing  of  money,  the  collec- 
tion of  commercial  statistics,  the  marine  hospitals,  the  revenue-cutter  service,  the  life- 
saving  service.  Under  his  superintendence  the  Light-House  Board  discharges  their 
duties  ; makes  provision  for  the  payment  of  the  public  debt,  and  publishes  statements 
concerning  it,  and  submits  to  Congress,  at  the  commencement  of  each  session,  estimates 
of  the  probable  receipts,  and  of  the  required  expenditures,  for  the  ensuing  fiscal  year. 

The  heads  of  Departments  are  two  Assistant  Secretaries  of  the  Treasury,  first  and 
second  Comptroller,  the  Commissioner  of  Customs,  the  first,  second,  third,  fourth,  fifth 
and  sixth  Auditors. 

The  Treasurer  of  the  United  States  is  charged  with  the  custody  of  all  public 
moneys  received  into  the  Treasury  at  Washington,  or  in  the  sub-treasuries  at  Boston 
New  York,  Philadelphia,  Baltimore,  Charleston,  Cincinnati,  St.  Louis  and  San  Francisco, 
or  in  the  depositories  and  depository  banks  ; disburses  all  public  moneys  upon  the  war- 
rants of  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  and  upon  the  warrants  of  the  Postmaster-General  I 
issues  and  redeems  Treasury  notes ; is  agent  for  the  redemption  of  the  circulating  notes 
of  national  banks,  is  trustee  of  the  bonds  held  for  the  security  of  the  circulating  notes 
of  national  banks,  and  of  bonds  held  as  security  for  public  deposits  ; is  custodian  of 
Indian  trust  funds ; is  agent  for  paying  the  interest  on  the  public  debt,  and  for  paying 
the  salaries  of  the  members  of  the  House  of  Representatives. 

The  Register  of  the  Treasury  has  charge  of  the  great  account-books  of  the 
United  States,  which  show  every  receipt  and  disbursement,  and  from  which  statements 
are  annually  made  for  transmission  to  Congress.  He  signs  and  issues  all  bonds,  Treas- 
ury notes,  and  other  securities ; registers  all  warrants  drawn  by  the  Secretary  upon  the 
Treasurer ; transmits  statements  of  balances  due  to  individuals  after  their  settlement  by 
the  First  Comptroller,  on  which  payment  is  made  ; issues  ships’  registers,  licenses  and 
enrolments : prepares  annual  returns  of  all  vessels  built,  lost,  or  destroyed  ; and  also 
prepares  statements  of  the  tonnage  of  vessels  in  which  importations  and  exportations  are 
made,  with  the  various  articles  and  their  values. 

The  Comptroller  of  the  Currency  has,  under  the  direction  of  the  Secretary  of 
the  Treasury,  the  control  of  the  national  banks. 

The  Director  of  the  Mint  has  supervision  of  all  mints  and  assay  offices,  reports 
their  operations  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  and  prepares  and  lays  before  him  the 
annual  estimates. 

He  prescribes  regulations,  approved  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  for  the  trans- 
action of  business  at  the  mints  and  assay  offices,  the  distribution  of  silver  coin,  and  the 
charges  to  be  collected  of  depositors.  He  receives  for  adjustment  the  monthly  and 


788 


DUTIES  OF  GOVERNMENT  OFFICERS. 


quarterly  accounts  of  superintendents  and  officers  in  charge  of  mints  and  assay  offices, 
superintends  their  expenditures,  and  the  annual  settlements  of  the  operative  officers,  and 
makes  such  examinations  as  may  be  deemed  necessary.  All  appointments,  removals 
and  changes  of  clerks,  assistants  and  workmen  in  the  mints  and  assay  offices  are  sub- 
mitted for  his  approval.  The  purchase  of  silver  bullion  and  allotment  of  its  coinage  at 
the  mints  are  made  through  the  office  of  the  Director,  and  transfers  of  public  moneys  in 
the  mints  and  assay  offices,  and  advances  from  appropriations  for  the  mint  service  are 
made  at  his  request. 

The  other  heads  of  departments  are  the  Solicitor  General,  the  Commissioner  of  In- 
ternal Revenue,  the  Superintendent  of  the  Coast  Survey,  Supervising  Surgeon  General, 
Supervising  Inspector  General  of  Steam  Vessels,  General  Superintendent  of  the  Life 
Saving  Service. 

THE  WAR  DEPARTMENT. 

The  Secretary  of  War  performs  such  duties  as  the  President  of  the  United 
States,  who  is  Commander  in  Chief,  may  enjoin  upon  him  concerning  the  military 
service,  and  has  the  superintendence  of  the  purchase  of  army  supplies,  transportation,  &c. 

The  Chief  Clerk  receives  in  the  Secretary’s  Office  the  public  mail  and  correspond- 
ence ; distributes,  records  and  answers  it ; keeps  the  accounts  of  appropriations  and 
estimates  ; is  the  medium  of  communication  between  the  Secretary  and  officers  of  the 
Department,  and  has  the  general  superintendence  of  the  Department. 

Military  Bureaus  of  the  War  Department. — The  chiefs  of  the  military  bureaus 
of  the  War  Department  are  officers  of  the  Regular  Army  of  the  United  States,  and  a 
part  of  the  military  establishment,  viz. : The  Adjutant  General,  the  Inspector  General, 

the  Commissary  General,  the  Quartermaster  General,  the  Paymaster  General,  the  Chief 
of  Engineers,  the  Chief  of  Ordnance,  Judge  Advocate  General,  Chief  Signal  Officer. 

THE  NAVY  DEPARTMENT. 

The  Secretary  of  the  Navy  performs  such  duties  as  the  President  of  the  United 
States,  who  is  Commander  in  Chief,  may  assign  him,  and  has  the  general  superintend- 
ence of  construction,  manning,  armament,  equipment  and  employment  of  vessels  of  war. 

The  Chief  Clerk  has  general  charge  of  the  records  and  correspondence  of  the  Sec- 
retary’s Office. 

Naval  Bureaus  of  the  Navy  Department. — The  chiefs  of  the  naval  bureaus  of 
the  Navy  Department  are  officers  of  the  United  States  Navy,  and  a part  of  the  naval  es- 
tablishment, viz. : The  Bureau  of  Yards  and  Docks,  the  Bureau  of  Navigation,  the  Bu- 

reau of  Ordnance,  the  Bureau  of  Provisions  and  Clothing,  the  Bureau  of  Medicine  and 
Surgery,  the  Bureau  of  Construction  and  Repair,  the  Bureau  of  Equipment  and  Recruit' 
ing,  the  Engineer  in  Chief. 

THE  DEPARTMENT  OF  THE  INTERIOR. 

The  Secretary  of  the  Interior  is  charged  with  the  supervision  of  public  busi- 
ness relating  to  patents  for  inventions,  pensions  and  bounty  lands,  the  public  lands, 
including  mines  ; the  Indians,  education,  the  census,  the  custody  and  distribution  of 
public  documents,  and  certain  hospitals  and  eleemosynary  institutions  in  the  District  of 
Columbia.  He  also  exercises  certain  powers  and  duties  in  relation  to  the  Territories  of 
the  United  States. 


DUTIES  OF  GOVERNMENT  OFFICERS. 


789 


The  Assistant  Secretary  of  the  Interior  performs  such  duties  as  are  pre- 
scribed by  the  Secretary  or  required  by  law,  aiding  in  the  general  administration  of  the 
affairs  of  the  Department.  In  the  absence  of  the  Secretary  he  acts  as  the  head  of  the 
Department. 

The  Chief  Clerk  has  the  general  supervision  of  the  order  of  business  in  the  Secre- 
tary’s Office. 

The  Commissioner  of  Patents  is  charged  with  the  administration  of  the  patent 
laws,  and  supervises  all  matters  relating  to  the  issue  of  letters  patent  for  new  and  useful 
discoveries,  inventions  and  improvements.  He  is  aided  by  an  Assistant  Commissioner, 
three  Examiners-in-Chief,  an  Examiner  ot  Interferences,  an  Examiner  of  Trade  Marks 
and  twenty-two  Principal  Examiners. 

The  Commissioner  of  Pensions  supervises  the  examination  and  adjudication  of  all 
claims  arising  under  laws  passed  by  Congress  granting  bounty -land  or  pension  on  ac- 
count of  service  in  the  Army  or  Navy  during  the  Revolutionary  War  and  all  subsequent 
wars. 

The  Commissioner  of  the  General  Land  Office  is  charged  with  the  survey, 
management  and  saie  of  the  public  domain,  and  the  issuing  of  titles  therefor,  whether 
derived  from  confirmations  of  grants  made  by  former  governments  by  sales,  donations  or 
grants  for  schools,  railroads,  military  bounties,  or  public  improvements.  The  Land 
Office  audits  its  own  accounts. 

The  Commissioner  of  Indian  Affairs  has  charge  of  the  several  tribes  of  Indians 
in  the  States  and  Territories.  He  issues  instructions  to  and  receives  reports  from  In? 
spectors,  Superintendents,  Agents  and  Traders;  superintends  the  purchase,  trahsporta-. 
tion  and  distribution  of  presents  and  annuities,  and  reports  annually  the  relations  of  the 
Government  with  each  tribe. 

Commissioner  of  Education. — The  duties  of  this  Commissioner  are  to  collect  such 
.statistics  and  facts  as  shall  show  the  progress  of  education  in  the  several  States  and 
Territories,  and  to  diffuse  such  information  respecting  the  management  of  schools  and 
school  systems  and  methods  of  teaching  as  shall  aid  the  people  in  the  establishment  and 
maintenance  of  efficient  school  systems,  and  otherwise  promote  the  cause  of  education. 

The  Superintendent  of  the  Census  supervises  the  taking  of  the  census  of  the 
United  States  every  tenth  year,  and  the  subsequent  arrangement,  compilation  and  publi- 
cation of  the  statistics  collected. 

THE  POST  OFFICE  DEPARTMENT. 

The  Postmaster-General  has  the  direction  and  management  of  the  Post  Office 
Department.  He  appoints  all  officers  and  employes  of  the  Department  except  the  three 
Assistant  Postmasters-General,  who  are  appointed  by  the  President  by  and  with  the  ad- 
vice and  consent  of  the  senate  ; appoints  all  postmasters  whose  compensation  does  not 
exceed  one  thousand  dollars ; makes  postal  treaties  with  foreign  governments,  by  and 
with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  President,  awards  and  executes  contracts,  and  directs 
the  management  of  the  domestic  and  foreign  mail  service. 

The  First  Assistant  Postmaster-General  has  charge  of  the  Appointment  Of- 
fice, which  includes  five  Divisions,  viz.  : Appointment  Division,  Bond  Division,  Salary 

and  Allowance  Division,  Free  Delivery  Division,  Blank-Agency  Division. 


<90 


DUTIES  OF  GOVERNMENT  OFFICERS, 


The  Second  Assistant  Postmaster-General  has  charge  of  the  Contract  Office, 
mail  equipments,  etc.,  including  the  following  three  Divisions  : Contract  Division,  Inspec- 
tion Division,  Mail-Equipment  Division. 

The  Third  Assistant  Postmaster-General  has  charge  of  the  Finance  Office, 
&c.,  embracing  the  following  Divisions : Division  of  Finance,  Division  of  Postage- 
Stamps  and  Stamped  Envelopes,  Division  of  Registered  Letters,  Division  of  Dead  Let- 
ters, The  Superintendent  of  Foreign  Mails,  The  Superintendent  of  the  Money-Order 
System. 

THE  DEPARTMENT  OF  JUSTICE. 

The  Attorney-General  is  the  head  of  the  Department  of  Justice,  and  the  chief 
law-officer  of  the  Government.  He  represents  the  United  States  in  matters  involving 
legal  questions  ; he  gives  his  advice  and  opinion  on  questions  of  law  when  they  are  re- 
quired by  the  President,  or  by  the  heads  of  the  other  Executive  Departments  on  questions 
of  law  arising  upon  the  administration  of  their  respective  departments  ; he  exercises  a 
general  superintendence  and  direction  over  United  States  Attorneys  and  Marshals  in  all 
judicial  districts  in  the  States  and  Territories  ; and  he  provides  special  counsel  for  the 
United  States  whenever  required  by  any  department  of  the  Government. 

He  is  assisted  by  a Chief  Clerk  and  other  clerks  and  employes. 

The  Law  Clerk,  who  is  also  an  Examiner  of  Titles,  assists  the  Attorney-General  in 
the  investigation  of  legal  questions  and  in  the  preparation  of  opinions. 

The  Solicitor-General  assists  the  Attorney-General  in  the  performance  of  his 
general  duties,  and  by  special  provision  of  law,  in  the  case  of  a vacancy  in  the  office  of 
Attorney-General,  or  in  his  absence,  exercises  all  these  duties.  Except  when  the  At- 
torney-General in  particular  cases  otherwise  directs,  the  Attorney-General  and  Solicitor, 
General  conduct  and  argue  all  cases  in  the  Supreme  Court,  and  in  the  Court  of  Claims, 
in  which  the  United  States  are  interested  ; and,  when  the  Attorney-General  so  directs, 
any  such  case  in  any  court  of  the  United  States  may  be  conducted  and  argued  by  the 
Solicitor-General ; and  in  the  same  way  the  Solicitor-General  may  be  sent  by  the  At- 
torney-General to  attend  to  the  interests  of  the  United  States  in  any  State  court,  or  else- 
where. 

The  Two  Assistant  Attorneys-General  assist  the  Attorney-General  and  the 
Solicitor-General  in  the  performance  of  their  duties.  One  assists  in  the  argument  ot 
causes  in  the  Supreme  Court  and  in  the  preparation  of  legal  opinions  ; the  other  is 
charged  with  the  conduct  of  the  defense  of  the  United  States  in  the  Court  of  Claims. 

THE  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

The  Commissioner  of  Agriculture  is  required  to  collect  and  diffuse  useful  in- 
formation on  subjects  connected  with  agriculture.  He  is  to  acquire  and  preserve  in  his 
office  all  information  he  can  obtain  concerning  agriculture  by  means  of  books  and  cor- 
respondence, and  by  practical  and  scientific  experiments,  the  collection  of  statistics,  and 
other  appropriate  means  ; to  collect  new  and  valuable  seeds  and  plants  ; to  learn  by  ac- 
tual cultivation  such  of  them  as  may  require  such  tests  ; to  propagate  such  as  may  be 
worthy  of  propagation,  and  to  distribute  them  among  agriculturists.  He  is  assisted  by  * 
The  Statistician,  The  Entomologist,  Tne  Botanist,  The  Chemist  The  Microscopist. 


NATIONAL  CAPITOL,  WASHINGTON, 


CONCISE  SUMMARY  OF  PARLIAMENTARY  RULES  OBSERVED  IN  ALL 

DELIBERATIVE  ASSEMBLIES. 


Motion  to  adjourn 

Motion  to  determine  time  to  which  to  ad . . . 

Motion  to  amend 

Motion  to  amend  an  amendment 

Motion  to  amend  the  rules 

Motion  to  appeal  from  Speaker’s  decision 

re  indecorum 

Motion  to  appeal  from  Speaker’s  decision 

generally 

Call  to  order 

Motion  to  close  debate  on  question 

Motion  to  commit 

Motion  to  extend  limits  of  debate  on  ques- 
tion   ... 

Leave  to  continue  speaking  after  indeco- 
rum   

Motion  that do  lie  on  the  table 

Motion  to  limit  debate  on  question 

Objection  to  consideration  of  question. . . . 

| Motion  for  the  orders  of  the  day 

Motion  to  postpone  to  a definite  time 

Motion  to  postpone  indefinitely 


Motion  for  previous  question 

Questions  touching  priority  of  business. . . 

Questions  of  privilege — 

Reading  papers 

Motion  to  reconsider  a debatable  question. 
Motion  to  reconsider  an  undebatable  ques- 
tion  

Motion  to  refer  a question 

Motion  that  committee  do  now  rise 

Question  whether  subject  shall  be  dis- 
cussed  

Motion  to  make  subject  a special  order.  . . 


To  substitute — in  the  nature  of  an  amend- 
ment  


!m 


otion  to  suspend  the  rules 


Motion  to  take  from  the  table 


To  take  up  question  out  of  its  proper  or- 
der  

Motion  to  withdraw  a motion 

Questions  of  precedence  of  questions 

Forms  in  which  questions  may  be  put 


5 

7 

10 

13 

14 

i6f 

5 

8 

9 

13 

14 

16 

5 

8 

9 

13 

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16 

5 

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9 

1.3 

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5 

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5 

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8 

9 

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5 

7 

9 

12 

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5 

8 

9 

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5 

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5 

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6 

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13 

14 

18 

5 

7 

10 

13 

14 

18 

6 

8 

9 

13 

14 

16 

5 

7 

10 

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14 

16 

5 

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15 

17 

5 

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9 

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5 

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1 20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

' 27 

28 

29 

30 

1 

3T 

32 

29 


30 


31 


32 


Question  undebatable ; sometimes  re 
marks  tacitly  allowed. 

Undebatable  if  another  question  is  before 
the  assembly. 

Debatable  question. 

Limited  debate  only  on  propriety  of  post-’ 
ponement.  M 

Does  not  allow  reference  to  main  ques- 
tion. 

Opens  the  main  question  to  debate. 

Cannot  be  amended 

May  be  amended. 

Can  be  reconsidered. 

Cannot  be  reconsidered. 

An  affirmative  vote  on  this  question  can- 
not be  reconsidered. 

Requires  two-third  vote  unless  soecial 
rules  have  been  enacted. 

Simple  majority  suffices  to  determine  the 
question. 

Motion  must  be  seconded. 

Does  not  require  to  be  seconded. 

Not  in  order  when  another  has  the  floor. 

In  order  at  any  time  though  another  has 
the  floor. 

May  be  moved  and  entered  on  the  record 
when  another  has  the  floor,  but  the  busi- 
ness then  before  the  assembly  may  not 
be  put  aside.  The  motion  must  be  made 
by  one  who  voted  on  the  prevailing  side, 
and  on  the  same  day  as  the  original 
vote  was  taken. 

Fixing  the  time  to  which  an  adjournment 
may  be  made  ; ranks  first. 

To  adjourn  without  limitation  ; second. 

Motion  for  the  Order  of  the  Day  ; third. 

Motion  that do  lie  on  the  table  ; fourth. 

Motion  for  the  previous  question  ; fifth. 

Motion  to  postpone  definitely  ; sixth. 

Motion  to  commit ; seventh. 

Motion  to  amend  ; eighth 

Motion  to  postpone  indefinitely  ; ninth. 

On  motion  to  strike  out  words ; “ Shall 
the  words  stand  part  of  the  motion,” 
unless  a majority  sustains  the  words 
they  are  struck  out. 

On  motion  for  the  previous  question,  the 
form  to  be  observed  is,  “ Shall  the  main 
question  be  now  put  ? ” This,  if  carried, 
ends  debate. 

On  an  appeal  from  the  Chair’s  decision  : 
“Shall  the  decision  be  sustained  as  the 
ruling  of  the  house  ? ” The  chair  is  gen- 
erally sustained. 

On  motion  for  Orders  of  the  Da}r ; “Will 
the  house  now  proceed  to  the  Orders  of 
the  Day?”  This,  if  carried,  supersedes 
intervening  motions. 

When  an  objection  is  raised  to  consider- 
ing question  : “ Shall  the  question  be 
considered?”  objection  may  be  made 
by  any  member  before  debate  has  com- 
menced, but  not  subsequently. 


Note. — By  studying  the  references  to  the  several  motions  on  this  page,  you  will  come  to  understand 
the  application  of  Parliamentary  Law  in  a few  moments.  Examples  1,  5,  7,  10,  13,  i4,  16,  opposite  motion 
to  adjourn,  signifies  to  refer  to  the  same  numbers  in  the  Explanatory  column  on  the  right 


GOVERNING  PUBLIC  MEETINGS,  DEBATING  SOCIETIES,  ETC. 

NY  organization  of  value  must  be  governed  by  a code  of  laws  to  regulate  its 
proceedings  and  direct  its  members.  Therefore  we  give  in  a concise  form 
the  basis  of  all  the  rules  regarding  such  matters.  The  young  man  who 
has  carefully  studied  and  practiced  our  directions  for  elocution  and  selec- 
tions of  oratory,  should  understand  the  forms  of  parliamentary  proceeding, 
for  when  he  comes  to  engage  in  public  meetings,  or  take  part  in  debates,  he  will  find  that 
there  are  well  established  forms  and  laws  to  be  observed. 

In  many  works  the  Rules  and  Orders  of  the  National  House  of  Representatives  are 
given  in  full,  but  as  much  therein  contained  have  no  general  application,  we  therefore 
propose  to  give,  from  the  best  authority,  the  fundamental  principle  of  the  same. 

Parliamentary  law  embraces  the  forms  and  rules  governing  all  societies,  councils, 
legislative  assemblies,  and  meetings  where  there  may  be  an  honest  difference  of  senti- 
ment and  feeling.  It  is  most  essential  that  there  should  be  such  a standard  to  govern, 
otherwise  the  utmost  confusion  would  inevitably  ensue.  Whatever  may  be  the  purpose 
for  which  an  association  of  men  have  assembled  to  deliberate,  the  only  method  to  ascer- 
tain and  maintain  the  will  of  those  present  is  to  proceed  in  a way  intelligible  and  author- 
tative  upon  its  members.  The  association  must  be  properly  constituted  and  duly  organi- 
sed. There  must  be  some  acknowledged  standard  upon  which  to  proceed  in  the  formal 
conduct  of  matters  brought  before  its  attention. 

HOW  TO  ORGANIZIf. 

The  recognized  members  of  the  body,  or  those  about  to  become  constituted  as  suclq 
having  met  at  the  place  and  time  designated,  are  called  to  order  by  some  one 
who  addresses  the  rest.  Whereupon  they  become  quiet,  and  upon  nomination  of  a tem- 
porary chairman,  he  puts  the  motion  to  those  gathered,  and  if  not  carried,  calls  for  fur- 
ther nominations.  This  he  continues  to  do  until  a chairman  is  elected. 

The  chairman  then  takes  charge  of  the  meeting. 

Then  he  proceeds  in  like  manner  until  a clerk  or  secretary  is  appointed,  and  such 
other  officers  as  are  deemed  necessary. 

In  legislative  and  other  bodies  where  an  oath  of  office  is  required,  this  is  adminis- 
tered after  the  temporary  chairman  has  taken  his  seat,  by  the  person  properly  authorized 
to  perform  such  a service.  A committee  is  appointed  to  see  if  there  be  a quorum  of  the 
certified  members  present,  who  attend  to  this  duty  and  report. 

Whereupon,  their  report  being  adopted,  they  may  proceed  to  the  permanent  organi- 
zation. 

The  presiding  officer  may  be  designated  president,  speaker,  chairman  or  moderator, 
and  his  duties  will  be  designated  further  on. 

It  is  necessary  that  all  items  of  business  shall  be  fully  recorded,  and  the  first  officer, 
after  the  chairman  is  elected,  is  the  one  to  perform  that  duty.  He  is  termed  secretary, 
clerk  or  recorder,  and  at  once  enters  upon  his  authorized  duties. 


794 


PARLIAMENTARY  LAW. 


If  it  is  deemed  necessary  to  have  vice-presidents,  they  are  then  elected,  and  all  other 
officers  required  to  complete  the  organization. 

If  there  should  arise  a question  between  rival  candidates  for  membership,  and  it  so 
appears  from  the  report  upon  the  record  of  the  committee,  the  claims  of  the  parties  may 
be  referred  to  the  same  committee,  or  to  another,  but  neither  claimant  of  them  can  act 
Until  the  case  has  been  disposed  of  in  a proper  manner. 

The  member  has  the  right  to  be  heard  in  his  own  behalf,  but  when  the  subject  is 
being  further  discussed,  should  in  courtesy  retire  from  the  room  until  it  is  decided. 

No  person,  not  a member  by  actual  or  supposed  right,  is  entitled  to  remain  in 
the  room  of  the  assembly  but  by  its  courtesy.  The  assembly  or  society  may  therefore 
employ  force,  if  necessary,  to  remove  any  person  who  refuses  to  retire  upon  being  re- 
quested to  do  so  by  the  proper  officer. 

QUORUM. 

This  is  the  first  important  question  to  be  settled.  For  in  all  properly  organized 
bodies  there  must  be  a specified  number  who  are  competent  to  act  in  the  absence  of 
others,  otherwise  there  might  be  undue  haste  and  a want  of  fairness,  or  some  things  might 
be  done  which  would  have  to  be  undone  at  a subsequent  meeting.  This  number,  termed 
a quorum,  is  determined  by  constitutional  law,  by  custom  or  general  understanding.  In 
the  last  instance,  a majority  of  all  the  authorized  members  constitute  a quorum.  If  at 
any  time  it  is  ascertained  that  there  is  not  a quorum  present,  the  business  must  be  sus- 
pended, and  if  the  body  has  not  the  power  to  compel  the  attendance  of  members,  an  ad- 
journment must  be  taken.  Less  than  a quorum  may  be  called  to  order  and  adjourn 
from  time  to  time. 

DECISION  OF  QUESTIONS. 

A majority  of  those  present  and  voting  is  required  to  decide  a question  or  constitute 
an  election  in  most  cases.  In  legislative  assemblies  one-fourth  or  one-fifth  may  order  a 
call  of  the  yeas  and  nays.  It  usually  requires  two-thirds  or  four-fifths  to  change  the 
standing  rules  and  orders.  In  some  xBases,  by  expressed  provision,  where  there  are  more 
than  two  candidates,  a plurality  elects.  But  even  then,  since  the  president  and  secretary 
are  essential  to  the  organization,  it  is  best  that  they  receive  a majority  of  all  the  votes, 
otherwise  they  might  be  removed  at  any  subsequent  meeting  by  the  rival  parties  combin- 
ing for  a new  election. 

THE  DUTIES  AND  OBLIGATIONS  OF  OFFICERS. 

The  President  should  call  the  assembly  to  order  at  the  hour  appointed.  Present 
the  business  in  its  regular  order.  Entertain  and  put  all  motions  properly  made  by  mem- 
bers, and  announce  the  result.  Receive  and  submit  to  the  assembly  all  reports  of  com- 
mittees. Appoint  all  committees,  unless  otherwise  ordered.  Decide  upon  all  points  of 
order,  subject  to  an  appeal  to*the  house.  He  has  the  precedence  in  speaking  to  a point 
of  order.  Enforce  obedience  to  the  rules.  Preserve  order  and  decorum.  Sign  all  bills, 
orders  and  other  papers  when  directed  so  to  do.  It  is  fyis  duty  to  represent  impartially 
the  will  of  the  assembly.  He  may  call  to  the  chair  any  member  he  chooses  to  act  in  his 
temporary  absence,  but  this  appointment  does  not  extend  beyond  the  same  meeting. 

The  president  may  remain  sitting  while  reading  documents  to  the  house,  but  to  put 
motions  or  to  speak  to  a point  of  order,  he  ought  to  stand. 


PARLIAMENTARY  LAW. 


795 


Vice  President. — If  the  body  have  a vice-president,  the  duties  of  the  chair  de- 
volve upon  him  in  the  absence  of  the  president.  If  there  be  no  vice-president,  and  the 
president  be  absent  when  the  time  to  which  body  adjourned  has  arrived,  then  the  secre- 
tary may  so  announce,  and  the  members  proceed  to  the  choice  of  a president  pro  tem- 
pore, who  acts  until  the  president  arrives. 

Secretary. — To  make  a full  and  impartial  record  of  all  the  proceedings.  To  sign 
all  orders  and  other  papers,  singly  or  in  conjunction  with  the  president,  when  required. 
To  read  all  papers  before  the  house  when  ordered  by  the  presiding  officer.  To  call  the 
roll  of  members,  and  note  the  yeas  and  nays  when  a call  is  directed.  To  inform  all  com- 
mittees of  their  appointment,  and  transmit  to  them  all  papers  and  other  business  sub- 
mitted by  the  house,  and  to  guard  carefully  all  the  documents,  papers  and  records  of  the 
house,  and  have  them  at  hand  for  easy  reference.  To  make  a minute  of  all  business  in- 
troduced, even  if  not  brought  to  a vote. 

He  ought  to  stand  when  reading  or  calling  the  roll  of  members. 

If  there  be  no  assistant  secretary,  in  his  absence  a secretary  pro  tempore  must  be 
appointed. 

ORDER  OF  BUSINESS. 

Business  is  submitted  by  a member  who  makes  a motion  on  his  own  responsibility, 
or  introduces  matter  from  one  who  is  not  a member.  This  latter  may  be  in  the  nature 
of  a communication  of  fact  pertaining  to  the  assembly,  or  a request  desiring  something 
from  it.  The  former  are  resolves,  orders,  bills  for  enactment,  & c. 

They  are  all  designated  motions  until  the  vote  is  passed.  Any  member  wishing  to 
be  heard  must  rise  from  his  seat,  address  the  president,  and  wait  until  he  has  been  recog- 
nized in  form  by  the  chair.  When  two  or  more  rise  at  the  same  time,  the  chair  should 
recognize  the  one  whose  voice  he  first  heard.  An  appeal  to  the  house  may  be  made,  and 
the  question  for  the  house  to  decide  is  : If  the  member  recognized  by  the  chair  has  the 
right  to  speak  first. 

When  a member  has  obtained  the  floor  he  may  then  state  his  business. 

The  president  has  a right  to  demand  that  all  principal  motions  shall  be  reduced  to 
writing. 

A request  coming  from  a person  not  a member  must  be  in  the  form  of  a memorial  or 
a petition.  The  petition  is  presented  by  a member  who  endorses  upon  the  back  the 
name  of  the  petitioner  and  the  subject  matter  contained  therein,  in  concise  form. 
The  petition  should  be  couched  in  respectful  language,  and  signed  By  the  petitioner  in 
his  own  hand.  The  member  presents  it  in  person,  moving  its  reference  to  the  proper 
committee  ; or  in  case  there  is  no  committee,  then  some  one  may  move  that  it  be  received. 
If  carried,  it  is  then  read  by  the  clerk  and  proper  action  taken.  Incidental  motions,  for 
example,  to  postpone,  to  lay  on  the  table,  to  adjourn,  &c.,  need  not  be  reduced  to  writing. 

As  a general  rule,  a motion  should  receive  a second  from  another  member  than  the 
one  introducing  it.  Questions  of  privilege  and  some  others  do  not  require  a second 
while  a motion  for  the  previous  question  must  receive  more  than  one  second,  usually 
one-fifth  of  the  members  present  and  voting. 

A motion  having  been  made  and  properly  seconded,  the  president  rises  in  his  place 
and  submits  it  in  form.  It  is  then  in  order  before  the  house  either  to  speak  upon,  or  to 
Lake  such  action  as  they  choose. 


79G 


PARLIAMENTARY  LAW. 


It  is  then  the  property  of  the  assembly,  and  can  be  withdrawn  only  at  the  will  of  the 
members.  After  the  motion  has  been  put  to  the  house,  no  other  motion  can  be  submit- 
ted, except  such  as  have  the  precedence. 

The  presiding  officer  should  state  the  motion,  or  cause  it  to  be  read,  as  often  as  re- 
quested for  the  information  of  any  member. 

SECONDARY  MOTIONS. 

When  the  assembly  are  prepared  for  the  question  in  hand,  there  is  nothing  to  be 
done  but  to  take  a direct  vote  upon  it.  If,  for  any  reason,  they  are  not  ready  to  proceed 
to  a discussion  on  the  main  issue,  there  have  been  adopted  several  forms  of  motions, 
which  are  termed  subsidiary  or  secondary  motions,  in  order  to  meet  the  requirements  in 
the  case. 

A motion  to  indefinitely  postpone  is  one  designed  to  defeat  the  object  altogether. 

If  the  subject  is  worthy  of  consideration,  the  house  may  postpone  to  a time  stated, 
or  lay  it  upon  the  table,  or  refer  to  a committee. 

If  prepared  for  immediate  consideration  of  the  question  in  a modified  form,  a motion 
to  amend  may  be  entertained.  If  further  debate  is  regarded  as  unnecessary,  a call  for 
the  previous  question,  may  be  moved. 

According  to  the  rules  and  orders  of  Congress,  motions  take  precedence  in  the  fol- 
lowing order:  ist.  To  adjourn.  2d.  To  lie  on  the  table.  3d.  For  the  previous  question. 
4th.  To  postpone  to  a day  certain.  5th.  To  commit  or  amend.  6th.  To  postpone  in- 
definitely. These  are  upon  the  main  questions  before  the  house. 

TO  ADJOURN. 

A motion  to  adjourn  is  always  in  order  and  undebatable,  nor  subject  to  amendment 
when  another  question  is  before  the  house.  If  the  vote  to  adjourn  is  not  carried,  the 
same  motion  cannot  be  renewed  until  some  other  business  has  been  performed,  as  read- 
ing the  journal,  a call  for  yeas  and  nays.  An  adjournment  signifies  to  the  time  of  the 
next  session.  When  the  motion  to  adjourn  is  the  main  question,  it  may  be  amended  by 
stating  a definite  time. 

QUESTION  OF  PRIVILEGE. 

When  the  prerogatives  of  the  house  or  one  of  its  members  have  been  infringed  upon, 
the  discussion  of  this  by  the  member  aggrieved,  or  another,  takes  precedence  of  all  ques- 
tions, save  that  to  adjourn.  When  this  is  settled,  the  house  returns  to  the  business  thus 
interrupted. 

THE  ORDER  OF  THE  DAY. 

When  business  has  been  postponed  to  a definite  time,  stated  hour  and  day,  or  has 
been  assigned  for  that  time,  a motion  to  “ proceed  to  the  order  of  the  day/5  when  the  time 
arrives,  takes  precedence  of  the  consideration  of  other  questions,  save  the  two  last  men- 
tioned. If  the  order  of  the  day  has  been  reached  in  the  regular  routine  of  business  be- 
fore the  hour  arrives,  and  has  been  disposed  of,  it  cannot  be  revived  by  such  a motion. 
But  if  the  order  of  the  day  has  not  been  reached  on  the  day  assigned,  then  it  can  only 
be  brought  up  in  the  regular  routine,  or  de  novo , excepting  when  the  body,  by  proper 
action,  have  decided  otherwise. 


PARLIAMENTARY  LAW. 


79? 


POINTS  OF  ORDER. 

Whenever  a violation  of  the  established  rules  and  laws  occurs,  any  member  may 
“ rise  to  a point  of  order  ; ” the  question  then  under  consideration  is  suspended.  The 
presiding  officer  says  : “ The  member  will  state  his  point  of  order.”  He  then  proceeds 
to  state  it,  and  the  president  decides  upon  it.  • If  the  decision  of  the  chair  is  not  satisfac- 
tory to  any  member,  he  may  appeal  from  the  decision  of  the  chair.  The  question  for  the 
president  to  put  is,  “ Shall  the  decision  of  the  chair  be  sustained  ? ” This  question  may 
be  debated,  but  not  the  former.  The  president  has  the  first  right  to  be  heard.  When 
decided  by  vote,  the  house  returns  to  the  interrupted  business,  and  resumes  at  the 
point  where  they  left  off. 

THE  PREVIOUS  QUESTION. 

When  it  is  desired  to  prevent  further  discussion,  a motion  for  the  previous  question 
may  be  made,  and  must  be  put  by  the  chair.  It  is  usual  to  require  a second  for  this  from 
more  than  one — one-fifth  or  less  of  the  members.  And  the  chair  asks, Does  the  house 
second  the  call  for  the  previous  question  ? ” The  form  of  putting  the  motion  when  the 
second  has  been  called  is  this,  “ Shall  the  main  question  be  now  put  ? ” Upon  this 
speeches,  limited  in  time  and  confined  to  reasons  for  putting  or  not  putting  the  previous 
question,  are  allowed  in  some  assemblies.  If  the  vote  is  in  the  affirniative,  the  question 
is  then  put. 

TO  LIE  ON  THE  TABLE. 

When  there  is  business  deemed  of  greater  interest,  or  there  is  a desire  to  wait  tu- 
coming  of  a member  who  has  especial  connection  with  the  matter  or  for  any  other  reason 
a motion  to  lie  on  the  table  may  be  made.  This  has  the  precedence  of  a motion  to  post- 
pone, a call  for  the  previous  question,  to  amend  or  commit,  or  to  indefinitely  postpone. 
When  carried,  it  disposes  of  all  other  motions  connected  with  the  subject  for  the  present. 

TO  POSTPONE. 

A motion  to  postpone  indefinitely,  may  be  amended  to  postpone  to  a certain  time. 
This  may  be  further  amended  by  substituting  another  date. 

The  affirmation  of  a motion  to  indefinitely  postpone  finally  disposes  of  the  subject, 
and  unless  a motion  to  reconsider  be  carried  at  this  or  the  next  session,  it  cannot  come 
before  the  assembly  again. 

TO  REFER  TO  A COMMITTEE. 

This  motion  if  affirmed,  carries  all  the  papers  and  motions  connected  with  it  from 
the  control  of  the  house  for  the  time  being.  It  may  be  amended  by  a change  in  the 
names  of  each  or  all  of  the  members  of  the  committee. 

ON  AMENDMENTS. 

* When  a motion  has  come  before  the  house  in  a regular  form,  the  mover  cannot 
amend  it  but  by  general  consent.  If  objected  to  he  may  gain  consent  by  a regular 
motion  and  affirmative  vote.  When  a motion  has  come  into  possession  of  the  house  by 
being  seconded,  and  stated  in  regular  form,  the  mover  has  no  more  control  over  it  than 
any  other  member. 

Blanks  may  be  left  for  dates  or  sums  of  money,  or  number  of  persons,  &c.,  which 


798 


PARLIAMENTARY  LAW. 


are  to  be  filled  by  the  sense  of  the  house,  then  the  vote  on  the  latest  date,  highest  sum, 
or  number  of  two  or  more  moved  to  be  inserted,  must  be  put  first. 

An  amendment  must  refer  to  the  question  at  issue,  and  not  be  an  attempt  to  intro- 
duce new,  or  rejected  business  in  this  form.  The  part  of  the  motion  must  be  stated,  and 
the  effect  that  the  substitution  will  have  upon  it  if  amended.  An  amendment  to  an 
amendment  may  be  introduced,  but  no  subsequent  one.  The  first  question  to  be  decided 
is  upon  the  amendment  to  the  amendment.  If  this  is  approved,  then  upon  the  amend- 
ment as  amended.  If  approved,  then  upon  the  motion,  (bill,  order,  or  report)  as  amended. 

ADDITION,  SEPARATION  AND  DIVISION. 

If  two  matters  pertaining'to  the  same  subject  are  of  such  a character  as  to  be  incor- 
porated in  one,  the  usual  way  of  procedure  is  to  reject  one  and  incorporate  it  with  the 
other  as  an  amendment  to  it.  If  there  are  two  distinct  propositions  in  a motion  or  sub- 
ject matter  brought  up  for  action,  any  member  may  call  for  a division  of  the  question,  and 
each  can  be  put  upon  its  merits  without  jeopardizing  the  whole.  But  in  either  of  the 
above  cases  it  is  better  to  refer  to  a committee  with  instructions. 

STRIKING  OUT— INSERTING. 

When  a motion  to  “ strike  out”  a part  of  the  original  matter  has  failed,  then  it  cannot . 
be  renewed,  but  a motion  “ to  strike  out”  the  same  or  a part  and  other  words  may  be 
made.  \ 

If  a motion  to  insert  certain  words  has  been  lost,  it  is  not  permissible  to  move  to 
insert  the  same  words  but  to  insert  the  same  or  a part  of  them  together  with  other  words, 
giving  it  a new  or  modified  intent,  can  be  made.  Suppose  a motion  be  made  to  strike 
out  an  entire  section  or  paragraph,  then  those  who  desire  to  have  the  section  or  para- 
graph in  another  form  will  vote  not  to  strike  out,  for  if  the  motion  is  carried  the  section 
cannot  afterwards  be  amended. 

READING  OF  PAPERS 

Any  member  has  a right  to  demand  the  reading  of  a paper  which  he  wishes  brought 
for  action  before  the  house,  but  he  cannot  claim  the  right  to  read  any  matter  foreign  to 
the  subject,  without  leave,  by  a vote  or  general  consent. 

All  papers  connected  with  a subject  matter  go  naturally  to  the  committee  having 
that  matter  in  charge.  If  objection  is  raised  to  the  reading  of  any  paper,  the  question 
jof  its  being  read  must  be  decided  as  any  other  incidental  question. 

SUSPENSION  OF  RULES. 

If  a proposed  proceeding  is  desirable,  but  conflicts  with  a standing  rule,  it  is  proper 
to  move  a suspension  of  that  rule,  and  that  must  be  put  to  the  house  before  the  main 
question.  In  most  assemblies,  a two-thirds  or  three-fourths  vote  is  required. 

MODIFICATIONS  OF  SECONDARY  MOTIONS. 

These  motions  cannot  be  applied  to  one  another,  for  it  would  lead  to  interminable  series 
of  such  motions  e.  g.  A motion  to  commit,  to  amend  a main  question,  or  to  postpone, 
cannot  be  subject  to  a motion  for  the  previous  question,  nor  a motion  for  the  previous 


PARLIAMENTARY  LAW. 


799 


question  committed  or  postponed.  But  a motion  to  postpone  or  commit  an  original 
amendment  may  be  amended,  but  is  not  subject  to  a motion  for  the  previous  question* 

RIGHTS  AND  DUTIES  IN  DEBATE. 

When  any  member  desires  to  address  the  house,  he  rises  in  his  seat,  addresses  the 
chair,  and  when  recognized,  has  the  right  to  the  floor  against  any  and  all  other  members, 
unless  a member  rises  to  a point  of  order  in  reference  to  the  subject.  The  point  of  order 
being  decided  in  favor  of  the  person  having  the  floor,  he  may  go  on.  If  a member  has 
valuable  information  to  impart  to  the  house  he  may  interrupt  the  speaker,  or  to  correct  a 
vital  mistake  in  point  of  fact,  otherwise  interruptions  of  any  kind  are  not  in  order.  The 
rule  in  regard  to  the  speaker  standing,  may  be  waived,  when  circumstances  require. 

If  a speaker  yields  the  floor  in  courtesy  to  another  member  with  the  understanding 
that  he  is  to  receive  it  again,  this  cannot  be  enforced  by  the  house,  but  is  generally 
conceded. 

The  name  of  a member  must  not  be  spoken  in  debate,  but  he  must  be  mentioned 
as  the  “ gentleman  on  my  right,”  or  “left,”  or  in  any  courteous  term. 

The  general  rule  holds  that  the  President  shall  not  participate  as  such,  in  the 
debates  of  the  house,  but  he  may  give  valuable  information,  or  speak  to  a vital  fact 
within  his  knowledge,  decide  points  of  order,  and  on  appeal,  may  speak  in  defense  of  his 
decision.  In  other  matters  when  he  wishes  to  speak  he  calls  some  one  to  the  chair  and 
takes  the  floor  as  any  member  would  do. 

When  the  President  rises  in  his  place  to  speak,  he  has  the  precedence  of  any  other 
member,  although  he  has  no  right  to  interrupt  a speaker  who  has  the  floor ; this,  of 
course,  does  not  preclude  him  from  calling  the  member  to  order,  or  to  interrupt  when  the 
hour  of  adjournment  has  arrived. 

All  members  who  wish,  have  a right  to  be  heard,  but  in  speaking  must  confine  their 
remarks  to  the  subject,  or  motion  in  hand.  He  must  not  use  indecent  language  against 
the  action  of  the  house,  nor  impeach  the  motives  of  any  member,  nor  to  attack  with 
threatening  gestures,  words,  or  actions,  the  person  of  any  member.  The  nature  of  a 
proposition  or  measure  not  finally  disposed  of  may  be  commented  upon  in  severe  terms, 
and  be  no  reflection  upon  the  assembly.  The  consequences  or  nature  of  a proposition 
may  be  the  subject  of  the  most  intense  criticism,  and  denounced  in  severe  terms  without 
being  any  reflection  upon  the  member  or  committee  introducing  it. 

It  is  often  difficult  for  the  presiding  officer  to  decide  whether  a certain  line  of 
remarks  are  pertinent  to  the  main  question,  sometimes  while  the  main  question  remains 
the  same,  the  introduction  of  a secondary  question,  such  as  to  amend,  to  commit,  &c., 
are  those  which  are  for  immediate  consideration,  and  the  speaker  must  speak  to  them  dis- 
tinctly and  not  on  the  general  merits  of  the  measure. 

Unless  otherwise  provided,  no  member  can  speak  to  the  same  question  more  than 
once,  but  he  is  not  limited  in  time  of  that  speaking,.  He  can,  however,  speak  upon  all 
secondary  motions  affecting  the  main  issue  and  upon  the  report  of  a committee  concern- 
ing the  matter,  though  it  be  the  same  in  substance.  After  all  who  wish  to  speak  have 
availed  themselves  of  the  privilege,  he  may  speak  a second  time  with  consent  of  the  house 


800  PARLIAMENTARY  LAW. 

t 

He  may,  however,  correct  a mistake  or  make  clear  a fact,  if  any  other  speaker  has  mis- 
understood or  misinterpreted  it,  when  such  a member  yields  to  him  the  floor  for  the 
purpose. 

The  methods  of  preventing  tedious  or  unnecessary  debate  are  three : ist,  the  previ- 
ous question,  as  already  explained.  2d,  a rule  that  all  debate  shall  cease  at  a specified 
time.  3d,  a rule  limiting  the  speakers  in  time.  These  rules  are  enforced  by  the  Presi- 
dent announcing  the  arrival  of  the  limit  in  each  case. 

DECORUM  IN  DEBATE 

It  is  the  duty  of  the  President  to  preserve  order  and  decorum  during  debate,  and  see 
that  every  speaker  has  the  uninterrupted  attention  of  all  who  wish  to  hear  him.  Hissing, 
spitting,  coughing  or  any  noise  intentionally  made  to  interrupt  him  is  a breach  of  deco- 
rum. And  if  the  repeated  calls  to  order  of  the  President  are  not  heeded,  he  may  call 
the  offender  by  name.  The  person  whose  name  has  been  so  called  has  a right  to  explain 
or  apologize,  and  then  he  must  leave  the  room  until  such  time  as  the  house  shall  pass 
upon  his  offense.  If  the  Presiding  Officer  finds  that  the  house  at  any  time  does  not 
sustain  him  in  his  efforts  to  preserve  order  and  decorum,  he  is  at  liberty  to  pass  them 
by  without  notice. 

When  disorderly  words  are  used  in  debate,  the  member  who  complains  of  them  must 
state  what  he  thought  them  to  be,  or  the  sense  in  which  he  took  them.  If  the  complaint 
be  not  regarded  so  trivial  as  to  cause  unnecessary  delay,  the  President  calls  for  the 
offending  member  to  repeat  what  he  said  and  the  clerk  writes  it  down.  If  the  member 
complaining  does  not  assent  to  this  version  of  the  remarks  then  the  sense  of  the  house 
must  be  taken  as  to  what  the  speaker  really  said,  and  this  is  to  be  regarded  as  the  offense 
committed.  Then  if  the  offender  wishes  to  explain  or  apologize  he  may  do  so,  otherwise 
the  house  must  decide  then  and  there  in  the  premises,  and  inflict  the  penalty.  When  no 
notice  has  been  taken  of  the  offensive  words  at  the  time,  if  the  member  finishes  his 
speech,  or  any  new  business  intervenes,  the  question  of  a breach  of  decorum  or  order 
cannot  be  raised. 

ON  VOTING. 

A proposition  submitted  by  a member  becomes  then  a “ motion.”  When  stated  in 
form  by  the  chair,  “a  question.”  When  passed  upon  by  the  house,  a “vote,”  “ resolution,” 
“order.”  The  main  object  of  the  chair  is  to  ascertain  to  a certainty  the  sense  of  the 
house  upon  the  matter  and  he  does  it  in  this  way  : “ On  motion  of,”  &c.,  or,  “ It  is  moved 
by  and  seconded,  that,”  &c.,  “ As  many  as  are  in  favor  of  the  motion  say  aye,”  (or  “ Raise 
your  right  hands.”)  When  this  has  been  done,  he  says,  “ As  many  as  are  opposed  to  the 
motion  say  nay,”  (or  “ Raise  your  right  hands.”)  If  the  chair  cannot  decide,  he  then 
calls  for  a rising  vote.  If  still  in  doubt  he  may  ask  the  members  to  stand  until  counted 
(on  each  side  in  turn,)  or  to  pass  between  two  authorized  tellers  who  count  them. 

Any  member  has  a right  to  doubt  the  decision  of  the  chair,  and  then  a divison  is 
made. 

When  there  is  an  equal  number  of  votes  for  and  against,  the  President  casts  the 
deciding  vote. 

When  the  yeas  and  nays  are  ordered,  each  member  present  as  his  name  is  called, 


PARLIAMENTARY  LAW. 


801 


must  respond  yea  or  nay,  unless  he  is  excused  by  the  house.  Until  the  final  decision 
of  the  vote,  any  member  has  a right  to  change  his  vote,  or  if  not  present  when  his  name 
was  called,  to  ask  that  it  be  so  called.  But  he  must  not  interrupt  the  regular  order  ot 
calling  to  do  so. 

RECONSIDERATION. 

While  the  general  rule  holds  that  the  vote  of  an  assembly  is  the  final  decision  upon 
that  subject,  yet  to  relieve  from  embarrassment  and  inconvenience,  which  the  strictest 
enforcement  of  this  rule  might  occasion,  there  has  come  to  be  used  in  all  parliamentary 
bodies  the  right  to  reconsider.  The  time  to  which  this  right  is  limited  is  usually  desig- 
nated by  some  standing  rule.  In  the  absence  of  such  a rule,  the  motion  can  be  made 
only  at  the  meeting  in  which  the  vote  was  taken  or  the  next  succeeding  one. 

The  motion  to  reconsider  must  be  made  and  seconded  by  members  who  voted  in  the 
majority,  and  if  carried  by  a vote  of  the  house,  the  subject  matter  is  open  for  debate  or 
action,  as  if  it  had  not  before  been  voted  upon,  and  the  motion  last  affecting  it  is  before 
the  house. 

ON  COMMITTEES. 

They  are  standing  or  select  committees.  The  standing  committee  has  charge  of 
all  matters  pertaining  to  the  general  subject  for  which  it  was  appointed,  and  is  not  dis- 
charged until  it  reports  that  it  has  acted  on  all  matters  presented  to  it.  A special  com- 
mittee is  discharged  when  the  report  on  the  specific  matter  brought  before  it  is  received. 

Committees  are  appointed  by  the  chair,  by  ballot,  or  by  nomination,  as  the  assem- 
bly agrees. 

When  chosen  by  ballot,  it  may  be  done  by  voting  singly  on  each  name,  or  by  com- 
bining them  on  one  ballot. 

Unless  otherwise  provided,  the  first-named  member  is  chairman  of  the  committee 
and  calls  the  first  meeting.  The  committee  has  a right  to  appoint  times  and  places  for 
subsequent  meetings,  in  the  absence  of  other  directions.  They  are  to  act  upon  papers 
presented  to  them,  or  may  originate  papers  bearing  upon  the  subject  with  which  they  are 
entrusted  and  no  other. 

In  their  deliberation  they  are  to  be  governed  by  the  same  rules  and  orders  as  the 
body  appointing  them,  so  far  as  they  appertain.  They  have  a right  to  alter  and  trans- 
pose or  otherwise  modify  any  paper  submitted  to  them,  making  full  report  of  the  same. 

REPORTS  OF  COMMITTEES. 

Reports  should  be  made  in  writing,  and  this  is  done  by  the  chairman  or  some  au- 
thorized member.  The  question  first  considered  is  upon  receiving  the  report  of  the 
committee.  Then  the  matter  embraced  in  the  report  is  before  the  house.  It  should 
then  be  adopted. 

There  may  be, a minority  report,  but  this  is  received  only  by  courtesy,  and  read  by 
the  clerk  of  the  house  along  with  the  majority  report.  It  can  be  considered  only  upon  a 
motion  to  substitute  the  report  of  the  minority  in  place  of  that  of  the  majority. 

The  matter  in  the  report  of  the  committee  may  be  recommitted  for  further  consider- 
ation, and  then  comes  before  them  as  if  they  had  never  seen  it. 


802 


PARLIAMENTARY  LAW. 


COMMITTEE  OF  THE  WHOLE. 


Upon  motion  and  second  the  assembly  may  be  resolved  into  committee  of  the 
whole  on  any  designated  subject.  If  such  motion  is  affirmed,  the  president  names 
the  member  who  is  to  act  as  chairman.  Usually,  by  courtesy,  he  is  accepted  by  the 
house,  although  the  committee  of  the  whole  has  a right  to  appoint  its  chairman. 
When  it  has  completed  its  deliberations  some  member  moves  that,  “The  committee 
of  the  whole  do  now  rise,”  and  if  affirmed,  the  president  resumes  the  chair,  and  the 
chairman  of  the  committee  of  the  whole  reports  progress,  asks  to  sit  again,  and  the 
house  resumes  business. 

The  following  restrictions  govern  a committee  of  the  whole:  I.  It  can  entertain 
no  motion  for  the  previous  question.  2.  They  cannot  adjourn.  3.  Any  member 
may  speak  as  often  as  he  pleases.  4.  They  cannot  refer  matters  to  another  com- 
mittee. 5.  It  has  no  authority  to  punish  breaches  of  order.  6.  The  president  of 
the  assembly  is  a member  of  the  committee  of  the  whole,  and  has  a right  to  speak. 


ON  COUNTING  A QUORUM. 

THE  RULING  OF  HON.  T.  B.  REED,  SPEAKER  OF  U.  S.  HOUSE  OF  REPRESENTATIVES, 

JANUARY  30,  1890. 


The  Clerk  announces  the  members  voting  in  the  affirmative  as 
161  and  2 who  voted  in  the  negative.  The  Chair,  thereupon, 
having  seen  the  members  present,  having  heard  their  names 
called  in  their  presence,  directed  tbe  call  to  be  repeated,  and, 
gentlemen  not  answering  when  thus  called,  the  Chair  directed  a 
record  of  their  names  to  be  made,  showing  the  fact  of  their  pres- 
ence as  bearing  upon  the  question  which  has  been  raised,  namely, 
whether  there  is  a quorum  of  this  House  present  to  do  business 
or  not,  according  to  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States;  and 
accordingly  that  question  is  now  before  the  House,  and  the  Chair 
purposes  to  give  a statement,  accompanied  by  a ruling,  from  which 
an  appeal  can  be  taken  if  any  gentleman  is  dissatisfied  therewith. 

There  has  been  for  some  considerable  time  a question  of  this 
nature  raised  in  very  many  parliamentary  assemblies.  There  has 
been  a great  deal  of  doubt,  especially  in  this  body,  on  the  subject, 
and  the  present  occupant  of  the  chair  well  recollects  a proposition 
or  suggestion  made  ten  years  ago  by  a member  from  Virginia, 
Mr.  John  Randolph  Tucker,  an  able  constitutional  lawyer  as 
well  as  an  able  member  of  this  House.  That  matter  was  some- 
what discussed  and  a proposition  was  made  with  regard  to  putting 
it  into  the  rules.  The  general  opinion  which  seemed  to  prevail 
at  that  time  was  that  it  was  inexpedient  so  to  do,  and  some  men 
had  grave  doubts  whether  it  was  proper  to  make  such  an  amend- 
ment to  the  rules  as  would  count  the  members  present  and  not 
voting  as  a part  of  the  quorum  as  well  as  those  present  and  vot- 
ing. The  evils  which  resulted  from  the  other  course  were  not 
then  as  apparent,  and  no  such  careful  study  had  been  given  to  the 
subject  as  has  been  given  to  it  since. 

That  took  place  in  the  year  1880.  Since  then  there  have  been 
various  arguments  and  various  decisions  by  various  eminent 
gentlemen  upon  the  subject,  and  these  decisions  have  very  much 
cleared  up  the  question,  which  renders  it  much  more  apparent 
what  the  rule  is.  One  of  the  first  places  in  which  the  question 
was  raised  was  in  the  senate  of  the  State  of  New  York.  The 
present  governor  of  New  York  was  the  presiding  officer,  and 
upon  him  devolved  a duty  similar  to  that  which  has  devolved 
upon  me  to-day.  He  met  that  duty  in  precisely  the  same  manner. 
The  question  there  raised  was  the  necessity,  under  their  constitu- 
tion, of  three-fifths  constituting  a quorum  for  the  passage  of 
certain  bills,  and  he  held  that  that  constitutional  provision  as  to  a 
quorum  was  entirely  satisfied  by  the  presence  of  the  members, 
even  if  they  did  not  vote,  and  accordingly  he  directed  the 
recording  officer  of  the  senate  to  put  down  the  names  as  a part  of 
the  record  of  the  transaction  ; that  is,  to  put  down  the  names  of 
the  members  of  the  senate  who  were  present  and  refused  to  vote 
in  precisely  the  manner  in  which  the  occupant  of  this  chair  has 
directed  the  same  thing  to  be  done.  That  decision  would  be  re- 
garded as  in  no  sense  partisan,  at  least  as  the  Chair  cites  it. 

There  has  also  been  a decision  in  the  State  of  Tennessee,  where 
the  provisions  of  the  law  require  a quorum  to  consist  of  two- 


thirds.  The  house  has  ninety-nine  members,  of  which  two- 
thirds  is  sixty-six.  In  the  Legislature  of  1885  the  house  had 
ninety-nine  members,  of  which  two-thirds  was  sixty-six.  A regis- 
tration bill  was  pending  which  was  objected  to  by  the  Republican 
members  of  the  house.  Upon  the  third  reading  the  Republicans 
refused  to  vote,  whereupon  the  speaker,  a member  of  the  other 
party,  directed  the  clerk  to  count  as  present  those  not  voting,  and 
declared  the  bill  as  passed  upon  this  reading.  < 

These  two  decisions,  made,  the  first  in  1883,  and  the  other  in 
the  year  1885,  seem  to  the  present  occupant  of  the  chair  to  cover 
the  ground  ; but  there  is  an  entirely  familiar  process  which  every 
old  member  will  recognize,  which,  in  the  opinion  of  the  Chair,  is 
incontestable  evidence  of  the  recognition  at  all  times  of  the  right 
to  regard  members  present  as  constituting  a part  of  a quorum.  It 
has  been  almost  an  every-day  occurrence  at  certain  stages  of  the 
session  for  votes  to  be  announced  by  the  Chair  containing  obviously 
and  mathematically  no  quorum  ; yet  if  the  point  was  not  made 
the  bill  has  always  been  declared  tp  be  passed.  Now,  that  can 
only  be  upon  a very  distinct  basis,  and  that  is,  that  everybody 
present  silently  agreed  to  the  fact  that  there  was  a quorum 
present,  while  the  figures  demonstrated  no  quorum  voting. 

There  is  no  ground  by  which  under  any  possibility  such  a bill 
could  be  passed  constitutionally,  unless  the  presence  of  a quorum 
is  inferred.  It  is  inferred  from  the  fact  that  no  one  raised  the 
question,  and  the  presence  was  deemed  enough. 

Now,  all  methods  of  determining  a .vote  are  of  equal  value. 
The  count  by  the  Speaker  or  Chairman,  and  the  count  by  tellers, 
or  a count  by  the  yeas  and  nays,  are  all  of  them  of  equal  validity. 
The  House  has  a right,  upon  the  call  of  one-fifth  of  the  members, 
to  have  a yea-and-nay  vote,  and  then  upon  that  the  question  is 
decided  ; but  the  decision  in  each  of  the  other  cases  is  of  precisely 
the  same  validity. 

Again,  it  has  always  been  the  practice  in  parliamentary  bodies 
of  this  character,  and  especially  in  the  Parliament  of  Great 
Britain,  for  the  Speaker  to  determine  the  question  whether  there 
is  or  is  not  a quorum  present  by  count.  It  is  a question  that  is  a 
determination  of  the  actual  presence  of  a quorum,  and  the  deter- 
mination of  that  is  intrusted  to  the  presiding  officer  in  almost  all 
instances.  So  that  when  a question  is  raised  whether  there  is  a 
quorum  or  not,  without  spec  al  arrangement  for  determining  it,  it 
would  be  determined  on  a count  by  the  presiding  officer.  Again, 
there  is  a provision  in  the  Constitution  which  declares  that  the 
House  may  establish  rules  for  compelling  the  attendance  of 
members.  If  members  can  be  present  and  refuse  to  exercise  their 
function,  to  wit,  not  be  counted  as  a quorum,  that  provision  would 
seem  to  be  entirely  nugatory.  Inasmuch  as  the  Constitution 
only  provides  for  their  attendance,  that  attendance  is  enough. 
If  more  was  needed  the  Constitution  would  have  provided  for 
more.  The  Chair  thereupon  rules  that  there  is  a quorum  present 
within  the  meaning  of  the  Constitution. 


ORGANIZATION  OF 


LITERARY  AND  DEBATING  SOCIETIES. 


HOW  TO  CALL  PUBLIC  MEETINGS. 

HENEVER  a number  of  persons  have  agreed  to  organize  an  association 
for  mutual  improvement  in  declamation  and  debate,  they  assemble  at 
some  place,  and  time  announced,  and  after  electing  a chairman  and  secre- 
tary, one  of  those  present  arises  and  says : “ I move  that  a committee 
of  five  (or  any  number)  be  appointed  by  the  chair,  to  draft  and  present 
a Constitution  of  a Debating  Society.”  If  there  is  a majority  in  favor  the  committee 
is  appointed,  the  mover  being  the  chairman  by  courtesy. 

It  is  their  duty  to  report  as  early  as  possible,  at  least  at  the  next  meeting.  Some- 
times the  report  is  prepared  in  anticipation  of  the  time.  It  should  be  brief  and  concise, 
covering  all  needful  points.  It  should  be  considered  and  adopted  section  by  section^ 
and  afterwards  as  a whole. 

FORM  FOR  CONSTITUTION. 

The  young  people  of  Hampton  being  desirous  to  form  a Society  for  mutual  im- 
provement in  elocution,  literature  and  forensic  discussion,  and  to  afford  entertainment 
for  their  friends  and  the  public,  have  formed  an  association  for  the  above  named  pur- 
poses, and  adopted  the  following 

CO^TSTITTJTIOIT. 

ARTICLE  I.— NAME. 

This  Society  shall  be  called  the  Philorhetorian  Society  of  Hampton,  Mass. 

ARTICLE  II.— OBJECT. 

The  object  of  this  Society  shall  be  the  mutual  improvement  of  its  members 
in  elocution,  literary  effort,  and  forensic  disputations.  All  questions  having  a political 
or  sectarian  bearing  being  excluded. 

ARTICLE  III.— MEMBERSHIP. 

Sec.  i.  Any  person  of  good,  social  standing,  eighteen  years  of  age,  may  Decome 
a member  of  this  Society,  upon  being  proposed  by  a member,  and  a majority  vote  at  any 
regular  meeting  of  the  Society,  and  paying  the  fee  hereinafter  named. 

Sec.  2.  Any  person  may  become  an  honorary  member  upon  a unanimous  vote  of 
all  the  members  present,  at  any  regular  meeting.  He  shall  be  entitled  to  all  the  rights 
of  membership  except  holding  office,  serving  on  committees,  and  voting. 

ARTICLE  IV.— OFFICERS. 

The  Officers  of  this  Society  shall  be  a President,  Vice  President,  Secretary,  Treasu- 
rer, Corresponding  Secretary  and  Critic.  The  office  of  Secretary  and  Treasurer  may  be 
vested  in  the  same  person. 


804 


HOW  TO  ORGANIZE  A LITERARY  AND  DEBATING  SOCIETY; 


ARTICLE  V. — DUTIES  OF  OFFICERS. 

Sec.  i.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  President  to  preside  at  alll  meetings  of  the 
Society  ; call  the  members  to  order  at  the  hour  to  which  they  stand  adjourned;  decide  all 
questions  of  order;  enforce  impartially,  the  by-laws,  constitution  and  rules  of  order; 
appoint  all  committees  unless  otherwise  ordered  ; draw  upon  the  Treasurer  for  all 
monies,  to  be  expended  upon  vote  of  the  Society;  see  that  the  several  officers  are  in 
their  stations  and  attend  to  their  respective  duties;  examine  and  announce  all  ballots, 
and  attend  to  all  other  duties  appertaining  to  his  office.  He  shall  not  vote  except  in  case 
of  a tie,  nor  speak  in  debate  while  in  the  chair,  nor  make  nor  second  a motion  of  any 
kind.  He  shall  appoint  two  disputants  upon  each  side  of  a question,  one  person  to  pre- 
sent a select  reading,  one  to  give  a declamation,  and  one  to  present  an  original  essay  or 
composition.  These  appointments  to  be  made  at  least  two  weeks  before  the  meeting  at 
which  they  are  to  take  part. 

Sec.  2.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  Vice  President  to  preside  in  the  absence  of  the 
President,  and  when  he  is  engaged  in  debate,  and  to  perform  all  other  duties  pertaining 
to  the  chair. 

Sec.  3=  The  Secretary  shall  keep  a full  and  impartial  record  ot  the  proceedings  ol 
the  meetings  of  the  Society,  a record  of  the  names  and  residence  of  members  in  a book 
prepared  for  that  purpose,  call  the  roll  of  officers  and  members  at  each  meeting,  noticing 
the  absentees,  count  all  votes  when  desired  by  the  President,  keep  in  a separate  book,  a 
record  of  all  questions  debated,  the  names  of  the  disputants  and  the  decisions  of  the 
questions  and  of  all  the  other  exercises  of  each  meeting.  He  shall  report  the  names 
of  all  delinquents,  the  fines,  dues  and  assessments  unpaid  by  each,  at  least  once  in  three 
months. 

SeCo  4.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  Corresponding  Secretary  to  inform  all  absent 
members  of  their  appointment  to  perform  any  duty,  at  least  two  weeks  before  the  time 
the  part  is  to  be  performed.  Also  each  person  elected  a member,  and  conduct  all  corres- 
pondence in  behalf  of  the  Society. 

Sec.  5.  It  shall  be  duty  of  the  Treasurer  to  keep  a just  and  accurate  account  of  all 
monies  received  by  him  for  the  Society  ; also  of  all  dues,  arrearages,  fines  and  assess- 
ments imposed,  and  of  all  expenditures  and  disbursements,  by  order  of  the  President 
He  shall  notify  each  member  monthly  of  his  dues,  fines,  &c.,  and  collect  the  same.  At 
the  first  meeting  in  each  month,  he  shall  report  to  the  Secretary  the  names  of  all  who 
are  in  arrears  for  more  than  one  month  last  passed. 

Sec.  6.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  Critic  to  judge  of  the  literary  merit  of  all  who 
are  appointed  to  take  part  in  such  exercises.  For  this  purpose  he  shall  carefully  observe 
the  words,  manner  and  gestures  of  each  person,  notice  all  mistakes  in  grammar,  of  pro- 
nunciation, and  present  a written  criticism  at  each  meeting  of  the  literary  exercises  of 
the  preceding  meeting. 

ARTICLE  VI. — ELECTIONS. 

Sec.  1.  All  officers  of  the  Society  shall  be  elected  by  ballot  to  serve  for  three 
months. 

Sec.  2.  The  election  shall  be  held  at  the  first  regular  meeting  in  January,  April, 
July,  and  October  of  each  year,  and  shall  not  be  re-elected  for  a second  succeeding  term. 


HOW  TO  ORGANIZE  A LITERARY  AND  DEBATING  SOCIETY. 


805 


Sec.  3.  No  person  shall  be  eligible  to  the  office  of  President  alter  the  first  term  fol- 
lowing the  adoption  of  this  Constitution,  who  has  not  previously  held  the  office  of  Vice- 
President,  nor  to  any  office  unless  he  has  been  a member  at  least  one  full  month.  In  case 
of  a vacancy  in  any  office,  that  vacancy  may  be  filled  at  the  next  subsequent  meeting, 
and  the  officer  elected  to  fill  the  unexpired  term  may  take  his  seat  immediately. 

Sec.  4.  All  elections  shall  be  by  a majority  of  all  the  votes  legally  cast. 

ARTICLE  VII.— REMOVAL  FROM  OFFICE. 

Any  officer  absenting  himself  from  his  office  for  three  successive  meetings,  except 
on  account  of  sickness  or  unavoidable  absence  from  town,  shall  be  removed  and  his  office 
declared  vacant  by  a two-thirds  vote  at  the  next  meeting. 

ARTICLE  VIII.— COMMITTEES. 

All  committees  shall  be  appointed  by  the  chair,  unless  otherwise  ordered.  They 
shall  consist  of  a Question  Committee  of  three  members,  to  whom  shall  be  referred  all 
questions  for  debate.  A Prudential  Committee  of  five  members,  who  shall  have  charge 
of  the  rooms  of  the  society,  subject  to  the  orders  of  the  Society  ; warming,  lighting,  and 
cleaning  the  same. 

ARTICLE  IX.— AMENDMENTS. 

This  Constitution  can  be  altered,  changed,  amended,  or  repealed  by  a two-thirds 
vote  of  all  the  members  present,  at  any  regular  meeting,  a notice  of  such  proposed  amend- 
ment or  repeal  being  given  at  least  two  weeks  before  such  vote  is  taken. 

BY-LAWS. 

ARTICLE  I.— MEETINGS. 

The  regular  meetings  of  this  Society  shall  be  held  on  Wednesday  evening  of  each 
week,  commencing  at  half-past  seven  o’clock  during  the  months  of  October,  November, 
December,  January,  February  and  March.  The  hour  of  meeting  for  the  remaining 
months  shall  be  fixed  by  the  vote  of  the  Society. 

At  the  request  of  any  three  members  the  President  may  call  a special  meeting  by 
giving  notice  thereof  at  the  regular  meeting  next  preceding. 

ARTICLE  II.— QUORUM. 

Nine  members  shall  constitute  a quorum  for  the  transaction  of  business. 

ARTICLE  III.— MEMBERSHIP. 

Sec.  1.  A candidate  for  membership  must  be  proposed  by  a member  at  a regular 
meeting,  stating  name,  age,  residence,  and  that  the  person  proposed  is  desirous  to 
become  a member. 

Sec.  2.  The  Society  shall  then  vote  upon  the  name  proposed,  and  if  two-thirds 
vote  in  the  affirmative  he  is  elected. 

Sec.  3.  Every  candidate  shall  be  initiated,  sign  the  Constitution,  By-Laws  of  the 
Society,  agreeing  to  support  the  same,  before  he  can  become  entitled  to  the  right  of 
membership. 


806 


HOW  TO  ORGANIZE  A LITERARY  AND  DEBATING  SOCIETY. 


ARTICLE  IV.— FEES,  DUES,  ASSESSMENTS. 

An  initiation  fee  of  fifty  cents  will  be  required  of  all  gentlemen,  and  twenty-five 
cents  of  all  ladies,  and  quarterly  dues  of  twenty -five  cents  of  all  members.  Any  mem- 
ber neglecting  to  perform  the  duties  to  which  he  is  assigned  by  the  President,  unless  he 
gives  an  excuse  satisfactory  to  the  Society,  shall  be  subject  to  a fine  of  twenty -five  cents. 
Any  member  neglecting  or  refusing  for  one  full  month  to  pay  the  dues  or  fines  imposed 
upon  him  may  be  debarred  from  all  rights  of  membership,  by  a majority  vote  of  those 
present. 

ARTICLE  V.— INITIATION  OF  MEMBERS. 

The  following  form  of  affirmation  shall  be  required  of  each  person  wishing  to  become 
a member  of  this  Society:  “I  promise  to  conform  to  the  Constitution,  By-Laws  and 
Rules  of  Order  of  the  Philorhetorian  Society,  and  promise  to  do  all  in  my  power  to  pro- 
mote its  interests  so  long  as  I shall  remain  a member  thereof.” 

ARTICLE  VI.— APPEAL. 

Any  member  has  a right  to  appeal  from  the  decision  of  the  chair,  and  if  his  appeal 
is  seconded,  both  asserting  that  the  decision  of  the  chair  is  incorrect,  this  being  done  in 
courteous  and  parliamentary  form,  the  Society  may  take  into  consideration  the  appeal 
and  decide  the  question  at  issue  between  the  chair  and  the  member. 

ARTICLE  VII.— INAUGURATION  OF  OFFICERS. 

The  following  pledge  shall  be  required  of  each  Officer,  before  entering  upon  the  dis- 
charge of  his  duties  : “ I promise  to  fulfill  to  the  best  of  my  knowledge  and  ability,  the 
duties  of  the  office  to  which  I have  been  elected,  until  my  successor  shall  be  elected  and 
installed.” 

ARTICLE  VIII.— RESIGNATION. 

A resignation  of  membership  may  be  made  in  writing  at  least  two  weeks  before  ac- 
tion is  taken,  but  there  shall  be  no  consideration  by  the  society  until  all  arrearages,  if 
any,  have  been  paid. 

ARTICLE  IX.— ON  OFFENCES. 

Any  member  using  indecorous,  indecent  or  rude  language  to  the  chair  or  any  other 
member,  continued  and  intentional  disregard  of  the  constitution  and  by-laws  of  the 
society,  or  being  guilty  of  improper  conduct  prejudicial  to  the  good  order,  reputation  or 
interest  of  the  society,  may  be  expelled  or  suspended.  The  motion  for  such  action  must 
be  made  at  least  at  two  regular  meetings  before  the  vote  is  taken.  The  member  to  be 
affected  having  the  right  to  be  heard  in  his  own  defence.  A three-fourths  vote  of  mem- 
bers present  shall  be  necessary  to  expel  or  suspend.  Any  member  expelled  shall  not  be 
proposed  for  membership  again  until  at  least  three  months  have  passed. 

ARTICLE  X. 

The  meetings  of  this  society  shall  be  governed  by  the  principles  of  parliamentary 
law  as  published  in  this  volume,  Cushing’s  Manual,  or  Warrington’s  Manual,  in  all  cases 
not  in  conflict  with  the  foregoing  constitution  and  by-laws. 


HOW  TO  ORGANIZE  A LITERARY  AND  DEBATING  SOCIETY. 


8<P 


ARTICLE  XL— ORDER  OF  EXERCISES. 


The  following  order  of  exercises  should  be  observed,  viz.: 


1.  Calling  to  order. 

2.  Reading  minutes  of  last  meeting.. 

3.  Calling  roll. 

4.  Proposition  for  membership. 

5.  Election  of  members. 

6.  Election  of  officers. 

7.  Reports  of  committees. 

8.  Report  of  secretary. 


9.  Report  of  treasurer. 

10.  Literary  exercises,  consisting  of: 

(1)  Report  of  critic. 

(2)  Oration  or  essay. 

(3)  Declamation. 

(4)  Debate. 

(5)  Select  reading  or  recitation. 

(6)  Verbal  report  of  critic. 


DRAFTING  RESOLUTIONS  AND  PETITIONS. 

In  societies,  churches  and  all  organizations  to  which  papers  are  referred  for  action 
there  is  a correct  form  in  which  they  should  be  drafted  to  insure  their  receiving  the 
attention  which  is  due  them.  There  should  be  no  rhetorical  display,  or  use  of  unneces- 
sary language,  but  the  subject  matter  should  be  stated  in  a concise,  deliberate  and  intel- 
ligent way. 

There  should  be  no  coldness  in  the  language  used  in  certain  forms  of  resolutions, 
such  as  resolutions  on  the  bereavement  or  death  of  a member,  &c. 

It  is  customary  to  preface  the  resolution  with  “ Whereas,”  setting  forth  the  reason 
for  the  action,  and  following  with  “ Therefore,  resolved  ; ” but  this  is  not  always  essen- 
tial. A request  to  an  official  or  a body,  having  power  to  receive  it  and  grant  the  request, 
should  be  addressed  in  respectful  form.  In  cities  where  requests  for  the  widening  of  a 
street,  the  setting  of  a street  lamp,  & c.,  are  to  be  made  to  the  common  council,  a written 
form  can  easily  be  obtained  of  the  city  clerk. 


FORMS  FOR  RESOLVES. 


THANKS  TO  THE  OFFICERS  AT  CLOSE  OF  THEIR  TERM. 

Resolved \ That  the  thanks  of  this  body  be  extended  to  the  Hon.  John  Smith  for  the 
efficient,  courteous  and  impartial  manner  in  which  he  has  discharged  the  delicate  duties 
of  chairman  during  his  term  of  office. 

Resolved , Tha,t  the  thanks  of  this  body  be  extended  to  Phillip  Jones,  Esq.,  the  clerk 
of  this  body,  and  to  each  and  all  of  the  other  officers,  for  their  kind  deportment  and 
faithfulness  in  the  discharge  of  the  duties  pertaining  to  their  several  offices  during  the 
meetings  of  this  body. 


RESOLUTIONS  ON  THE  DEATH  OF  A MEMBER. 

Whereas,  The  late  Charles  Brown,  Esq.,  a member  of  this  body,  has  been  removed 
from  our  midst  by  death,  it  is, 

Resolved , That  by  his  death  we  have  lost  a valuable  member,  whose  wise  counsels, 
extensive  information  and  courteous  manner  had  won  our  esteem  and  admiration. 

Resohedy  That  the  sympathy  of  this  body  be  conveyed  to  the  widow  and  family  of 
our  deceased  fellow  member,  committing  them,  in  this  hour  of  their  bereavement,  to  the 
kindly  consolations  of  Him  who  doeth  all  things  well. 


808 


HOW  TO  CALL  AND  CONDUCT  A PUBLIC  MEETING. 


Resolved ’ That  a copy  of  these  resolutions,  suitably  engrossed  and  signed  by  the  presi- 
dent and  secretary  of  this  body,  be  transmitted  to  the  widow  of  the  late  Charles  Brown,  Esq* 

Resolved ’ That  these  resolutions  be  spread  on  the  journal  of  this  society. 

FORM  FOR  A PETITION  TO  THE  STATE  LEGISLATURE. 

To  the  Hon.  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  in  Legislature  assembled : 

We,  the  undersigned,  citizens  and  property  holders  of  the  town  of  Hampden,  State 
of  Maine,  do  set  forth  and  pray  your  honorable  body  to  grant  (Here  follows  a concise 
statement  of  fact  and  the  request  made,  closing)  And  as  in  duty  bound  your  petition- 
ers will  ever  pray. 

PETITION  TO  THE  GOVERNOR  FOR  THE  PARDON  OF  A CONVICT. 

To  the  Hon.  James  R.  Buckingham , Governor , &c.: 

We,  the  undersigned,  citizens  of  the  town  of'  Medford,  State  of  Massachusetts,  would 
respectfully  set  forth  (Here  follows  a full  statement  of  fact),  and,  therefore,  we 
would  humbly  pray  that  he  be  set  at  liberty. 

And  as  in  duty  bound  would  ever  pray. 

HOW  TO  CALL  AND  CONDUCT  A PUBLIC  MEETING. 

Whenever  the  citizens  of  a certain  city,  town  or  county  wish  to  assemble  for  the 
purpose  of  giving  expression  to  a common  sentiment  or  taking  concerted  action  upon  a 
matter  for  the  common  good,  they  have  a right  to  meet  at  any  time  or  place  where  they 
’tan  be  gathered.  When  there  has  been  no  previous  organization,  there  are  certain  forms 
to  be  observed  in  reference  to  the  organization  which  will  facilitate  in  accomplishing  the 
object  in  view= 

To  illustrate  the  matter,  suppose  a number  of  respectable  citizens  of  Kennebec 
county,  Maine,  wish  to  call  such  a meeting  to  consider  the  subject  of  taxation,  they  issue 
such  a notice  as  the  following,  either  in  the  papers  or  by  means  of  posters,  circulars.  & c.: 

NOTICE. 

The  citizens  of  Kennebec  county,  irrespective  of  party,  who  believe  that  there  should 
be  a revision  of  the  laws  governing  taxation  in  this  State,  are  requested  to  meet  in 
Granite  Hall,  Augusta,  on  Wednesday,  the  22D  Day  of  March,  at  io  o’clock  a. 
m.,  to  confer  upon  the  subject,  and  appoint  a committee  to  represent  them  before  the 
next  session  of  the  Legislature,  and  such  other  business  as  may  appertain  thereto. 

Signed  by  a number  of  respectable  property  holders. 

N.  B. — Honorable  Solon  Chase,  William  H.  McCuliis  and  others  will  address  the 
meeting. 

When  the  time  has  arrived  at  which  the  meeting  was  called,  it  is  best  to  wait  a half 
hour  or  more  beyond  it  to  make  allowances  for  differences  in  watches,  &c.  Some  one 
who  is  well  known  to  be  actively  connected  with  the  movement — one  of  those  signing  the 
call — will  rap  on  the  desk  to  attract  the  attention  of  all,  and  say : “ The  hour  having 
arrived,  gentlemen  will  please  come  to  order.”  When  it  is  quiet  he  says : “ I move  that 
the  Hon.  Wm.  T.  Johnson  be  appointed  chairman.  All  in  favor  of  that  will  please  say 
aye.”  After  the  response,  he  says  : “ All  opposed  will  say  nay.”  And  if  it  appears  to 
be  carried,  he  will  vacate  the  place  for  Hon.  Mr.  Johnson,  who  takes  charge,  observing 
the  forms  of  parliamentary  law  as  set  forth  in  this  volume. 


CONSTITUTION 

OF  THE 

UNITED  STATES. 


E,  the  People  of  the  United  States,  in  order  to  form  a more  perfect  union^ 
establish  justice,  insure  domestic  tranquillity,  provide  for  the  common 
defense,  promote  the  general  welfare,  and  secure  the  blessings  of  liberty 
to  ourselves  and  our  posterity,  do  ordain  and  establish  this  Constitution 
for  the  United  States  of  America. 

ARTICLE  I. 

Sect.  I. — All  legislative  powers  herein  granted  shall  be  vested  in  a Congress  of  the 
United  States,  which  shall  consist  of  a Senate  and  House  of  Representatives. 

Sect.  II. — i.  The  House  of  Representatives  shall  be  composed  of  members  chosen 
every  second  year  by  the  people  of  the  several  States  ; and  the  electors  in  each  State 
shall  have  the  qualifications  requisite  for  electors  of  the  most  numerous  branch  of  the 
State  Legislature. 

2.  No  person  shall  be  a representative  who  shall  not  have  attained  the  age  of 
twenty-five  years,  and  have  been  seven  years  a citizen  of  the  United  States,  and  who 
shall  not,  when  elected,  be  an  inhabitant  of  the  State  in  which  he  shall  be  chosen. 

3.  Representatives  and  direct  taxes  shall  be  apportioned  among  the  several  States 
which  may  be  included  within  this  Union,  according  to  their  respective  numbers,  which 
shall  be  determined  by  adding  to  the  whole  number  of  free  persons,  including  those 
bound  to  service  for  a term  of  years,  and  excluding  Indians  not  taxed,  three-fifths  of  all 
other  persons.  The  actual  enumeration  shall  be  made  within  three  years  after  the  first 
meeting  of  the  Congress  of  the  United  States,  and  within  every  subsequent  term  of  ten 
years,  in  such  manner  as  they  shall  by  law  direct.  The  number  of  representatives  shall 
not  exceed  one  for  every  thirty  thousand,  but  each  State  shall  have  at  least  one  represen- 
tative ; and  until  such  enumeration  shall  be  made,  the  State  of  New  Hampshire  shall  be 
entitled  to  choose  three  ; Massachusetts , eight ; Rhode  Island  and  Providence  Plantations 
one  ; Connecticut , five ; New  York , six  ; New  yersey , four ; Pennsylvania , eight ; Dela- 
ware, one  ; Marylandy  six  ; Virginia , ten  ; North  Carolina , five  ; South  Carolinaf  five  ; 
Georgia , three. 

4.  When  vacancies  happen  in  the  representation  from  any  State,  the  executive 
authority  thereof  shall  issue  writs  of  election  to  fill  such  vacancies. 

5.  The  House  of  Representatives  shall  choose  their  speaker  and  other  officers,  and 
shall  have  the  sole  power  of  impeachment 


810 


CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


Sect.  III.- — -i.  The  Senate  of  the  United  States  shall  be  composed  of  two  Senators 
from  each  State,  chosen  by  the  Legislature  thereof,  for  six  years  ; and  each  Senator  shall 
have  one  vote. 

2.  Immediately  after  they  shall  be  assembled  in  consequence  of  the  first  election, 
they  shall  be  divided,  as  equally  as  may  be,  into  three  classes.  The  seats  of  the  Sena- 
tors of  the  first  class  shall  be  vacated  at  the  expiration  of  the  second  year,  of  the  second 
class  at  the  expiration  of  the  fourth  year,  and  the  third  class  at  the  expiration  of  the 
sixth  year,  so  that  one-third  may  be  chosen  every  second  year  ; and  if  vacancies  happen 
by  resignation  or  otherwise,  during  the  recess  of  the  Legislature  of  any  State,  the 
executive  thereof  may  make  temporary  appointments  until  the  next  meeting  of  the 
Legislature,  which  shall  then  fill  such  vacancies. 

3.  No  person  shall  be  a Senator  who  shall  not  have  attained  the  age  of  thirty  years, 
and  been  nine  years  a citizen  of  the  United  States,  and  who  shall  not,  when  elected,  be 
an  inhabitant  of  that  State  for  which  he  shall  be  chosen. 

4.  The  Vice-President  of  the  United  States  shall  be  President  of  the  Senate,  but 
shall  have  no  vote,  unless  they  be  equally  divided. 

5.  The  Senate  shall  choose  their  other  officers,  and  also  a president  pro  tempore  in 
the  absence  of  the  Vice-President,  or  when  he  shall  exercise  the  office  of  President  ot 
the  United  States. 

6.  The  Senate  shall  have  the  sole  power  to  try  all  impeachments.  When  sitting  for 
that  purpose,  they  shall  be  on  oath  or  affirmation.  When  the  President  of  the  United 
States  is  tried,  the  Chief  Justice  shall  preside  ; and  no  person  shall  be  convicted  without 
the  concurrence  of  two-thirds  of  the  members  present. 

7.  Judgment,  in  cases  of  impeachment,  shall  not  extend  further  than  to  removal  from 
office,  and  disqualification  to  hold  and  enjoy  any  office  of  honor,  trust  or  profit  under  the 
United  States ; but  the  party  convicted  shall,  nevertheless,  be  liable  and  subject  to  in- 
dictment, trial,  judgment  and  punishment  according  to  law. 

Sec.  IV. — 1.  The  times,  places  and  manner  of  holding  elections  for  Senators  and 
Representatives  shall  be  prescribed  in  each  State  by  the  Legislature  thereof ; but  the 
Congress  may,  at  any  time,  by  law,  make  or  alter  such  regulations,  except  as  to  the 
places  of  choosing  Senators. 

2.  The  Congress  shall  assemble  at  least  once  in  every  year ; and  such  meeting  shall 
be  on  the  first  Monday  in  December,  unless  they  shall  by  law  appoint  a different  day. 

Sec.  V. — 1.  Each  house  shall  be  judge  of  the  elections,  returns  and  qualifications  of 
its  own  members  ; and  a majority  of  each  shall  constitute  a quorum  to  do  business  ; but 
a smaller  number  may  adjourn  from  day  to  day,  and  may  be  authorized  to  compel  the 
attendance  of  absent  members  in  such  manner  and  under  such  penalties  as  each  house 
may  provide. 

2.  Each  house  may  determine  the  rules  of  its  proceedings,  punish  its  members  for 
disorderly  behavior,  and.  with  the  concurrence  of  two-thirds,  expel  a member. 

3.  Each  house  shall  keep  a journal  of  its  proceedings,  and  from  time  to  time  publish 
the  same,  excepting  such  parts  as  may,  in  their  judgment,  require  secrecy  ; and  the  yeas 
and  nays  of  the  members  of  either  house  on  any  question  shall,  at  the  desire  of  one-fifth 
of  those  present,  be  entered  on  the  journal. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


811 


4.  Neither  house,  during  the  session  of  Congress,  shall,  without  the  consent  of  the 
other,  adjourn  for  more  than  three  days,  nor  to  any  other  place  than  that  in  which  the 
two  houses  shall  be  sitting. 

Sec.  VI. — 1.  The  Senators  and  Representatives  shall  receive  a compensation  for 
their  services,  to  be  ascertained  by  law,  and  paid  out  of  the  Treasury  of  the  United  States- 
They  shall,  in  all  cases,  except  treason,  felony  and  breach  of  the  peace,  be  privileged  from 
arrest  during  their  attendance  at  the  session  of  their  respective  houses,  and  in  going  to  or 
returning  from  the  same  ; and  for  any  speech  or  debate  in  either  house  they  shall  not  be 
questioned  in  any  other  place. 

2.  No  Senator  or  Representative  shall,  during  the  time  for  which  he  was  elected,  be 
appointed  to  any  civil  office  under  the  authority  of  the  United  States  which  shall  have  been 
created,  or  the  emoluments  whereof  shall  have  been  increased,  during  such  time  ; and  no 
person  holding  any  office  under  the  United  States  shall  be  a member  of  either  house  dur- 
ing his  continuance  in  office. 

Sec.  VII.— 1.  All  bills  for  raising  revenue  shall  originate  in  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives ; but  the  Senate  may  propose  or  concur  with  amendments,  as  on  other 
bills. 

2.  Every  bill  which  shall  have  passed  the  House  of  Representatives  and  the  Senate 
shall,  before  it  becomes  a law,  be  presented  to  the  President  of  the  United  States ; if  he 
approve,  he  shall  sign  it;  but  if  not,  he  shall  return  it,  with  his  objections,  to  that  house 
in  which  it  shall  have  originated,  who  shall  enter  the  objections  at  large  on  their  journal, 
and  proceed  to  reconsider  it.  If,  after  such  reconsideration,  two-thirds  of  that  house  shall 
agree  to  pass  the  bill,  it  shall  be  sent,  together  with  the  objections,  to  the  other  house ; 
and  if  approved  by  two-thirds  of  that  house,  it  shall  become  a law.  But  in  all  such  cases 
the  votes  of  both  houses  shall  be  determined  by  yeas  and  nays  ; and  the  names  of  the 
persons  voting  for  and  against  the  bill  shall  be  entered  on  the  journals  of  each  house  re- 
spectively. If  any  bill  shall  not  be  returned  by  the  President  within  ten  days  (Sundays 
excepted)  after  it  shall  have  been  presented  to  him,  the  same  shall  be  a law,  in  like  man- 
ner as  if  he  had  signed  it,  unless  Congress,  by  their  adjournment,  prevent  its  return  ; in 
which  case  it  shall  not  be  a law. 

3.  Every  order,  resolution  or  vote,  to  which  the  concurrence  of  the  Senate  and  House 
of  Representatives  may  be  necessary  (except  on  a question  of  adjournment),  shall  be  pre- 
sented to  the  President  of  the  United  States,  and  before  the  same  shall  take  effect  shall 
be  approved  by  him,  or  being  disapproved  by  him,  shall  be  repassed  by  two-thirds  of  the 
Senate  and  House  of  Representatives,  according  to  the  rules  and  limitations  prescribed 
in  the  case  of  a bill. 

Sec.  VIII. — The  Congress  shall  have  powei  — 

1.  To  lay  and  collect  taxes,  duties,  imposts  and  excises  ; to  pay  the  debts  and  pro- 
vide for  the  common  defence  and  general  welfare  of  the  United  States ; but  all  duties* 
imposts  and  excises  shall  be  uniform  throughout  the  United  States. 

2.  To  borrow  money  on  the  credit  of  the  United  States. 

3.  To  regulate  commerce  with  foreign  nations,  and  among  the  several  States,  and 
with  the  Indian  tribes. 

4.  To  establish  a uniform  rule  of  naturalization,  and  uniform  laws  on  the  subject  of 
bankruptcies,  throughout  the  United  States. 


812 


CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


5.  To  coin  money,  regulate  the  value  thereof,  and  of  foreign  coin,  and  fix  the  stand* 
ard  of  weights  and  measures. 

6.  To  provide  for  the  punishment  of  counterfeiting  the  securities  and  current  coin  of 
the  United  States. 

7.  To  establish  post  offices  and  post  roads. 

8.  To  promote  the  progress  of  science  and  useful  arts,  by  securing,  for  limited 
times,  to  authors  and  inventors  the  exclusive  right  to  their  respective  writings  and 
discoveries. 

9.  To  constitute  tribunals  inferior  to  the  supreme  court. 

10.  To  define  and  punish  piracies  and  felonies  committed  on  the  high  seas,  and 
offences  against  the  law  of  nations. 

11.  To  declare  war,  grant  letters  of  marque  and  reprisal,  and  make  rules  concerning 
captures  on  land  and  water. 

12.  To  raise  and  support  armies ; but  no  appropriation  of  money  to  that  use  shall  be 
for  a longer  term  than  two  years. 

13.  To  provide  and  maintain  a navy. 

14.  To  make  rules  for  the  government  and  regulation  of  the  land  and  naval 
forces. 

15.  To  provide  for  calling  forth  the  militia  to  execute  the  laws  of  the  Union,1  suppress 
insurrections,  and  repel  invasions. 

16.  To  provide  for  organizing,  arming  and  disciplining  the  militia,  and  for  governing 
such  part  of  them  as  may  be  employed  in  the  service  of  the  United  States,  reserving  to 
the  States  respectively  the  appointment  of  the  officers,  and  the  authority  of  training  the 
militia,  according  to  the  discipline  prescribed  by  Congress. 

1 7.  To  exercise  exclusive  legislation,  in  all  cases  whatsoever,  over  such  district  (not 
exceeding  ten  miles  square)  as  may  by  cession  of  particular  States,  and  the  acceptance 
of  Congress,  become  the  seat  of  government  of  the  United  States,  and  to  exercise  like 
authority  over  all  places  purchased  by  the  consent  of  the  Legislature  of  the  State  in  which 
the  same  shall  be,  for  the  erection  of  forts,  magazines,  arsenals,  dock-yards  and  other 
needful  buildings.  And, 

18.  To  make  all  laws  which  shall  be  necessary  and  proper  for  carrying  into  execu- 
tion the  foregoing  powers,  and  all  other  powers  vested  by  this  constitution  in  the  govern- 
ment of  the  United  States,  or  in  any  department  or  officer  thereof. 

Sec.  IX. — 1.  The  migration  or  importation  of  such  persons  as  any  of  the  States, 
now  existing,  shall  think  proper  to  admit,  shall  not  be  prohibited  by  the  Congress  prior 
(to  the  year  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  eight ; but  a tax  or  duty  may  be  imposed  on 
such  importation,  not  exceeding  ten  dollars  for  each  person. 

2.  The  privilege  of  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus  shall  not  be  suspended,  unless  when, 
in  cases  of  rebellion  or  invasion,  the  public  safety  may  require  it. 

3.  No  bill  of  attainder,  or  ex  post  facto  law,  shall  be  passed. 

4.  No  capitation  or  other  direct  tax  shall  be  laid,  unless  in  proportion  to  the  census 
or  enumeration  herein  before  directed  to  be  taken. 

5.  No  taxor  duty  shall  be  laid  on  articles  exported  from  any  state.  No  preference 
shall  be  given,  by  any  regulation  of  commerce  or  revenue,  to  the  ports  of  one  state  over 


CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


813 


those  of  another;  nor  shall  vessels  bound  to  or  from  one  state  be  obliged  to  enter,  ckart 
or  pay  duties  in  another. 

6.  No  money  shall  be  drawn  from  the  treasury,  but  in  consequence  of  appropriations 
made  by  law  ; and  a regular  statement  and  account  of  the  receipts  and  expenditures  of  all 
public  money  shall  be  published  from  time  to  time. 

7.  No  title  of  nobility  shall  be  granted  by  the  United  States  ; and  no  person  hold- 
ing any  office  of  profit  or  trust  under  them  shall,  without  the  consent  of  the  Congress, 
accept  of  any  present,  emolument,  office,  or  title  of  any  kind  whatever,  from  any  king, 
prince  or  foreign  state. 

Sec.  X. — 1.  No  state  shall  enter  into  any  treaty,  alliance,  or  confederation;  grant 
letters  of  marque  and  reprisal ; coin  money ; emit  bills  of  credit ; make  anything  but 
gold  and  silver  coin  a tender  in  payment  of  debts ; pass  any  bill  of  attainder,  ex  post 
facto  law,  or  law  impairing  the  obligation  of  contracts ; or  grant  any  title  of  nobility. 

2.  No  state  shall,  without  the  consent  of  Congress,  lay  any  imposts  or  duties  on  im- 
ports or  exports,  except  what  may  be  absolutely  necessary  for  executing  its  inspection 
laws ; and  the  net  produce  of  all  duties  and  imposts  laid  by  any  state  on  imports  or 
exports,  shall  be  for  the  use  of  the  treasury  of  the  United  States  ; and  all  such  laws  shall 
be  subject  to  the  revision  and  control  of  the  Congress.  No  state  shall,  without  the  con- 
sent of  Congress,  lay  any  duty  on  tonnage,  keep  troops  or  ships  of  war  in  time  of  peace, 
enter  into  any  agreement  or  compact  with  another  state  or  with  a foreign  power,  or 
engage  in  war,  unless  actually  invaded,  or  in  such  imminent  danger  as  will  not  admit  of 
delay. 

ARTICLE  II. 

Sec.  I. — 1.  The  executive  power  shall  be  vested  in  a President  of  the  United  States 
of  America.  He  shall  hold  his  office  during  the  term  of  four  years,  and,  together  with 
the  Vice  President,  chosen  for  the  same  term,  be  elected  as  follows : 

2.  Each  state  shall  appoint,  in  such  manner  as  the  legislature  thereof  may  direct,  a 
number  of  electors,  equal  to  the  whole  number  of  senators  and  representatives  to  which 
the  state  may  be  entitled  in  the  Congress  ; but  no  senator  or  representative,  or  person 
holding  an  office  of  trust  or  profit  under  the  United  States,  shall  be  appointed  an  elector. 

3.  [Annulled.  See  Amendments,  art.  12.] 

4.  The  Congress  may  determine  the  time  of  choosing  the  electors,  and  the  day  on 
which  they  shall  give  their  votes,  which  day  shall  be  the  same  throughout  the  United 
States. 

5.  No  person  except  a natural-born  citizen,  or  a citizen  of  the  United  States  at  the 
time  of  the  adoption  of  this  constitution,  shall  be  eligible  to  the  office  of  President ; 
neither  shall  any  person  be  eligible  to  that-office  who  shall  not  have  attained  the  age  of 
thirty-five  years,  and  been  fourteen  years  a resident  within  the  United  States. 

6.  In  case  of  the  removal  of  the  President  from  office,  or  of  his  death,  resignation, 
or  inability  to  discharge  the  powers  and  duties  of  said  office,  the  same  shall  devolve  on 
the  Vice  President;  and  the  Congress  may  by  law  provide  for  the  case  of  removal,  death, 
resignation,  or  inability,  both  of  the  President  and  Vice  President,  declaring  what  officer 
shall  then  act  as  President,  and  such  officer  shall  act  accordingly,  until  the  disability  be 
removed,  or  a President  shall  be  elected. 


814 


CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


7.  The  President  shall,  at  stated  times,  receive  for  his  services  a compensation  which 
shall  neither  be  increased  nor  diminished  during  the  period  for  which  he  shall  have  been 
elected  ; and  he  shall  not  receive,  within  that  period,  any  other  emolument  from  the 
United  States,  or  any  of  them. 

8.  Before  he  enter  on  the  execution  of  his  office,  he  shall  take  the  following  oath  or 
affirmation : 

“ I do  solemnly  swear  (or  affirm)  that  I will  faithfully  execute  the  office  of  President 
of  the  United  States,  and  will,  to  the  best  of  my  ability,  preserve,  protect,  and  defend  the 
constitution  of  the  United  States.” 

Sec.  II. — 1.  The  President  shall  be  commander-in-chief  of  the  army  and  navy  of 
the  United  States,  and  of  the  militia  of  the  several  states,  when  called  into  the  actual 
service  of  the  United  States ; he  may  require  the  opinion,  in  writing,  of  the  principal 
officer  in  each  of  the  executive  departments  upon  any  subject  relating  to  the  duties  of 
their  respective  offices ; and  he  shall  have  power  to  grant  reprieves  and  pardons  for 
offences  against  the  United  States,  except  in  cases  of  impeachment. 

2.  He  shall  have  power,  by  and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate,  to  make 
treaties,  provided  two-thirds  of  the  senators  present  concur  ; and  he  shall  nominate,  and 
by  and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate  shall  appoint,  ambassadors,  other  pub- 
lic ministers,  and  consuls,  judges  of  the  supreme  court,  and  all  other  officers  of  the 
United  States  whose  appointments  are  not  herein  otherwise  provided  for,  and  which  shall 
be  established  by  law.  But  the  Congress  may,  by  law,  vest  the  appointment  of  such 
inferior  officers  as  they  think  proper  in  the  President  alone,  in  the  courts  of  law,  or  in 
the  heads  of  departments. 

3.  The  President  shall  have  power  to  fill  up  all  vacancies  that  may  happen  during  the 
recess  of  the  Senate,  by  granting  commissions,  which  shall  expire  at  the  end  of  their 
next  session. 

Sec.  III. — He  shall,  from  time  to  time,  give  to  the  Congress  information  of  the  state  of 
the  Union,  and  recommend  to  their  consideration  such  measures  as  he  shall  judge  neces- 
sary and  expedient ; he  may,  on  extraordinary  occasions,  convene  both  houses,  or  either 
of  them,  and  in  case  of  disagreement  between  them  with  respect  to  the  time  of  adjourn- 
ment, he  may  adjourn  them  to  such  time'  as  he  shall  think  proper ; he  shall  receive  am* 
bassadors,  and  other  public  ministers  ; he  shall  take  care  that  the  laws  be  faithfully  exe- 
cuted ; and  shall  commission  all  the  officers  of  the  United  States. 

Sec.  IV. — The  President,  Vice  President,  and  all  civil  officers  of  the  United  States, 
shall  be  removed  from  office  on  impeachment  for,  and  conviction  of,  treason,  bribery,  or 
other  high  crimes  and  misdemeanors. 

ARTICLE  III. 

Sec.  I. — The  judicial  power  of  the  United  States  shall  be  vested  in  one  supreme 
court,  and  in  such  inferior  courts  as  the  Congress  may,  from  time  to  time,  ordain  and 
establish.  The  judges,  both  of  the  supreme  and  inferior  courts,  shall  hold  their  offices 
during  good  behavior,  and  shall,  at  stated  times,  receive  for  their  services  a compensation 
which  shall  not  be  diminished  during  their  continuance  in  office. 

Sec.  II. — 1.  The  judicial  power  shall  extend  to  all  cases  in  law  and  equity  arising 


CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


815 


under  this  constitution,  the  laws  of  the  United  States,  and  treaties  made,  or  which  shall 
be  made,  under  their  authority  ; to  all  cases  affecting  ambassadors,  and  other  public  min- 
isters, and  consuls  ; to  all  cases  of  admiralty  and  maritime  jurisdiction  ; to  controversies 
to  which  the  United  States  shall  be  a party  ; to  controversies  between  two  or  more  states! 
between  a state  and  citizens  of  another  state ; between  citizens  of  different  states  ; 
between  citizens  of  the  same  state,  claiming  lands  under  grants  of  different  states,  and 
between  a state,  or  the  citizens  thereof,  and  foreign  states,  citizens,  or  subjects. 

2.  In  all  cases  affecting  ambassadors,  other  public  ministers  and  consuls,  and  those 
in  which  a State  shall  be  a party,  the  supreme  court  shall  have  original  jurisdiction.  In 
all  other  cases  before  mentioned,  the  supreme  court  shall  have  appellate  jurisdiction, 
both  as  to  law  and  fact,  with  such  exceptions,  and  under  such  regulations,  as  the  Con- 
gress shall  make. 

3.  The  trial  of  all  crimes,  except  in  cases  of  impeachment,  shall  be  by  jury;  and 
such  trial  shall  be  held  in  the  State  where  the  said  crimes  shall  have  been  committed ; 
but  when  not  committed  within  any  State,  the  trial  shall  be  at  such  a place  or  places  as 
the  Congress  may  by  law  have  directed. 

»Sec.  III. — 1.  Treason  against  the  United  States  shall  consist  only  in  levying  war 
against  them,  or  in  adhering  to  their  enemies,  giving  them  aid  and  comfort.  No  person 
shall  be  convicted  of  treason,  unless  on  the  testimony  of  two  witnesses  to  the  same  overt 
act,  or  confessions  in  open  court. 

2.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  declare  the  punishment  of  treason;  but  no 
attainder  of  treason  shall  work  corruption  of  blood,  or  forfeiture,  except  during  the  life  of 
the  person  attainted. 

ARTICLE  IV. 

Sec.  I. — Full  faith  and  credit  shall  be  given  in  each  State  to  the  public  acts,  records 
and  judicial  proceedings  of  every  other  State.  And  the  Congress  may.  by  general  laws, 
prescribe  the  manner  in  which  such  acts,  records  and  proceedings  shall  be  proved,  and 
the  effect  thereof. 

Sec.  II. — 1.  The  citizens  of  each  State  shall  be  entitled  to  all  privileges  and  immu- 
nities of  citizens  in  the  several  States. 

2.  A person  charged  in  any  State  with  treason,  felony  or  other  crimes,  who  shall  flee 
from  justice,  and  be  found  in  another  State,  shall,  on  demand  of  the  executive  authority 
of  the  State  from  which  he  fled,  be  delivered  up  to  be  removed  to  the  State  having  juris- 
diction of  the  crime. 

3.  No  person  held  to  service  or  labor  in  one  State,  under  the  laws  thereof,  escaping 
into  another,  shall,  in  consequence  of  any  law  or  regulation  therein,  be  discharged  from 
such  service  or  labor,  but  shall  be  delivered  up  on  claim  of  the  party  to  whom  such  ser- 
vice or  labor  may  be  due. 

Sec.  III. — 1.  New  States  may  be  admitted  by  the  Congress  into  this  Union,  but  nc 
new  State  shall  be  formed  or  erected  within  the  jurisdiction  of  any  other  State  ; nor  any 
State  be  formed  by  the  junction  of  two  or  more  States,  or  parts  of  States,  without  the 
consent  of  the  Legislature  of  the  States  concerned,  as  well  as  of  the  Congr  ess. 


816 


CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


2.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  dispose  of  and  make  all  needful  rules  and  regu- 
lations  respecting  the  territory  or  other  property  belonging  to  the  United  States  ; and 
nothing  in  this  Constitution  shall  be  so  construed  as  to  prejudice  any  claims  of  the 
United  States,  or  of  any  particular  State. 

Sec.  IV. — The  United  States  shall  guaranty  to  every  State  of  this  Union  a republi- 
can form  of  government,  and  shall  protect  each  of  them  against  invasion,  and,  on  applica- 
tion of  the  Legislature,  or  of  the  executive  (when  the  Legislature  cannot  be  convened), 
against  domestic  violence. 

ARTICLE  V. 

The  Congress,  whenever  two-thirds  of  both  houses  shall  deem  it  necessary,  shall 
propose  amendments  to  this  Constitution,  or,  on  the  application  of  the  Legislatures  of 
two-thirds  of  the  several  States,  shall  call  a convention  for  proposing  amendments,  which, 
in  either  case,  shall  be  valid  to  all  intents  and  purposes,  as  part  of  this  Constitution,  when 
ratified  by  the  Legislatures  of  three-fourths  of  the  several  States,  or  by  conventions  in 
three-fourths  thereof,  as  the  one  or  the  other  mode  of  ratification  may  be  proposed  by  the 
Congress ; provided  that  no  amendment  which  may  be  made  prior  to  the  year  one  thou- 
sand eight  hundred  and  eight  shall  in  any  manner  affect  the  first  and  fourth  clauses  in 
the  ninth  section  of  the  first  article  ; and  that  no  State,  without  its  consent,  shall  be  de- 
prived of  its  equal  suffrage  in  the  Senate. 

ARTICLE  VI. 

1.  All  debts  contracted,  and  engagements  entered  into,  before  the  adoption  of  this 
Constitution,  shall  be  as  valid  against  the  United  States  under  this  Constitution  as  under 
the  confederation. 

2.  This  Constitution,  and  the  laws  of  the  United  States  which  shall  be  made  in 
pursuance  thereof,  and  all  treaties  made,  or  which  shall  be  made,  under  the  authority  of 
the  United  States,  shall  be  the  supreme  law  of  the  land  ; and  the  judges  in  every  State 
shall  be  bound  thereby,  anything  in  the  constitution  or  laws  of  any  State  to  the  contrary 
notwithstanding. 

3.  The  Senators  and  Representatives  before  mentioned,  and  the  members  of  the  sev- 
eral State  Legislatures,  and  all  executive  and  judicial  officers,  both  of  the  United  States 
and  of  the  several  States,  shall  be  bound  by  oath  or  affirmation  to  support  this  Constitu- 
tion ; but  no  religious  test  shall  ever  be  required  as  a qualification  to  any  office  or  public 
trust  under  the  United  States. 

ARTICLE  VII. 

The  ratification  of  the  conventions  of  nine  States  shall  be  sufficient  for  the  establish- 
ment of  this  Constitution  between  the  States  so  ratifying  the  same. 

Done  in  convention,  by  the  unanimous  consent  of  the  States  present,  the  seventeenth 
day  of  September,  in  the  year  of  our  Lord  one  thousand  seven  hundred  and  eighty-seven, 
and  of  the  Independence  of  the  United  States  of  America  the  twelfth.  In  witness  where- 
of, we  have  hereunto  subscribed  our  names. 

GEORGE  WASHINGTON,  President,  and  Deputy  from  Virginia. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


81? 


NEW  HAMPSHIRE. 

John  Langdon, 
Nicholas  Gilman. 

MASSACHUSETTS. 

Nathaniel  Gorham, 
Rufus  King. 

CONNECTICUT. 

Wm.  Samuel  Johnson, 
Roger  Sherman. 

NEW  YORK. 

Alexander  Hamilton. 

NEW  JERSEY. 

William  Livingston, 
David  Brearley, 
William  Patterson, 
Jonathan  Dayton. 


PENNSYLVANIA. 

Benjamin  Franklin, 
Thomas  Mifflin, 
Robert  Morris, 

George  Clymer, 
Thomas  Fitzsimons, 
Jared  Ingersoll, 

James  Wilson, 
Gouverneur  Morris. 

DELAWARE. 

George  Read, 
Gunning  Bedford,  Jr., 
John  Dickinson, 
Richard  Bassett, 
Jacob  Broom. 

MARYLAND. 

James  McHenry, 
Attest : WI 


Dan’l  of  St.  Thos.  Jenifer, 
Daniel  Carroll. 

VIRGINIA. 

John  Blair, 

James  Madison,  Jr. 

NORTH  CAROLINA. 

William  Blount, 

Rich.  Dobbs  Spaight, 
Hugh  Williamson. 

SOUTH  CAROLINA. 

John  Rutledge, 

Charles  C.  Pinckney, 
Charles  Pinckney, 

Pierce  Butler. 

GEORGIA. 

William  Few, 

Abraham  Baldwin. 

A JACKSON,  Secretary. 


AMENDMENTS  TO  THE  CONSTITUTION. 

Art.  I. — Congress  shall  make  no  law  respecting  an  establishment  of  religion,  or  pro- 
hibiting the  free  exercise  thereof ; or  abridging  the  freedom  of  speech,  or  of  the  press  ; 
or  the  right  of  the  people  peaceably  to  assemble  and  to  petition  the  government  for  a 
redress  of  grievances. 

Art.  II. — A well-regulated  militia  being  necessary  to  the  security  of  a free  State, 
the  right  of  the  people  to  keep  and  bear  arms  shall  not  be  infringed. 

Art.  III. — No  soldier  shall,  in  time  of  peace,  be  quartered  in  any  house  with- 
out the  consent  of  the  owner,  nor  in  time  of  war  but  in  a manner  to  be  prescribed 
by  law. 

Art.  IV. — The  right  of  the  people  to  be  secure  in  their  persons,  houses,  papers  and 
effects,  against  unreasonable  searches  and  seizures,  shall  not  be  violated  ; and  no  war- 
rants shall  issue  but  upon  probable  cause,  supported  by  oath  or  affirmation,  and  particu- 
larly describing  the  place  to  be  searched,  and  the  persons  or  things  to  be  seized. 

Art.  V. — No  person  shall  be  held  to  answer  for  a capital  or  otherwise  infamous 
crime,  unless  on  a presentment  or  indictment  of  a grand  jury,  except  in  cases  arising  in 
the  land  or  naval  forces,  or  in  the  militia  when  in  actual  service,  in  time  of  war  or  public 
danger ; nor  shall  any  person  be  subject  for  the  same  offence  to  be  twice  put  in  jeopardy 
of  life  or  limb ; nor  shall  be  compelled,  in  any  criminal  case,  to  be  witness  against  him- 
self, nor  be  deprived  of  life,  liberty,  or  property  without  due  process  of  law ; nor  shall' 
private  property  be  taken  for  public  use  without  just  compensation.  • 

Art.  VI. — In  all  criminal  prosecutions,  the  accused  shall  enjoy  the  right  to  a speedy 
and  public  trial  by  an  impartial  jury  of  the  state  and  district  wherein  the  crime  shall  have 
been  committed,  which  district  shall  have  been  previously  ascertained  by  law,  and  to  be 
Informed  of  the  nature  and  cause  of  the  accusation  ; to  be  confronted  with  the  witnesses 


818 


CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


against  him  ; to  have  compulsory  process  for  obtaining  witnesses  in  his  favor ; and  to 
have  the  assistance  of  counsel  for  his  defence. 

Art.  VII. — In  suits  of  common  law,  where  the  value  in  controversy  shall  exceed 
twenty  dollars,  the  right  of  trial  by  jury  shall  be  preserved ; and  no  fact,  tried  by  jury, 
shall  be  otherwise  reexamined  in  any  court  of  the  United  States  than  according  to  the 
rules  of  the  common  law. 

Art.  VIII. — Excessive  bail  shall  not  be  required,  nor  excessive  fines  imposed,  nor 
cruel  and  unusual  punishments  inflicted. 

Art.  IX. — The  enumeration  in  the  constitution  of  certain  rights  shall  not  be  con- 
strued to  deny  or  disparage  others  retained  by  the  people. 

Art.  X. — The  powers  not  delegated  to  the  United  States  by  the  constitution,  nor 
prohibited  by  it  to  the  states,  are  reserved  to  the  states  respectively,  or  to  the  people. 

Art.  XI. — The  judicial  power  of  the  United  States  shall  not  be  construed  to  extend 
to  any  suit  in  law  or  equity  commenced  or  prosecuted  against  one  of  the  United  States 
by  citizens  of  another  state,  or  by  citizens  or  subjects  of  any  foreign  state. 

Art.  XII. — i.  The  electors  shall  meet  in  their  respective  states,  and  vote  by  ballot  for 
President  and  Vice  President,  one  of  whom,  at  least,  shall  not  be  an  inhabitant  of  the 
same  state  with  themselves ; they  shall  name  in  their  ballots  the  person  voted  for  as 
President,  and  in  distinct  ballots  the  person  voted  for  as  Vice  President ; and  they  shall 
make  distinct  lists  of  all  persons  voted  for  as  President,  and  of  all  persons  voted  for  as 
Vice  President,  and  of  the  number  of  votes  for  each  ; which  lists  they  shall  sign  and  cer- 
tify, and  transmit,  sealed,  to  the  seat  of  government  of  the  United  States,  directed  to  the 
president  of  the  Senate.  The  president  of  the  Senate  shall,  in  the  presence  of  the  Sen- 
ate and  House  of  Representatives,  open  all  the  certificates,  and  the  votes  shall  then  be 
counted  ; the  person  having  the  greatest  number  of  votes  for  President  shall  be  Presi- 
dent, if  such  number  be  a majority  of  the  whole  number  of  electors  appointed  ; and  if  no 
person  have  such  majority,  then  from  the  persons  having  the  highest  number,  not 
exceeding  three,  on  the  list  of  those  voted  for  as  President,  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives shall  choose  immediately  by  ballot,  the  President.  But,  in  choosing  the  President, 
the  votes  shall  be  taken  by  states,  the  representation  from  each  state  having  one  vote  , 
a quorum  for  this  purpose  shall  consist  of  a member  or  members  from  two-thirds  of  the 
states,  and  a majority  of  all  the  states  shall  be  necessary  to  a choice.  And  if  the  House 
of  Representatives  shall  not  choose  a President,  whenever  the  right  of  choice  shall 
devolve  upon  them,  before  the  fourth  day  of  March  next  following,  then  the  Vice  Presi- 
dent shall  act  as  President,  as  in  the  case  of  the  death  or  other  constitutional  disability 
•of  the  President. 

2.  The  person  having  the  greatest  number  of  votes  as  Vice  President  shall  be  the 
Vice  President,  if  such  number  be  a majority  of  the  whole  number  of  electors  appointed  ; 
and  if  no  person  have  a majority,  then  from  the  two  highest  numbers  on  the  list  the  Sen- 
ate shall  choose  the  Vice  President ; a quorum  for  the  purpose  shall  consist  of  two- 
thirds  of  the  whole  number  of  senators,  and  a majority  of  the  whole  number  shall  be 
necessary  to  a choice. 

3.  But  no  person  constitutionally  ineligible  to  the  office  of  President  shall  be  eligi- 
ble to  that  of  Vice  President  of  the  United  States. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


819 

Art.  XIII. — i.  Neither  slavery  nor  involuntary  servitude,  except  as  a punishment 
for  crime,  whereof  the  party  shall  have  been  duly  convicted,  shall  exist  within  the  United 
States,  or  any  place  subject  to  their  jurisdiction. 

2.  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce  this  article  by  appropriate  legislation. 

Art.  XIV. — i.  All  persons  born  or  naturalized  in  the  United  States,  and  subject  to 
the  jurisdiction  thereof,  are  citizens  of  the  United  States  and  of  the  State  wherein  they 
reside.  No  State  shall  make  or  enforce  any  law  which  shall  abridge  the  privileges  or 
immunites  of  citizens  of  the  United  States  ; nor  shall  any  State  deprive  any  person  of 
life,  liberty,  or  property,  without  due  process  of  law,  nor  deny  to  any  person  within  its 
jurisdiction  the  equal  protection  of  the  laws. 

2.  Representatives  shall  be  appointed  among  the  several  States  according  to  their 
respective  numbers,  counting  the  whole  number  of  persons  in  each  State,  excluding 
Indians  not  taxed.  But  when  the  right  to  vote  at  any  election  for  the  choice  of  electors 
for  President  and  Vice  President  of  the  United  States,  representatives  in  Congress,  the 
executive  or  judicial  officers  of  a State,  or  the  members  of  the  Legislature  thereof,  is 
denied  to  any  of  the  male  inhabitants  of  such  State,  being  twenty-one  years  of  age,  and 
citizens  of  the  United  States,  or  in  any  way  abridged,  except  for  participation  in  rebel' 
lion  or  other  crime,  the  basis  of  representation  therein  shall  be  reduced  in  the  proportion 
which  the  number  of  such  male  citizens  shall  bear  to  the  whole  number  of  male  citizen 
twenty-one  years  of  age  in  such  State. 

3.  No  person  shall  be  a senator  or  representative  in  Congress,  or  elector  of  Presi- 
dent and  Vice  President,  or  hold  any  office,  civil  or  military,  under  the  United  States,  or 
under  any  State,  who,  having  previously  taken  an  oath  as  a member  of  Congress,  or  as 
an  officer  of  the  United  States,  or  as  a member  of  any  State  Legislature,  or  as  an  exec- 
utive or  judicial  officer  of  any  State,  to  support  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States, 
shall  have  engaged  in  insurrection  or  rebellion  against  the  same,  or  given  aid  or  comfort 
to  the  enemies  thereof.  But  Congress  may,  by  a vote  of  two-thirds  of  each  house,  remove 
such  disability. 

4.  The  validity  of  the  public  debt  of  the  United  States,  authorized  by  law,  including 
debts  incurred  for  payment  of  pensions  and  bounties  for  services  in  suppressing  insurrec- 
tion or  rebellion,  shall  not  be  questioned.  But  neither  the  United  States  nor  any  State 
shall  assume  or  pay  any  debt  or  obligation  incurred  in  aid  of  insurrection  or  rebellion 
against  the  United  States,  or  any  claim  for  the  loss  or  emancipation  of  any  slave ; biU 
all  such  debts,  obligations,  and  claims  shall  be  held  illegal  and  void. 

5.  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce,  by  appropriate  legislation,  the  provisions  of 
this  article. 

Art.  XV. — 1.  The  rights  of  citizens  of  the  United  States  to  vote  shall  not  be  de- 
nied or  abridged  by  the  United  States,  or  by  any  State,  on  account  of  race,  color,  or  pre- 
vious condition. 

2.  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce  this  article  by  appropriate  legislation. 


Declaration  of  Independence. 


In  Congress,  July  4,  1776. 

BY  THE  REPRESENTATIVES  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES,  IN  CONGRESS 

ASSEMBLED. 

.A.  X)E0T-.^_TU^VTI03Sr. 

HEN,  in  the  course  of  human  events,  it  becomes  necessary  for  one  people 
to  dissolve  the  political  bands  which  have  connected  them  with  anotherf 
and  to  assume  among  the  powers  ol  the  earth  the  separate  and  equal  sta- 
tion to  which  the  laws  of  nature  and  of  nature’s  God  entitle  them,  a 
decent  respect  for  the  opinions  of  mankind  requires  that  they  should 
declare  the  causes  which  impel  them  to  the  separation. 

We  hold  these  truths  to  be  self-evident : — that  all  men  are  created  equal  ; that  they 
are  endowed  by  their  Creator  with  certain  unalienable  rights ; that  among  these  are  life, 
liberty,  and  the  pursuit  of  happiness  ; that,  to  secure  these  rights,  governments  are  insti- 
tuted among  men,  deriving  their  just  powers  from  the  consent  of  the  governed;  that 
whenever  any  form  of  government  becomes  destructive  of  these  ends  it  is  the  right  of 
the  people  to  alter  or  to  abolish  it,  and  to  institute  a new  government,  laying  its  founda- 
tion on  such  principles,  and  organizing  its  powers  in  such  form,  as  to  them  shall  seem 
most  likely  to  effect  their  safety  and  happiness.  Prudence,  indeed,  will  dictate  that 
governments  long  established  should  not  be  changed  for  light  and  transient  causes  ; and 
accordingly  all  experience  hath  shown  that  mankind  are  more  disposed  to  suffer,  while 
evils  are  sufferable,  than  to  right  themselves  by  abolishing  the  forms  to  which  they  are 
accustomed.  But  when  a long  train  of  abuses  and  usurpations,  pursuing  invariably  the 
same  object,  evinces  a design  to  reduce  them  under  absolute  despotism,  it  is  their  right, 
it  is  their  duty,  to  throw  off  such  government,  and  to  provide  new  guards  for  their  future 
security.  Such  has  been  the  patient  sufferance  of  these  colonies  ; and  such  is  now  the 
necessity  which  constrains  them  to  alter  their  former  system  of  government.  The  his- 
tory of  the  present  king  of  Great  Britain  is  a history  of  repeated  injuries  and  usurpa- 
tions, all  having  in  direct  object  the  establishment  of  an  absolute  tyranny  over  these 
states.  To  prove  this,  let  facts  be  submitted  to  a candid  world. 

He  has  refused  his  assent  to  laws  the  most  wholesome  and  necessary  for  the  public 
good. 

He  has  forbidden  his  governors  to  pass  laws  of  immediate  and  pressing  importance, 
tinless  suspended  in  their  operation  till  his  assent  should  be  obtained  ; and,  when  so  sus- 
pended, he  has  utterly  neglected  to  attend  to  them. 

He  has  refused  to  pass  other  laws  for  the  accommodation  of  large  districts  of  people, 
unless  those  people  would  relinquish  the  right  of  representation  in  the  legislature — a 
right  inestimable  to  them,  and  formidable  to  tyrants  only. 

He  has  called  together  legislative  bodies  at  places  unusual,  uncomfortable,  and 
distant  from  the  depository  of  their  public  records,  for  the  sole  purpose  of  fatiguing 
them  into  compliance  with  his  measures. 


DECLARATION  OF  INDEPENDENCE. 


821 


He  has  dissolved  representative  houses  repeatedly,  for  opposing,  with  manly  firm- 
ness, his  invasions  on  the  rights  of  the  people. 

He  has  refused,  for  a long  time  after  such  dissolutions,  to  cause  others  to  be  elected  ; 
whereby  the  legislative  powers,  incapable  of  annihilation,  have  returned  to  the  people  at 
large  for  their  exercise  ; the  State  remaining,  in  the  meantime,  exposed  to  all  the  danger 
cf  invasion  from  without  and  convulsions  within. 

He  has  endeavored  to  prevent  the  population  of  these  States ; for  that  purpose 
obstructing  the  laws  for  naturalization  of  foreigners,  refusing  to  pass  others  to  encourage 
their  migration  hither,  and  raising  the  conditions  of  new  appropriations  of  lands. 

He  has  obstructed  the  administration  of  justice,  by  refusing  his  assent  to  laws  for 
establishing  judiciary  powers. 

He  has  made  judges  dependent  on  his  will  alone  for  the  tenure  of  their  offices  and 
the  amount  and  payment  of  their  salaries. 

He  has  erected  a multitude  of  new  offices,  and  sent  hither  swarms  of  officers,  to 
harass  our  people  and  eat  out  their  substance. 

He  has  kept  among  us,  in  times  of  peace,  standing  armies,  without  the  consent  of 
our  legislatures. 

He  has  affected  to  render  the  military  independent  of  and  superior  to  the  civil 
power. 

He  has  combined  with  others  to  subject  us  to  a jurisdiction  foreign  to  our  constitu- 
tion and  unacknowledged  by  our  laws  ; giving  his  assent  to  their  acts  of  pretended 
legislation, — 

For  quartering  large  bodies  of  armed  troops  among  us : 

For  protecting  them,  by  a mock  trial,  from  punishment  for  any  murders  which  they 
should  commit  on  the  inhabitants  of  these  States : 

For  cutting  off  our  trade  with  all  parts  of  the  world : 

For  imposing  taxes  on  us  without  our  consent : 

For  depriving  us,  in  many  cases,  of  the  benefits  of  trial  by  jury  : 

For  transporting  us  beyond  seas,  to  be  tried  for  pretended  offences : 

For  abolishing  the  free  system  of  English  laws  in  a neighboring  province,  establish- 
ing therein  an  arbitrary  government,  and  enlarging  its  boundaries  so  as  to  render  it  at 
once  an  example  and  fit  instrument  for  introducing  the  same  absolute  rule  into  these 
colonies  : 

For  taking  away  our  charters,  abolishing  our  most  valuable  laws,  and  altering  funda- 
mentally the  forms  of  our  governments: 

For  suspending  our  own  legislatures,  and  declaring  themselves  invested  with  power 
to  legislate  for  us  in  all  cases  whatsoever. 

He  has  abdicated  government  here  by  declaring  us  out  of  his  protection,  and  waging 
war  against  us. 

He  has  plundered  our  seas,  ravaged  our  coasts,  burned  our  towns,  and  destroyed  the 
lives  of  our  people. 

He  is  at  this  time  transporting  large  armies  of  foreign  mercenaries,  to  complete  the 
works  of  death,  desolation,  and  tyranny,  already  begun,  with  circumstances  of  cruelty 
and  perfidy  scarcely  paralleled  in  the  most  barbarous  ages,  and  totally  unworthy  the 
head  of  a civilized  nation. 

He  has  constrained  our  fellow-citizens,  taken  captive  on  the  high  seas,  to  bear  arms 
against  their  country,  to  become  the  executioners  of  their  friends  and  brethren,  or  to  fall 
themselves  by  their  hands. 

He  has  excited  domestic  insurrections  amongst  us,  and  has  endeavored  to  bring  on 


822 


DECLARATION  OF  INDEPENDENCE. 


the  inhabitants  of  our  frontiers  the  merciless  Indian  savages,  whose  known  rule  of  war- 
fare is  an  undistinguished  destruction  of  all  ages,  sexes,  and  conditions. 

In  every  stage  of  these  oppressions  we  have  petitioned  for  redress  in  the  most 
humble  terms  ; our  petitions  have  been  answered  only  by  repeated  injury.  A prince 
whose  character  is  thus  marked  by  every  act  which  may  define  a tyrant  is  unfit  to  be 
the  ruler  of  a free  people. 

Nor  have  we  been  wanting  in  attention  to  our  British  brethren.  We  have  warned 
them,  from  time  to  time,  of  attempts  made  by  their  legislature  to  extend  an  unwarrant- 
able jurisdiction  over  us.  We  have  reminded  them  of  the  circumstances  of  our  emigra- 
tion and  settlement  here.  We  have  appealed  to  their  native  justice  and  magnanimity, 
and  we  have  conjured  them,  by  the  ties  of  our  common  kindred,  to  disavow  these  usur- 
pations, which  would  inevitably  interrupt  our  connections  and  correspondence.  They, 
too,  have  been  deaf  to  the  voice  of  justice  and  consanguinity.  We  must  therefore 
acquiesce  in  the  necessity  which  denounces  our  separation,  and  hold  them,  as  we  hold 
the  rest  of  mankind,  enemies  in  war  — in  peace,  friends. 

We,  therefore,  the  representatives  of  the  United  States  of  America,  in  General 
Congress  assembled,  appealing  to  the  Supreme  Judge  of  the  world  for  the  rectitude  of 
our  intentions,  do,  in  the  name  and  by  the  authority  of  the  good  people  of  these 
colonies,  solemnly  publish  and  declare  that  these  United  Colonies  are,  and  of  right 
ought  to  be,  free  and  independent  States ; that  they  are  absolved  from  all  allegiance  to 
the  British  crown,  and  that  all  political  connection  between  them  and  the  State  of  Great 
Britain  is,  and  ought  to  be,  totally  dissolved  ; and  that,  as  free  and  independent  States, 
they  have  full  power  to  levy  war,  conclude  peace,  contract  alliances,  establish  commerce, 
and  to  do  all  other  acts  and  things  which  independent  States  may  of  right  do..  And  for 
the  support  of  this  declaration,  with  a firm  reliance  on  the  protection  of  Divine  Provi- 
dence, we  mutually  pledge  to  each  other  our  lives,  our  fortunes,  and  our  sacred  honor 

Signed  by  order  and  in  behalf  of  the  Congress. 


JOHN  HANCOCK,  President. 


Attested,  Charles  Thompson,  Secretary. 


NEW  HAMPSHIRE. 

/osiah  Bartlett, 
William  Whipple, 
Matthew  Thornton. 


NEW  JERSEY. 

Richard  Stockton, 
John  Witherspoon, 
Francis  Hopkin-son, 
John  Hart, 
Abraham  Clark. 


Thomas  Stone, 

Charles  Carroll,, of  Carrolltor 


MASSACHUSETTS  BAY. 

Samuel  Adams, 

John  Adams, 

Robert  Treat  Paine, 
Elbridge  Gerry. 


RHODE  ISLAND,  &C. 

Stephen  Hopkins, 
William  Ellery. 


PENNSYLVANIA. 

Robert  Morris, 
Benjamin  Rush, 
Benjamin  Franklin, 
John  Morton, 
George  Clymer, 
James  Smith, 
George  Taylor, 
James  Wilson, 
George  Ross. 


VIRGINIA. 

George  Wythe, 
Richard  Henry  Lee, 
Thomas  Jefferson, 
Benjamin  Harrison, 
Thomas  Nelson,  Jr., 
Francis  Lightfoot  Lee, 
Carter  Braxton. 


CONNECTICUT. 

Roger  Sherman, 
Samuel  Huntington, 
William  Williams, 
Oliver  Wolcott. 


NORTH  CAROLINA. 

William  Hooper, 
Joseph  Hewes, 

John  Penn. 


NEW  YORK. 

William  Floyd, 
Philip  Livingston, 
Francis  Lewis, 
Lewis  Morris. 


DELAWARE. 

Caesar  Rodney, 
George  Read, 
Thomas  M’Kean. 


SOUTH  CAROLINA. 

Edward  Rutledge, 
Thomas  Heyward,  Jr., 
Thomas  Lynch,  Jr., 
Arthur  Middleton. 


MARYLAND. 

Samuel  Chase, 
William  Paca, 


GEORGIA. 

Button  Gwinnett, 
Lyman  Hall, 
George  Walton. 


GEORGE  WASHINGTON’S  INAUGURAL  ADDRESS, 

New  York , April  30,  1789. 


I can  never 


ELLOW  Citizens  of  the  Senate  and  of  the  House  of  Represent- 
atives— Among  the  vicissitudes  incident  to  life,  no  event  could  have 
filled  me  with  greater  anxieties  than  that,  of  which  the  notification  was 
transmitted  by  your  order,  and  received  on  the  fourth  day  of  the  present 
month.  On  the  one  hand,  I was  summoned  by  my  country,  whose  voice 
lear  but  with  veneration  and  love,  from  a retreat  which  I had  chosen  with 


the  fondest  predilection,  and,  in  my  flattering  hopes,  with  an  immutable  decision  as  the 
asylum  of  my  declining  years  ; a retreat  which  was  rendered  every  day  more  necessary 
as  well  as  more  dear  to  me,  by  the  addition  of  habit  to  inclination,  and  of  frequent  inter- 
ruptions in  my  health  to  the  gradual  waste  committed  on  it  by  time  ; on  the  other  hand, 
the  magnitude  and  difficulty  of  the  trust  to  which  the  voice  of  my  country  called  me,  be- 
ing sufficient  to  awaken,  in  the  wisest  and  most  experienced  of  her  citizens,  a distrustful 
scrutiny  into  his  qualifications,  could  not  but  overwhelm  with  despondence  one  who,  in- 
heriting inferior  endowments  from  nature,  and  unpractised  in  the  duties  of  civil  adminis- 
tration, ought  to  be  peculiarly  conscious  of  his  own  deficiencies.  In  this  conflict  of 
emotions,  all  I dare  aver  is,  that  it  has  been  my  faithful  study  to  collect  my  duty  from  a 
just  appreciation  of  every  circumstance  by  which  it  might  be  affected.  All  I dare  hope 
is,  that  if,  in  executing  this  task,  I have  been  too  much  swayed  by  a grateful  remem- 
brance of  former  instances,  or  by  an  affectionate  sensibility  to  this  transcendent  proof  of 
the  confidence  of  my  fellow-citizens,  and  have  thence  too  little  consulted  my  incapacity 
as  well  as  disinclination  for  the  weighty  and  untried  cares  before  me,  my  error  will  be 
palliated  by  the  motives  which  misled  me,  and  its  consequences  be  judged  by  my  coun- 
try, with  some  share  of  the  partiality  in  which  they  originated. 

Such  being  the  impressions  under  which  I have,  in  obedience  to  the  public  sum- 
mons, repaired  to  the  present  station,  it  would  be  peculiarly  improper  to  omit,  in  this 
first  official  act,  my  fervent  supplications  to  that  Almighty  Being,  who  rules  over  the 
universe,  who  presides  in  the  councils  of  nations,  and  whose  providential  aids  can  supply 
every  human  defect,  that  His  benediction  may  consecrate  to  the  liberties  and  happiness 
of  the  people  of  the  United  States,  a government  instituted  by  themselves  for  these  es- 
sential purposes,  and  may  enable  every  instrument  employed  in  its  administration,  to 
execute,  with  success,  the  functions  allotted  to  his  charge.  In  tendering  this  homage  to 
the  Great  Author  of  every  public  and  private  good,  I assure  myself  that  it  expresses  your 
sentiments  not  less  than  my  own ; nor  those  of  my  fellow-citizens  at  large  less  than 
either.  No  people  can  be  bound  to  acknowledge  and  adore  the  invisible  hand  which 
conducts  the  affairs  of  men,  more  than  the  people  of  the  United  States.  Every  step  by 
which  they  have  advanced  to  the  character  of  an  independent  nation,  seems  to  have  been 
distinguished  by  some  token  of  providential  agency.  And,  in  the  important  revolution 
just  accomplished,  in  the  system  of  their  united  government,  the  tranquil  deliberations 
and  voluntary  consent  of  so  many  distinct  communities,  from  which  the  event  has 
resulted,  cannot  be  compared  with  the  means  by  which  most  governments  have  been 
established,  without  some  return  of  pious  gratitude,  along  with  an  humble  anticipation 
of  the  future  blessings,  which  the  past  seems  to  presage.  These  reflections,  arising  out 
of  the  present  crisis,  have  forced  themselves  too  strongly  on  my  mind  to  be  suppressed. 
You  will  join  with  me,  I trust,  in  thinking  that  there  are  none  under  the  influence  of 
which  the  proceedings  of  a new  and  free  government  can  more  auspiciously  com- 
mence. 


824 


Washington’s  inaugural  address. 


By  the  article  establishing  the  executive  department,  it  is  made  the  duty  of  the 
President  “to  recommend  to  your  consideration,  such  measures  as  he  shall  judge  neces- 
sary and  expedient.”  The  circumstances  under  which  I now  meet  you,  will  acquit  me 
from  entering  into  that  subject  farther  than  to  refer  you  to  the  great  constitutional  char- 
ter under  which  we  are  assembled  ; and  which,  in  defining  your  powers,  designates  the 
objects  to  which  your  attention  is  to  be  given.  It  will  be  more  consistent  with  those 
circumstances,  and  far  more  congenial  with  the  feelings  which  actuate  me,  to  substitute, 
in  place  of  a recommendation  of  particular  measures,  the  tribute  that  is  due  to  the  tal- 
ents, the  rectitude  and  the  patriotism  which  adorn  the  characters  selected  to  devise  and 
adopt  them.  In  these  honorable  qualifications,  I behold  the  surest  pledges,  that  as,  on 
one  side,  no  local  prejudices  or  attachments,  no  separate  views  nor  party  animosities, 
will  misdirect  the  comprehensive  and  equal  eye  which  ought  to  watch  over  this  great 
assemblage  of  communities  and  interests — so,  on  another,  that  the  foundations  of  our 
national  policy  will  be  laid  in  the  pure  and  immutable  principles  of  private  morality  ; and 
the  pre-eminence  of  a free  government  be  exemplified  by  all  the  attributes  which  can  win 
the  affections  of  its  citizens,  and  command  the  respect  of  the  world. 

I dwell  on  this  prospect  with  every  satisfaction  which  an  ardent  love  for  my  country 
can  inspire  ; since  there  is  no  truth  more  thoroughly  established  than  that  there  exists, 
in  the  economy  and  course  of  nature,  an  indissoluble  union  between  virtue  and  happi- 
ness— between  duty  and  advantage — between  the  genuine  maxims  of  an  honest  and 
magnanimous  policy  and  the  solid  rewards  of  public  prosperity  and  felicity — since  we 
ought  to  be  no  less  persuaded  that  the  propitious  smiles  of  Heaven  can  never  be  ex- 
pected on  a nation  that  disregards  the  eternal  rules  of  order  and  right  which  Heaven 
itself  has  ordained — and  since  the  preservation  of  the  sacred  fire  of  liberty,  and  the  des- 
tiny of  the  republican  model  of  government,  are  justly  considered  as  deeply,  perhaps, 
as  finally  staked,  on  the  experiment  entrusted  to  the  hands  of  the  American 
people. 

Besides  the  ordinary  objects  submitted  to  your  care,  it  will  remain  with  your  judg- 
ment to  decide  how  far  an  exercise  of  the  occasional  power  delegated  by  the  fifth  article 
of  the  Constitution  is  rendered  expedient,  at  the  present  * uncture,  by  the*  nature  ct  ob- 
jections which  have  been  urged  against  the  system,  or  by  the  degree  of  inquietude  which 
has  given  birth  to  them.  Instead  of  undertaking  particular  recommendations  on  this 
subject,  in  which  I could  be  guided  by  no  lights  derived  from  official  opportunities,  I shall 
again  give  way  to  my  entire  confidence  in  your  discernment  and  pursuit  of  the  public 
good.  For  I assure  myself  that,  whilst  you  carefully  avoid  every  alteration  which  might 
endanger  the  benefits  of  an  united  and  effective  government,  or  which  ought  to  await 
the  future  lessons  of  experience,  a reverence  for  the  characteristic  rights  of  freemen,  and 
a regard  for  the  public  harmony,  will  sufficiently  influence  your  deliberations  on  the 
question,  how  far  the  former  can  be  more  impregnably  fortified,  or  the  latter  be  safely  and 
more  advantageously  promoted. 

To  the  preceding  observations  I have  one  to  add,  which  will  be  most  properly  ad- 
dressed to  the  House  of  Representatives.  It  concerns  myself,  and  will  therefore  be  as 
brief  as  possible. 

When  I was  first  honored  with  a call  into  the  service  of  my  country,  then  on  the  eve 
of  an  arduous  struggle  for  its  liberties,  the  light  in  which  I contemplated  my  duty,  re- 
quired that  I should  renounce  every  pecuniary  compensation.  From  this  resolution  I 
have  in  no  instance  departed.  And  being  still  under  the  impressions  which  produced  it, 
I must  decline,  as  inapplicable  to  myself,  any  share  in  the  personal  emoluments,  which 
may  be  indispensably  included  in  a permanent  provision  for  the  executive  department ; 
and  must  accordingly  pray  that  the  pecuniary  estimates  for  the  station  in  which  I am 
placed  may,  during  my  continuation  in  it,  be  limited  to  such  actual  expenditures  as  the 
public  good  may  be  thought  to  require. 

Having  thus  imparted  to  you  my  sentiments,  as  they  have  been  awakened  by  the 


Washington’s  farewell  address. 


825 


occasion  which  brings  us  together,  I shall  take  my  present  leave,  but  not  without  resort- 
ing once  more  to  the  benign  Parent  of  the  human  race,  in  humble  supplication,  that  since 
He  has  been  pleased  to  favor  the  American  people  with  opportunities  for  deliberating  in 
perfect  tranquillity,  and  dispositions  for  deciding  with  unparalleled  unanimity  on  a form 
of  government  for  the  security  of  their  union  and  the  advancement  of  their  happiness,  so 
His  divine  blessing  may  be  equally  conspicuous  in  the  enlarged  views,  the  temper- 
ate consultations  and  the  wise  measures  on  which  the  success  of  this  government 
must  depend. 


GEORGE  WASHINGTON’S  FAREWELL  ADDRESS, 


United  States , September  17,  1796. 


RIENDS  and  Fellow-Citizens — The  period  for  a new  election  of  a 
citizen  to  administer  the  executive  government  of  the  United  States  being 
not  far  distant,  and  the  time  actually  arrived  when  your  thoughts  must  be 
employed  in  designating  the  person  who  is  to  be  clothed  with  that  im- 
portant trust,  it  appears  to  me  proper,  especially  as  it  may  conduce  to  a 
more  distinct  expression  of  the  public  voice,  that  I should  now  apprize  you  of  the  resolu- 
tion I have  formed,  to  decline  being  considered  among  the  number  of  those,  out  of  whom 


a choice  is  to  be  made. 

I beg  you,  at  the  same  time,  to  do  me  the  justice  to  be  assured  that  this  resolution 
has  not  been  taken  without  a strict  regard  to  all  the  considerations  appertaining  to  the 
relation  which  binds  a dutiful  citizen  to  his  country  ; and  that,  in  withdrawing  the  tender 
of  service,  which  silence  in  my  situation  might  imply,  lam  influenced  by  no  diminution 
of  zeal  for  your  future  interest ; no  deficiency  of  grateful  respect  for  your  past  kindness ; 
but  am  supported  by  a full  conviction  that  the  step  is  compatible  with  both. 

The  acceptance  of,  and  continuance  hitherto  in  the  office  to  which  your  suffrage! 
have  twice  called  me,  have  been  a uniform  sacrifice  of  inclination  to  the  opinion  of  duty, 
and  to  a deference  for  what  appeared  to  be  your  desire.  I constantly  hoped  that  it  would 
have  been  much  earlier  in  my  power,  consistently  with  motives  which  I was  not  at  liberty 
to  disregard,  to  return  to  that  retirement  from  which  I had  been  reluctantly  drawn- 
The  strength  of  my  inclination  to  do  this  previous  to  the  last  election,  had  even  led  to 
the  preparation  of  an  address  to  declare  it  to  you  ; but  mature  reflection  on  the  then  per- 
plexed and  critical  posture  of  our  affairs  with  foreign  nations,  and  the  unanimous  advice 
of  persons  entitled  to  my  confidence,  impelled  me  to  abandon  the  idea. 

I rejoice  that  the  state  of  your  concerns,  external  as  well  as  internal,  no  longer  ren- 
ders the  pursuit  of  inclination  incompatible  with  the  sentiment  of  duty  or  propriety,  and 
am  persuaded,  whatever  partiality  may  be  retained  for  my  services,  that,  in  the  present 
circumstances  of  our  country,  you  will  not  disapprove  my  determination  to  retire. 

The  impressions,  with  which  I first  undertook  the  arduous  trust,  were  explained  on 
the  proper  occasion.  In  the  discharge  of  this  trust,  I will  only  say,  that  I have,  with 
good  intentions,  contributed  towards  the  organization  and  administration  of  the  govern- 
ment the  best  exertions  of  which  a very  fallible  judgment  was  capable.  Not  uncon- 
scious in  the  outset  of  my  inferior  qualifications,  experience  in  my  own  eyes,  perhaps  still 
more  in  the  eyes  of  others,  has  strengthened  the  motives  to  diffidence  of  myself,  and 
every  day  the  increasing  weight  of  years  admonishes  me  more  and  more  that  the  shade 


828 


WASHINGTON'S  FAREWELL  ADDRESS. 


of  retirement  is  as  necessary  to  me  as  it  will  be  welcome.  Satisfied,  that,  if  any  circuit 
stances  have  given  peculiar  value  to  my  services,  they  were  temporary,  I have  the  conso- 
lation to  believe,  that,  while  choice  and  prudence  invite  me  to  quit  the  political  scene, 
patriotism  does  not  forbid  it. 

In  looking  forward  to  the  moment,  which  is  intended  to  terminate  the  career  of  my 
public  life,  my  feelings  do  not  permit  me  to  suspend  the  deep  acknowledgment  of  that 
debt  of  gratitude,  which  I owe  to  my  beloved  country  for  the  many  honors  it  has  con- 
ferred upon  me  ; still  more  for  the  steadfast  confidence  with  which  it  has  supported  me ; 
and  for  the  opportunities  I have  thence  enjoyed  of  manifesting  my  inviolable  attachment, 
by  services  faithful  and  persevering,  though  in  usefulness  unequal  to  my  zeal.  If  bene- 
fits have  resulted  to  our  country  from  these  services,  let  it  always  be  remembered  to  your 
praise,  and  as  an  instructive  example  in  our  annals,  that  under  circumstances  in  which  the 
passions,  agitated  in  every  direction,  were  liable  to  mislead,  amidst  appearances  some- 
times dubious,  vicissitudes  of  fortune  often  discouraging,  in  situations  in  which  not  un- 
frequently  want  of  success  has  countenanced  the  spirit  of  criticism,  the  constancy  of  your 
support  was  the  essential  prop  of  the  efforts,  and  a guarantee  of  the  plans  by  which  they 
were  effected.  Profoundly  penetrated  with  this  idea,  I shall  carry  it  with  me  to  my  grave 
as  a strong  incitement  to  unceasing  vows  that  Heaven  may  continue  to  you  the  choicest 
tokens  of  its  beneficence  ; that  your  union  and  brotherly  affection  may  be  perpetual,  that 
the  free  constitution,  which  is  the  work  of  your  hands,  may  be  sacredly  maintained  ; that 
its  administration  in  every  department  may  be  stamped  with  wisdom  and  virtue  ; that,  in 
fine,  the  happiness  of  the  people  of  these  States,  under  the  auspices  of  liberty,  may  be 
made  complete,  by  so  careful  a preservation  and  so  prudent  a use  of  this  blessing,  as  will 
acquire  to  them  the  glory  of  recommending  it  to  the  applause,  the  affection,  and  adoption 
of  every  nation,  which  is  yet  a stranger  to  it. 

Here,  perhaps,  I ought  to  stop.  But  a solicitude  tor  your  welfare,  which  cannot  end 
but  with  my  life,  and  the  apprehension  of  danger,  natural  to  that  solicitude,  urge  me,  on 
an  occasion  like  the  present,  to  offer  to  your  solemn  contemplation  and  to  recommend  to 
your  frequent  review,  some  sentiments,  which  are  the  result  of  much  reflection,  of  no  in- 
considerable observation,  and  which  appear  to  me  all-important  to  the  permanency  of 
your  felicity  as  a people.  These  will  be  offered  to  you  with  the  more  freedom,  as  you 
can  only  see  in  them  the  disinterested  warnings  of  a parting  friend,  who  can  possibly 
have  no  personal  motive  to  bias  his  counsel.  Nor  can  I forget,  as  an  encouragement  to 
it,  your  indulgent  reception  of  my  sentiments  on  a former  and  not  dissimilar  occasion. 

Interwoven  as  is  the  love  of  liberty  with  every  ligament  of  your  hearts,  no  recom- 
mendation of  mine  is  necessary  to  fortify  or  confirm  the  attachment. 

The  unity  of  government,  which  constitutes  you  one  people,  is  also  now  dear  to  you. 
It  is  justly  so,  for  it  is  a main  pillar  in  the  edifice  of  your  real  independence,  the  support 
of  your  tranquillity  at  home,  your  peace  abroad,  of  your  safety,  of  your  prosperity,  of  that 
very  liberty  which  you  so  highly  prize.  But  as  it  is  easy  to  forsee  that,  from  different 
causes  and  from  different  quarters,  much  pains  will  be  taken,  many  artifices  employed,  to 
weaken  in  your  minds  the  conviction  of  this  truth,  as  this  is  the  point  in  your  political 
fortress  against  which  the  batteries  of  internal  and  external  enemies  will  be  most  con- 
stantly and  actively  (though  often  covertly  and  insidiously)  directed,  it  is  of  infinite  mo- 
ment that  you  should  properly  estimate  the  immense  value  of  your  national  union  to  your 
collective  and  individual  happiness  ; that  you  should  cherish  a cordial,  habitual  and  im- 
movable attachment  to  it ; accustoming  yourselves  to  think  and  speak  of  it  as  of  the  pal- 
ladium of  your  political  safety  and  prosperity  ; watching  for  its  preservation  with  jealous 
anxiety  ; discountenancing  whatever  may  suggest  even  a suspicion  that  it  can  in  any 
event  be  abandoned  ; and  indignantly  frowning  upon  the  first  dawning  of  every  attempt 
to  alienate  any  portion  of  our  country  from  the  rest,  or  to  enfeeble  the  sacred  ties  which 
now  link  together  the  various  parts. 

For  this  you  have  every  inducement  of  sympathy  and  interest  Citizens,  by  birth  or 


Washington’s  farewell  address. 


827 


choice,  of  a common  country,  that  county  has  a right  to  concentrate  your  affections.  The 
name  of  American,  which  belongs  to  you,  in  your  national  capacity,  must  always  exalt 
the  just  pride  of  patriotism,  more  than  any  appellation  derived  from  local  discriminations. 
With  slight  shades  of  difference,  you  have  the  same  religion,  manners,  habits  and 
political  principles.  You  have  in  a common  cause  fought  and  triumphed  together;  the 
independence  and  liberty  you  possess  are  the  work  of  joint  counsels,  and  joint  efforts  of 
common  dangers,  sufferings  and  successes. 

But  these  considerations,  however  powerfully  they  address  themselves  to  your  sensi- 
bility, are  greatly  outweighed  by  those  which  apply  more  immediately  to  your  interest. 
Here  every  portion  of  our  country  finds  the  most  commanding  motives  for  carefully 
guarding  and  preserving  the  union  of  the  whole. 

The  North,  in  an  unrestrained  intercourse  with  the  South,  protected  by  the  equal 
laws  of  a common  government,  finds  in  the  productions  of  the  latter  great  additional  re- 
sources of  maritime  and  commercial  enterprise  and  precious  materials  of  manufacturing 
industry.  The  South,  in  the  same  intercourse,  benefiting  by  the  agency  of  the  North, 
sees  its  agriculture  grow  and  its  commerce  expand.  Turning  partly  into  its  own  chan- 
nels the  seamen  of  the  North,  it  finds  its  particular  navigation  invigorated;  and  while 
it  contributes,  in  different  ways,  to  nourish  and  increase  the  general  mass  of  the  national 
navigation,  it  looks  forward  to  the  protection  of  a maritime  strength,  to  which  itself  is 
unequally  adapted.  The  East,  in  a like  intercourse  with  the  West,  already  finds,  and  in 
the  progressive  improvement  of  interior  communications  by  land  and  water,  will  more 
and  more  find,  a valuable  vent  for  the  commodities  which  it  brings  from  abroad  or  man- 
ufactures at  home.  The  West  derives  from  the  East  supplies  requisite  to  its  growth  and 
comfort,  and,  what  is  perhaps  of  still  greater  consequence,  it  must  of  necessity  owe  the 
secure  enjoyment  of  indispensable  outlets  for  its  own  productions  to  the  weight,  influ- 
ence and  the  future  maritime  strength  of  the  Atlantic  side  of  the  Union,  directed  by  an 
indissoluble  community  of  interest  as  one  nation.  Any  other  tenure  by  which  the  West 
can  hold  this  essential  advantage,  whether  derived  from  its  own  separate  strength,  or 
from  an  apostate  and  unnatural  connection  with  any  foreign  power,  must  be  intrin- 
sically precarious. 

While,  then,  every  part  of  our  country  feels  an  i immediate  and  particular  interest  in 
union,  all  the  parts  combined  cannot  fail  to  find  in  the  united  mass  of  means  and  efforts 
greater  strength,  greater  resource,  proportionably  greater  security  from  external  danger, 
a less  frequent  interruption  of  their  peace  by  foreign  nations  ; and,  what  is  of  inestima- 
ble value,  they  must  derive  from  union  an  exemption  from  those  broils  and  wars  between 
themselves,  which  so  frequently  afflict  neighboring  countries  not  tied  together  by  the 
same  governments,  which  their  own  rivalships  alone  would  be  sufficient  to  produce,  but 
which  opposite  foreign  alliances,  attachments  and  intrigues  would  stimulate  and  embit- 
ter. Hence,  likewise,  they  will  avoid  the  necessity  of  those  overgrown  military  estab- 
lishments, which,  under  any  form  of  government  are  inauspicious  to  liberty,  and  which 
are  to  be  regarded  as  particularly  hostile  to  republican  liberty.  In  this  sense  it  is  that 
your  union  ought  to  be  considered  as  a main  prop  of  your  liberty,  and  that  the  love  of 
the  one  ought  to  endear  to  you  the  preservation  of  the  other. 

These  considerations  speak  a persuasive  language  to  every  reflecting  and  virtuous 
mind,  and  exhibit  the  continuance  of  the  Union  as  a primary  object  of  patriotic  desire. 
Is  there  a doubt  whether  a common  government  can  embrace  so  large  a sphere  ? Let 
experience  solve  it.  To  listen  to  mere  speculation  in  such  a case  were  criminal.  We 
are  authorized  to  hope  that  a proper  organization  of  the  whole,  with  the  auxiliary  agency 
of  governments  for  the  respective  subdivisions,  will  afford  a happy  issue  to  the  experi- 
ment. It  is  well  worth  a fair  and  full  experiment.  With  such  powerful  and  obvious  mo- 
tives to  union,  affecting  all  parts  of  our  country,  while  experience  shall  not  have  demon- 
strated its  impracticability,  there  will  always  be  reason  to  distrust  the  patriotism  of  those 
who  in  any  quarter  may  endeavor  to  weaken  its  bands. 


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WASHINGTON’S  FAREWELL  ADDRESS. 


In  contemplating*  the  causes  which  may  disturb  our  Union,  it  occurs  as  a matter  of 
serious  concern  that  any  ground  should  have  been  furnished  lor  characterizing  parties 
oy  geographical  discriminations,  Northern  and  Southern,  Atlantic  and  Western  ; whence 
designing  men  may  endeavor  to  excite  a belief  that  there  is  a real  difference  of  local  in- 
terests and  views.  One  of  the  expedients  of  party  to  acquire  influence  within  particular 
districts  is  to  misrepresent  the  opinions  and  aims  of  other  districts.  You  cannot  shield 
yourselves  too  much  against  the  jealousies  and  heartburnings  which  spring  from  these 
misrepresentations  ; they  tend  to  render  alien  to  each  other  those  who  ought  to  be  bound 
together  by  fraternal  affection.  The  inhabitants  of  our  western  country  have  lately  had 
a useful  lesson  on  this  head  ; they  have  seen,  in  the  negotiation  by  the  Executive,  and 
in  the  unanimous  ratification  by  the  Senate,  of  the  treaty  with  Spain,  and  in  the  univer- 
sal satisfaction  at  that  event  throughout  the  United  States,  a decisive  proof  how  un- 
founded were  the  suspicions  propagated  among  them  of  a policy  in  the  General  Govern- 
ment and  in  the  Atlantic  States  unfriendly  to  their  interests  in  regard  to  the  Mississippi ; 
they  have  been  witnesses  to  the  formation  of  two  treaties,  that  with  Great  Britain,  and 
that  with  Spain,  which  secure  to  them  everything  they  could  desire,  in  respect  to  our 
foreign  relations,  towards  confirming  their  prosperity.  Will  it  not  be  their  wisdom  to 
rely  for  the  preservation  of  these  advantages  on  the  Union  by  which  they  were  pro- 
cured ? Will  they  not  henceforth  be  deaf  to  those  advisers,  if  such  there  are,  who  would 
sever  them  from  their  brethren  and  connect  them  with  aliens. 

To  the  efficacy  and  permanency  of  your  Union  a government  for  the  whole  is  indis- 
pensable. No  alliances,  however  strict,  between  the  parts  can  be  an  adequate  substitute; 
they  must  inevitably  experience  the  infractions  and  interruptions  which  all  alliances  in 
all  times  have  experienced.  Sensible  of  this  momentous  truth,  you  have  improved  upon 
your  first  essay  by  the  adoption  of  a Constitution  of  Government  better  calculated  than 
your  former  for  an  intimate  Union,  and  for  the  efficacious  management  of  your  common 
concerns.  This  Government,  the  offspring  of  our  own  choice,  uninfluenced  and  unawedr 
adopted  upon  full  investigation  and  mature  deliberation,  completely  free  in  its  principles, 
in  the  distribution  of  its  powers  uniting  security  with  energy,  and  containing  within  it- 
self a provision  for  its  own  amendment,  has  a just  claim  to  your  confidence  and  your 
support.  Respect  for  its  authority,  compliance  with  its  laws,  acquiescence  in  its  meas- 
ures, are  duties  enjoined  by  the  fundamental  maxims  of  true  liberty.  The  basis  of  our 
political  systems  is  the  right  of  the  people  to  make  and  to  alter  their  constitutions  of 
government.  But  the  constitution  which  at  any  time  exists,  till  changed  by  an  explicit 
and  authentic  act  of  the  whole  people,  is  sacredly  obligatory  upon  all.  The  ver}'  idea 
of  the  power  and  the  right  of  the  people  to  establish  government  presupposes  the  duty 
ot  every  individual  to  obey  the  established  government. 

All  obstructions  to  the  execution  of  the  laws,  all  combinations  and  associations,  un- 
der whatever  plausible  character,  with  the  real  design  to  direct,  control,  counteract  or 
awe  the  regular  deliberation  and  action  of  the  constituted  authorities,  are  destructive  01 
this  fundamental  principle,  and  of  fatal  tendency.  They  serve  to  organize  faction,  to 
give  it  an  artificial  and' extraordinary  force;  to  put  in  the  place  of  the  delegated  will  of 
the  nation  the  will  of  a party,  often  a small  but  artful  and  enterprising  minority  of  the 
community;  and,  according  to  the  alternate  triumphs  of  different  parties,  to  make  the  public 
administration  the  mirror  of  the  ill-concerted  and  incongruous  projects  of  faction,  rather 
than  the  organ  of  consistent  and  wholesome  plans  digested  by  common  councils  and 
modified  by  mutual  interests. 

However  combinations  or  associations  of  the  above  description  may  now  and  then 
answer  popular  ends,  they  are  likely,  in  the  course  of  time  and  things,  to  become  potent 
engines  by  which  cunning,  ambitious  and  unprincipled  men  will  be  enabled  to  subvert 
the  power  of  the  people,  and  to  usurp  for  themselves  the  reins  of  government ; destroy- 
ing afterwards  the  very  engines  which  have  lifted  them  to  unjust  dominion. 

Towards  the  preservation  of  your  government  and  the  permanency  of  your  present 


Washington’s  farewell  address. 


829 


happy  state,  it  is  requisite,  not  only  that  you  steadily  discountenance  irregular  oppo- 
sitions to  its  acknowledged  authority,  but  also  that  you  resist  with  care  the  spirit  of 
innovation  upon  its  principles,  however  specious  the  pretexts.  One  method  of  assault 
may  be  to  effect,  in  the  forms  of  the  constitution,  alterations  which  will  impair  the  en- 
ergy of  the  system,  and  thus  to  undermine  what  cannot  be  directly  overthrown.  In  all 
the  changes  to  which  you  may  be  invited,  remember  that  time  and  habit  are  at  least  as 
necessary  to  fix  the  true  character  of  governments  as  of  other  human  institutions  ; that 
experience  is  the  surest  standard  by  which  to  test  the  real  tendency  of  the  existing  com- 
stitution  of  a country ; that  facility  in  changes,  upon  the  credit  of  mere  hypothesis  and 
opinion,  exposes  to  perpetual  change  from  the  endless  variety  of  hypothesis  and  opinion  ; 
and  remember  especially  that  for  the  efficient  management  of  your  common  interests,  in 
a country  so  extensive  as  ours,  a government  of  as  much  vigor  as  is  consistent  with  the 
perfect  security  of  liberty  is  indispensable.  Liberty  itself  will  find  in  such  a govern- 
ment, with  powers  properly  distributed  and  adjusted,  its  surest  guardian.  It  is,  indeed, 
little  else  than  a name  where  the  government  is  too  feeble  to  withstand  the  enterprises 
of  faction,  to  confine  each  member  of  the  society  within  the  limits  prescribed  by  the 
laws,  and  to  maintain  all  in  the  secure  and  tranquil  enjoyment  of  the  rights  of  person 
and  property. 

I have  already  intimated  to  you  the  danger  of  parties  in  the  State  with  particular 
reference  to  the  founding  of  them  on  geographical  discriminations.  Let  me  now  take  a 
more  comprehensive  view,  and  warn  you  in  the  most  solemn  manner  against  the  baneful 
effects  of  the  spirit  of  party  generally. 

This  spirit,  unfortunately,  is  inseparable  from  our  nature,  having  its  root  in  the 
strongest  passions  of  the  human  mind.  It  exists  under  different  shapes  in  all  govern- 
ments, more  or  less  stifled,  controlled  or  repressed  ; but  in  those  of  the  popular  form  it 
is  seen  in  its  greatest  rankness,  and  is  truly  their  worst  enemy. 

The  alternate  domination  of  one  faction  over  another,  sharpened  by  the  spirit  of 
revenge  natural  to  party  dissension,  which  in  different  ages  and  countries  has  perpetrated 
the  most  horrid  enormities,  is  itself  a frightful  despotism.  But  this  leads  at  length  to  a 
more  formal  and  permanent  despotism.  The  disorders  and  miseries  which  result  gradu- 
ally incline  the  minds  of  men  to  seek  security  and  repose  in  the  absolute  power  of  an 
individual ; and  sooner  or  later  the  chief  of  some  prevailing  faction,  more  able  or  more 
fortunate  than  his  competitors,  turns  this  disposition  to  the  purposes  of  his  own  elevation 
on  the  ruins  of  public  liberty. 

Without  looking  forward  to  an  extremity  of  this  kind  (which  nevertheless  ought  not 
to  be  entirely  out  of  sight),  the  common  and  continual  mischiefs  of  the  spirit  of  party 
are  sufficient  to  make  it  the  interest  and  duty  of  a wise  people  to  discourage  and  re- 
strain it. 

It  serves  always  to  distract  the  public  councils  and  enfeeble  the  public  administra- 
tion. It  agitates  the  community  with  ill-founded  jealousies  and  false  alarms,  kindles  the 
animosity  of  one  part  against  another,  foments  occasionally  riot  and  insurrection.  It 
opens  the  door  to  foreign  influence  and  corruption,  which  find  a facilitated  access  to  the 
government  itself  through  the  channels  of  party  passions.  Thus  the  policy  and  will  of 
one  country  are  subjected  to  the  policy  and  will  of  another. 

There  is  an  opinion  that  parties  in  free  countries  are  useful  checks  upon  the  admin- 
istration of  the  government,  and  serve  to  keep  alive  the  spirit  of  liberty.  This  within 
certain  limits  is  probably  true  ; and  in  governments  of  a monarchical  cast  patriotism 
may  look  with  indulgence,  if  not  with  favor,  upon  the  spirit  of  party.  But  in  those  of 
the  popular  character,  in  governments  purely  elective,  it  is  a spirit  not  to  be  encour- 
aged. From  their  natural  tendency  it  is  certain  there  will  always  be  enough  of  that 
spirit  for  every  salutary  purpose.  And,  there  being  constant  danger  of  excess,  the  effort 
ought  to  be  by  force  of  public  'opinion  to  mitigate  aud  assauge  it.  A fire  not  to  be 
quenched,  it  demands  a uniform  vigilance  to  prevent  its  bursting  into  a flame,  lest,  in- 
stead of  warming,  it  should  consume. 


830 


WASHINGTON'S  FAREWELL  ADDRESS. 


It  is  important,  likewise,  that  the  habits  of  thinking  in  a free  country  should  inspire 
caution,  in  those  intrusted  with  its  administration,  to  confine  themselves  within  their  re- 
spective constitutional  spheres,  avoiding  in  the  exercise  of  the  powers  of  one  department 
to  encroach  upon  another.  The  spirit  of  encroachment  tends  to  consolidate  the  powers 
of  all  the  departments  in  one,  and  thus  to  create,  whatever  the  form  of  government,  a 
real  despotism.  A just  estimate  of  that  love  of  power,  and  proneness  to  abuse  it,  which 
predominates  in  the  human  heart,  is  sufficient  to  satisfy  us  of  the  truth  of  this  position. 
The  necessity  of  reciprocal  checks  in  the  exercise  of  political  power,  by  dividing 
and  distributing  into  different  depositories,  and  constituting  each  the  guardian  of 
the  public  weal  against  invasions  by  the  others,  has  been  evinced  by  experiments 
ancient  and  modern  ; some  of  them  in  our  country  and  under  our  own  eyes.  To  pre- 
serve them  must  be  as  necessary  as  to  institute  them.  If,  in  the  opinion  of  the  people, 
the  distribution  or  modification  of  the  constitutional  powers  be  in  any  particular  wrong, 
let  it  be  corrected  by  an  amendment  in  the  way  which  the  constitution  designates.  But 
let  there  be  no  change  by  usurpation  ; for,  though  this,  in  one  instance,  may  be  the  in- 
strument of  good,  it  is  the  customary  weapon  by  which  free  governments  are  destroyed. 
The  precedent  must  always  greatly  overbalance  in  permanent  evil  any  partial  or  tran- 
sient benefit,  which  the  use  can  at  any  time  yield. 

Of  all  the  dispositions  and  habits,  which  lead  to  political  prosperity,  religion  and 
morality  are  indispensable  supports.  In  vain  would  that  man  claim  the  tribute  of  patri- 
otism, who  should  labor  to  subvert  these  great  pillars  of  human  happiness,  these  firmest 
props  of  the  duties  of  men  and  citizens.  The  mere  politician,  equally  with  the  pious  man, 
ought  to  respect  and  cherish  them.  A volume  could  not  trace  all  their  connections  with 
private  and  public  felicity.  Let  it  simply  be  asked,  Where  is  the  security  for  property, 
tor  reputation,  for  life,  if  the  sense  of  religious  obligation  desert  the  oaths,  which  are  the 
instruments  of  investigation  in  courts  of  justice  ? And  let  us  with  caution  indulge  the 
supposition,  that  morality  can  be  maintained  without  religion.  Whatever  may  be  con- 
ceded to  the  influence  of  refined  education  on  minds  of  peculiar  structure,  reason  and  ex- 
perience both  forbid  us  to  expect,  that  national  morality  can  prevail  in  exclusion  of  reli- 
gious principle. 

It  is  substantially  true,  that  virtue  or  morality  is  a necessary  spring  of  popular  gov- 
ernment. The  rule,  indeed,  extends  with  more  or  less  force  to  every  species  of  free  gov- 
ernment. Who,  that  is  a sincere  friend  to  it,  can  look  with  indifference  upon  attempts  to 
shake  the  foundation  of  the  fabric  ? 

Promote,  then,  as  an  object  of  primary  importance,  institutions  for  the  general  diffu- 
sion of  knowledge.  In  proportion  as  the  structure  of  a government  gives  force  to  public 
opinion,  it  is  essential  that  public  opinion  should  be  enlightened. 

As  a very  important  source  of  strength  and  security,  cherish  public  credit.  One 
method  of  preserving  it  is,  to  use  it  as  sparingly  as  possible  ; avoiding  occasions  of  ex- 
pense by  cultivating  peace,  but  remembering  also  that  timely  disbursements  to  prepare 
for  danger  frequently  prevent  much  greater  disbursements  to  repel  it ; avoiding  likewise 
the  accumulation  of  debt,  not  only  by  shunning  occasions  of  expense,  but  by  vigorous  ex- 
ertion in  time  of  peace  to  discharge  the  debts,  which  unavoidable  wars  may  have  occas- 
ioned not  ungenerously  throwing  upon  posterity  the  burden  which  we  ourselves  ought  to 
bear.  The  execution  of  these  maxims  belongs  to  your  representatives,  but  it  is  necessary 
that  public  opinion  should  co-operate.  To  facilitate  to  them  the  performance  of  their 
duty,  it  is  essential  that  you  should  practically  bear  in  mind  that  towards  the  payment  of 
debts  there  must  be  revenue  ; that  to  have  revenue  there  must  be  taxes  ; that  no  taxes 
can  be  devised  which  are  not  more  or  less  inconvenient  and  unpleasant ; that  the  intrin- 
sic embarrassment,  inseparable  from  the  selection  of  the  proper  objects  (which  is  always 
a choice  of  difficulties),  ought  to  be  a decisive  motive  for  a candid  construction  of  the  con- 
duct of  the  government  in  making  it,  and  for  a spirit  of  acquiescence  in  the  measures  for 
obtaining  revenue,  which  the  public  exigencies  may  at  any  time  dictate. 

Observe  good  faith  and  justice  towards  all  nations  ; cultivate  peace  and  harmony 


Washington’s  farewell  address. 


831 


with  all*  Religion  and  morality  enjoin  this  conduct ; and  can  it  be  that  good  policy  does 
not  equally  enjoin  it  ? It  will  be  worthy  of  a free,  enlightened,  and  at  no  distant  period, 
a great  nation,  to  give  to  mankind  the  magnanimous  and  too  novel  example  of  a people 
always  guided  by  an  exalted  justice  and  benevolence.  Who  can  doubt  that  in  the  course 
of  time  and  things  the  fruits  of  such  a plan  would  richly  repay  any  temporary  advantages 
which  might  be  lost  by  a steady  adherence  to  it  ? Can  it  be  that  Providence  has  not 
connected  the  permanent  felicity  of  a nation  with  its  virtue  ? The  experiment,  at  least, 
is  recommended  by  every  sentiment  which  ennobles  human  nature.  Alas  ! is  it  rendered 
impossible  by  its  vices  ? 

In  the  execution  of  such  a plan,  nothing  is  more  essential  than  that  permanent,  invet- 
erate antipathies  against  particular  nations,  and  passionate  attachments  for  others,  should 
be  excluded  ; and  that  in  place  of  them,  just  and  amicable  feelings  towards  all  should  be 
cultivated.  The  nation  which  indulges  towards  another  an  habitual  hatred,  or  an  habit- 
ual fondness,  is  in  some  degree  a slave.  It  is  a slave  to  its  animosity  or  to  its  affection, 
either  of  which  is  sufficient  to  lead  it  astray  from  its  duty  and  its  interest.  Antipathy  in 
one  nation  against  another  disposes  each  more  readily  to  offer  insult  and  injury,  to  lay 
hold  of  slight  causes  of  umbrage,  to  be  haughty  and  intractable,  when  accidental  or  trif- 
ling occasions  occur.  Hence,  frequent  collisions,  obstinate,  envenomed  and  bloody  con- 
tests. The  nation,  prompted  by  ill-will  and  resentment,  sometimes  impels  to  war  the  gov- 
ernment, contrary  to  the  best  calculations  of  policy.  The  government  sometimes  partici- 
pates in  the  national  propensity,  and  adopts  through  passion  what  reason  would  reject ; 
at  other  times,  it  makes  the  animosity  of  the  nation  subservient  to  projects  of  hostility 
instigated  by  pride,  ambition,  and  other  sinister  and  pernicious  motives.  The  peace 
often,  sometimes  perhaps  the  liberty,  of  nations  has  been  the  victim. 

So  likewise  a passionate  attachment  of  one  nation  for  another  produces  a variety  of 
evils.  Sympathy  for  the  favorite  nation,  facilitating  the  illusion  of  an  imaginary  common 
interest  in  cases  where  no  real  common  interest  exists,  and  infusing  into  one  the  enmities 
of  the  other,  betrays  the  former  into  a participation  in  the  quarrels  and  wars  of  the  latter, 
without  adequate  inducement  or  justification.  It  leads  also  to  concessions  to  the  favorite 
nation  of  privileges  denied  to  others,  which  is  apt  doubly  to  injure  the  nation  making  the 
concessions,  by  unnecessarily  parting  with  what  ought  to  have  been  retained,  and  by  ex- 
citing jealously,  ill-will,  and  a disposition  to  retaliate,  in  the  parties  from  whom  equal 
privileges  are  withheld.  And  it  gives  to  ambitious,  corrupted,  or  deluded  citizens  (who 
devote  themselves  to  the  favorite  nation),  facility  to  betray  or  sacrifice  the  interests  of 
their  own  country,  without  odium,  sometimes  even  with  popularity,  gilding,  with  the  ap- 
pearances of  a virtuous  sense  of  obligation,  a commendable  deference  for  public  opinion, 
or  a laudable  zeal  for  public  good,  the  base  or  foolish  compliances  of  ambition,  corruption 
or  infatuation. 

As  avenues  to  foreign  influence  in  innumerable  ways,  such  attachments  are  particu- 
larly alarming  to  the  truly  enlightened  and  independent  patriot.  How  many  opportuni- 
ties do  they  afford  to  tamper  with  domestic  factions,  to  practice  the  arts  of  seduction,  to 
mislead  public  opinion,  to  influence  or  awe  the  public  councils  1 Such  an  attachment  of 
a small  or  weak  towards  a great  and  powerful  nation  dooms  the  former  to  be  the  satellite 
of  the  latter. 

Against  the  insidious  wiles  of  foreign  influence  (I  conjure  you  to  believe  me,  fellow- 
citizens)  the  jealousy  of  a free  people  ought  to  be  constantly  awake,  since  history 
and  experience  prove  that  foreign  influence  is  one  of  the  most  baneful  foes  of  republican 
government.  But  that  jealousy,  to  be  useful,  must  be  impartial ; else  it  becomes  the 
instrument  of  the  very  influence  to  be  avoided,  instead  of  a defence  against  it.  Exces- 
sive partiality  for  one  foreign  nation,  and  excessive  dislike  of  another,  cause  those  whom 
they  actuate  to  see  danger  only  on  one  side,  and  serve  to  veil  and  even  second  the  arts 
of  influence  on  the  other.  Real  patriots  who  may  resist  the  intrigues  of  the  favorite  are 


832 


WASHINGTON'S  FAREWELL  ADDRESS. 


liable  to  become  suspected  and  odious  ; while  its  tools  and  dupes  usurp  the  applause  and 
confidence  of  the  people  to  surrender  their  interests. 

The  great  rule  of  conduct  for  us  in  regard  to  foreign  nations  is,  in  extending  our 
commercial  relations,  to  have  with  them  as  little  political  connection  as  possible.  So  far 
as  we  have  already  formed  engagements,  let  them  be  fulfilled  with  perfect  good  faith. 
Here  let  us  stop. 

Europe  has  a set  of  primary  interests  which  to  us  have  none,  or  a very  remote  re- 
lation. Hence  she  must  be  engaged  in  frequent  controversies,  the  causes  of  which  are 
essentially  foreign  to  our  concerns.  Hence,  therefore,  it  must  be  unwise  in  us  to  impli- 
cate ourselves  by  artificial  ties  in  the  ordinary  vicissitudes  of  her  politics,  or  the  ordinary 
combinations  and  collisions  of  her  friendships  or  enmities. 

Our  detached  and  distant  situation  invites  and  enables  us  to  pursue  a different 
course.  If  we  remain  one  people,  under  an  efficient  government,  the  period  is  not  far 
off  when  we  may  defy  material  injury  from  external  annoyance ; when  we  may  take  such 
an  attitude  as  will  cause  the  neutrality  we  may  at  any  time  resolve  upon  to  be  scrupu- 
lously respected ; when  belligerent  nations,  under  the  impossibility  of  making  acqui- 
sitions upon  us,  will  not  lightly  hazard  the  giving  us  provocation ; when  we  may  choose 
peace  or  war,  as  our  interest,  guided  by  justice,  shall  counsel. 

Why  forego  the  advantages  of  so  peculiar  a situation  ? Why  quit  our  own  to  stand 
'apon  foreign  ground  ? Why,  by  interweaving  our  destiny  with  that  of  any  part  of  Eu- 
rope, entangle  our*  peace  and  prosperity  in  the  toils  of  European  ambition,  rivalship, 
interest,  humor  or  caprice  ? 

It  is  our  true  policy  to  steer  clear  oi  permanent  alliances  with  any  portion  of  the 
foreign  world  ; so  far,  I mean,  as  we  are  now  at  liberty  to  do  it ; for  let  me  not  be  un- 
derstood as  capable  of  patronizing  infidelity  to  existing  engagements.  I hold  the  maxim 
no  less  applicable  to  public  than  to  private  affairs,  that  honesty  is  always  the  best  policy, 
t repeat  it,  therefore,  let  those  engagements  be  observed  in  their  genuine  sense.  But,  in 
my  opinion,  it  is  unnecessary  and  would  be  unwise  to  extend  them. 

Taking  care  always  to  keep  ourselves,  by  suitable  establishments,  on  a respectable 
defensive  posture,  we  may  safely  trust  to  temporary  alliances  for  extraordinary  emergen- 
cies. 

Harmony,  liberal  intercourse  with  all  nations,  are  recommended  by  policy,  humanity 
and  interest.  But  even  our  commercial  policy  should  hold  an  equal  and  impartial  hand, 
neither  seeking  nor  granting  exclusive  favors  or  preferences,  consulting  the  natural 
course  of  things,  diffusing  and  diversifying  by  gentle  means  the  streams  of  commerce,  but 
forcing  nothing  ; establishing,  with  powers  so  disposed,  in  order  to  give  trade  a stable 
course,  to  define  the  rights  of  our  merchants,  and  to  enable  the  government  to  support 
them,  conventional  rules  of  intercourse,  the  best  that  present  circumstances  and  mutual 
opinion  will  permit,  but  temporary,  and  liable  to  be  from  time  to  time  abandoned  or 
varied,  as  experience  and  circumstances  shall  dictate;  constantly  keeping  in  view  that 
it  is  folly  in  one  nation  to  look  for  disinterested  favors  from  another  ; that  it  must  pay 
with  a portion  of  its  independence  for  whatever  it  may  accept  under  that  character ; that, 
by  such  acceptance,  it  may  place  itself  in  the  condition  of  having  given  equivalents  for 
nominal  favors,  and  yet  of  being  reproached  with  ingratitude  for  not  giving  more.  There 
can  be  no  greater  error  than  to  expect  or  calculate  upon  real  favors  from  nation  to  nation. 
It  is  an  illusion,  which  experience  must  cure,  which  a just  pride  ought  to  discard. 

In  offering  to  you,  my  countrymen,  these  consels  of  an  old  and  affectionate  friend, 
I dare  not  hope  they  will  make  the  strong  and  lasting  impression  I could  wish  ; that  they 
will  control  the  usual  current  of  the  passions,  or  prevent  our  nation  from  running  the 
course,  which  has  hitherto  marked  the  destiny  of  nations.  But,  if  I may  even  flatter 
myself,  that  they  may  be  productive  of  some  partial  benefit,  some  occasional  good  ; that 
they  may  now  and  then  recur  to  moderate  the  fury  of  party  spirit,  to  warn  against  the 
mischiefs  of  foreign  intrigue,  to  guard  against  the  impostures  of  pretended  patriotism ; 


WASHINGTON’S  FAREWI  LL  ADDRESS. 


833 


this  hope  will  be  a full  recompense  for  the  solicitude  for  your  welfare,  by  which  they  have 
been  dictated. 

How  far  in  the  discharge  of  my  official  duties,  I have  been  guided  by  the  principles 
which  have  been  delineated,  the  publie  records,  und  other  evidences  of  my  conduct  must 
witness  to  you  and  to  the  world.  To  myself,  the  assurance  of  my  own  conscience  is,  that 
I have  at  least  believed  myself  to  be  guided  by  them. 

In  relation  to  the  still  subsisting  war  in  Europe,  my  proclamation  of  the  22d  of 
April,  1793,  is  the  index  of  my  plan.  Sanctioned  by  your  approving  voice,  and  by  that 
of  your  Representatives  in  both  Houses  of  "Congress,  the  spirit  of  that  measure  has 
continually  governed  me,  uninfluenced  by  any  attempts  to  deter  or  divert  me  from  it. 

After  deliberate  examination,  with  the  aid  of  the  best  lights  I could  obtain,  I was 
well  satisfied  that  our  country,  under  all  the  circumstances  of  the  case,  had  a right  to 
take,  and  was  bound  in  duty  and  interest  to  take,  a neutral  position.  Having  taken  it,  I 
determined,  as  far  as  should  depend  upon  1*%  to  maintain  it,  with  moderation,  persever- 
ance and  firmness. 

The  considerations  which  respect  the  right  to  hold  this  conduct,  it  is  not  necessary 
on  this  occasion  to  detail.  I will  only  observe,  that,  according  to  my  understanding  of 
the  matter,  that  right,  so  far  from  being  denied  by  any  of  the  belligerent  powers,  has 
been  virtually  admitted  by  all. 

The  duty  of  holding  a neutral  conduct  may  be  inferred,  without  anything  more, 
from  the  obligation  which  justice  and  humanity  impose  on  every  nation,  in  cases  in  which 
it  is  free  to  act,  to  maintain  inviolate  the  relations  of  peace  and  amity  towards  other 
nations. 

The  inducements  of  interest  for  observing  that  conduct  will  best  be  referred  to  your 
own  reflections  and  experience.  With  me  a predominant  motive  has  been  to  endeavor  to 
gain  time  to  our  country  to  settle  and  mature  its  yet  recent  institutions,  and  to  progress 
without  interruption  to  that  degree  of  strength  and  consistency,  which  is  necessary  to 
give  it,  humanly  speaking,  the  command  of  its  own  fortunes. 

Though,  in  reviewing  the  incidents  of  my  administration,  I am  unconscious  of  inten 
tional  error,  I am  nevertheless  too  sensible  of  my  defects  not  to  think  it  probable  that  I 
may  have  committed  many  errors.  Whatever  they  may  be  I fervently  beseech  the 
Almighty  to  avert  or  mitigate  the  evils  to  which  they  may  tend.  I shall  also  carry  with  me 
the  hope,  that  my  country  will  never  cease  to  view  them  with  indulgence  ; and  that,  after 
forty-five  years  of  my  life  dedicated  to  its  service  with  an  upright  zeal,  the  faults  of  incom- 
petent abilities  will  be  consigned  to  oblivion,  as  myself  must  soon  be  to  the  mansions  of 
rest. 

Relying  on  its  kindness  in  this  as  in  other  things,  and  actuated  by  that  fervent  love 
towards  it,  which  is  so  natural  to  a man,  who  views  in  it  the  native  soil  of  himself  and 
his  progenitors  for  several  generations  ; I anticipate  with  pleasing  expectation  that  retreat, 
in  which  I promise  myself  to  realize,  without  alloy,  the  sweet  enjoyment  of  partaking,  in 
the  midst  of  my  fellow-citizens,  the  benign  influence  of  good  laws  under  a free  govern- 
ment, the  ever  favorite  c bject  of  my  heart,  and  the  happy  reward,  as  I trust,  of  our  mutual 
:ares,  labors,  and  dangers. 

GEORGE  WASHINGTON. 

United  States,  September  17th,  1796. 


ABRAHAM  LINCOLN  AT  INDEPENDENCE  HALL, 

Philadelphia , February  21,  1861. 

AM  FILLED  with  deep  emotion  at  finding  myself  standing  here  in  this 
place,  where  were  collected  together  the  wisdom,  the  patriotism,  the  devo- 
tion to  principle  from  which  sprang  the  institutions  under  which  we  live. 
You  have  kindly  suggested  to  me  that  in  my  hands  is  the  task  of  restor- 
ing peace  to  the  present  distracted  condition  of  the  country.  I can  say  in 
return,  sir,  that  all  the  political  sentiments  I entertain  have  been  drawn,  so  far  as  I have 
been  able  to  draw  them,  from  the  sentiments  which  originated  in  and  tverp  given  to  the 
world  from  this  hall.  I have  never  had  a feeling,  politically,  that  did  not  spring  from  the 
sentiments  embodied  in  the  Declaration  of  Independence.  I have  often  pondered  over 
the  dangers  which  were  incurred  by  the  men  who  assembled  here,  and  framed  and  adopted 
that  Declaration  of  Independence.  I have  pondered  over  the  toils  that  ^vere  endured  by 
the  officers  and  soldiers  of  the  army  who  achieved  that  independence.  I have  often  in 
quired  of  myself  what  great  principle  or  idea  it  was  that  kept  this  confederacy  so  long 
together.  It  was  not  the  mere  matter  of  the  separation  of  the  colonies  from  the  mother- 
land, but  that  sentiment  in  the  Declaration  of  Independence  which  gave  liberty,  not 
alone  to  the  people  of  this  country,  but,  I hope,  to  the  world,  for  all  future  time.  It  was 
*that  which  gave  promise  that  in  due  time  the  weight  would  be  lifted  from  the  shoulders 
of  all  men.  This  is  the  sentiment  embodied  in  the  Declaration  of  Independence.  Now. 
my  friends,  can  this  country  be  saved  upon  that  basis  ? If  it  can,  I will  consider  myself 
one  of  the  happiest  men  in  the  world  if  I can  help  to  save  it.  If  it  cannot  be  saved  upon 
that  principle,  it  will  be  truly  awful.  But  if  this  country  cannot  be  saved  without  giving 
up  that  principle,  I was  about  to  say  I would  rather  be  assassinated  on  this  spot  than 
surrender  it.  Now,  in  my  view  of  the  present  aspect  of  affairs,  there  need  be  no  blood- 
shed or  war.  There  is  no  necessity  for  it.  I am  not  in  favor  of  such  a course  ; and  I 
may  say  in  advance  that  there  will  be  no  bloodshed  unless  it  be  forced  upon  the  govern- 
ment, and  then  it  will  be  compelled  to  act  in  self-defence. 

My  friends,  this  is  wholly  an  unexpected  speech,  and  I did  not  expect  to  be  called 
upon  to  say  a word  when  I came  here.  I supposed  it  was  merely  to  do  something 
towards  raising  the  flag — I may,  therefore,  have  said  something  indiscreet.  I have  said 
nothing  but  what  I am  willing  to  live  by,  and,  if  it  be  the  pleasure  of  Almighty  God, 
die  by. 

ABRAHAM  LINCOLN’S  FIRST  INAUGURAL  ADDRESS. 

March  4,  1861. 

ELLOW  Citizens  of  the  United  States — In  compliance  with  a cus- 
tom as  old  as  the  government  itself,  I appear  before  you  to  address  you 
briefly,  and  take  in  your  presence  the  oath  prescribed  by  the  Constitution 
of  the  United  States  to  be  taken  by  the  President  “before  he  enters  on 
the  execution  of  his  office.” 

: consider  it  necessary  at  present  for  me  to  discuss  those  matters  of  admin- 
istration about  whicfi  there  is  no  special  anxiety  or  excitement. 

Apprehension  seems  to  exist,  among  the  people  of  the  Southern  States,  that  by  the 


I do 


ABRAHAM  LINCOLN'S  FIRST  INAUGURAL  ADDRESS. 


835 


accession  of  a republican  administration  their  property  and  their  peace  and  personal 
security  are  to  be  endangered.  There  has  never  been  any  reasonable  cause  for  such 
apprehension.  Indeed,  the  most  ample  evidence  to  the  contrary  has  all  the  while  existed 
and  been  open  to  their  inspection.  It  is  found  in  nearly  all  the  published  speeches  of 
him  who  now  addresses  you.  I do  but  quote  from  one  of  those  speeches  when  I declare 
that  “ I have  no  purpose,  directly  or  indirectly,  to  interfere  with  the  institution  of  slavery 
in  the  states  where  it  exists.  I believe  I have  no  lawful  right  to  do  so,  and  I have  no  in- 
clination to  do  so.”  Those  who  nominated  and  elected  me  did  so  with  full  knowledge 
that  I had  made  this  and  similar  declarations,  and  had  never  recanted  them.  And  more 
than  this,  they  placed  in  the  platform  for  my  acceptance,  and  as  a law  to  themselves  and 
to  me,  the  clear  and  emphatic  resolution  which  I now  read : 

Resolved , That  the  maintenance  inviolate  of  the  rights  of  states,  and  especially  the  right  of  each  state 
to  order  and  control  its  own  domestic  institutions  according  to  its  own  judgment  exclusively,  is  essential  to 
the  balance  of  power  on  which  the  perfection  and  endurance  of  our  political  fabric  depend,  and  we  denounce 
the  lawless  invasion  by  armed  force  of  the  soil  of  any  state  or  territory,  no  matter  under  what  pretext,  as 
among  the  gravest  of  crimes. 

I now  reiterate  these  sentiments ; and,  in  doing  so,  I only  press  upon  the  public 
attention  the  most  conclusive  evidence  of  which  the  case  is  susceptible,  that  the  property, 
peace,  and  security  of  no  section  are  to  be  in  anywise  endangered  by  the  now  incoming 
administration.  I add,  too,  that  all  the  protection  which,  consistently  with  the  Constitu- 
tion and  the  laws,  can  be  given,  will  be  cheerfully  given  to  all  the  states,  when  lawfully 
demanded,  for  whatever  cause — as  cheerfully  to  one  section  as  to  another. 

There  is  much  controversy  about  the  delivering  up  of  fugitives  from  service  or  labor. 
The  clause  I now  read  is  as  plainly  written  in  the  Constitution  as  any  other  of  its  pro- 
visions : 

No  person  held  to  service  or  labor  in  one  state,  under  the  laws  thereof,  escaping  into  another,  shall,  in 
consequence  of  any  law  or  regulation  therein,  be  discharged  from  such  service  or  labor,  but  shall  be  deliv- 
ered up  on  claim  of  the  party  to  whom  such  service  or  labor  may  be  due. 

It  is  scarcely  questioned  that  this  provision  was  intended  by  those  who  made  it  fot 
the  reclaiming  of  what  we  call  fugitive  slaves  ; and  the  intention  of  the  lawgiver  is  the 
law.  All  members  of  Congress  swear  their  support  to  the  whole  Constitution — to  this 
provision  as  much  as  any  other.  To  the  proposition,  then,  that  slaves,  whose  cases 
come  within  the  terms  of  this  clause,  “ shall  be  delivered  up,”  their  oaths  are  unanimous. 
Now,  if  they  would  make  the  effort  in  good  temper,  could  they  not,  with  nearly  equal 
unanimity,  frame  and  pass  a law  by  means  of  which  to  keep  good  that  unanimous  oath  ? 

There  is  some  difference  of  opinion  whether  this  clause  should  be  enforced  by 
national  or  by  State  authority ; but  surely  that  difference  is  not  a very  material  one. 
If  the  slave  is  to  be  surrendered,  it  can  be  of  but  little  consequence  to  him,  or  to  others, 
by  which  authority  it  is  done.  And  should  any  one,  in  any  case,  be  content  that  his 
oath  shall  go  unkept,  on  a mere  unsubstantial  controversy  as  to  how  it  shall  be  kept? 

Again,  in  any  law  upon  the  subject,  ought  not  all  the  safeguards  of  liberty  known 
in  civilized  and  human  jurisprudence  to  be  introduced,  so  that  a free  man  be  not,  in  any 
case,  surrendered  as  a slave  ? And  might  it  not  be  well,  at  the  same  time,  to  provide 
by  law  for  the  enforcement  of  that  clause  in  the  Constitution  which  guarantees  that 
“the  citizens  of  each  State  shall  be  entitled  to  all  privileges  and  immunities  of  citizens 
in  the  several  States  ? ” 

I shall  take  the  official  oath  to-day  with  no  mental  reservation,  and  with  no  purpose 
to  construe  the  Constitution  or  laws  by  any  hypercritical  rule.  And  while  I do  not 
choose  now  to  specify  particular  acts  of  Congress  as  proper  to  be  enforced,  I do  suggest 
that  it  will  be  much  safer  for  all,  both  in  official  and  private  stations,  to  conform  to  and 
abide  by  all  those  acts  which  stand  unrepealed,  than  to  violate  any  of  them,  trusting  to 
find  impunity  in  having  them  held  to  be  unconstitutional. 


836 


ABRAHAM  LINCOLN’S  FIRST  INAUGURAL  ADDRESS. 


It  is  seventy-two  years  since  the  first  inauguration  of  a President  under  our  national 
Constitution.  During  that  period,  fifteen  different  and  greatly  distinguished  citizens 
have,  in  succession,  administered  the  executive  branch  of  the  government.  They  have 
conducted  it  through  many  perils,  and  generally  with  great  success.  Yet,  with  all  this 
scope  for  precedent,  I now  enter  upon  the  same  task  for  the  brief  constitutional  term  of 
four  years,  under  great  and  peculiar  difficulty.  A disruption  of  the  Federal  Union,  here- 
tofore only  menaced,  is  now  formidably  attempted. 

I hold  that,  in  contemplation  of  universal  law,  and  of  the  Constitution,  the  union  of 
these  States  is  perpetual.  Perpetuity  is  implied,  if  not  expressed,  in  the  fundamental 
law  of  all  national  governments.  It  is  safe  to  assert  that  no  government  proper  ever  had 
a provision  in  its  organic  law  for  its  own  termination.  Continue  to  execute  all  the 
express  provisions  of  our  national  government,  and  the  Union  will  endure  forever — it 
being  impossible  to  destroy  it,  except  by  some  action  not  provided  for  in  the  instrument 
itself. 

Again,  if  the  United  States  be  not  a government  proper,  but  an  association  of 
States  in  the  nature  of  contract  merely,  can  it,  as  a contract,  be  peaceably  unmade  by 
less  than  all  the  parties  who  made  it  ? One  party  to  a contract  may  violate  it — break  it, 
so  to  speak  ; but  does  it  not  require  all  to  lawfully  rescind  it  ? 

Descending  from  these  general  principles,  we  find  the  proposition  that,  in  legal  con- 
templation, the  Union  is  perpetual,  confirmed  by  the  history  of  the  Union  itself.  The 
Union  is  much  older  than  the  Constitution.  It  was  formed  in  fact,  by  the  articles  of 
association  in  1774.  It  was  matured  and  continued  by  the  Declaration  of  Independence 
in  1776.  It  was  further  matured,  and  the  faith  of  all  the  then  thirteen  States  expressly 
plighted  and  engaged  that  it  should  be  perpetual,  by  the  articles  of  confederation  in  1778. 
And,  finally,  in  1787,  one  of  the  declared  objects  for  ordaining  and  establishing  the  Con- 
stitution was  “to  form  a more  perfect  Union.” 

But  if  destruction  of  the  Union,  by  one,  or  by  a part  only,  of  the  States,  be  law- 
fully possible,  the  Union  is  less  perfect  than  before,  the  Constitution  having  lost  the  vital 
element  of  perpetuity. 

It  follows,  from  these  views,  that  no  State  upon  its  own  mere  motion,  can  lawfully 
get  out  of  the  Union  ; that  resolves  and  ordinances  to  that  effect  are  legally  void  ; and 
that  acts  of  violence  within  any  State  or  States,  against  the  authority  of  the  United 
States,  are  insurrectionary,  or  revolutionary,  according  to  circumstances. 

I,  therefore  consider  that,  in  view  of  the  Constitution  and  the  laws,  the  Union  is 
unbroken,  and  to  the  extent  of  my  ability  I shall  take  care,  as  the  Constitution  itself 
expressly  enjoins  upon  me,  that  the  laws  of  the  Union  be  faithfully  executed  in  all  the 
States.  Doing  this  I deem  to  be  only  a simple  duty  on  my  part ; and  I shall  perform  it, 
so  far  as  practicable,  unless  my  rightful  masters,  the  American  people,  shall  withhold  the 
requisite  means,  or,  in  some  authoritative  manner,  direct  the  contrary.  I trust  this  will 
not  be  regarded  as  a menace,  but  only  as  the  declared  purpose  of  the  Union  that  it  will 
constitutionally  defend  and  maintain  itself. 

In  doing  this  there  need  be  no  bloodshed  or  violence ; and  there  shall  be  none, 
unless  it  be  forced  upon  the  national  authority.  The  power  confided  to  me  will  be  used 
to  hold,  occupy,  and  possess  the  property  and  places  belonging  to  the  government,  and 
to  collect  the  duties  and  imports  ; but  beyond  what  may  be  but  necessary  for  these 
objects,  there  will  be  no  invasion,  no  using  of  force  against  or  among  the  people  any- 
where. Where  hostility  to  the  United  States  in  any  interior  locality  shall  be  so  great 
and  universal  as  to  prevent  competent  resident  citizens  from  holding  the  federal  offices, 
there  will  be  no  attempt  to  force  obnoxious  strangers  among  the  people  for  that  object. 
While  the  strict  legal  right  may  exist  in  the  government  to  enforce  the  exercise  of  these 
offices,  the  attempt  to  do  so  would  be  so  irritating,  and  so  nearly  impracticable  withal,  I 
deem  it  better  to  forego,  for  the  time,  the  uses  of  such  offices. 


ABRAHAM  LINCOLN’S  FIRST  INAUGURAL  ADDRESS.  837 

The  mails,  unless  repelled,  will  continue  to  be  furnished  in  all  parts  of  the  Union. 
So  far  as  possible,  the  people  everywhere  shall  have  that  sense  of  perfect  security  which 
is  most  favorable  to  calm  thought  and  reflection.  The  course  here  indicated  will  be  fol- 
lowed, unless  current  events  and  experience  shall  show  a modification  or  change  to  be 
proper,  and  in  every  case  and  exigency  my  best  discretion  will  be  exercised,  according  to 
circumstances  actually  existing,  and  with  a view  and  a hope  of  a peaceful  solution  of  the 
national  troubles,  and  the  restoration  of  fraternal  sympathies  and  affections. 

That  there  are  persons  in  one  section  or  another  who  seek  to  destroy  the  Union  at 
all  events,  and  are  glad  of  any  pretext  to  do  it,  I will  neither  affirm  nor  deny  ; but  if  there 
be  such,  I need  address  no  word  to  them.  To  those,  however,  who  really  love  the  Union* 
may  I not  speak  ? 

Before  .entering  upon  so  grave  a matter  as  the  destruction  of  our  national  fabric* 
with  all  its  benefits,  its  memories,  and  its  hopes,  would  it  not  be  wise  to  ascertain  pre- 
cisely why  we  do  it  ? Will  you  hazard  so  desperate  a step  while  there  is  any  possibility 
that  any  portion  of  the  ills  you  fly  from  have  no  real  existence  ? Will  you,  while  the 
certain  ills  you  fly  to  are  greater  than  all  the  real  ones  you  fly  from — will  you  risk  the 
commission  of  so  fearful  a mistake  ? 

All  profess  to  be  content  in  the  Union,  if  all  constitutional  rights  can  be  maintained. 
Is  it  true,  then,  that  any  right,  plainly  written  in  the  Constitution,  has  been  denied  ? I 
think  not.  Happily  the  human  mind  is  so  constituted  that  no  party  can  reach  to  the 
audacity  of  doing  this.  Think,  if  you  can,  of  a single  instance  in  which  a plainly  writ- 
ten provision  of  the  Constitution  has  ever  been  denied.  If,  by  the  mere  force  of  num- 
bers, a majority  should  deprive  a minority  of  any  clearly  written  constitutional  right,  it 
might,  in  amoral  point  of  view,  justify  revolution — certainly  it  would  if  such  a right  were  a 
vital  one.  But  such  is  not  our  case.  All  the  vital  rights  of  minorities  and  of  individuals 
are  so  plainly  assured  to  them  by  affirmation  and  negations,  guarantees  and  prohibitions 
in  the  Constitution,  that  controversies  never  arise  concerning  them.  But  no  organic  law 
can  ever  be  framed  with  a provision  specifically  applicable -to  every  question  which  may 
occur  in  practical  administration.  No  foresight  can  anticipate,  nor  any  document  of 
reasonable  length  contain,  express  provisions  for  all  possible  questions.  Shall  fugitives 
from  labor  be  surrendered  by  national  or  by  state  authority  ? The  Constitution  does  not 
expressly  say.  May  Congress  prohibit  slavery  in  the  territories  ? The  Constitution  does 
not  expressly  say.  Must  Congress  protect  slavery  in  the  territories?  The  Constitu- 
tion does  not  expressly  say. 

From  questions  of  this  class  spring  all  our  constitutional  controversies,  and  we 
divide  upon  them  into  majorities  and  minorities.  If  the  minority  will  not  acquiesce,  the 
majority  must,  or  the  government  must  cease.  There  is  no  other  alternative  ; for  con- 
tinuing the  government  is  acquiescence  on  one  side  or  the  other.  If  a minority  in  such 
case  will  secede  rather  than  acquiesce,  they  make  a precedent  which,  in  turn,  will  divide 
and  ruin  them  ; for  a minority  of  their  own  will  secede  from  them  whenever  a majority 
refuses  to  be  controlled  by  such  minority.  For  instance,  why  may  not  any  portion  of  a 
new  confederacy,  a year  or  two  hence,  arbitrarily  secede  again,  precisely  as  portions  of 
the  present  Union  now  claim  to  secede  from  it  ? All  who  cherish  disunion  sentiments 
are  now  being  educated  to  the  exact  temper  of  doing  this. 

Is  there  such  perfect  identity  of  interests  among  the  States  to  compose  a new 
Union,  as  to  produce  harmony  only,  and  prevent  renewed  secession? 

Plainly,  the  central  idea  of  secession  is  the  essence  of  anarchy.  A majority  held  in 
restraint  by  constitutional  checks  and  limitations,  and  always  changing  easily  with 
deliberate  changes  of  popular  opinions  and  sentiments,  is  the  only  true  sovereign  of  a 
free*  people.  Whoever  rejects  it,  does,  of  necessity,  fly  to  anarchy  or  to  despotism. 
Unanimity  is  impossible ; the  rule  of  a minority,  as  a permanent  arrangement,  is  wholly 
inadmissible  ; so  that,  rejecting  the  majority  principle,  anarchy  or  despotism,  in  some 
form,  is  all  that  is  left. 


838 


ABRAHAM  LINCOLN’S  FIRST  INAUGURAL  ADDRESS. 


I do  not  forget  the  position  assumed  by  some,  that  constitutional  questions  are  cg 
be  decided  by  the  Supreme  Court;  nor  do  I deny  that  such  decisions  must  be  binding, 
in  any  case,  upon  the  parties  to  a suit,  as  to  the  object  of  that  suit,  while  they  are  also 
entitled  to  very  high  respect  and  consideration  in  all  parallel  cases,  by  all  other  depart- 
ments of  the  government.  And  while  it  is  obviously  possible  that  such  decisions  may 
be  erroneous  in  any  given  case,  still,  the  evil  effect  following  it  being  limited  to  that  par- 
ticular case,  with  the  chance  that  it  may  be  overruled,  and  never  become  a precedent  for 
other  cases,  can  better  be  borne  than  could  the  evils  of  a different  practice.  At  the  same 
time,  the  candid  citizen  must  confess  that  if  the  policy  of  the  government  upon  vital 
questions  affecting  the  whole  people,  is  to  be  irrevocably  fixed  by  decisions  of  the 
Supreme  Court,  the  instant  they  are  made  in  ordinary  litigation  between  parties  in  per- 
sonal actions,  the  people  will  cease  to  be  their  own  rulers,  having  to  that  extent  practi- 
cally resigned  their  government  into  the  hands  of  that  eminent  tribunal. 

Nor  is  there  in  this  view  any  assault  upon  the  Court  or  the  Judges.  It  is  a duty 
from  which  they  may.  not  shrink  to  decide  cases  properly  brought  before  them,  and  it  is 
.no  fault  of  theirs  if  others  seek  to  turn  their  decisions  to  political  purposes.  One  section 
of  our  country  believes  slavery  is  right,  and  ought  to  be  extended,  while  the  other  be- 
lieves it  is  wrong,  and  ought  not  to  be  extended.  This  is  the  only  substantial  dispute. 
The  fugitive  slave  clause  of  the  Constitution,  and  the  law  foi  die  suppression  of  the  for- 
eign slave-trade,  are  each  as  well  enforced,  perhaps,  as  any  law  can  ever  be  in  a commu- 
nity where  the  moral  sense  of  the  people  imperfectly  supports  the  law  itself.  The  great 
body  of  the  people  abide  by  the  dry  legal  obligation  in  both  cases,  and  a few  break  over 
in  each.  This,  I think,  cannot  be  perfectly  cured  ; and  it  would  be  worse,  in  both  cases, 
after  the  separation  of  the  sections  than  before.  The  foreign  slave-trade,  now  imperfectly 
suppressed,  would  be  ultimately  revived,  without  restriction,  in  one  section  ; while 
fugitive  slaves,  now  only  partially  surrendered,  would  not  be  surrendered  at  all  by 
the  other. 

Physically  speaking,  we  cannot  separate.  We  cannot  remove  our  respective  sections 
from  each  other,  nor  build  an  impassable  wall  between  them.  A husband  and  wife  may 
be  divorced  and  go  out  of  the  presence  and  beyond  the  reach  of  each  other,  but  the  dif- 
ferent parts  of  our  country  cannot  do  this.  They  cannot  but  remain  face  to  face,  and 
intercourse,  either  amicable  or  hostile,  must  continue  between  them.  It  is  impossible, 
then,  to  make  that  intercourse  more  advantageous  or  more  satisfactory  after  separation 
than  before.  Can  aliens  make  treaties  easier  than  friends  can  make  laws  ? Can  treaties 
be  more  faithfully  enforced  between  aliens  than  laws  can  among  friends  ? Suppose  you 
gp  to  war,  you  cannot  fight  always  ; and  when,  after  much  loss  on  both  sides,  and  no  gain 
on  either,  you  cease  fighting,  the  identical  old  questions,  as  to  terms  of  intercourse,  are 
again  upon  you. 

This  country,  with  its  institutions,  belongs  to  the  people  who  inhabit  it.  Whenever 
they  shall  grow  weary  of  the  existing  government,  they  can  exercise  their  Constitutional 
right  of  amending  it,  or  their  revolutionary  right  to  dismember  or  overthrow  it.  I can- 
not be  ignorant  of  the  fact  that  many  worthy  and  patriotic  citizens  are  desirous  of  having 
the  National  Constitution  amended.  While  I make  no  recommendation  of  amendment, 
I fully  recognize  the  rightful  authority  of  the  people  over  the  whole  subject,  to  be  exer- 
cised in  either  of  the  modes  prescribed  in  the  instrument  itself ; and  I should,  under  ex- 
isting circumstances,  favor,  rather  than  oppose,  a fair  opportunity  being  afforded  the 
people  to  act  upon  it.  I will  venture  to  add,  that  to  me  the  convention  mode  seems  pref- 
erable, in  that  it  allows  amendments  to  originate  with  the  people  themselves,  instead  of 
only  permitting  them  to  take  or  reject  propositions  originated  by  others,  not  especially 
chosen  for  the  purpose,  and  which  might  not  be  precisely  such  as  they  would  wish  to 
either  accept  or  refuse.  I understand  a proposed  amendment  to  the  Constitution — which 
amendment,  however,  I have  not  seen — has  passed  Congress,  to  the  effect  that  the  Fed- 
eral Government  shall  never  interfere  with  the  domestic  institutions  of  the  States,  in- 


ABRAHAM  LINCOLN’S  FIRST  INAUGURAL  ADDRESS. 


839 


eluding  that  o±  persons  held  to  service.  To  avoid  misconstruction  of  what  I have  said, 
I depart  from  my  purpose  not  to  speak  of  particular  amendments  so  far  as  to  say  that, 
holding  such  a provision  now  to  be  implied  Constitutional  law,  I have  no  objections  to 
its  being  made  express  and  irrevocable. 

The  chief  magistrate  derives  all  his  authority  from  the  people,  and  they  have  con- 
ferred none  upon  him  to  fix  terms  for  the  separation  of  the  States.  The  people  them- 
selves can  do  this  also  if  they  choose ; but  the  executive,  as  such,  has  .nothing  to  do  with 
it.  His  duty  is  to  administer  the  present  government  as  it  came  to  his  hands,  and  to 
transmit  it,  unimpaired  by  him,  to  his  successor. 

Why  should  there  not  be  a patient  confidence  in  the  ultimate  justice  of  the  people  ? 
Is  there  any  better  or  equal  hope  in  the  world  ? In  our  present  differences,  is  either 
party  without  faith  of  being  in  the  right  ? If  the  Almighty  Ruler  of  Nations,  with  His 
eternal  truth  and  justice,  be  on  your  side  of  the  North,  or  on  yours  of  the  South,  that 
truth  and  that  justice  will  surely  prevail,  by  the  judgment  of  this  great  tribunal  of  the 
American  people. 

By  the  frame  of  the  government  under  which  we  live,  the  same  people  have  wisely 
given  their  public  servants  but  little  power  for  mischief,  and  have  with  equal  wisdom  pro- 
vided for  the  return  of  that  little  to  their  own  hands  at  very  short  intervals.  While  the 
people  retain  their  virtue  and  vigilance,  no  administration,  by  any  extreme  of  wickedness 
or  folly,  can  very  seriously  injure  the  government  in  the  short  space  of  four  years. 

My  countrymen,  one  and  all,  think  calmly  and  well  upon  this  whole  subject.  Noth- 
ing valuable  can  be  lost  by  taking  time.  If  there  be  an  object  to  hurry  any  of  you  in 
hot  haste  to  a step  which  you  would  never  take  deliberately,  that  object  will  be  frustrated 
by  taking  time  ; but  no  good  object  can  be  frustrated  by  it.  Such  of  you  as  are  now 
dissatisfied,  still  have  the  old  Constitution  unimpaired,  and,  on  the  sensitive  point,  the 
laws  of  your  own  framing  under  it ; while  the  new  administration  will  have  no  immedi- 
ate power,  if  it  would,  to  change  either.  If  it  were  admitted  that  you  who  are  dissatis- 
fied hold  the  right  side  in  the  dispute,  there  stili  is  no  single  good  reason  for  precipitate 
action.  Intelligence,  patriotism,  Christianity,  and  a firm  reliance  on  Him  who  has  never 
yet  forsaken  this  favored  land,  are  still  competent  to  adjust,  in  the  best  way,  all  our 
present  difficulty. 

In  your  hands,  my  dissatisfied  fellow-countrymen,  and  not  in  mine,  is  the  moment- 
ous issues  of  civil  war.  The  government  will  not  assail  you. 

You  can  have  no  conflict  without  being  yourselves  the  aggressors.  You  have  no 
oath  registered  in  Heaven  to  destroy  the  government ; while  I shall  have  the  most  sol- 
emn one  to  “ preserve,  protect  and  defend  ” it. 

I am  loath  to  close.  We  are  not  enemies,  but  friends.  We  must  not  be  enemies. 
Though  passion  may  have  strained,  it  must  not  break  our  bonds  of  affection. 

The  mystic  chords  of  memory,  stretching  from  every  battle-field  and  patriot  grave 
to  every  living  heart  and  hearthstone  all  over  this  broad  land,  will  yet  swell  the 
chorus  of  the  Union,  when  again  touched,  as  surely  they  will  be,  by  the  better  angels 
of  our  nature. 

^EMANCIPATION  PROCLAMATION.- — Abrafanj  Lincoln.^ 

Washington , yanuary  I,  1863. 

EREAS,  on  the  22d  day  of  September,  in  the  year  of  our  Lord  one  thou- 
sand eight  hundred  and  sixty-two,  a proclamation  was  issued  by  the  Pres- 
ident of  the  United  States,  containing,  among  other  things,  the  following, 
to  wit : — 

That  on  the  first  day  of  January,  in  the  year  of  ur  Lord  one  thou- 
sand eight  hundred  and  sixty-three,  all  persons  held  as  slaves  within  any  states  or  desig- 
nated part  of  a state,  the  people  whereof  shall  then  be  in  rebellion  against  the  United 


840 


THE  EMANCIPATION  PROCLAMATION. 


States,  shall  be  then,  thenceforward,  and  forever  free ; and  the  Executive  Government  of  the 
United  States,  including  the  military  and  naval  authority  thereof,  will  recognize  and 
maintain  the  freedom  of  such  persons,  and  will  do  no  act  or  acts  to  repress  such  persons, 
or  any  of  them,  in  any  efforts  they  may  make  for  their  actual  freedom. 

That  the  Executive  will,  on  the  first  day  of  January  aforesaid,  by  proclamation, 
designate  the  states  and  parts  of  states,  if  any,  in  which  the  people  thereof  respectively 
shall  then  be  in  rebellion  against  the  United  States  ; and  the  fact  that  any  state,  or  the 
people  thereof,  shall  on  that  day  be  in  good  faith  represented  in  the  Congress  of  the 
United  States,  by  members  chosen  thereto  at  elections  wherein  a majority  of  the  qualified 
voters  of  such  state  shall  have  participated,  shall  in  the  absence  of  strong  countervailing 
testimony,  be  deemed  conclusive  evidence  that  such  state,  and  the  people  thereof,  are  not 
then  in  rebellion  against  the  United  States. 

Now,  therefore,  I,  Abraham  Lincoln,  President  of  the  United  States,  by  virtue  of 
the  power  in  me  vested  as  commander-in-chief  of  the  army  and  navy  of  the  United  States 
in  time  of  actual  armed  rebellion  against  the  authority  and  government  of  the  United 
States,  and  as  a fit  and  necessary  war  measure  for  suppressing  said  rebellion,  do,  on  this 
first  day  of  January,  in  the  year  of  our  Lord  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  sixty- 
three,  and  in  accordance  with  my  purpose  so  to  do,  publicly  proclaimed  for  the  full  period 
of  one  hundred  days  from  the  day  first  above  mentioned,  order  and  designate,  as  the 
states  and  parts  of  states  wherein  the  people  thereof  respectively  are  this  day  in  rebel- 
lion against  the  United  States,  the  following,  to  wit: 

Arkansas,  Texas,  Louisiana  (except  the  parishes  of  St.  Bernard,  Plaquemines,  Jeffer- 
son, St.  John,  St.  Charles,  St.  James,  Ascension,  Assumption,  Terre  Bonne,  Lafourche, 
Ste.  Marie,  St.  Martin,  and  Orleans,  including  the  City  of  New  Orleans),  Mississippi, 
Alabama,  Florida,  Georgia,  South  Carolina,  North  Carolina,  and  Virginia  (except  the 
forty-eight  counties  designated  as  West  Virginia,  and  also  the  counties  of  Berkely, 
Accomac,  Northampton,  Elizabeth  City,  York,  Princess  Anne,  and  Norfolk,  including 
the  cities  of  Norfolk  and  Portsmouth),  and  which  excepted  parts  are  for  the  present  left 
precisely  as  if  this  proclamation  were  not  issued. 

And  by  virtue  of  the  power  and  for  the  purpose  aforesaid,  I do  order  and  declare 
that  all  persons  held  as  slaves  within  said  designated  states  and  parts  of  states  are,  and 
henceforward  shall  be,  free  ; and  that  the  Executive  Government  of  the  United  States, 
including  the  military  and  naval  authorities  thereof,  will  recognize  and  maintain  the  free- 
dom of  said  persons. 

And  I hereby  enjoin  upon  the  people  so  declared  to  be  free  to  abstain  from  all  vio- 
lence, unless  in  necessary  self-defence  ; and  I recommend  to  them  that,  in  all  cases  when 
allowed,  they  labor  faithfully  for  reasonable  wages. 

And  I further  declare  and  make  known  that  such  persons,  of  suitable  condition,  will 
be  received  into  the  armed  service  of  the  United  States,  to  garrison  forts,  positions,  sta- 
tions, and  other  places,  and  to  man  vessels  of  all  sorts  in  said  service. 

And  upon  this  act,  sincerely  believed  to  be  an  act  of  justice,  warranted  by  the  Con- 
stitution upon  military  necessity,  I invoke  the  considerate  judgment  of  mankind,  and 
the  gracious  favor  of  Almighty  God- 
in testimony  whereof,  I have  hereunto  set  my  name,  and  caused  the  seal  of  the  Uni- 
ted States  to  be  affixed. 

Done  at  the  City  of  Washington,  this  first  day  of  January,  in  the  year  of  our  Lord 
rL  -|  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  sixty-three,  and  of  the  independence  of  the  Uni- 
*■  * ■-*  ted  States  the  eighty* seventh. 

By  the  President : 

William  H.  Seward,  Secretary  of  State. 


ABRAHAM  LINCOLN. 


POLITICAL  MAXIMS  FROM  CARDINAL  DE  RETZ. 


SELECTED  BY  THE  EARL  OF  CHESTERFIELD . 

T is  often  madness  to  engage  in  a conspiracy  ; but  nothing  is  so  effectual 
to  bring  people  afterwards  to  their  senses,  at  least  for  a time.  As  in  such 
undertakings,  the  danger  subsists,  even  after  the  business  is  over ; this 
obliges  to  be  prudent  and  circumspect  in  the  succeeding  moments. 

A middling  understanding,  being  susceptible  of  unjust  suspicions,  is 
consequently,  of  all  characters,  the  least  fit  to  head  a faction.  As  the  most  indispensa- 
ble qualification  in  such  a chief  is,  to  suppress,  in  many  Dccasions,  and  to  conceal  in  all, 
even  the  best  grounded  suspicions. 

The  greatest  powers  cannot  injure  a man’s  character,  whose  reputation  is  unblem- 
ished among  his  party. 

We  are  as  often  duped  by  diffidence,  as  by  confidence. 

There  are,  at  times,  situations  so  very  unfortunate,  that  whatever  is  undertaken  must 
be  wrong.  Chance,  alone,  never  throws  people  into  such  dilemmas  ; and  they  happen 
only  to  those  who  bring  them  upon  themselves. 

It  is  more  unbecoming  a minister  to  say,  than  to  do,  silly  things. 

The  advice  given  to  a minister,  by  an  obnoxious  person,  is  alway:  thought  bad. 

It  is  as  dangerous,  and  almost  as  criminal,  with  princes,  to  have  the  power  of  doing 
good,  as  the  will  of  doing  evil. 

Timorous  minds  are  much  more  inclined  to  deliberate  than  to  resolve. 

Flexibility  is  the  most  requisite  qualification  for  the  management  of  great  affairs. 

It  is  more  difficult  for  the  member  of  a faction  to  live  with  those  of  his  own  party, 
than  to  act  against  those  who  oppose  it. 

Violent  measures  are  always  dangerous,  but  when  necessary,  may  then  be  looked 
upon  as  wise.  They  have,  however,  the  advantage  of  never  being  matter  of  indifferency; 
and,  when  well  concerted,  must  be  decisive. 

There  may  be  circumstances,  in  which  even  prudence  directs  us  to  trust  entirely  to 
chance. 

Every  thing  in  this  world  has  its  critical  moment ; and  the  height  of  good  conduct 
consists  in  knowing  and  seizing  it. 

Profligacy,  joined  to  ridicule,  form  the  most  abominable  and  most  dangerous  of  all 
characters. 

Weak  minds  never  yield  when  they  ought. 

Variety  of  sights  have  the  greatest  effect  upon  the  mob,  and  also  upon  numerous 
assemblies,  who,  in  many  respects,  resemble  mobs. 

Examples  taken  from  past  times  have  infinitely  more  power  over  the  minds  of  men, 
than  any  of  the  age  in  which  they  live.  Whatever  we  see,  grows  familiar ; and  perhaps 
the  consulship  of  Caligula’s  horse  might  not  have  astonished  us  so  much  as  we  are  apt 
to  imagine. 

Weak  minds  are  commonly  overpowered  by  clamor. 

We  ought  never  to  contend  for  what  we  are  not  likely  to  obtain. 


84S 


POLITICAL  MAXIMS  FROM  CARDINAL  DE  RETZ. 


The  instant  in  which  we  receive  the  most  favorable  accounts,  is  just  that  wherein 
we  ought  to  redouble  our  vigilance,  even  in  regard  to  the  most  trifling  circumstances. 

Nothing  lowers  a great  man  so  much,  as  not  seizing  the  decisive  moment  of  raising 
his  reputation.  This  is  seldom  neglected,  but  with  a view  to  fortune  : by  which  mistake, 
it  is  not  unusual  to  miss  both. 

The  possibility  of  remedying  imprudent  actions  is  commonly  an  inducement  to  com- 
mit them. 

Every  numerous  assembly  is  a mob  ; consequently  everything  there  depends  upon 
instantaneous  turns. 

Whatever  measure  seems  hazardous,  and  is  in  reality  not  so,  is  generally  a wise 

one. 

Irresolute  minds  always  adopt  with  facility  whatever  measure  can  admit  of  different 
issues,  and  consequently  do  not  require  an  absolute  decision. 

In  momentous  affairs,  no  step  is  indifferent. 

There  are  times  in  which  certain  people  are  always  in  the  right. 

Nothing  convinces  persons  of  weak  understanding  so  effectually  as  what  they  do 
not  comprehend. 

Those  who  head  factions  have  no  way  of  maintaining  their  authority,  but  by  prevent- 
ing, or  quieting  discontent. 

A certain  degree  of  fear  produces  the  same  effects  as  rashness. 

In  affairs  of  importance,  the  choice  of  words  is  of  as  much  consequence,  as  it  would 
be  superfluous  in  those  of  little  moment. 

During  those  calms  which  immediately  succeed  violent  storms,  nothing  is  more  diffi 
cult  for  ministers  than  to  act  properly  ; because,  while  flattery  increases,  suspicions  are 
not  yet  subsided. 

The  faults  of  our  friends  ought  never  to  anger  us  so  far  as  to  give  an  advantage  tc 
our  enemies. 

The  talent  of  insinuation  is  more  useful  than  that  of  persuasion  ; as  every  body  is 
open  to  insinuation,  but  scarce  any  to  persuasion. 

In  matters  of  a delicate  nature,  all  unnecessary  alterations  are  dangerous  ; because 
odious. 

The  best  way  to  compel  weakminded  people  to  adopt  our  opinion  is  to  frighten 
them  from  all  others,  by  magnifying  their  danger. 

We  must  run  all  hazards,  where  we  think  ourselves  in  a situation  to  reap  some 
advantage,  even  from  the  want  of  success. 

Irresolute  men  are  diffident  in  resolving  upon  the  means,  even  when  they  are  deter- 
mined upon  the  end. 

It  is  never  allowable  in  an  inferior  to  equal  himself  in  words  to  a superior,  although 
he  may  rival  him  in  actions. 

Every  man  whom  chance  alone  has,  by  some  accident,  made  a public  character, 
hardly  ever  fails  of  becoming,  in  a short  time,  a ridiculous  private  one. 

The  greatest  imperfection  of  men  is,  the  complacency  with  which  they  are  willing 
to  think  others  not  free  from  faults,  of  which  they  are  themselves  conscious. 

Experience  only  can  teach  men  not  to  prefer  what  strikes  them  for  the  present  mo- 
ment, to  what  will  have  much  greater  weight  with  them  hereafter. 


MAXIMS,  BY  THE  EARL  OF  CHESTERFIELD. 


843 


In  the  management  of  important  business,  all  turn  to  raillery  must  be  more  carefully 
avoided  than  in  any  other. 

In  momentous  transactions,  words  cannot  be  sufficiently  weighed. 

The  permanency  of  most  friendships  depends  upon  the  continuity  of  good  fortune. 

Whoever  assembles  the  multitude  will  raise  commotions. 

I have  taken  the  trouble  of  extracting  and  collecting,  for  your  use,  the  foregoing 
Political  Maxims  of  the  Cardinal  de  Retz,  in  his  Memoirs.  They  are  not  aphorisms  of 
his  invention,  but  the  true  and  just  observations  of  his  own  experience,  in  the  course  of 
great  business.  My  own  experience  attests  the  truth  of  them  all.  Read  them  over  with 
attention. — Lord  Chesterfield. 


MAXIMS,  BY  THE  EARL  OF  CHESTERFIELD. 

PROPER  secresy  is  the  only  mystery  of  able  men ; mystery  is  the  only 
secrecy  of  weak  and  cunning  ones. 

A man  who  tells  nothing,  or  who  tells  all,  will  equally  have  nothing 
told  him. 

If  a fool  knows  a secret,  he  tells  it  because  he  is  a fool ; if  a knave 
mows  one,  he  tells  it  wherever  it  is  his  interest  to  tell  it.  But  women,  and  young  men, 
are  very  apt  to  tell  what  secrets  they  know,  from  the  vanity  of  having  been  trusted* 
Trust  none  of  these,  whenever  you  can  help  it. 

Inattention  to  the  present  business,  be  it  what  it  will  ; the  doing  one  thing,  and 
thinking  at  the  same  time  of  another,  or  the  attempting  to  do  two  things  at  once,  are 
the  never-failing  signs  of  a little,  frivolous  mind. 

A man  who  cannot  command  his  temper,  his  attention,  and  his  countenance,  should 
not  think  of  being  a man  of  business.  The  weakest  man  in  the  world  can  avail  himself 
of  the  passion  of  the  wisest.  The  inattentive  man  cannot  know  the  business,  and  con- 
sequently cannot  do  it.  And  he  who  cannot  command  his  countenance,  may  e’en  as 
well  tell  his  thoughts  as  show  them. 

Distrust  all  those  who  love  you  extremely  upon  a very  slight  acquaintance,  and  with- 
out any  visible  reason.  Be  upon  your  guard,  too,  against  those  who  confess,  as  their 
weaknesses,  all  the  cardinal  virtues. 

In  your  friendships,  and  in  your  enmities,  let  your  confidence  and  your  hostilities 
have  certain  bounds  ; make  not  the  former  dangerous  nor  the  latter  irreconcilable.  There 
are  strange  vicissitudes  in  business ! 

Smooth  )T)ur  way  to  the  head  through  the  heart.  The  way  of  reason  is  a good  one, 
but  it  is  commonly  something  longer,  and  perhaps  not  so  sure. 

Spirit  is  now  a very  fashionable  word : to  act  with  spirit,  to  speak  with  spirit,  means 
only  to  act  rashly,  and  to  talk  indiscreetly.  An  able  man  shows  his  spirit  by  gentle 
words  and  resolute  actions  ; he  is  neither  hot  nor  timid. 

When  a man  of  sense  happens  to  be  in  that  disagreeable  situation,  in  which  he  is 
obliged  to  ask  himself  more  than  once,  What  shall  I do  f he  will  answer  himself,  Nothing. 
When  his  reason  points  out  to  him  no  good  way,  or  at  least  no  one  way  less  bad  than 


844 


MAXIMS,  BY  THE  EARL  OF  CHESTERFIELD. 


another,  he  will  stop  short  and  wait  for  light.  A little  busy  mind  runs  on  at  all  events^ 
must  be  doing ; and,  like  a blind  horse,  fears  no  dangers,  because  he  sees  none. 

Patience  is  a most  necessary  qualification  for  business  ; many  a man  would  rathei 
you  heard  his  story  than  granted  his  request.  One  must  seem  to  hear  the  unreasonable 
demands  of  the  petulant,  unmoved,  and  the  tedious  details  of  the  dull,  untired. 

It  is  always  right  to  detect  a fraud  and  to  perceive  a folly,  but  it  is  often  very  wrong 
to  expose  either.  A man  of  businees  should  always  have  his  eyes  open  ; but  must  often 
seem  to  have  them  shut. 

It  is  hard  to  say  which  is  the  greatest  fool,  he  who  tells  the  whole  truth  or  he  who 
tells  no  truth  at  all.  Character  is  as  necessary  in  business  as  in  trade.  No  man  can 
deceive  often  in  either. 

A difference  of  opinion,  though  in  the  merest  trifles,  alienates  little  minds  especially 
of  high  rank.  It  is  full  as  easy  to  commend  as  to  blame  a great  man’s  cook,  or  his 
tailor ; it  is  shorter,  too  ; and  the  objects  are  no  more  worth  disputing  about  than  the 
people  are  worth  disputing  with.  It  is  impossible  to  inform,  but  very  easy  to  displease 
them. 

A cheerful,  easy  countenance  and  behavior  are  very  useful  at  court  ; they  make  fools 
think  you  a good-natured  man,  and  they  make  designing  men  think  you  an  undesigning 
one. 

There  are  some  occasions  in  which  a man  must  tell  half  his  secret  in  order  to  con- 
ceal the  rest ; but  there  is  seldom  one  in  which  a man  should  tell  it  all.  Great  skill  is 
necessary  to  know  how  far  to  go  and  where  to  stop. 

Good  breeding  carries  along  with  it  a dignity  that  is  respected  by  the  most  petulant. 
Ill  breeding  invites  and  authorizes  the  familiarity  of  the  most  timid.  No  man  ever  said 
a pert  thing  to  the  Duke  of  Marlborough.  No  man  ever  said  a civil  one  (though  many  a 
flattering  one)  to  Sir  Robert  Walpole. 

Knowledge  may  give  weight,  but  accomplishments  only  give  lustre ; and  many  more 
people  see  than  weigh. 

Most  arts  require  long  study  and  application,  but  the  most  useful  art  of  all,  that  of 
pleasing,  requires  only  the  desire. 

It  is  to  be  presumed  that  a man  of  common  sense,  who  does  not  desire  to  please, 
desires  nothing  at  all,  since  he  must  know  that  he  cannot  obtain  anything  without  it. 

A skilful  negotiator  will  most  carefully  distinguish  between  the  little  and  the  great 
objects  of  his  business,  and  will  be  as  frank  and  open  in  the  former  as  he  will  be  secret 
and  pertinacious  in  the  latter. 

He  will,  by  his  manners  and  address,  endeavor,  at  least,  to  make  his  public  adver- 
saries his  personal  friends.  He  will  make  even  a merit  of  giving  up  what  he  could  not 
or  would  not  carry,  and  sell  a trifle  for  a thousand  times  its  value. 

If  ever  the  volto  sciolto  and  the  pensieri  stretti  are  necessary,  they  are  so  in  these 
affairs.  A grave,  dark,  reserved  and  mysterious  air  has  fcemim  in  cornu.  An  even,  easy, 
unembarrassed  one  invites  confidence,  and  leaves  no  room  for  guesses  and  conjectures. 

The  reputation  of  generosity  is  to  be  purchased  pretty  cheap ; it  does  not  depend  so 
much  upon  a man’s  general  expense  as  it  does  upon  his  giving  handsomely  where  it  is 
proper  to  give  at  all.  A man,  for  instance,  who  should  give  a servant  four  shillings 
would  pass  for  covetous,  while  he  who  gave  him  a crown  would  be  reckoned  generous ; 
so  that  the  difference  of  those  two  opposite  characters  turn  upon  one  shilling.  A man’s 
character,  in  that  particular,  depends  a great  deal  upon  the  report  of  his  own  servants ; a 
mere  trifle  above  common  wages  makes  their  report  favorable. 


POLITICAL  DUTIES, 

OR  HOW  TO  SUCCEED  IN  PUBLIC  LIFE 


BY  SENATOR  EDMUNDS. 


[Senator  Edmunds  in  Christian  Union.] 

Dear  Sir — Yours  of  the  15th  was  received,  but  the  press  of  my  public  occupations 
hdi  prevented  my  attending  to  the  matter  until  now.  I inclose  replies  to  the  question 
you  suggest. 

1.  Ought  a young  man  to  plan  for  himself  a political  career,  or  ought,  in  America,  no  man  to  enter 
politics  except  as  he  is  drawn  or  driven  into  them  by  circumstances  ? 

I think  a young  man  ought  not  to  plan  for  himself  such  a career,  in  the  sense  of 
making  it  the  object  of  his  life  to  hold  office  in  the  government  of  a republic.  The  true 
theory  is  that  no  man  has  a right  to  be  elected  or  appointed  to  office,  but  that  the  whole 
body  of  the  community  has  a right  to  select  and  choose  those  citizens  for  office  whom  they 
think  to  be  the  best,  or  the  best  obtainable.  And  the  same  principle  holds  good  in  cases 
in  which  the  appointing  power  is  lodged  in  the  hands  of  a Governor,  head  of  a department, 
or  a President.  Every  man,  young  and  old,  ought  to  be  always  a politician  in  the  best  sense 
of  the  term  ; that  is,  one  who  is  familiar  with  that  branch  of  ethics  which  relates  to  the 
practical  creation  and  execution  of  laws  to  the  greatest  advantage  of  the  whole  mass  of 
the  people,  with  a due  regard  always  to  the  rights  of  minorities  and  individuals.  But  he 
who  makes  it  his  mission  in  life  to  be  the  one  to  be  chosen  to  make  or  execute  the  laws 
is  necessarily  either  a constant  office-seeker  or  office-holder,  or  both  ; and  he  becomes,  in 
most  instances,  justly  liable  to  the  suspicion  that  he  is  inspired  by  selfishness  and  not  by 
patriotism.  In  such  a case,  even  if  it  be  that  it  is  country  first  and  himself  last  that  he 
wishes  to  serve,  his  usefulness  is  greatly  impaired  ; for  confidence  in  our  rulers  is  no 
small  element  in  good  and  successful  government. 

A young  man’s  life  object  should  therefore  be,  I think,  to  pursue  a private  calling, 
and  with  that  to  cultivate  the  largest  possible  acquaintance  with  public  affairs  and  the 
principle  on  which  they  should  be  conducted  ; to  always  participate  in  elections,  and  to 
leave  public  honors  and  responsibilities  to  seek  him,  and  not  he  them. 

2.  "What  kind  of  preparation  may  a man  make  for  a political  career  ; what  line  of  studies  should  he 
pursue  ; and  what  is  likely  to  be  the  practical  value  of  the  so-called  schools  of  political  philosophy? 

*f  he  is  not  to  be  what  we  have  already  spoken  of  as  undesirable — a life-long  office- 
seeker — a young  man  would  not  of  course  make  any  special  preparation  for  a political 
career.  The  same  studies  that  would  make  him  best  fitted  to  discharge  his  political  du- 
ties as  a private  citizen,  and  best  fit  him  to  prosecute  and  protect  his  private  business 
and  other  private  rights,  would,  in  general,  be  most  useful  for  him  should  he  be  called  to 
assist  in  administering  the  government. 

Besides  the  simple  scholarly  attainments  almost  indispensable  to  the  carrying  on 
of  any  business,  an  accurate  knowledge  of  the  history  and  constitutions  of  his  own  State 
and  of  the  United  States,  of  the  laws  of  civilized  countries  on  the  subjects  of  education, 
crime  and  punishment,  taxation,  marriage  and  divorce,  pauperism  and  other  general  sub- 
jects of  social  science,  and  of  the  broad  principles  and  application  of  what  is  called  public 
law  would  cover  the  largest  part  of  the  subjects  with  which  he  would  have  to  deal  as  a 
legislator  or  an  administrative  officer.  It  hardly  need  be  said  that,  if  he  were  to  be  called  to 
^judicial  station,  special  and  exhaustive  study  of  the  law  in  details,  together  with  a knowl* 


846 


POLITICAL  DUTIES,  OR  HOW  TO  SUCCEED  IN  PUBLIC  LIFE. 


edge  of  its  actual  practice,  would  be  indispensable.  The  so-called  schools  of  political 
philosophy  would,  to  a mind  not  already  trained  to  logical  and  discriminating  thought 
and  experience  in  the  practical  working  of  affairs,  be  more  likely  in  most  instances  to 
mislead  than  to  teach  truly. 

3.  Is  it  possible  for  a man,  under  ordinary  circumstances,  to  succeed  in  political  life  without  manipu- 
lating caucus  and  conventions,  and  entering  into  political  bargains  to  secure  political  influence  and  to  con- 
trol nominations  and  conventions  ? 

This,  in  regard  to  elective  places,  practically  depends  very  much  upon  the  condition 
of  society  in  the  particular  community  in  which  the  voting  power  is  to  make  the  choice. 
If  the  majority  (or  in  case  of  existing  divisions  of  parties,  a considerable  portion)  of  the 
voting  power  be  ignorant,  prejudiced  or  vicious,  the  probability  of  the  election  of  the  fit- 
test is  naturally  small,  and  the  chance  of  the  election  of  any  really  good  candidate  of  any 
party  or  of  no  party  is  at  the  minimum.  Ignorance  of  public  affairs  is  not  of  itself  so 
great  an  evil  as  the  others,  for  many  honest,  ignorant  persons  are  quite  wise  enough  to  know 
that  good  government  is  best  for  them,  and  to  know  the  best  persons  to  intrust  with  the 
duty  of  securing  good  government  are  the  men  whom  they  know  to  be  of  high  standing 
for  capacity  and  uprightness.  But  a community  in  which  the  people,  or  a considerable 
number  of  them,  are  corrupt  is  in  bad  case  indeed.  The  State  or  city,  in  which  the  con- 
trolling votes  are  for  sale,  either  for  ready  money  or  tc  be  paid  for  with  places  or  legisla- 
tive jobs,  is  probably  worse  for  being  under  a republican  form  of  government  than  if  it 
were  deprived  of  self-government  entirely.  Fortunately  such  cases  are  not  frequent ; 
but  when  they  exist  it  is  not  easy  to  come  to  an  office  without  using  the  methods  named 
in  your  question.  But  even  then,  if  the  honest  citizens  will  persist,  in  spite  of  party  nom- 
inations, in  voting  against  all  candidates  believed  to  be  bad  men,  the  evil  is  likely  to  be 
cured  in  time.  Parties  and  caucuses  are  indispensable  means  for  united  effort  as  well  for 
good  citizens  as  for  bad  ones ; for  success  cannot  be  attained  without  a concentration  of 
the  power  of  those  who  think  alike  as  to  measures  of  men.  But  in  the  greater  number  of 
the  States  and  communities  of  this  country  real  and  permanent  success  in  political  life  does 
not,  I think,  require  or  admit  either  manipulations  or  bargains.  The  people  of  a republic 
(if  we  are  to  have  faith  in  the  value  of  free  institutions)  must  be  supposed  to  prefer  capa- 
city, honor,  candor  and  independence  in  their  public,  servants  rather  than  intrigue  and 
self-seeking  ; and,  if  so,  the  long-run  must  prove  here,  as  in  everything  else,  that  honesty 
is  the  best  policy. 

4. '  What  is  the  function  of  the  politician  or  statesman  in  a free  republic  like  that  of  America?  In  what 
sense  is  he  a teacher,  in  what  a representative,  and  in  what  a leader  of  public  sentiment? 

I think  his  function  is  as  a citizen  to  be  informed  as  to  what  are  the  best  measures 
for  the  public  good  and  the  best  men  to  effectuate  them,  and  on  proper  occasions  to  give  his 
fellow  citizens  the  benefit  of  his  knowledge  and  experience.  As  a lawmaker  or  executor 
he  ought  to  know  and  do  much  the  same  things.  If  he  be  truly  a politician  and  states- 
man, he  must  be  a teacher  in  all  that  he  says  and  does  about  public  affairs.  He  is  a 
representative  in  so  far  as  his  views  and  actions  are  acknowledged  to  be  the  exponents  of 
a public  opinion  already  formed,  and  he  is  a leader  in  so  far  as  his  character,  his  capacity 
and  his  proposed  action  command  the  confidence  of  his  countrymen,  and,  indeed,  some- 
times when  his  proposed  action  does  not ; for  he  may  be  in  advance  of  public  sentiment, 
or  he  may  see  clearly  and  have  the  courage  to  do  what  at  the  moment  is  quite  opposed 
to  popular  opinion  ; and  if  the  event  justifies  him,  he  has  vindicated  his  title  to  all  your 
question  implies.  There  is  perhaps  no  one  thing  so  valuable  to  the  right  progress  of  civ- 
ilized society  as  the  courage  of  sincere  individual  opinion  ; and  as  it  regards  public 
affairs,  the  man  who  tries  honestly  to  form  an  accurate  conclusion,  and  bravely  to  main- 
tain and  advance  it,  without  counting  the  number  of  his  adversaries,  will  fulfill  the  best 
mission  of  a citizen,  and  will  be,  whether  in  public  or  private  station,  the  true  politi- 
cian, often  the  real  statesman,  the  best  teacher  and  the  noblest  leader. 


» V ? ‘ ‘ 


UNITED  STATES  WEATHER  SIGNALS. 


Indicates  clear  or  J air 
weather. 


Cautionary  against  a wind  veloc- 
ity that  will  be  dangerous  to  all 
classes  of  vessels,  that  t\,  vjhen  a 
velocity  of  33  miles  an  hour  is 
expected  vjithin  too  miles  of  the 
station  where  hoisted. 


Indicates  rain  or  snow. 


Always  refers  to 
temperature. 


Cold  Wave  Flag  : indicates 
a sudden  and  decided  fall  in 
temperature. 


Direction  signal  above  cautionary 
signal  when  easterly  winds  are 
expected,  and  below  for  westerly 
winds. 

Black  stripe  above  white  when 
northerly  winds  are  exfected,  and 
below  for  southerly  winds. 


Wind  direction  signal. 


Storm  fag  hoisted  alone  indicates  that  the  probable  direction 
of  wind  is  doubtful. 


North-west. 


11  ' South  west. 


I 


On  shore  wind  signal , only  dis 

played  at  lake  stations.  North-east. 


Cold  wave,  followed  by  Clear  or  fair , colder.  Warmer,  rain  or  snow, 

rain  or  snow,  succeeded  by 
fair  weather. 


Warmer,  Jair  weather , fol- 
lowed by  rain  or  snow. 


THE  WORK  OF  THE 


UNITED  STATES  WEATHER 
BUREAU  AND  ITS  VALUE. 


United  States  Signal  Service  and  its  Code. 

The  fact  that  from  eighty-five  to  eighty-nine  per  cent  of  the  predictions  sent  out 
by  this  branch  of  the  Service  has  been  verified,  speaks  volumes  in  its  favor.  Since 
the  system  of  cautionary  signals  was  instituted  in  this  country,  there  has  been  a 
marked  saving  to  life  and  property,  and  the  annual  loss  to  vessel  property  alone  has 
decreased  from  $2,586,781  to  less  than  $500,000,  while  the  loss  per  ton  has  gone  down 
from  $3.63  to  76  cents. 

It  is  well-nigh  impossible  to  estimate  the  value  the  daily  weather  reports  sent 
out  by  the  bureau  have  been  to  the  great  agricultural  interest  of  the  country.  In 
the  sugar-growing  States,  in  the.  cotton  and  tobacco  belts,  and  for  the  stock-raisers 
of  Texas,  the  reports  of  impending  cold  waves  have  aided  the  farmers  and  breeders 
of  the  South,  and  have  accrued  to  the  benefit  of  the  whole  land,  ft  has  come  to  so 
great  a degree  of  accuracy,  that  the  sailor,  the  merchant,  the  tourist,  and  all  classes 
whose  business  or  pleasure  is  affected  by  changes  in  the  weather,  look  for  the  daily 
reports  and  govern  themselves  to  as  great  extent  as  may  be  by  their  predictions. 

The  American  Signal  Service  exercised  a great  influence  in  the  organization  and 
establishment  of  an  International  Service  by  which  it  is  possible  to  obtain  a com- 
plete series  of  scientific  and  trustworthy  observations  throughout  the  entire  civilized 
world.  The  late  Admiral  Fitzroy,  an  eminent  modern  meteorologist,  has  very 
pertinently  said : “Every  prudent  person  will  combine  observation  of  the  elements 
with  such  indications  as  he  may  obtain  from  instruments,  and  will  find  that  the  more 
accurately  the  two  sources  of  fore-knowledge  are  compared  and  combined,  the  more 
satisfactory  their  result  will  prove.” 

WEATHER  SIGNALS. 

On  March  1st,  1887,  a new  system  of  weather  signals  was  introduced  by  the 
United  States  Signal  Office  <5f  the  War  Department,  and  have  since  been  in  use  at 
all  the  stations  of  the  service.  The  flags  adopted  for  this  purpose  are  four  in  nunv 
ber,  and  of  the  form  and  dimensions  indicated  below. 


848 


THE  UNITED  STATES  WEATHER  BUREAU  AND  ITS  VALUE. 


Number  I,  white  flag  six  feet  square,  indicates  clear  or  fair  weather.  'Number 
2,  blue  flag  six  feet  square,  indicates  rain  or  snow.  Number  3,  black  triangular 
flag  four  feet  at  the  base  and  six  feet  in  length,  always  refers  to  temperature.  When 
placed  above  Numbers  1 or  2 it  indicates  warmer  weather;  when  placed  below  Num- 
bers 1 or  2 it  indicates  colder  weather;  when  not  displayed,  the  indications  are  that 
the  temperature  will  remain  stationary,  or  that  the  change  in  temperature  will  not 
vary  more  than  40  in  winter  or  6°  in  summer  from  the  temperature  of  the  same  hour 
of  the  preceding  day.  Number  4,  white  flag  six  feet  square,  with  black  square  in 
centre,  indicates  the  approach  of  a sudden  and  decided  fall  in  temperature.  This 
signal  is  usually  ordered  at  least  twenty-four  hours  in  advance  of  the  cold  wave.  It 
is  not  displayed  unless  a temperature  sufficiently  low  to  produce  frost  is  expected. 
When  Number  4 is  displayed,  Number  3 is  always  omitted. 

When  displayed  on  poles,  the  signals  are  arranged  to  read  downward ; when  dis- 
played from  horizontal  supports,  a small  streamer  is  attached  to  indicate  the  point 
from  which  the  signals  are  to  be  read. 

INTERPRETATION  OF  DISPLAYS. 

No.  I,  alone,  indicates  fair  weather,  stationary  temperature. 

No.  2,  alone,  indicates  rain  or  snow,  stationary  temperature. 

No.  1,  with  No.  3 below  it,  indicates  fair  weather,  colder. 

No.  2,  with  No.  3 above  it,  indicates  warmer  weather,  rain  or  snow. 

No.  1,  with  No.  4 below  it,  indicates  fair  weather,  cold.  wave. 

No.  3,  with  Nos.  1 and  2 below  it,  indicates  warmer,  fair  weather,  followed  by 
rain  or  snow. 


STORM,  CAUTIONARY,  AND  WIND-DIRECTION  SIGNALS. 

A red  flag  with  a black  centre  indicates  that  the  storm  is  expected  to  be  of 
marked  violence.  A yellow  flag  with  a white  centre  indicates  that  the  winds  ex- 
pected will  not  be  so  severe,  but  well-found,  seaworthy  vessels  can  meet  them  without 
danger.  The  red  pennant  indicates  easterly  winds — that  is,  from  the  northeast 
to  south  inclusive,  and  that  generally  the  storm-centre  is  approaching.  If  above 
cautionary  or  storm-signal,  winds  from  northeast  quadrant  are  more  probable  ; if 
below,  winds  from  southeast  quadrant.  The  white  pennant  indicates  westerly  winds; 
that  is,  from  north  to  southwest  inclusive,  and  that  generally  the  storm-centre  has 
passed.  If  above  cautionary  or  storm-signal,  winds  from  northwest  quadrant  are  more 
probable;  if  below , winds  from  southwest  quadrant. 

Practical  Rules  for  Judging  of  the  Weather. — When  the  wind  chan--  ■ 
from  south  to  north  through  the  west,  it  causes  a rise  in  the  barometer  and  a fad 
in  the  thermometer.  Therefore  in  winter,  look  for  heavy  snowfall;  in  the  spring 
sleet  showers,  and  in  the  summer  for  thunder  storms;  afterward  it  will  be  colder. 


THE  UNITED  STATES  WEATHER  BUREAU  AND  ITS  VALUE. 


849 


When  the  wind  shifts  from  north  to  northeast  the  barometer  will  be  high,  and 
we  may  expect  clear  weather.  In  the  winter  it  will  be  intensely  cold,  with  clear, 
crisp  air.  The  wind  will  change  to  east,  and  thin,  whitish  clouds  will  cover  the  sky. 
The  south  wind  and  falling  snow  may  be  expected.  If  the  barometer  continues  to 
fall  rapidly,  we  may  expect  the  snow  to  change  to  rain,  and  a thaw  sets  in. 

When  the  sky  changes  from  clear  to  overcast,  the  commencement  of  that  change 
is  indicated  by  fine,  streaky  cirrus  clouds  gradually  becoming  cirrus-stratus  with  a 
uniform  coating  throughout.  The  equatorial  current  seen  from  beneath,  gives  rise 
to  the  cirrus  clouds  which  mark  its  progress.  The  water  condensing  from  vapor 
becomes  at  once  solid,  so  that  these  high  clouds  are  not  vapor,  but  are  composed  of 
minute  particles  of  ice.  These  changes  occasion  the  halos  around  the  sun  and  moon 
by  the  refraction  of  light.  When  these  appearances  accompany  a falling  barometer 
we  may  be  sure  that  wet  weather  is  coming. 

When  a moist  wind  succeeds  a “ long  spell  ” dry  weather,  with  northerly  and 
easterly  winds,  the  dust  which  has  collected  in  the  air  becomes  damp  and  sinks  to 
the  ground.  After  this  the  air  is  very  clear,  distant  objects  appear  quite  near,  and 
distant  sounds  are  more  distinct.  This  is  regarded  as  a sure  sign  of  rain. 

As  a quite  general  rule,  the  rain  comes  from  the  westward,  therefore  a clear 
sunset  is  an  indication  that  there  is  no  rain  in  that  quarter,  and  is  a sign  of  fair 
weather. 

The  French  proverb,  “ If  the  weather  clears  up  at  night,  it  will  not  last  when 
day  breaks,”  has  a philosophical  explanation  in  this.  When  the  sun  goes  down  the 
air  ceases  to  ascend,  the  clouds  sink  and  are  dissolved  in  the  warmer  strata  below 
them,  but  the  moisture  is  still  held  in  suspense  in  the  air,  so  that  the  clearness  of  the 
night  is  delusive,  and  it  will  probably  rain  after  the  air  is  again  warmed  by  the  rising 
sun. 

Rains  that  come  suddenly  are  seldom  of  long  duration,  but  when  the  air  be- 
comes thick  gradually  and  the  sun  or  moon  and  stars  grow  dimmer  in  luster,  we  may 
expect  a rain  lasting  a few  hours.  This  dimness  of  the  heavenly  bodies  is  one  of  the 
surest  signs  of  very  rainy  weather. 

When  the  rain  sets  in  for  an  hour  or  two  before  sunrise,  it  is  likely  to  clear  away 
before  noon,  but  when  the  rain  commences  an  hour  or  two  after  sunrise,  look  for 
rain  all  that  day. 

If  a rainbow  is  seen  after  a long  drought,  it  is  a sign  of  continued  rain;  if  after  a 
period  of  wet  weather,  it  is  a promise  that  it  will  be  fair  for  some  time.  When  a 
rainbow  breaks  up,  or  dissolves  all  at  once,  it  is  an  indication  that  the  weather  will 
be  serene  and  settled. 


- 


/ 


VICTORIA  SQUARE,  MONTREAL. 


Dominion  of  Canada. 


BY  LIEUT.  COL.  WILLIAM  WHITE, 

Chief  Secretary  to  the  Postal  Department  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada . 


CONSTITUTION  OF  CANADA. 

HE  Constitution  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada  is  contained  in  the  Act  of 
the  Parliament  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  assented  to  on  the  29th  of 
March,  1867,  and  known  as  the  “British  North  America  Act,  1867.’" 
This  act  provides  for  the  union  at  any  time,  to  be  fixed  by  Royal  Procla- 
mation, within  six  months  of  the  passing  thereof,  of  the  Provinces  of 
Canada,  Nova  Scotia  and  New  Brunswick,  under  the  name  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada^ 
and  for  the  division  of  the  Dominion  thus  constituted  into  four  Provinces — Canada 
being  divided  into  two  Provinces  to  be  called  Ontario  and  Quebec  ; Ontario  to  consist 
of  that  part  of  Canada  formerly  known  as  Upper  Canada,  and  Quebec  to  comprise  that 
part  which  formerly  constituted  the  Province  of  Lower  Canada.  Nova  Scotia  and  New 
Brunswick  to  have  the  same  limits  as  at  the  passing  of  the  act.  A census  is  required  by 
the  act  to  be  taken  by  Provinces  in  1871  and  every  tenth  year  thereafter. 

Provision  is  also  made  for  the  admission  to  the  Dominion  of  the  Provinces  or  Colo- 
nies of  Newfoundland,  Prince  Edward  Island,  British  Columbia,  Rupert’s  Land  and  the 
North  West  Territory,  on  addresses  to  the  Queen  in  Council  from  the  Parliament  of 
Canada  and  the  respective  Legislatures. 

THE  EXECUTIVE  GOVERNMENT  and  authority  of  and  over  Canada  is  de- 
clared to  be  continued  and  vested  in  the  Queen  ; being  administered,  however,  by  a 
Governor-General  on  behalf  and  in  the  name  of  the  Queen. 

The  Governor-General  is  aided  and  advised  in  the  government  of  Canada  by  a 
Council,  styled  the  Queen’s  Privy  Council  for  Canada,  to  be  chosen  by  the  Governor- 
General  and  to  be  sworn  in  as  Privy  Councilors.  There  is  no  limit  to  the  number  of 
Privy  Councilors.  No  inconvenience,  however,  arises  from  this  extension  of  number,  as 
with  the  exception  of  such  of  them  as  are  called  Cabinet  Ministers,  the  Privy  Council* 
ors  are  not  summoned  to  advise  the  Governor-General  upon  affairs  of  State.  The 
Cabinet  Ministers,  or  the  ministry,  as  they  are  usually  termed,  are  those  privy  council- 
ors who  as  Heads  of  Departments  actually  conduct  the  business  of  the  country  ; when, 
from  any  cause,  they  cease  to  be  members  of  the  ministry  they  cease  to  be  active  mem- 
bers of  the  Privy  Council,  merely  retaining  the  title,  which  they  retain  for  life.  The 
Governor-General  has,  however,  the  power  to  remove  a Privy  Councilor.  The  term* 

“ Governor  in  Council,”  is  construed  as  referring  to  the  Governor-General  acting  by  and 
with  the  advice  of  the  Queen’s  Privy  Council  for  Canada. 


852 


CONSTITUTION  OF  CANADA. 


The  Queen  can  authorize  the  Governor-General  to  appoint  a Deputy  or  Deputies  to 
exercise  during  pleasure  such  powers,  authorities  and  :unctions  as  he  may  assign  to  him 
or  them. 

The  command  of  all  naval  and  military  forces  in  Canada  is  vested  in  the  Queen  ; 
but  actually  devolves  upon  the  Ministers  of  Marine  and  Militia,  and  in  the  case  of  the 
militia  is  usually  entrusted  to  an  officer  having  the  rank  of  Major-General  in  her 
Majesty’s  regular  army. 

Ottawa  is  declared  to  be  the  seat  of  the  Government  of  'Canada  until  the  Queen 
otherwise  directs. 

LEGISLATIVE  POWERS. — There  is  one  Parliament  for  the  Dominion  of  Can° 
ada,  consisting  of  the  Queen  (represented  by  the  Governor-General),  an  Upper  House 
styled  the  Senate,  and  the  House  of  Commons. 

The  Privileges,  Immunities  and  Powers,  held,  enjoyed  and  exercised  by  the  Senate 
and  House  of  Commons,  and  by  the  members  thereof  respectively,  are  defined  from  time 
to  time  by  the  Parliament  of  Canada,  but  are  never  to  exceed  those  held,  enjoyed  and 
exercised  at  the  time  of  the  passing  of  the  British  North  America  Act  by  the  British 
House  of  Commons  and  its  members. 

There  must  be  a session  of  the  Parliament  of  Canada  at  least  once  in  every  year. 

The  Senate  consisted  at  the  time  of  confederation  of  seventy -two  members,  but 
since  the  admission  of  British  Columbia,  Manitoba,  and  Prince  Edward  Island,  the 
number  has  been  increased  to  seventy-six,  in  accordance  with  the  provisions  of  the  act. 

A Senator  must  be  thirty  years  of  age,  a subject  of  the  Queen  by  birth  or  naturali- 
zation, reside  in  the  Province  for  which  he  is  appointed,  aud  be  possessed  of  real  prop- 
erty worth  four  thousand  dollars. 

The  first  Senators  were  appointed  by  Warrant,  under  the  Queen’s  Royal  Sign  Man- 
ual, and  their  names  were  inserted  in  the  Proclamation  of  Union.  Senators  are  now 
appointed  by  the  Governor-General,  in  the  Queen’s  name,  under  the  Great  Seal  of 
Canada.  The  Queen  may,  on  the  recommendation  of  the  Governor-General,  add  three 
or  six  additional  members  to  the  Senate,  but  if  this  addition  be  made,  subsequent  vacan- 
cies are  to  remain  unfilled,  unless  by  the  same  special  authority,  until  the  normal  number 
is  again  reached.  The  total  number  of  Senators  is  limited  to  seventy-eight,  and  if  New- 
foundland join  the  Confederation  the  number  may  then  be  eighty -two. 

A Senator  is  appointed  for  life  ; but  he  can  resign  by  writing  under  his  hand  ad- 
dressed to  the  Governor-General.  The  Speaker  of  the  Senate  is  appointed  by  the 
Governor-General.  Fifteen  Senators  must  be  present  to  enable  the  Senate  to  transact 
"business.  Questions  are  decided  by  a majority.  The  Speaker  has  a vote,  and  a tie  is 
%eld  to  be  a decision  in  the  negative. 

The  House  of  Commons,  at  the  time  of  Confederation,  consisted  of  one  hundred 
and  eighty-one  members — eighty -two  for  Ontario,  sixty-five  for  Quebec,  nineteen  for 
Nova  Scotia  and  fifteen  for  New  Brunswick. 

• The  House  of  Commons  is  called  together  by  the  Governor-General  by  summons 
under  the  Great  Seal. 

The  several  Provinces  of  the  Dominion  are  divided  into  Electoral  Districts,  each  of 
which  returns  one  member.  The  representation  of  the  Provinces  is  readjusted  by  the 


CONSTITUTION  OF  CANADA. 


8&S 

Parliament  of  Canada  after  each  decennial  census,  according  to  rules  laid  down  by  the 
British  North  America  Act — the  Province  of  Quebec  always  retaining  sixty-five  mem- 
bers, and  the  other  Provinces  in  proportion  to  their  respective  population  as  compared 
with  Quebec. 

All  bills  for  imposing  taxes  or  appropriating  revenue  must  originate  in  the  House  of 
Commons,  and  must  be  first  recommended  by  message  from  the  Governor-General. 

Bills  passed  by  the  Senate  and  Commons  require  the  assent  of  the  Queen,  which  is 
given  by  the  Governor-General  in  Her  Majesty’s  name.  The  Governor-General  has  the 
power  to  withhold  the  Queen’s  assent  or  to  reserve  bills  for  the  signification  of  the 
Queen’s  pleasure. 

The  Governor-General  is  required  to  transmit  to  one  of  Her  Majesty’s  principal 
Secretaries  of  State  an  authentic  copy  of  every  act  to  which  he  has  assented  in  the 
Queen’s  name ; and  Her  Majesty  in  council  may  disallow  any  such  act  within  two  years 
from  the  date  of  its  receipt  by  the  Secretary  of  State,  and  the  official  announcement  of 
such  disallowance  by  the  Governor-General  shall  annul  the  act. 

A bill  reserved  for  the  signification  of  the  Queen’s  pleasure  has  no  force  unless 
assented  to  by  the  Queen  in  council  within  two  years  from  the  date  upon  which  it  was 
presented  to  the  Governor-General  for  the  Queen’s  assent. 

EACH  PROVINCE  OF  THE  DOMINION  has  a Lieutenant-Governor,  who  is 
appointed  by  the  Governor-General,  under  the  Great  Seal  of  the  Dominion. 

A Lieutenant-General  holds  his  office  during  the  pleasure  of  the  Governor-General, 
But  he  is  not  removable  within  five  years  from  his  appointment  except  for  cause  assigned, 
which  must  be  communicated  to  him  in  writing  within  one  month  after  the  order  for 
removal  is  made,  and  also  by  message  from  the  Governor-General  to  the  Senate  and 
House  of  Commons  within  one  week  thereafter,  if  Parliament  is  then  sitting , if  not, 
then  within  one  week  of  the  commencement  of  the  next  session. 

The  salaries  of  the  Lieutenant-Governors  are  fixed  and  provided  by  the  Parliament 
of  the  Dominion. 

The  members  of  the  Executive  Councils  of  the  Provinces  are  appointed  by  the 
Lieutenant-Governor  of  those  Provinces.  The  expression,  Lieutenant-Governor  in 
Council,  means  the  Lieutenant-Governor  acting  by  and  with  the  advice  of  his  Executive 
Council. 

The  Governor-General  in  Council  has  power  to  appoint  an  administrator  during  the 
absence,  illness  or  inability  of  a Lieutenant-Governor. 

The  seats  of  the  respective  Provincial  Governments  are — of  Ontaria,  the  city  of 
Toronto  ; of  Quebec,  the  city  of  Quebec  ; of  Nova  Scotia,  the  city  of  Halifax ; of  New 
Brunswick,  the  city  of  Fredricton  ; of  Prince  Edward  Island,  the  city  of  Charlottetown  ; 
of  British  Columbia,  the  city  of  Victoria  ; of  Manitoba,  the  city  of  Winnipeg.  The.  Ex- 
ecutive Government  of  any  Province  has  power  to  change  the  seat  of  government  of  such 
province. 

LEGISLATIVE  POWER  IN  THE  SEVERAL  PROVINCES. 

In  Ontario,  Manitoba  and  British  Columbia  the  Legislature  consists  of  the  Lieuten- 
ant-Governor and  a House  of  Assembly. 


854 


CONSTITUTION  OF  CANADA. 


In  Quebec,  Nova  Scotia,  New  Brunswick,  and  Prince  Edward  Island,  the  Legisla- 
ture consists  of  the  Lieutenant-Governor,  or  Legislative  Council  and  a House  of  As- 
sembly. 

Each  Province  regulates  the  election  of  the  members  of  Assembly  and  fixes  the 
limits  of  the  Electoral  Districts.  The  Legislative  Councils,  in  the  Provinces  in  which 
they  exist,  are  governed  by  the  same  rules  and  have  nearly  the  same  powers  and  privi- 
leges within  their  respective  provinces  as  the  Senate  of  the  Dominion. 

The  provisions  respecting  taxation  and  revenue  which  govern  the  House  of  Com- 
mons apply  equally  to  Provincial  Legislative  Assemblies — and  the  power  of  assent  to 
bills,  disallowance  of  acts  and  signification  of  pleasure  on  bills  reserved,  also  apply  sub- 
stituting the  Lieutenant-Governor  for  the  Governor-General,  the  Governor-General  for 
the  Queen,  and  the  Secretary  of  State  for  Canada  for  Her  Majesty’s  Principal  Secretary 
of  State. 

The  Legislative  authority  of  the  Parliament  of  Canada  extends  to  all  matters  con- 
nected with  : 

1.  The  Public  Debt  and  Property. 

2.  The  Regulation  of  Trade  and  Commerce. 

3.  The  raising  of  money  by  any  mode  or  system  of  taxation, 

4.  The  borrowing  of  money  on  the  Public  Credit. 

5.  The  Postal  Service. 

6.  The  Census  and  Statistics. 

7.  Militia,  Military  and  Naval  service  and  Defense. 

8.  The  fixing  of  and  providing  for  the  salaries  and  allowances  of  Civil  and  other 
officers  of  the  Government  of  Canada. 

9.  Beacons,  Buoys,  Lighthouses,  and  Table  Island. 

10.  Navigation  and  Shipping. 

11.  Quarantine  and  the  establishment  and  maintenance  of  Marine  Hospitals. 

12.  Sea  Coast  and  Inland  Fisheries. 

13.  Ferries  between  a Province  and  any  British  or  Foreign  country,  or  between  two 
Provinces. 

14.  Currency  and  Coinage. 

15.  Banking,  incorporation  of  banks,  and  issue  of  paper  money. 

16.  Savings  Banks. 

17.  Weights  and  Measures. 

18.  Bills  of  Exchange  and  Promissory  Notes. 

19.  Interest. 

20.  Legal  tender. 

21.  Bankruptcy  and  Insolvency. 

22.  Patents  of  Invention  and  Discovery. 

23.  Copyrights. 

24.  Indians,  and  lands  reserved  for  the  Indians. 

25.  Naturalization  and  aliens. 

26.  Marriage  and  Divorce. 

27.  Criminal  Law  (except  constitution  of  Courts). 

28.  Penitentiaries. 


POSTAL  SERVICE. 


855 


29.  Such  classes  ol  subjects  as  are  expressly  excepted  in  the  enumeration  of  the 
classes  of  subjects  by  this  act,  assigned  exclusively  to  the  Legislatures  of  the  Provinces. 

The  principal  matters  left  to  the  control  of  the  Provincial  Legislatures  are  the 
amendment  of  their  respective  Constitutions ; direct  taxation  for  Provincial  purposes  ; 
Raising  Money  on  Provincial  Credit ; Provisional  Civil  Service ; Public  Lands ; Prisons 
and  Reformatories,  Asylums,  Hospitals  (except  Marine)  and  Charities  ; Municipal  Insti- 
tutions ; Shop  and  Tavern  Licenses  ; local  works  ; Solemnization  of  Marriage  ; Property 
and  civil  rights  ; Administration  of  Justice  and  power  to  enforce  Provincial  laws  by  fine 
or  imprisonment ; Education  subject  to  existing  privileges ; Agriculture  and  Immigra- 
tion subject  to  general  powers  of  the  Parliament  of  Canada. 

The  Judges  of  the  Superior,  District  and  County  Courts  in  the  respective  Provinces 
are  appointed  by  the  Governor-General,  and  their  salaries  are  fixed  and  paid  by  the  Par- 
liament of  Canada. 

Judges  of  the  Superior  Courts  hold  office  during  good  behavior,  but  may  be  re- 
moved on  joint  address  from  the  Senate  and  House  of  Commons  to  the  Governor-General. 

Ample  provision  is  made  in  the  British  North  America  Act  for  the  adjustment  of 
the  liabilities  of  the  respective  Provinces.. 

The  creation  of  a Consolidated  Revenue  Fund  is  also  provided  for — from  which 
fund  the  salary  of  the  Governor-General,  fixed  at  ten  thousand  pounds  sterling  per  an- 
num, is  to  be  paid. 

Every  member  of  the  Senate,  House  of  Commons,  Provincial  Legislative  Council  or 
Assembly,  is  required  to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance  before  he  can  take  his  seat. 

Either  the  English  or  the  French  language  may  be  used  in  debate  in  the  Parliament 
of  Canada,  and  in  the  two  Houses  of  the  Legislature  of  Quebec. 

Acts  of  the  Parliament  of  Canada  and  of  the  Legislature  of  Quebec  shall  be  printed 
and  published  in  both  the  English  and  French  languages. 

POSTAL  SERVICE. 

The  Canadian  Post-Office  is  under  the  control  of  a Postmaster-General,  who  is 
always  a member  of  the  Privy  Council  and  also  of  the  Cabinet  or  Ministry,  assisted  by  a 
Deputy  Postmaster-General. 

The  next  principal  officer  is  the  Secretary,  who  has  general  control  of  the  corres- 
pondence and  supervision  of  the  Dead  Letter,  Postage  Stamp  and  Printing  and  Supply 
Branches.  The  Secretary  also  attends  to  the  carrying  into  effect  of  all  appointments. 
These  are  made  by  the  Postmaster-General,  except  when  the  person  appointed  becomes 
thereby  a member  of  the  permanent  Civil  Service,  in  which  case  the  appointment  is 
made  by  the  Governor-General  in  council.  The  making  of  contracts  for  conveyance  of 
the  mails  and  general  supervision  of  the  mail  service  belongs  also  to  the  Secretary’s  Branch 

The  other  principal  officers  are  the  Accountant,  who  looks  after  the  collection  of  the 
revenue  and  makes  all  payments  for  Post-Office  service ; the  Superintendent  of  the 
Money  Order  and  Savings  Bank  branches,  and  the  Cashier. 

The  accounts  of  the  Post-Office  are  audited  by  the  Auditor-General,  an  officer  of 
the  Finance  Department,  who  is  responsible  directly  to  Parliament  for  the  performance 
of  his  duties. 


RATES  OF  POSTAGE. 

HE  RATE  OF  POSTAGE  upon  letters  passing  by  mail  within  the 
Dominion  of  Canada  is  three  cents  per  half  ounce.  This  rate  applies 
to  all  closed  packages  except  parcels  for  the  transmission  of  which  special 
provision  is  made. 

Newspapers  and  periodicals  printed  and  published  in  Canada,  and 
mailed  by  the  publishers  at  the  Post-office  of  the  place  in  which  they  are  published, 
and  addressed  to  regular  subscribers  or  news  dealers  in  Canada,  resident  elsewhere 
than  at  the  place  of  publication,  are  transmitted  by  ipail  free  of  postage.  This  regu- 
lation applies  also  to  newspapers  sent  from  the  office  of  publication  to  regular  sub- 
scribers in  the  United  States. 

On  all  newspapers  and  periodicals  posted  in  Canada,  other  than  those  addressed 
from  the  office  of  publication,  to  regular  subscribers  or  news  agents  in  the  Dominion,  in- 
cluding all  newspapers  and  periodicals  published  less  frequently  than  once  a month,  the 
rate  is  one  cent  per  four  ounces,  which  must  be  prepaid  by  postage  stamp. 

The  rate  upon  newspapers  delivered  from  the  office  at  which  they  are  mailed  is  one 
cent  each,  to  be  paid  by  postage  stamp. 

Transient  newspapers  are  liable  to  a rate  of  one  cent  per  four  ounces. 

Publishers  of  newspapers  and  periodicals  in  Canada  are  allowed  to  enclose  in  copies 
of  their  papers  sent  to  subscribers  within  the  Dominion,  subscription  accounts  and  re- 
ceipts for  subscription,  without  rendering  them  liable  to  any  additional  postage. 

On  miscellaneous  matter,  comprising  pamphlets,  occasional  publications,  printed  cir- 
culars, prices  current,  handbills,  book  and  newspaper  manuscripts,  printers’  proof-sheets, 
whether  corrected  or  not,  maps,  prints,  drawings,  engravings,  lithographs,  photographs, 
botanical  and  entomological  specimens,  sheet  music,  documents  wholly  or  partly  printed 
or  written,  such  as  deeds,  insurance  policies,  militia  and  school  returns,  the  rate  is  one 
cent  per  four  ounces.  Limit  of  length  of  packet,  24  in.  ; width,  12  in. ; weight,  4 lbs. 

On  book  packets,  which  may  contain  any  number  of  separate  books  or  publications, 
maps  or  prints,  drawings,  engravings  or  lithographs,  one  cent  per  four  ounces. 

Patterns  or  samples  of  merchandise  or  of  goods  for  sale,  not  exceeding  twenty-four 
ounces  in  weight,  may  be  posted  in  Canada  for  transmission  to  any  place  within  the 
Dominion  on  prepayment  by  postage  stamp  of  a rate  of  one  cent  per  four  ounces.  Pat- 
terns and  samples  must  be  so  put  up  as  to  be  easily  examined  by  the  officers  of  the 
Post-office,  and  there  must  be  no  writing  or  printing  upon  or  in  any  packet,  except  the 
address  of  the  person  for  whom  it  is  intended,  the  address  of  the  sender,  a trade  mark  or 
number,  and  the  price  of  the  articles. 

Parcels,  closed  at  the  ends  and  sides,  and  not  exceeding  five  pounds  in  weight, 
may  be  forwarded  by  mail  to  any  place  within  the  Dominion.  The  rate  is  six  cents  per 
four  ounces.  No  letter  must  be  enclosed.  The  limit  of  size  is  two  feet  in  length  and  one 
foot  in  width. 

All  letters  and  other  mailable  matter  addressed  to,  and  sent  by,  the  Governor-Gen- 
eral or  his  Secretary  are  free  of  postage  ; and  also  all  correspondence  addressed  to  01 
from  the  Public  Departments  at  the  seat  of  Government  (Ottawa),  and  to  or  from  mem- 
bers of  the  Parliament  of  Canada  when  in  session. 


RATES  OF  POSTAGE. 


857 


Books  sent  to  or  from  the  Library  of  Parliament  are  free  of  postage. 

The  fee  for  registration  of  letters  is  two  cents,  which  must  be  prepaid  by  registration 
stamp  (postage  stamps  will  not  be  accepted).  The  registration  fee  upon  parcels  and 
patterns  or  stamps  is  five  cents,  to  be  paid  by  registration  stamp.  No  letter,  parcel  or 
pattern  will  be  accepted  for  registration  unless  the  postage  is  fully  prepaid  by  postage 
stamp. 

Postage  stamps  of  the  value  of  ic.,  ic.,  2c.,  3c.,  5c.,  6c.,  10c.,  I2ic.  and  15c.  each  are 
issued  by  the  Post-Office  Department  for  sale  to  the  public  by  postmasters  and  licensed 
stamp  venders. 

Registration  stamps,  value  2c.  and  5c.  Post  cards  ic.  each.  Postal  Union  cards 
2c.  each.  Reply  cards  2c.  each.  Post  bands  or  wrappers  four  for  5c.,  and  stamped  en- 
velopes, ic.  and  3c.  are  also  issued  by  the  Department,  for  sale  to  the  public. 

Request  letters,  that  is  letters  having  printed  thereon  a request  from  the  sender  that 
the  letter,  if  not  delivered  or  called  for  within  a certain  time,  may  be  returned  to  his 
address,  are  returned  direct  to  the  sender  by  the  postmaster  at  the  office  to  which  they 
are  addressed. 

Letters  or  packets  containing  any  explosive,  dangerous  or  destructive  substance  or 
liquid,  or  any  matter  or  thing  likely  to  injure  any  letter  or  other  mailable  matter,  or  the 
person  of  any  officer  or  servant  of  the  post-office  ; or  glass,  leeches,  fish  or  fruits,  or  any 
obscene  or  immoral  books,  pamphlets  or  print  picture  or  engraving,  cannot  be  sent  by 
mail. 

The  Postmaster-General  has  the  sole  and  exclusive  privilege  of  conveying,  collect- 
ing, receiving,  sending  and  delivering  letters  within  Canada.  Any  other  person  who 
who  may  collect,  convey  or  deliver  any  letter  is  liable  to  a fine  oi  twenty  dollars. 

A letter  once  posted  becomes  the  property  of  the  person  to  whom  it  is  addressed, 
and  must  be  forwarded  according  to  its  direction.  On  no  account  can  it  be  returned  to 
the  writer. 

Postmasters  cannot  be  required  to  deliver  a letter  or  parcel  until  all  postage  due 
thereon  is  paid.  They  are  not  permitted  to  give  any  information  respecting  correspond- 
ence passing  through  their  offices. 

A postmaster  is  not  legally  bound  to  furnish  change. 

Money  Orders  are  issued  at  all  the  principal  post-offices  in  Canada  on  every  other 
Money  Order  office  in  Canada,  and  also  on  Money  Order  offices  in  the  United  Kingdom, 
United  States,  British  India  and  Newfoundland. 


RATES  OF  COMMISSION  ON  CANADIAN  MONEY  ORDERS. 

COMMISSION  ON  MONEY  ORDERS. 

On  Money  Orders  drawn  by  any  Money  Order  Office  in  Canada  on  any  other 
Money  Order  Office  in  the  Dominion,  is  as  follows  : 

Over  $40,  if  not  exceeding  $60,  . . 30c. 

“ 60,  “ “ 80,  . . 40c. 

“ 80,  “ “ 100,  . . 50c. 

No  single  Money  Order,  payable  in  the  Dominion  of  Canada,  can  be  issued  for 
more  than  $100  ; but  as  many  of  $100  each  may  be  given  as  the  remitter  requires. 


If  not  exceeding  $4,  ... 

2C. 

Over  $4  “ 

“ 10,  ... 

5c. 

“ 10  “ 

“ 20,  ... 

IOC. 

“ 20  “ 

“ 40  ...  . 

20c. 

858 


DIGEST  OF  CANADIAN  LAW. 


Not  more  than  one  Order  under  $100  may  be  issued  to  the  same  person  in  the  sant 
day,  drawn  on  the  same  place  in  favor  of  the  same  payee. 

On  Money  Orders  payable  in  the  United  Kingdom,  Newfoundland,  and  the  United 
States  : 

If  not  exceeding  $10,  . . . ioc.  Over  $30  if  not  exceeding  $40,  . . 40c. 

Over  $10  “ “ 20,  . . • 20c.  “ 40  “ “ 50,  . . 50c. 

“ 20  “ “ 30,  . . . 30c. 

Money  Orders  on  the  United  Kingdom,  Newfoundland,  the  United  States,  and 
British  India,  are  drawn  in  Canada  currency,  and  may  be  had  for  any  sum  not  in  excess 
of  #50 ; but  postmasters  are  at  liberty  to  issue  several  of  $50  each,  if  required  by  the 
remitter. 

The  commission  charged  on  Money  Orders  payable  in  British  India  is : 

If  not  exceeding  $10,  . . 30c.  Over  #25  if  not  exceeding  35,  ..  90c. 

Over  $10  “ “ 25,  . . 60c.  “ 35  “ “ 50,  . . $1.20 

POST-OFFICE  SAVINGS  BANKS. 

Savings  Bank  business  is  transacted  at  about  three  hundred  ol  the  principal  post- 
offices  in  the  Provinces  of  Ontario  and  Quebec,  where  deposits  of  one  dollar  or  of  any 
number  of  dollars,  will  be  received  from  any  depositor,  provided  the  deposits  made  by 
such  depositor,  in  any  year  ending  30th  June,  do  not  exceed  three  hundred  dollars  (ex- 
cept under  special  cases  to  be  specially  authorized  by  the  Postmaster-General),  and  pro- 
vided the  total  amount  standing  in  such  depositor’s  name  in  his  ordinary  deposit  account 
do  not  exceed  $1,000  exclusive  of  interest. 

The  direct  security  of  the  Dominion  is  given  by  the  statute  for  all  deposits  made 

No  interest  will  be  allowed  on  any  sum  over  and  above  one  thousand  dollars  in  an 
ordinary  deposit  account. 

DIGEST  OF  CANADIAN  LAW- 

ROVINCE  OF  NEW  BRUNSWICK.— All  deeds  must  be  made  in 
writing,  signed  and  sealed, — a scroll  will  not  answer, — and  be  attested  by 
at  least  one  witness.  The  deed  is  proved  by  the  affidavit  of  this  witness 
engrossed  on  a “ memorial,”  giving  a digest  of  the  principal  points  of  the 
deed.  This  must  be  under  the  hand  and  seal  of  the  grantor  or  grantee, 
and  must  be  permanently  recorded  with  the  Registrar  of  the  County  where  the  property 
is  located.  Within  the  Province , the  affidavit  which  proves  the  execution  of  the  deed 
may  be  taken  on  the  aforesaid  memorial  before  the  registrar,  or  his  deputy,  or  before 
any  judge  or  commissioner  of  the  Court  of  the  Queen’s  Bench  for  the  Province,  or  any 
judge  of  a County  Court.  Outside  of  the  Province , the  proof  of  any  legal  instrument, 
such  as  deeds,  wills  and  conveyances,  may  be  made  before  the  Mayor  or  Chief  Magis- 
trate of  any  city,  borough,  or  town  corporate  in  the  United  Kingdom;  or  in  a foreign 
country  before  the  Mayor,  or  any  Consul  or  vice-Consul  of  Great  Britain  resident  therein. 
They  must  be  recorded  in  the  County  where  the  property  is  situate,  and  bind  land 


DIGEST  OF  CANADIAN  LAW. 


859 


according  to  priority  ot  registration.  A wife  must  join  her  husband  in  a deed  in  selling 
his  estate,  thereby  relinquishing  right  of  dower,  and  he  must  join  with  her  to  sell  her 
separate  estate  to  make  the  transfer  valid. 

Chattel  Mortgages  are  valid  and  must  be  registered. 

Bills  of  Sale  require  to  be  registered  in  the  record  office. 

The  wearing  apparel,  bedding,  kitchen  utensils  and  tools  of  his  trade  or  calling,  to 
the  value  of  one  hundred  dollars,  of  any  debtor,  are  exempt  from  levy  or  sale  under 
execution.  The  homestead  act  exempts  the  owner  to  the  value  of  $600  from  attachment 
for  debt,  also  household  effects  to  the  value  of  $60. 

The  Statutes  of  Limitation  are : On  unsealed  contracts,  six  years  ; sealed  contracts, 
or  judgments,  twenty  years.  Apart  payment  or  written  acknowledgment  renews  a claim. 
The  jurisdiction  of  the  Courts  is:  Magistrates  to  $20  ; County  Courts,  from  $20  to 
$ 200 ; Supreme  Court,  all  above  $200.  A party  in  action  may  be  a witness  in  his  own 
behalf.  The  rights  of  married  women  are  real  and  personal  estate  belonging  to  her  before 
or  acquired  after  marriage,  except  such  as  she  has  received  from  her  husband,  shall  be 
held  by  her  alone,  and  be  exempt  from  her  husband’s  debts.  If  she  lives  separate  and 
apart  from  her  husband,  she  can  dispose  of  it  as  if  unmarried,  otherwise  he  must  join 
her  in  conveying  it  away.  The  legal  rate  of  interest  is  six  per  cent.,  but  any  rate  may  be 
agreed  upon  by  the  parties. 

PROVINCE  OF  ONTARIO. — A deed  must  be  written,  signed  and  sealed, — a scroll 
will  not  answer, — and  be  attested  by  two  witnesses.  The  process  of  proving  the  deed 
and  its  execution  is  the  same  as  in  the  Province  of  New  Brunswick. 

A chattel  mortgage  is  not  valid  as  against  the  rights  of  third  parties  (if  the  goods 
remain  with  the  grantor)  unless  said  instrument  is  filed  in  the  office  of  the  Clerk  of  the 
County  in  which  the  property  is  situate,  and  it  shall  cease  to  be  valid  as  against  cred- 
itors, if  not  refiled  before  the  expiration  of  the  first  year,  together  with  a statement 
exhibiting  the  interest  of  the  mortgage  in  the  property  thereby  claimed.  Every  chattel 
mortgage  must  be  accompanied  with  an  affidavit  of  the  mortgagee,  sworn  before  a Com- 
missioner of  the  Court  of  Queen’s  Bench  or  Common  Pleas,  that  the  mortgagor  is  justly 
and  truly  indebted  to  the  mortgagee  in  the  sum  mentioned  in  said  mortgage,  and  that  it 
was  executed  in  good  faith  and  for  the  express  purpose  of  securing  the  payment  of  the 
money  so  justly  due,  and  not  for  the  purpose  of  protecting  the  goods  and  chattels  men- 
tioned therein  against  the  creditors  of  the  mortgagor — and  in  case  of  an  absolute  sale, 
that  the  sale  is  bo7ia  fide  and  for  good  consideration  ( naming  the  sum)  and  not  for  the 
purpose  of  holding  the  goods  against  the  creditors  of  the  bargainor,  or  it  is  void  as 
against  creditors. 

The  law  exempts  from  attachment,  furniture,  tools  and  implements  of  trade  to  $60  ; 
farm  stock,  free  grants  and  homesteads  in  certain  districts. 

The  Statutes  of  Limitation  are  : Contracts,  notes  and  unsealed  instruments,  six  years  ; 
sealed  contracts,  mortgages,  judgments  and  to  recover  land,  ten  years  ; to  recover  wild 
land,  under  certain  conditions,  twenty  years  Part  payment  or  a written  acknowledg- 
ment revives  any  claim.  The  jurisdiction  of  Division  Courtis  limited  to  $100.  A wit- 
ness may  testify  in  own  interest.  A stay  of  execution  can  be  granted  only  on  appeal. 
The  rights  of  married  women  : Every  one  married  since  May  4th,  1859,  without  marriage 


860 


DIGEST  OF  CANADIAN  LAW. 


settlement,  may  hold  all  her  real  and  personal  estate,  except  that  received  trom  him 
during  coverture,  free  from  her  husband’s  debts  or  control.  Husband  nust  icin  j 
wife  in  conveying  her  estate.  The  legal  rate  of  interest  is  six  per  cent.,  but  any  rate 
can  be  agreed  upon  by  parties  interested. 

PROVINCE  OF  QUEBEC. — The  law  of  deeds  is  similar  to  that  in  the.  other 
provinces.  A small  quantity  of  furniture,  food,  cattle,  fuel,  tools  of  trade  and  other 
articles  is  exempt  from  attachment  for  debt.  The  Statute  of  Limitations  are:  For  wages 
of  farm  hands  and  domestics,  one  year ; teachers,  for  tuition,  board,  etc.,  two  y-ears  ; 
commercial  claims,  general  contracts,  bills  of  exchange  and  notes,  five  years  ; contractors 
warranty,  or  recession  of  contract,  ten  years ; mortgages  and  judgments,  thirty  years. 
The  jurisdiction  of  “ Circuit  Court,”  corresponding  to  justices’  court  in  the  United 
States:  In  country  districts,  $200 ; in  Montreal  and  Quebec,  $100.  Witness  cannot 
testify  in  his  own  behalf,  but  may  be  called  by  adversary.  The  rights  of  married  women  : 
As  a rule,  the  wife  retains  in  her  own  right  all  the  improvable  property  owned  by  her  at 
time  of  marriage,  unless  modified  by  ante-nuptial  contract ; the  same  is  true  of  her  hus- 
band’s property,  they  constituting  two  estates.  There  is  a third  estate,  called  the  com- 
munity, which  consists  of  all  movables  brought  in  or  acquired  by  each,  and  is  under  the 
control  of  her  husband.  The  legal  rate  of  interest  is  six  per  cent.,  but  any  rate  may  be 
agreed  upon. 

PROVINCE  OF  NOVA  SCOTIA.— The  law  in  regard  to  deeds , wills  and  convey- 
ances corresponds  to  that  of  New  Brunswick.  The  necessary  wearing  apparel  of  debtor 
and  his  family,  with  bedding,  the  tools  of  trade  and  one  stove  and  last  cow  are  exempt 
from  attachment.  Statutes  of  Limitation  : All  unsealed  contracts,  six  years  ; sealed  con- 
tracts and  judgments,  twenty  years  ; after  six  years  no  arrears  of  dower,  rent  or  interest 
can  be  recovered.  Claims  are  revived  by  part  payment  or  acknowledgment  in  writing. 
The  jurisdiction  of  Courts  as  follows  : Magistrates,  under  $20  ; County  Courts,  from  $20 
to  $200  ; Superior  Court,  all  above  $200.  The  lights  of  married  women:  All  personal 
property,  unless  trusteed  for  her  sole  benefit,  becomes  the  property  of  her  husband,  but 
cannot  convey  independent  of  husband.  The  legal  rate  of  interest  is  six  per  cent.  A 
married  woman  cannot  accept  a succession  to  property  without  the  consent  of  her  hus- 
band. 

BRITISH  COLUMBIA. — Deeds,  wills  and  conveyances.  The  law  in  regard  to 
these  is  similar  to  that  in  Ontario. 

The  wearing  apparel  of  a debtor  and  that  of  his  family,  their  beds  and  bedding,  and 
household  utensils,  not  exceeding  together  the  value  of  ten  pounds,  and  the  tools  and 
implements  of  the  trade  of  such  debtor,  not  exceeding  the  value  of  ten  pounds,  are  exempt 
from  seizure. 

Rights  of  Married  Women:  Real  estate  of  a married  woman  maybe  enjoyed  by 
her  for  her  separate  use.  Wages  and  earnings  of  a married  woman  are  her  own  property, 
free  from  her  husband’s  control  or  debts.  A married  woman  may  insure,  for  her  sole 
benefit,  her  own  life,  or,  with  his  consent,  that  of  her  husband.  A married  woman  may 
hold  stock  and  keep  in  her  own  name  a bank  account.  Where  no  stipulation  for  a 
definite  rate  of  interest  has  been  made,  Court  may  award  any  just  rate,  not  exceeding 
one  per  cent,  per  month.  Jurisdiction  of  County  Courts  limited  to  $500,  but  any  suit 
for  f20  or  upwards  may  be  brought  in  the  Superior  Court. 


II— HISTORICAL  AND  STATISTICAL. 

THE  PRINCIPAL  NATIONS  OF 
THE  WORLD. 

FROM  THEIR  FORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 


ARGENTINE  REPUBLIC. 

The  History  of  this  country  as  a separate  government  begins  in  1821  when  a 
Republic  was  instituted  on  the  Platte  River,  having  the  city  of  Buenos  Ayres  as  its 
chief  capital.  This  continued  a precarious  existence  with  many  changes  in  its  gov- 
ernment, until  the  formation  of  the  Argentine  Republic  by  the  union  in  a Confedera- 
tion of  the  Provinces  of  Buenos  Ayres,  Corrientes,  Entre  Rios,  and  Santa  Fe.  Gen- 
eral Rosas  was  elected  president  in  1833,  but  in  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  compel 
Paraguay  and  Uruguay  to  unite  in  the  confederation,  he  became  involved  in  a quar- 
rel with  the  more  powerful  government  of  Brazil.  He  was  compelled  to  flee  to  Eng- 
land in  1852.  There  has  been  almost  a continual  contest  of  factions  up  to  the  present 
time,  in  which  the  material  interests  of  the  country  have  greatly  suffered. 

It  is  a federal  Republic  having  fourteen  Provinces  with  a combined  area  as  large 
as  all  Central  and  Western  Europe.  Its  soil  is  a rich  alluvial  deposit  of  four  or  five 
feet,  formed  by  the  decay  of  the  luxuriant  growth  of  ages.  Its  constitution  is  mod- 
eled upon  that  of  the  United  States.  The  ministry  is  responsible  to  Congress,  and 
an  adverse  vote  of  the  two  Houses  requires  the  appointment  of  a new  cabinet.  For- 
eign and  native-born  inhabitants  have  the  same  standing  before  the  law.  The  area 
of  the  Republic  is  1,619,500  square  miles.  Dr.  Miguel  Juarez  Celman  became  President 
October  12,  1886,  and  Dr.  Carlos  Pelegrini  succeeded  him  August  18,  1890. 

AUSTRIA. 

The  official  designation  of  this  country  since  1867  has  been  “The  Austro-Hun- 
garian Monarchy.”  This  kingdom  has  been  gradually  built  up  of  several  distinct 
countries  and  provinces  annexed  from  time  to  time.  There  are  seven  different  races 
making  up  its  population.  The  present  reigning  sovereign  is  Francis  Joseph,  Em- 
peror, who  ascended  the  throne  December  2d,  1848.  He  is  a lineal  descendant  of 
Count  Rudolph  of  Hapsburg,  Switzerland.  This  founder  of  the  present  dynasty 
greatly  distinguished  himself  at  home  and  was  raised  to  the  imperial  throne  in  1273, 
and  crowned  Emperor  of  Germany.  At  his  death  the  duchy  of  Austria  was  given 
to  his  eldest  son,  Albert,  and  still  remains  in  that  branch  of  the  family. 

Rudolph  was  a wise  and  beneficent  ruler ; his  successors  did  not  inherit  his  genius, 


864 


THE  PRINCIPAL  NATIONS  OF  THE  WORLD. 


but  they  acquired  increased  territory  and  power,  generally  by  marriages  of  policy. 
Charles  Fifth  of  Germany  and  First  of  Spain  was  the  most  powerful  monarch  of  the 
Austrian  house.  He  came  in  possession  of  the  throne  of  Spain  after  the  death  of 
his  brother  Ferdinand  who  had  been  king  of  that  country.  The  growing  opposition 
to  the  increasing  power  of  the  Austrian  provinces  was  a prominent  factor  which  led 
to  the  Thirty  Years'  War  which  devastated  all  Germany.  This  closed  with  the  peace 
of  Westphalia  in  1648,  securing  the  independence  of  the  German  states. 

Maria  Theresa,  wife  of  Francis  of  Lorraine,  and  daughter  of  Charles  VI.,  suc- 
ceeded to  the  crown  in  1748  upon  the  death  of  her  father  without  male  issue.  Fred- 
erick the  Great,  king  of  Prussia,  at  once  seized  upon  the  province  of  Silesia  and 
began  the  Seven  Years’  War  which  ended  in  1763  with  the  cession  of  Silesia  to 
Prussia. 

Joseph  II.,  an  able  monarch,  succeeded  Maria  Theresa  to  the  throne.  He  added 
Galicia,  taken  from  Poland  and  the  Bukowina  from  Turkey,  to  his  realm.  He  was 
too  radical  in  his  reforms  and  would  have  accomplished  more  if  he  had  been  more 
conservative  in  his  policy.  He  died  lamented  by  the  Austrians  and  most  of  the 
Germans.  During  the  convulsions  that  shook  all  Europe  under  the  Emperor  Napo- 
leon, Austria  sank  to  the  level  of  a second-rate  power,  but  after  the  downfall  of  that 
monarch  she  rapidly  rose  to  her  former  position,  for  her  acquisitions  in  Italy  and 
elsewhere  made  up  for  her  losses  in  the  Low  Countries. 

Francis  II.  surrendered  the  title  of  Emperor  of  Germany  in  1806  and  assumed 
that  of  Emperor  of  Austria.  His  son,  Ferdinand  I.,  succeeded  him.  A fearful  revo- 
lution broke  out  in  March  1848  which  led  to  his  abdication  in  favor  of  his  son  Francis 
Joseph  I.,  the  present  emperor.  In  a war  with  Italy  this  emperor  has  lost  Lombardy 
and  Venice  which  are  now  annexed  to  Italy.  Francis  Joseph  has  since  busied  him- 
self and  his  government  entirely  in  a policy  of  extensive  internal  improvement  and 
in  that  view  his  administration  is  perhaps  the  best  that  Austria  has  ever  had.  In 
1868  he  took  the  title  of  Emperor  of  Austria  and  King  of  Hungary.  He  was  crowned 
King  of  Hungary  June  8th,  1867. 

The  empire  is  divided  into  five  countries  called  kingdoms.  The  capital  and 
largest  city  is  Vienna.  One-fourth  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  empire  speak  German 
as  their  native  tongue. 

BELGIUM. 

The  Romans  knew  this  country  as  Gallia  Belgica  and  the  people  as  Celts.  While 
under  the  reign  of  the  Franks  in  the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries,  through  irruptions  from 
the  north,  the  preponderating  element  became  German.  Then  the  country  became 
divided  into  a number  of  independent  duchies,  free  cities  and  counties,  the  chief  of 
them  being  the  county  of  Flanders.  When  the  male  line  of  the  Counts  of  Flanders 
became  extinct  in  1385,  their  possessions  passed  to  the  Dukes  of  Burgundy,  who 
quickly  obtained  the  whole  of  the  Netherlands.  Austria  obtained  possession  of  the 
Netherlands  in  1477  by  the  marriage  of  Mary  of  Burgundy  with  Maximilian.  He 
was  followed  by  his  son,  Philip,  who  married  Joanna,  the  daughter  of  Ferdinand  and 
Isabella  of  Spain,  in  1496. 


THE  PRINCIPAL  NATIONS  OF  THE  WORLD. 


865 


Holland  gained  her  independence;  but  the  southern  portion  of  the  Netherlands, 
or  Belgium,  remained  under  the  rule  of  Spain.  Belgium  became  a distinct  kindgom 
after  it  had  been  ceded  to  Isabella,  daughter  of  Philip,  and  her  husband,  the  Archduke 
Albert,  in  1598.  But  he  died  in  1621,  without  issue,  and  the  country  fell  again  to 
Spain. 

The  treaty  of  Utrecht,  in  1713,  assigned  Belgium  to  Austria;  but  in  the  war  of 
the  Austrian  succession  she  fell  to  the  hands  of  France.  By  the  peace  of  Aix-la- 
Chapelle  the  territory  was  restored  to  Austria. 

She  revolted  from  the  Austrian  yoke  in  1790,  and  the  provinces  formed  them- 
selves into  an  independent  state  under  the  name  of  United  Belgium,  but  was  very 
quickly  subdued.  An  end  was  put  to  Austrian  rule  in  the  war  with  France  by  the 
battle  of  Fleurus,  in  1794. 

A union  was  again  effected  with  Holland  in  1815,  under  Prince  William  Frederick 
of  Nassau.  But  Belgium  revolted  in  1830,  and  chose  for  his  ruler  Leopold,  Prince  of 
Saxe-Coburg,  in  1831.  He  died  in  1865,  and  was  succeeded  by  the  present  ruler,  King 
Leopold  II.  Under  the  mild  government  of  this  king,  Belgium  has  materially  pros- 
pered, until  she  has  become  one  vast  workshop.  Manufactures  and  agriculture  re- 
ceive prominent  attention,  and  the  government  promotes  education,  establishing 
numerous  primary  and  other  schools.  The  government  is  a constitutional  hereditary 
monarchy,  with  a legislature  consisting  of  a Senate  and  House  of  Representatives. 
The  members  of  the  lower  house  are  elected  by  citizens  who  pay  twenty  florins  or 
more  annually  in  direct  taxes.  The  chief  and  capital  city  is  Brussels. 

BOLIVIA. 

After  the  Spanish  conquest  of  Peru  with  other  portions  of  South  America,  this 
country  was  known  as  Upper  Peru.  It  was  a part  of  the  viceroyalty  of  Buenos 
Ayres  in  1767.  General  Simon  Bolivar  made  it  a independent  Republic  in  1825, 
and  it  was  named  in  his  honor.  Gen.  Sucre  was  elected  president  for  life,  but  he 
accepted  it  for  only  two  years.  During  this  brief  period,  repeated  insurrections 
arose,  and  in  1828  the  president  with  his  army  was  driven  from  La  Paz,  and  Santa 
Cruz  was  chosen  president.  A war  arose  with  Bolivia  on  one  side  and  Peru  and 
Chili  on  the  other  which  continued  for  three  years,  when  Santa  Cruz  was  defeated 
and  exiled.  Gen.  Velasco  was  elected  provisional  chief. 

The  Bolivians  revolted  against  this  new  government  and  installed  Gen.  Ballivan 
with  supreme  power.  Repeated  revolutions  and  insurrections  occurred  until  1866, 
when  Maria  Melgarijo  proclaimed  political  amnesty,  gave  the  people  a revised  con- 
stitution and  was  acknowledged  as  dictator.  In  1871  President  Morales  was  elected, 
and  at  once  a civil  government  took  the  place  of  the  military  sytsem.  Effort  was 
made  to  build  up  the  credit  of  the  country  and  lift  from  it  the  great  burden  of  for- 
eign debt.  Aniceto  Arce  acceded  to  office  of  president,  August  1st,  1888. 

BRAZIL. 

Brazil  was  a colony  of  Portugal  for  three  hundred  years  after  its  discovery  by 
Pedro  Alvarez  Cabral  in  1500.  Frequent  attacks  were  made  upon  the  country  by  - 


866 


THE  PRINCIPAL  NATIONS  OF  THE  WORLD. 


the  Dutch,  and  many  important  settlements  were  seized  by  them  during  the  seven- 
teenth century,  but  the  Portuguese  finally  drove  them  out  1654.  Gold  and  diamonds 
were  discovered  in  the  first  part  of  the  eighteenth  century,  which  increased  the  wealth 
of  the  land.  Agriculture,  however,  has  been  the  chief  industry  of  the  people.  The 
exportation  of  coffee,  which  began  to  be  cultivated  about  1750,  has  been  a great 
source  of  income  to  the  people  and  revenue  to  the  government. 

When  Napoleon  I.  overthrew  Portugal  and  proclaimed  that  “the  house  of  Bra- 
ganza  ” had  ceased  to  reign,  that  royal  family  came  to  Brazil,  and  upon  the  downfall 
of  the  French  emperor  in  1815,  Brazil  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  a kingdom.  The 
king,  Joam  VI.,  sailed  for  Portugal  in  1821,  leaving  his  son,  Prince  Pedro,  as  regent 
of  Brazil.  Pedro  was  proclaimed  emperor  the  following  year,  and  a constitution  was 
given  to  the  country.  The  emperor  Pedro  II.,  succeeded  his  father  upon  the  abdi- 
cation of  the  latter  in  1831.  Don  Pedro  II.  reigned  until  November  15th,  1889.  His 
long  reign  of  fifty-eight  years  had  been  marked  by  many  internal  improvements  and 
a broadening  of  commercial  relations  with  the  rest  of  the  world.  The  slave  trade 
had  been  abolished,  slavery  was  gradually  becoming  extinct,  and  the  country  had 
gradually  and  surely  risen  in  prosperity  and  civilization.  The  emperor  and  empress 
were  present  at  the  opening  of  the  Centennial  Exhibition  in  Philadelphia  in  1876. 
They  also  visited  Europe  and  returned  to  Brazil  the  following  year.  The  commerce 
was  in  a flourishing  condition.  Large  subsidies  were  paid  to  lines  of  steamers  run- 
ning to  Europe  and  North  America ; free  schools  were  supported  by  government, 
and  in  some  of  the  provinces,  of  which  there  were  twenty,  education  was  compulsory. 
By  a royal  decree,  issued  in  1867,  the  Amazon  with  its  tributaries  draining  in  Brazil 
alone  an  area  of  800,000  square  miles,  was  open  to  the  commerce  of  the  world.  An 
important  colony  of  German  immigrants  under  the  fostering  care  of  the  emperor  was 
established  on  the  Rio  Grande  do  Sul.  A republic  was  declared  in  November,  1889. 
General  M.  D.  Da  Fonseca  became  President  November  15,  1890.  A reciprocity  treaty 
concluded  with  the  United  States,  February,  1891. 

DOMINION  OF  CANADA. 

This  portion  of  North  America  was  discovered  by  a French  navigator  named 
Jacques  Cartier,  in  1534.  He  took  possession  in  the  name  of  his  sovereign,  and  re- 
turned. In  the  following  year  he  ascended  the  St.  Lawrence  and  gave  it  the  name 
which  it  now  bears  on  account  of  having  entered  it  upon  the  festival  of  that  saint. 
The  chief  tribes  of  Indians  inhabiting  the  region  were  the  Hurons  and  Iroquois.  In 
1609  another  French  navigator,  Champlain,  further  explored  the  country  and  estab- 
lished the  city  of  Quebec.  This  was  captured  by  the  English  in  1629,  but  the  treaty 
of  St.  Germain-en-Laye,  in  1632,  restored  it  to  the  French.  The  early  colonists  had 
frequent  wars  with  the  hostile  Iroquois  who  lived  south  of  the  lakes,  but  were  at 
peace  most  of  the  time  with  the  other  tribes.  In  1689  an  English  fleet  under  Ad- 
miral Phipps  made  an  unsuccessful  attempt  on  Quebec.  A French  colony  was  es- 
tablished at  Detroit,  and  La  Salle  discovered  the  Mississippi  about  this  time.  The 
treaty  of  Utrecht  gave  the  valley  of  the  St.  Lawrence  and  of  the  Mississippi  to  the 
French  (1713),  but  ceded  the  remaining  portions  of  Canada  to  England.  The  Seven 
Years’  War  with  the  British  colonies  arose  from  the  vagueness  of  description  in  this 
treaty  concerning  the  boundaries.  Quebec  was  captured  by  Gen.  Wolfe  in  1759,  and 


THE  PRINCIPAL  NATIONS  OF  THE  WORLD. 


867 


Montreal  by  Gen.  Amherst,  in  1760.  The  treaty  of  Paris,  in  1760,  ceded  the  whole  of 
Canada  to  the  English. 

This  new  territory  was  called  the  Province  of  Quebec  and  was  ruled  by  a council 
of  seventeen,  appointed  by  the  king.  It  continued  so  until  1791,  when  it  was  divided 
into  two  provinces,  each  having  a separate  government,  Upper  and  Lower  Canada. 
During  the  war  between  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain  in  1812,  the  Indians  of 
the  northwest  under  the  Shawnee  chief,  Tecumseh,  were  defeated  at  the  battle  of 
Tippecanoe.  But  he  renewed  hostilities,  and  the  English  and  their  Indian  allies 
inflicted  severe  losses  and  suffering  upon  the  Americans.  An  invasion  of  Canada  by 
the  latter  in  the  beginning  of  the  war,  followed  by  another  attempt  in  1813,  most  sig- 
nally failed.  But  they  were  more  successful  in  their  naval  engagements  on  the  Great 
Lakes.  Com.  Perry  defeated  and  destroyed  the  British  squadron  on  Lake  Erie, 
August  4th,  1813,  and  Com.  MacDonough  dispersed  a strong  fleet  on  Lake  Cham- 
plain, September  nth,  1814. 

Insurrections  which  broke  out  in  1837-1838,  which  arose  from  a defective  sys- 
tem of  government,  were  unsuccessful,  but  drew  the  attention  of  the  home  govern- 
ment to  the  matter,  and  in  1841  the  two  provinces  were  united  under  one  adminis- 
trative system.  The  provincial  Parliament  sat  at  Montreal  until  1849,  when  the 
excitement  arising  from  the  introduction  of  a bill  to  indemnify  persons  for  loss  of 
property  during  the  insurrection  incensed  the  populace  to  such  an  extent  that  they 
dispersed  the  Parliament  and  burnt  the  buildings.  Then  the  Parliament  met  alter- 
nately at  Toronto  and  Quebec  every  four  years  till  1859,  when  Ottawa  was  made 
the  sole  capital. 

A confederation  of  the  provinces  of  Canada,  Nova  Scotia,  and  New  Brunswick 
was  formed  in  1867,  to  be  known  as  the  Dominion  of  Canada.  In  1870  the  new  gov- 
ernment paid  the  Hudson  Bay  Company  a consideration  in  money  and  land  for  the 
transfer  of  their  domain,  but  a part  of  the  people  in  this  territory  attempted  to  resist 
the  new  order  of  things  and  establish  a provisional  government.  But  the  Red  River 
Rebellion,  as  it  was  called,  was  suppressed  and  the  authority  of  the  Dominion  estab- 
lished without  bloodshed. 

British  Columbia  entered  the  confederation  in  1871,  and  Prince  Edwards  Island 
in  1873.  There  are  at  present  seven  provinces  and  several  territories  embraced  in 
the  Dominion  of  Canada.  The  government  of  Canada  is  Federal,  centered  at  Ottawa 
for  the  whole  Dominion,  while  the  seven  provinces  and  the  Northwest  territories  have 
their  respective  local  legislatures.  The  head  of  the  Federal  Government  is  the  Gov- 
ernor-General, appointed  by  the  Queen  of  Great  Britain,  who  holds  office  for  five 
years,  his  salary  being  paid  by  the  Dominion  Government. 

CHILI. 

This  country  was  under  a despotic  form  of  government  for  a number  of  years 
after  successfully  throwing  off  the  yoke  of  Spain;  but  in  1833  a new  constitution  was 
adopted.  The  prosperity  of  the  people  has  been  developed  and  there  have  been  no 
serious  party  disturbances,  as  in  some  of  the  other  South  Amercian  republics. 
A well-arranged  revised  code  of  laws  was  enacted  under  the  administration  of 


868 


THE  PRINCIPAL  NATIONS  OF  THE  WORLD. 


President  Moutt  in  1856;  a chamber  of  commerce  and  banks  of  deposit  and  discount 
were  established  soon  after  at  Valparaiso,  and  treaties  with  the  United  States,  France, 
and  Great  Britain  were  negotiated. 

In  the  trade  between  the  powers  of  Chili  and  Bolivia,  the  former  country  im- 
posed a line  of  duties  upon  the  latter  to  which  exceptions  were  taken  by  Peru,  and 
there  arose  a war  between  her  and  Chili.  This  was  decided  in  favor  of  the  last ; 
a portion  of  Peru  was  seized  and  a large  money  indemnity  was  demanded.  After  a 
long  series  of  negotiations  peace  was  formally  declared,  resulting  in  the  loss  to  Peru 
of  a valuable  portion  of  her  sea-coast.  The  public  credit  stands  well,  for  the  gov- 
ernment promptly  meets  its  engagements.  The  population  is  rapidly  increasing  and 
immigration  is  fostered,  and  that  from  Germany  is  successfully  promoted. 

It  is  a country  of  mountains,  subject  to  frequent  earthquakes,  having  every  vari- 
ety of  climate  and  vegetation.  The  coast  is  level,  extending  back  to  the  Andes, 
which  rise  far  above  the  line  of  perpetual  snow.  The  highest  peak  of  this  range 
in  Chili  rises  to  22,427  feet  above  the  sea-level.  Don  Jose  Manuel  Balmeceda,  the 
president,  was  inaugurated  September  18th,  1886. 

CHINA. 

The  mythology  of  China  gives  the  empire  a duration  of  seven  thousand  years, 
but  the  compilation  of  Confucius  commences  with  the  reign  of  Yaou,  in  the  year 
2356  B.C.  Brusen  claims  that  the  systematic  history  of  China  goes  only  as  far  back 
as  1991  B.C.  A few  dates  prior  to  that  point  can  be  fixed  with  tolerable  certainty. 
The  “great  Yu  ” who  has  been  called  “the  Charlemagne  of  the  East,”  added  south- 
ern China  to  the  domain  of  the  Shen-Su  dynasty.  He  caused  the  channel  of  the 
Hoang-Ho  to  be  changed,  and  thus  drained  the  great  plain  in  northern  China  and 
made  it  habitable.  The  next  emperor  of  any  note  was  Shee  (Chi)  Hoang-Ti — other- 
wise called  Ching  Wang — who  is  the  national  hero.  He  reigned  from  246  to  210  B.C. 
His  capital  was  fixed  at  Chang-gan.  He  united  the  divided  empire,  expelled  the 
Moguls  or  Tartars,  built  roads  and  canals,  and  caused  the  Great  Wall  to  be  erected 
along  the  entire  northern  boundary  of  his  empire. 

A new  line,  called  the  Han  dynasty,  came  to  rule  the  country  a few  years  after 
the  death  of  this  great  emperor.  This  line  held  the  throne  for  two  centuries  and 
was  followed  by  the  Eastern  Han  dynasty.  The  art  of  printing  was  known  and 
practised  in  China  as  early  as  201  B.C.  The  Buddhist  religion  was  introduced  from 
India  in  65  A.D.  The  kingdom  became  divided  and  was  governed  by  three  mon- 
archs  in  220  A.D.  It  was  reunited  in  590  by  the  power  of  Zang  Keen. 

Marco  Polo  lived  seventeen  years  in  China,  and  returned  to  England  in  1295, 
and  published  the  first  authentic  account  of  the  country  to  Europe.  The  kingdom 
has  been  rent  with  civil  war  and  protracted  contests  with  the  Moguls.  Sometimes 
one  and  sometimes  another  party  was  in  the  ascendancy.  In  1232  Kublai  Khan,  the 
Mogul  king,  overcame  all  China.  The  reigns  of  his  successors  were  disturbed  by 
native  insurrections  till  1368,  when  the  son  of  a common  Chinese  laborer,  Choo  Yuen> 
Chang,  was  proclaimed  emperor.  The  “ Ming”  dynasty  which  he  founded  lasted  till 
1649,  when  the  Manchoo  Tartars  obtained  the  throne  and  began  the  dynasty  which 


THE  PRINCIPAL  NATIONS  OF  THE  WORLD. 


869 


still  (1890)  holds  the  throne.  This  is  said  to  be  the  twenty-sixth  dynasty  which  has 
ruled  in  China.  The  empire  was  long  closed  to  foreigners,  but  in  1537  the  Portu- 
guese got  a foothold  at  Macao  which  they  have  held  to  this  day.  This  was  ceded 
to  Portugal  by  the  treaty  of  1862.  The  Dutch  and  Spanish  merchants  early  found 
a way  to  trade  with  the  Chinese  by  the  way  of  the  Eastern  Colonies  of  the  two  coun- 
tries. The  English  made  several  attempts  to  open  their  trade,  but  not  till  1700  did 
they  succeed,  when  Canton  was  opened  to  them.  The  overland  trade  from  Russia 
was  opened  in  1727  and  the  first  American  consul  was  permitted  to  live  in  Canton 
in  1802. 

Hostilities  with  Great  Britain  in  1839  on  account  of  the  opium  trade,  resulted  in 
the  opening  of  five  “ treaty  ports  ” to  European  commerce.  The  number  has  since 
been  increased  to  twenty-two.  England  exacted  an  indemnity  of  $6,000,000  and 
the  cession  of  Hong-Kong  to  that  country.  A rebellion  waged  from  1850  until 
finally  quelled  in  1864.  It  was  led  by  Tao-Kwang,  a man  of  humble  birth,  who  an- 
nounced himself  as  sent  by  Heaven  to  drive  out  the  Tartars.  In  1852  he  had  suc- 
ceeded in  establishing  himself  as  emperor  under  the  title  of  Teen  Wang,  a Heavenly 
King.  The  French  and  English  troops  occupied  Canton  for  four  years,  and  by  their 
aid  the  rebellion  was  crushed.  They,  however,  extorted  a large  indemnity  and 
opened  Pekin  as  a residence  for  foreign  ambassadors.  The  rebel  emperor  committed 
suicide  and  the  old  Tartar  dynasty  was  restored. 

A Mohammedan  rebellion  began  the  same  year  with  the  Tae  Ping  rebellion 
(1850)  and  was  more  successful,  for  it  led  to  the  establishment  of  an  independent 
government  in  the  province  of  Yun-nan  in  1868,  but  this  has  since  been  reduced  to 
Chinese  rule. 

Anson  Burlingame,  formerly  United  States  minister  to  China,  at  the  head  of  a 
Chinese  embassy,  visited  Europe  and  the  United  States  and  effected  a treaty  of 
amity  and  commerce  between  that  government  and  the  United  States  in  1867.  A 
governmental  university  was  established  at  Pekin  in  1868.  In  1870  a massacre  of 
foreign  and  native  Christians  took  place  at  Tien-Tsin.  In  1875,  the  first  railroad  was 
opened. 

The  young  emperor  was  born  August  15th,  1871,  and  proclaimed  January  22d, 
1875  on  the  death  of  Tung-Chi.  His  mother,  the  empress-regent  is  Tse-Hi.  The 
emperor,  Kwang  Hsu  is  the  ninth  in  succession  from  Aisin  Gioro  the  Munchoo  con- 
queror in  1644. 

The  empress-regent  had  final  decision  in  matters  of  state,  but  Prince  Kung,  the 
uncle  of  the  emperor,  was  for  twenty-three  years  the  director  of  the  foreign  policy. 
When  the  Tonquin  war  arose  with  France,  he  was  too  old  and  infirm  to  press  an  aggres- 
sive policy  and  Prince  Chun  was  appointed  in  his  place.  He  prepared  for  a long 
war;  threw  150,000  men  into  Formosa,  fortified  the  frontier  and  made  a stubborn 
resistance  to  the  French.  At  last  a treaty  was  signed  with  France,  in  which  China 
agreed  to  open  four  places  on  the  frontier  for  trade.  All  in  all,  the  Chinese  ob- 
tained the  advantage  for  the  first  time  over  the  foreigners. 

The  emperor  came  of  age  February  7th,  1887,  yet  the  empress-regent  continued 
to  hold  the  royal  prerogative  to  some  extent.  The  emperor’s  father,  although  pre- 


870 


THE  PRINCIPAL  NATIONS  OF  THE  WORLD. 


eluded  by  Chinese  law  from  holding  any  official  position,  has  for  some  years  been  a 
leading  statesman.  The  American  government  in  1882  passed  a law  prohibiting  the 
immigration  of  Chinese  for  ten  years,  and  other  countries  had  enacted  laws  oppres- 
sive to  the  Chinese  residents.  In  August,  1866,  a high  commission  of  three  was  sent 
from  China  to  inquire  into  the  alleged  wrongs  inflicted  upon  their  countrymen  in 
foreign  parts.  By  a strange  oversight  on  the  part  of  the  Chinese  negotiators  the  sev- 
eral treaties  with  other  governments  allowing  them  to  establish  consulships  in  China, 
did  not  accord  reciprocity  rights  to  the  Chinese,  and  in  consequence  no  Chinese  con- 
suls were  appointed.  The  British  government  consented  to  the  appointment  of  a 
consul  at  Singapore.  The  Dutch  promised  to  have  matters  righted  in  their  colonies, 
The  consent  of  the  Spanish  government  was  granted,  but  was  quickly  withdrawn 
when  the  Spanish  colonies  objected. 

An  American  syndicate,  headed  by  Mr.  Wharton  Barker  of  Philadelphia,  re- 
ceived a charter  in  1887  from  the  Chinese  government,  giving  it  the  privilege  of  es- 
tablishing the  American  system  of  banking  and  coinage,  also  a scheme  for  introduc- 
ing railroads  and  telegraphs  of  the  American  type;  as  well  as  the  addition  of  a 
postal  service  and  telephone  lines.  The  English  and  French  resisted  this,  and  after 
the  report  of  the  High  Commission  upon  the  condition  of  their  countrymen  in 
foreign  countries,  the  provisional  charter  was  withdrawn.  A Chinese  embassy  waited 
on  the  Pope  at  the  Vatican  in  March,  1887,  an<^  concessions  were  made  which  re- 
sulted in  a new  policy  toward  native  Christians  in  China.  The  governors  of  the 
provinces  were  directed  to  issue  proclamations  “ calling  on  the  people  to  live  at 
peace  with  the  Christians,  and  explaining  that  the  Christian  religion  teaches  men  to 
do  right  and  aims  to  make  them  better  citizens,  and  that  the  converts  are  no  less 
Chinamen  because  they  are  Christians,  and  have  the  same  duties  and  are  entitled  to 
the  same  protection  as  their  neighbors.”  Anti-Christian  riots  broke  out  at  Chung- 
King,  and  a wealthy  Christian  named  Lo  was  arrested  for  having  killed  several  as- 
sailants. He  was  sentenced  to  death  and  the  French  minister  reluctantly  interfered, 
but  Lo  was  beheaded.  Then  an  imperial  order  was  issued  requiring  all  foreign 
missionaries  to  obtain  passports  from  their  own  governments.  The  German,  Italian, 
and  other  governments  issued  passports  for  the  Roman  Catholic  missionaries  from 
those  countries. 


COLOMBIA. 

The  United  States  of  Colombia  is  the  official  designation  of  the  country,  and 
since  the  formation  of  the  provisional  republic  of  the  United  States  of  Brazil, 
with  the  United  States  of  America,  these  three  form  the  A,  B,  C of  American  re- 
publics. The  republic  of  Colombia  formerly  consisted  of  Venezuela,  New  Granada, 
and  Ecuador,  but  this  was  dissolved  in  1830  by  the  secession  of  the  states  and  the 
forming  of  independent  republics.  New  Granada  retained  the  name  of  Colombia. 
Bolivar,  the  first  president,  proved  a poor  statesman  and  upon  his  assuming  the  dic- 
tatorship the  people  revolted  from  his  despotism.  He  died  in  1830,  and  at  once  the 
government  divided  up  into  factions,  which  continued  their  quarrels  until  Guzman 
Blanco,  a liberal  president,  conquered  his  opponents.  Under  the  administration  of 


THE  PRINCIPAL  NATIONS  OF  THE  WORLD. 


871 


this  judicious  ruler,  the  country  greatly  prospered.  Later  on  there  arose  internal 
discussions,  and  a complication  with  the  United  States  of  America,  which  was  ad- 
justed. Rafael  Nun  ez  assumed  the  office  of  president,  August  18th,  1884.  A new 
constitution  was  adopted  in  1886,  changing  the  form  of  the  government  in  minor  de- 
tails. An  extradition  treaty  with  the  United  States  was  signed  in  Bogota,  May 
7th,  1888. 

CONGO  FREE  STATE. 

Henry  M.  Stanley,  who  had  led  an  expedition  for  the  relief  of  Livingstone,  the 
great  African  explorer,  reached  the  highest  point  attained  by  the  latter  in  the  month 
of  November,  1876,  after  a long  journey  of  350  miles  in  ten  days.  This  point  was 
Nyangwa  on  a river  called  by  Mr.  Livingstone  the  Lualaba.  His  men  had  transported, 
in  sections,  the  little  vessel,  “ The  Lady  Alice.’’  Following  the  course  of  the  river  for 
three  weeks  he  met  many  obstacles  arising  from  the  unwillingness  of  the  natives  to 
aid  him.  But  despite  all  the  difficulties  arising  from  hostile  encounters  with  savage 
tribes,  the  climatic  disabilities,  and  the  scourge  of  small-pox  which  reduced  his  forces, 
he  proceeded  down  the  river  for  nine  hundred  miles.  At  this  point  a new  danger 
threatened  Stanley.  He  and  his  men  were  on  the  point  of  starvation  and  determined 
to  apply  to  the  chief  of  a neighboring  village  for  food.  The  chief  proved  to  be 
friendly,  and  in  reply  to  the  question  as  to  the  name  of  the  river,  answered : 11 A Ku- 
ta — ya  Kongo."  The  great  geographical  problem  was  solved.  The  Lualaba  of  Liv- 
ingstone and  the  Congo  were  one  and  the  same  river.  The  mouth  of  the  Congo  was 
reached  in  August,  1877,  after  following  the  river  for  1,750  miles. 

The  King  of  Belgium,  Leopold  II.,  became  deeply  interested  in  the  questions 
connected  with  the  discovery  and  opening  of  this  region  of  Africa  to  commerce  of 
the  world.  Under  his  patronage,  “The  International  African  Association”  was  in- 
stituted, having  for  its  avowed  aim  the  union  and  co-operation  among  the  persons 
and  societies  interested  in  the  subject.  This  was  formed  in  1877  by  representatives 
from  Belgium,  Germany,  France,  Switzerland,  Spain,  the  United  States,  and  the  Neth- 
erlands. It  was  determined  to  open  up  a line  of  stations  along  the  Congo,  and  east- 
ward from  Lake  Tanganyika  to  the  Indian  Ocean.  The  scheme  does  not  claim  for 
its  main  purpose  to  engage  in  any  commercial  enterprises,  but  to  be  purely  scientific, 
geographical,  and  philanthropic  for  the  benefit  of  travellers  of  every  nationality,  mis- 
sionaries of  any  faith,  legitimate  traders  of  any  kind  who  may  claim  the  hospitality 
and  necessary  assistance  afforded  at  any  station.  Seventy-nine  treaties  have  been 
made  with  as  many  independent  chiefs,  covering  the  sovereignty  of  2,000  miles  of  the 
Congo  and  its  tributaries.  Twenty-two  stations  have  been  established  along  the 
lower  Congo  to  the  equator,  a distance  of  seven  hundred  miles.  Early  in  1879,  Stan- 
ley proceeded  once  more  to  Africa,  accompanied  by  aa  able  corps  of  men  of  different 
nationalities.  He  set  his  forces  at  work  building  roads,  erecting  stations,  and  other 
works  of  engineering,  which  soon  set  the  tides  of  civilization  toward  the  interior. 
Eleven  months  were  taken  for  this  work  as  far  as  Stanley  Pool.  Here  he  caused 
a large  dwelling-house,  a brick  store-house,  and  huts  for  his  servants  to  be  built.  In 
the  month  of  July,  1881,  he  reached  the  lake  where  the  waters  of  the  Congo  become 


872 


THE  PRINCIPAL  NATIONS  OF  THE  WORLD. 


navigable  to  find  that  the  French  explorer,  M.  de  Brazza,  had  gained  from  the  chief 
Mukoko  a treaty  ceding  the  sovereignty  of  the  northern  shore  of  the  lake  to  France. 
Out  of  this  fact  arose  the  correspondence  which  resulted  in  the  International  Con- 
ference, on  the  condition  of  the  Congo  region  in  its  relation  to  the  Western  Powers 
of  Europe.  This  convened  at  Berlin  in  November,  1884. 

The  Congo  Free  State  was  established  by  the  general  act  of  this  conference 
signed  by  the  representatives  of  the  several  governments,  February  26th,  1885.  The 
state  was  declared  neutral  and  free  trade  with  it  and  the  rest  of  the  basin  of  the 
Congo  was  granted  to  all  nations.  A period  of  twenty  years  was  reserved  in  which 
to  decide  whether  freedom  of  entry  should  be  maintained  or  not.  The  State  was 
put  under  the  sovereignty  of  King  Leopold  II.  of  Belgium.  The  articles  of  conven- 
tion signed  with  Germany,  Great  Britain,  the  Netherlands,  France,  and  Portugal 
define  the  exact  boundaries  of  the  Congo  Free  State.  Its  estimated  area  is  1,056,- 
200  square  miles,  and  its  population  27,000,000.  The  survey  of  a railroad  from  the 
Atlantic  Coast  to  Stanley  Pool  was  finished  in  1888.  The  transport  and  sale  of  fire- 
arms on  the  upper  Congo  and  its  tributaries  was  prohibited  by  the  decree  of  Novem- 
ber, 1888.  The  question  of  the  frontier  between  the  Congo  Free  State  and  the 
French  possessions  was  settled  in  the  summer  of  the  same  year  by  the  evacuation  of 
the  French  post  of  Kundja.  Henry  M.  Stanley  was  appointed  Governor,  June  18,  1890. 

COREA. 

Corea,  the  “ Hermit  Nation,”  though  holding  a kind  of  feudal  relation  to  China, 
Is  yet  an  independent  nation.  The  natives  are  Mongolians.  In  artistic  tastes  they 
are  allied  to  the  Japanese,  but  in  religious  sentiment  to  the  Chinese.  They  hold  the 
religion  of  Confucius  with  an  intermixture  of  native  superstition.  The  government 
is  an  unmitigated  despotism,  the  king  having  the  power  of  life  and  death  over  all  his 
subjects.  It  is  considered  high  treason  to  touch  his  majesty  with  an  iron  instrument, 
and  in  1800  the  reigning  king  died  from  a simple  abscess  which  might  have  been 
cured  but  for  the  fact  that  no  one  dared  apply  the  lancet.  Foreigners  have  been 
rigidly  excluded  from  the  country.  Roman  Catholic  missionaries,  however,  suc- 
ceeded in  entering  during  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century,  and  in  1830  ap- 
pointed a vice-apostolic  for  Corea;  but  the  last  European  was  expelled  in  1866.  By 
a treaty  with  Japan,  a resident  minister  of  that  country  was  permitted  at  the  capital 
Siool  in  1875,  and  three  open  ports  were  established.  Similar  concessions  were 
granted  to  the  United  States  by  treaty  signed  May  22d,  1883. 

COSTA  RICA. 

This  is  one  of  the  five  independent  republics — the  others  being  Honduras,  Nic?' 
ragua,  San  Salvador,  and  Guatemala — which  constitute  what  is  geographically  called 
Central  America.  Cental  America  includes  the  entire  territory  lying  between  the 
Atlantic  and  Pacific  Oceans  extending  from  the  Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec  and  the 
Isthmus  of  Darien.  The  latter  isthmus  is  assigned  to  South  America  as  a part  of 
New  Granada,  and  the  Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec  to  Mexico.  These  five  states  men- 
tioned were  in  a federal  compact  from  1832  to  1839  and  have  often  since  attempted 


THE  PRINCIPAL  NATIONS  OF  THE  WORLD. 


875 


to  restore  their  union,  but  with  indifferent  success.  At  the  present  they  each  hold 
independent  diplomatic  relations  with  the  United  States  of  America.  Costa  Rica 
is  the  most  southerly  and  is  divided  into  six  provinces.  It  has  a president,  two  vice- 
presidents,  and  four  ministers.  The  Congress  of  Deputies  is  elected  for  four  years. 
Its  president,  General  Don  Bernardo  Soto,  was  inaugurated  March  12th,  1885. 

DENMARK. 

The  history  of  Denmark  becomes  authentic  in  the  early  part  of  the  tenth  cen- 
cury,  although  as  early  as  the  eighth  the  Danes  were  well  known  for  their  skilfully- 
planned  expeditions  for  plunder  and  piracy  on  the  seas.  Their  repeated  invasions 
of  England,  their  attempts  upon  Scotland,  and  their  subjugation  of  Normandy  dem- 
onstrate this  fact.  But  the  history  of  the  century  prior  to  the  tenth  is  so  involved 
in  myth  and  fable  as  to  be  entirely  untrustworthy. 

Canute  the  Great  landed  on  the  shores  of  England  and  became  king  of  that 
country  as  well  as  of  Denmark,  in  1018.  The  Danish  dynasty  in  England  ended  in 
1042.  Only  a very  few  of  the  sovereigns  of  this  kingdom  during  the  middle  ages 
displayed  any  distinguished  ability.  The  most  remarkable  of  them,  perhaps,  Valde- 
mar  II.  (1272),  conquered  Holstein  and  Pomerania.  He  led  a successful  crusade 
against  the  pagans  of  Esthonia.  The  national  standard  consisting  of  a white  cross 
on  a blood-red  field  was  first  unfurled  in  this  war. 

By  the  treaty  of  Colmar  in  1397,  the  three  kingdoms  of  Sweden,  Norway,  and 
Denmark  were  united  in  one.  This  union  was  the  most  important  event  for  Den- 
mark in  the  middle  ages.  But  Sweden,  under  the  able  leadership  of  Gustavus  Vasa, 
asserted  her  independence  and  the  compact  was  broken  in  1523.  When  Holland 
was  engaged  in  that  bloody  contest  with  England  under  Cromwell,  the  Dictator, 
Denmark  formed  an  alliance  with  the  Dutch  republic.  The  middle  of  the  seven- 
teenth century  saw  a protracted  struggle  between  Denmark  and  Sweden,  resulting  in 
the  loss  to  the  Danes  of  several  islands  which  fell  to  Sweden.  A second  war  between 
these  countries  terminated  in  1720,  with  no  advantage  to  Denmark. 

The  bombardment  of  Copenhagen  by  the  English  fleet,  commanded  by  Lord 
Nelson,  took  place  in  1801.  In  1807  Napoleon  threatened  to  compel  Denmark  to 
join  him  in  his  war  against  England,  but  the  latter  power  sent  an  army  and  fleet  to 
the  Baltic  and  compelled  the  Danes  to  surrender  their  entire  naval  forces.  The 
treaty  which  followed  this  war  compelled  Denmark  to  cede  the  whole  of  Norway  to 
Sweden,  but  gave  her  the  province  of  Lauenburg  and  a money  indemnity  in  ex- 
change. 

The  next  noticeable  point  of  Danish  history  is  the  revolt  of  the  duchies  of 
Schleswig  and  Holstein  upon  the  accession  of  Frederick  VII.  to  the  throne,  in  1848. 
This  was  subdued  after  a continued  struggle  of  two  years.  When  Frederick  VII. 
died  without  male  issue,  Prince  Christian  of  Glucksburg  was  proclaimed  king  by  the 
ministry  at  Copenhagen  and  was  crowned  king  under  the  name  of  Christian  IX. 
The  Duke  of  Augustenburg  assumed  the  title  of  Frederick  VIII.  in  Schleswig,  and 
Germany  came  to  his  aid.  The  Danes  were  compelled  to  accept  the  terms  of  the 
peace  of  Vienna  (1864),  by  which  Christian  IX.  renounced  all  claims  to  Lauenburg, 


874 


THE  PRINCIPAL  NATIONS  OF  THE  WORLD. 


Schleswig,  and  Holstein.  Notwithstanding  her  reverses  at  war,  Denmark  has  pros- 
pered to  a wonderful  degree  and  her  material  fortunes  have  been  continually  increas- 
ing. The  present  kingdom  comprises  the  peninsula  of  Jutland  on  the  European  con- 
tinent and  a group  of  islands  in  the  Baltic  Sea.  Christian  IX.,  the  present  king,  as- 
cended the  throne  November  15I1,  1863. 

ECUADOR. 

The  first  inhabitants  of  this  country  were  Indians  and  it  became  known  as  the 
Kingdom  of  Quito.  It  was  a part  of  the  Peruvian  Empire  when  that  kingdom  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  Spaniards.  It  was  a viceroyalty  of  Spain  from  1553  to  1822, 
when,  after  many  unsuccessful  attempts,  beginning  with  1809,  the  people  conquered 
their  independence  and  became  a part  of  the  United  States  of  Colombia.  When  this 
confederation  was  dissolved  in  1833,  Ecuador  established  an  independent  republic. 
An  earthquake  destroyed  the  capital  Quito  in  1858.  Intense  internal  feuds  convulsed 
the  country  until  Garcea  Moreno  overthrew  the  existing  government  in  1869,  and 
made  himself  president.  Dr.  Antonio  Barrero  was  chosen  president  in  1875  upon  the 
assassination  of  Moreno.  A variety  of  events  occurred  until  Antonio  Florez  became 
president  June  20th,  1888,  who  still  holds  that  office,  1890. 

EGYPT. 

The  home  of  the  Ptolemies  and  the  Pharaohs,  the  cradle  of  the  sciences  and  the 
land  of  ancient  wonders!  Of  her  earliest  history  but  little  is  known.  The  building  of 
her  most  ancient  cities  and  the  construction  of  her  magnificent  monuments,  attest 
the  antiquity  of  a civilization  lost  in  the  halo  of  myth  and  uncertainty.  At  the  date 
2700  B.C.,  Menes,  the  first  king  known  to  authentic  history,  was  upon  the  throne 
of  a powerful  kingdom  and  reigned  until  Egypt  became  a part  of  the  Persian  Empire. 
Herodotus,  the  father  of  history,  tells  us  there  were  three  hundred  and  thirty  kings 
divided  into  thirty-six  dynasties.  This  monarch,  Menes,  built  the  city  of  Thinis  or 
This,  and  Memphis.  Nothing  especially  worthy  of  mention  occurs  until  the  fourth 
dynasty,  or  the  time  of  the  pyramid  builders  The  Great  Pyramid,  that  of  Cheops, 
a king  of  this  dynasty,  is  assigned  to  this  period.  A work  which  is  the  ripe  thought 
of  Egyptian  literature  was  written,  or  at  least  ascribed,  to  Ptah-hotep,  of  the  fifth 
dynasty.  The  great  truncated  pyramid,  now  called  Pharaoh’s  Seat,  was  built  by  the 
last  king  of  the  fifth  dynasty. 

From  the  sixth  to  the  eleventh  dynasty,  inclusive,  is  a chasm  unmarked  by  monu- 
mental or  other  record.  The  great  artificial  reservoir,  Lake  Moeris,  was  constructed 
by  a king  of  the  twelfth  dynasty,  called  Amenemhat  III.  This  receives  the  waters 
of  the  river  Nile  by  a canal  whenever  an  inundation  spreads  over  the  land. 

The  Shepherd  Kings,  a rude  and  barbarous  race,  ruled  the  land  for  five  hundred 
and  eleven  years,  when  they  were  driven  out  by  a Theban  ruler  named  Misphragem- 
thosis.  Then  Thebes  was  made  the  capital  of  Egypt.  Then  succeeded  a long  line 
of  Pharaohs,  the  greatest  personage  of  whom  was  Rameses  II. 

He  is  called  by  the  Greeks,  Sesostris  the  Great.  Those  vast  and  magnificent 
buildings  which  are  scattered  through  Egypt  and  Nubia,  were  erected  in  his  reign  and 


THE  PRINCIPAL  NATIONS  OF  THE  WORLD. 


875 


their  construction  occupied  the  greater  part  of  it,  giving  him  the  chief  place  among 
the  building  Pharaohs.  The  whole  of  Western  Asia  and  much  of  the  adjacent  re- 
gions of  Europe  yielded  to  his  sway.  Osirtesen  I.  is  supposed  by  many  to  be  the 
Pharaoh  who  received  Joseph  and  made  him  the  chief  ruler  of  Egypt.  After  him 
came  Amenoph  III.,  who  constructed  the  vocal  Memnon  which  stands  to  this  day. 
The  most  approved  chronology  ascribes  the  Hebrew  exodus  to  the  time  of  Meneph- 
thah  in  the  year  1480  B.C. 

Egypt  became  an  Assyrian  province  in  672  B.C.  by  the  invasion  of  Esarhaddon. 
the  son  of  Sennacherib,  whose  expedition  was  more  fortunate  than  that  of  his  father. 
This  foreign  yoke  rested  on  the  people  for  one  hundred  years,  but  was  finally  broken 
by  Psammetichus,  a king  of  the  twenty-sixth  dynasty,  who  restored  independence 
to  the  land.  Egypt  was  conquered  by  the  Persians  and  remained  under  that  empire 
for  nearly  a century  from  525  B.C.  Egyptian  rule  was  established  to  be  again  over- 
thrown, and  completely  subjugated  by  Artaxerxes  in  340  B.C.  Thus  for  3,000  years 
there  had  been  a continued  line  of  kings,  but  since  then,  for  more  than  2,000  years 
the  prophecy  of  the  Jewish  seer  has  been  proven  true,  “There  shall  be  no  more  a 
prince  in  the  land  of  Egypt.”  Not  one  native  prince  has  been  seated  on  the  throne 
of  the  Pharaohs. 

Alexander  the  Great  added  Egypt  to  his  kingdom  and  founded  the  city  called 
by  his  name  which  was  destined  to  become  one  of  the  greatest  commercial  and  literary 
centres  of  the  world.  When  his  vast  empire  at  his  death  was  divided  among  his 
generals,  Egypt  fell  to  the  lot  of  Ptolemy  Soter.  He  also  became  master  of  Phoeni- 
cia and  Judea.  The  Alexandrian  Library  and  Museum  were  built  during  his  reign, 
and  also  the  Pharos,  or  white  marble  light-house,  one  of  the  seven  wonders  of  the 
world.  Ptolemy  Philadelphus  succeeded  him,  under  whom  the  arts  and  sciences 
greatly  flourished.  The  commerce  of  the  east  was  largely  attracted  into  his  king- 
dom. Ptolemy  III.  was  the  last  of  the  great  Macedonian  kings  of  Egypt.  He  was 
surnamed  the  Benefactor.  All  his  relations  with  Rome  were  friendly,  though  he 
was  suspicious  of  the  Roman  ambition  of  conquest.  He  crossed  the  Euphrates  and 
overcame  Asia  as  far  as  Babylon.  The  great  school  at  Alexandria  was  the  resort  of 
the  wisest  men  in  all  the  world.  These  three  Ptolemies  raised  Egypt  to  the  height 
of  her  civilization.  From  Rome  and  Athens  came  a long  list  of  noted  men  to  per- 
fect themselves  in  their  various  lines  of  study. 

The  ten  succeeding  Ptolemies  were  so  weak  and  injudicious  that  their  reigns  are 
unmarked  by  anything  of  consequence.  Ptolemy  XII.  was  the  father  of  Cleopatra 
and  Ptolemy.  He  decreed  that  at  his  death  the  sister  and  brother  should  rule 
jointly  and  at  full  age  he  should  marry  her.  These  instructions  were  indorsed  by 
the  Roman  Senate,  but  Cleopatra  being  fired  with  ambition  to  reign  alone,  went  to 
war  with  her  husband,  and  aided  by  Julius  Caesar,  became  sole  mistress  of  Egypt. 
She  sided  with  Brutus  and  Cassius  in  their  war  with  the  Triumvirate  after  the  death 
of  Caesar.  Mark  Antony  was  ensnared  by  her  wiles  at  their  interview  in  Cilicia  and 
the  direst  consequences  resulted  therefrom.  He  followed  her  to  Egypt,  wasted  his 
time,  and  dissipated  his  strength  in  voluptuousness,  involved  himself  in  a war  which 
occasioned  his  final  overthrow  and  ruin.  Then  he  expired  in  the  arms  of  the  queen, 


876 


THE  PRINCIPAL  NATIONS  OF  THE  WORLD. 


having  committed  suicide;  and  she,  failing  to  ensnare  Octavius  by  her  charms,  that 
she  might  not  be  led  a captive  to  Rome  and  subjected  to  the  degradation  of  his  tri- 
umph, killed  herself  by  the  means  of  a poisonous  asp.  Thus  became  extinct  the 
proud  race  of  the  Ptolemies,  two  hundred  and  ninety-three  years  after  the  death  of 
Alexander  the  Great.  This  was  in  the  year  30  B.C.  Egypt  then  fell  to  the  position 
of  a prefectorate  of  Rome,  who  held  sway  for  three  centuries  over  the  degraded 
country. 

Zenobia,  the  widow  of  Odentatus,  Prince  of  Palmyra,  claimed  that  she  was  a 
lineal  descendant  from  the  kings  of  Macedon.  After  a victorious  campaign  she  was 
acknowledged  as  Queen  of  Egypt.  But  her  reign  was  brief,  for  soon  afterward  her 
forces  were  routed  and  the  Roman  power  again  held  sway,  A.D.  270. 

The  Christian  religion  spread  very  rapidly  in  Egypt,  and  after  Constantine  made 
it  the  religion  of  the  empire  (312  A.D.),  there  arose  contests  between  the  Christians 
and  the  pagans  in  which  much  biood  was  shed.  The  Christians  were  victorious,  and 
Justinian,  the  emperor,  raised  an  orthodox  archbishop  of  Alexandria  to  the  prefect- 
orship  of  Egypt.  For  ten  years,  from  616  A.D..  the  Persians  held  the  country  as  a 
conquered  province,  when  it  again  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Romans. 

The  divisions  which  arose  among  the  Christians  left  the  country  an  easy  prey 
to  the  Mohammedan  Arabs,  who  invaded  it  in  640.  The  Arians  and  orthodox  Chris- 
tians had  long  been  engaged  in  bloody  feuds,  and  the  oppressed  people  being  dissatis- 
fied with  the  Emperor  Heracletus,  made  but  feeble  resistance.  Amroo,  a general  of 
the  Caliph  Omar,  effected  the  conquest  of  Egypt  in  December  640  A.D.  Alexandria 
was  captured  and  its  immense  library  was  destroyed.  This  loss  to  the  literature  of 
the  world  was  irreparable,  and  the  act  of  vandalism  which  caused  it  without  a par- 
allel in  the  history  of  the  world. 

Eygpt  was  ruled  by  Mohammedan  viceroys  for  two  hundred  years,  the  Coptic 
religion  gave  way  to  that  of  the  Koran.  A new  Arab  state  was  in  process  of  forma- 
tion in  North  Africa  by  a faction  of  Mohammedans  known  as  Fatimites  which  re- 
nounced the  sovereignty  of  the  caliph  of  Bagdad.  Egypt  became  a part  of  this  state 
in  970;  Cairo  was  built  and  became  the  capital.  The  Fatimite  dynasty  held  sway 
for  two  centuries.  Saladin,  whose  name  is  famous  as  the  most  powerful  opponent  of 
the  Crusades,  became  ruler  and  proclaimed  himself  Sultan  of  Egypt  and  Syria.  This 
change  from  the  Fatimite  dynasty  came  about  in  consequence  of  civil  dissensions 
which  broke  out  during  the  reign  of  Caliph  Adhed  (a.D.  i i 7 i),  the  last  of  his  line. 
This  war  terminated  by  the  aid  of  the  Sultan  of  Damascus.  He  appointed  one  of 
his  generals,  the  uncle  of  Saladin,  Grand  Vizier  of  Egypt,  who  held  the  office  only 
two  months,  and  died  leaving  his  nephew  as  his  successor,  with  the  result  mentioned 
above. 

Saladin  died  in  1193  and  his  vast  domain  was  partitioned  among  his  many  sons. 
An  unsuccessful  crusade  against  Egypt  was  led  by  Louis  IX.,  the  Pious,  in  1248. 
This  French  king  was  taken  prisoner  by  the  Saracens.  The  Mamelukes  overthrew 
the  Saracen  power  in  1250,  and  assumed  the  control  of  government.  Then  the  Per- 
sians, under  Selim  I.,  conquered  1517,  and  Egypt  was  ruled  by  a pasha  as  a viceroy- 
alty of  Persia  for  two  hundred  years.  It  was  under  this  government  when  the  French 


THE  PRINCIPAL  NATIONS  OF  THE  WORLD. 


877 


invasion  under  Napoleon  I.,  in  1798,  occurred.  Thirty-five  thousand  men  were  con- 
veyed by  sea  to  Alexandria  where  they  effected  a landing  in  July,  1798.  The  Mame- 
lukes were  defeated  at  the  battle  of  the  Pyramids,  July  23d;  Cairo  was  captured  the 
next  day.  The  entire  conquest  of  the  country  was  very  soon  accomplished.  Bona- 
parte left  General  Kleber  in  command  of  the  Fench  forces  when  he  returned  to 
France  in  July,  1799.  This  general  was  soon  after  assassinated  and  his  successor 
was  defeated  by  the  combined  forces  of  England  and  Persia.  The  French  evacuated 
Egypt  in  1801,  and  the  country  was  left  to  the  command  of  the  sultan. 

Mahomet  Ali,  who  was  a Macedonian,  having  distinguished  himself  in  the  Turk- 
ish armies,  was  made  Pasha  of  Egypt  in  1804.  He  caused  a wholesale  massacre  of 
Mamelukes  in  1811.  He  was  nominally  a vassal  of  the  Turkish  sultan,  but  he  at- 
tained almost  absolute  control  of  the  country.  Under  his  rule,  schools  and  colleges 
were  founded,  commerce  and  manufactures  fostered,  and  European  civilization  was 
rapidly  introduced.  His  design  seems  to  have  been  to  obtain  the  independent  sov- 
ereignty of  Egypt.  He  invaded  and  conquered  Syria  in  1830,  and  during  another 
attempt  at  conquest  in  1839,  would  have  taken  Constantinople  but  for  the  interven- 
tion of  the  European  powers.  But  by  the  peace  effected  in  1841  he  was  compelled 
to  accept  the  viceroyalty  of  Egypt  under  the  sultan  of  Turkey.  In  this  treaty  the 
government  of  Egypt  was  confirmed  to  Mahomet  Ali  and  his  lineal  descendants  in 
a direct  line  by  the  payment  of  an  annual  tribute  to  the  sultan.  Ibrahim,  an  adopted 
son,  was  made  pasha  in  1848  by  the  Turkish  sultan  because  Mahomet  Ali  had  be- 
come imbecile.  Ibrahim  died  the  same  year  and  was  succeeded  by  Abbas  Pasha  as 
regent,  who  proved  himself  a fanatical  Mohammedan,  and  repealed  many  of  the 
reforms  which  had  been  instituted  by  his  predecessors.  He  was  in  turn  succeeded 
by  Said  Pasha,  a younger  son  of  Mahomet  Ali,  who  reigned  from  1854,  to  January, 
1863. 

The  public  acts  of  Said  Pasha  were  characterized  by  prudence  and  good  govern- 
ment. Many  internal  improvements  marked  his  reign,  and  the  great  encouragement 
which  he  gave  to  the  Suez  Canal  caused  one  of  its  termini  to  be  named  in  his  honor, 
Port  Said.  Ismail  Pasha  followed  him  in  1863.  His  lavish  expenditures  brought 
the  government  to  the  verge  of  financial  ruin,  although  he  instituted  many  reforms, 
encouraged  industries,  and  aided  education.  In  November,  1875,  he  sought 
assistance  from  England  and  upon  investigation  he  was  deposed,  had  to  abandon 
Egypt,  and  take  refuge  in  Italy.  It  was  during  the  administration  of  Ismail  that  the 
title  of  pasha  was  changed  to  Khedive,  implying  a higher  degree  of  power.  Every 
inch  of  land  in  Egypt  was  mortgaged  to  bondholders,  and  the  interest  on  the  foreign 
loans  could  not  be  paid.  Under  this  heavy  pressure  the  newly  exalted  Khedive  ab- 
dicated August  8th,  1879. 

The  eldest  son  of  Ismail  was  made  Khedive  on  the  above  date,  but  he  was  help- 
less to  accomplish  much  in  the  distressed  condition  of  the  public  and  private  finances. 
The  native  Egyptians,  upon  whom  the  whole  burden  of  taxation  rested,  became  uneasy. 
Foreigners  held  all  positions  of  profit  and  emolument.  A riot  occurred  in  Alexan- 
dria in  June,  1882,  in  which  many  foreigners  were  killed.  Arabi  Pasha,  a general  in 
the  Khedive’s  army,  revolted.  England  demanded  the  return  of  order,  but  the  sul- 


878 


THE  PRINCIPAL  NATIONS  OF  THE  WORLD 


ran  evaded  the  request.  Arabi  continued  to  fortify  Alexandria  after  Sir  Garnet 
Wolseley  and  Admiral  Seymour  had  demanded  him  to  discontinue  his  operations. 
When  it  was  too  late  he  agreed  to  dismantle  the  forts,  but  the  English  fleet  bom- 
barded the  city  July  nth,  1882,  and  after  two  hours’  firing,  silenced  the  forts.  A 
short  invasion  of  Egyptian  territory  by  the  English,  led  by  Sir  Garnet  Wolseley,  re- 
sulted in  the  complete  restoration  of  order.  The  province  of  the  Soudan  was  an- 
nexed to  Egypt,  but  the  people  of  this  new  acquisition  rose  in  revolt  in  1883  against 
the  Egyptian  rule.  General  Gordon  was  sent  from  England  to  take  command. 

An  English  army  of  occupation  remained  in  Egypt,  officered  partly  by  English 
and  partly  by  native  officers.  As  late  as  December,  1886,  the  English  had  head- 
quarters at  Assouan  with  advanced  post  at  or  near  Wady  Halfai.  The  rebels  had 
not  carried  out  their  threats  to  invade  Lower  Egypt,  but  were  carrying  on  their  war- 
fare in  a desultory  manner.  The  English  forces  were  withdrawn  from  the  Soudan 
in  1887. 

Mohammed  Tewfix  Pasha,  the  present  Khedive  of  Egypt,  came  to  that  office 
August  8th,  1879,  and  has  been  sustained  by  the  aid  of  England  in  his  position  to 
the  present  time. 

FRANCE. 

In  the  fifth  century  a German  tribe  called  Salian  Franks  conquered  nearly  all  that 
vast  territory  included  between  the  ocean  on  the  north  and  west,  the  river  Rhine 
on  the  east,  and  the  Alps  and  Pyrenees  Mountains  on  the  south-west  and  south.  At 
this  point  begins  the  history  of  France.  King  Clovis  established  his  capital  at  Paris 
in  507,  and  by  his  judicious  reign  laid  the  foundations  of  a great  nation.  He  founded 
the  Merovingian  dynasty,  so-called  from  his  grandfather  Merowig.  This  line  reigned 
with  authority  until  the  death  of  Dagobert  I.,  in  638,  who  left  his  infant  sons,  Ega 
and  Pepin,  under  the  guardianship  of  two  “ mayors  of  the  palace.”  These  mayors 
of  the  palace  became  the  real  rulers  of  France  under  the  “ sluggard  kings,”  as  the 
descendants  of  Dagobert  were  called. 

Charles  Martel,  the  hammer,  so-called  from  having  “ hammered  ” the  Saracens  in 
one  of  the  decisive  battles  of  the  world  at  Tours  and  Poictiers  in  October,  732. 
Pepin,  his  son,  was  consecrated  as  king  in  752  by  a decree  of  the  Pope  Zacharias,  and 
thus  began  the  Ca^iowig'ian  dynasty — so  named  from  the  illustrious  son  of  Charles 
MarKl.  The  latter  left  his  kingdom  to  his  sons  at  his  death,  but  two  years  later 
Charlemagne  became  the  sole  ruler.  This  mighty  monarch  conquered  Lombardy 
and  northern  Spain,  subdued  the  Saxons,  drove  back  the  Avars  in  Hungary  and 
ruled  from  the  Eider  and  the  Baltic  to  the  Ebro  and  the  Mediterranean,  and  from 
the  Atlantic  to  the  Theiss.  When  he  had  accomplished  this  he  was  crowned  by  the 
Pope  as  Emperor  of  the  West,  800.  He  did  all  that  lay  in  his  power  for  the  civiliza- 
tion and  Christianization  of  this  immense  empire  until  his  death  in  814,  but  these 
assumed  national  types  in  the  different  parts  of  the  territory.  As  a result  at  the 
death  of  his  son  and  successor,  Louis  le  Debonnaire,  by  the  treaty  of  Verdun  in  843, 
the  separate  kingdoms  of  France,  Germany,  and  Italy  were  constituted.  France 
was  limited  to  nearly  the  same  amount  of  territory  which  she  now  possesses.  The 


THE  PRINCIPAL  NATIONS  OF  THE  WORLD. 


879 


name,  France,  occurs  in  history  for  the  first  time  about  at  this  point.  The  Carlo- 
vingian  dynasty  now  begins  its  decline  and  finally  terminates  in  987,  giving  place  to 
a feudal  monarchy.  The  vassals  of  the  king,  Louis  V.,  at  this  date  neglected  the 
claims  of  his  son  who  had  sworn  allegiance  to  the  German  emperor,  and  chose  in  his 
stead  Hugh  Capet,  Duke  of  France.  Fie  was  the  founder  of  the  Capetian  dynasty. 

The  house  of  Capet  ruled  from  987  to  1328,  and  a collateral  branch,  the  house 
of  Valois,  from  that  date  to  1589.  The  consolidation  of  the  royal  power  or  the  firm 
establishment  of  the  feudal  monarchy  was  the  problem  to  be  wrought  out  by  the 
Capetian  dynasty.  The  crusades  to  rescue  the  Holy  Land  from  the  Saracens  gave 
vent  to  the  romantic  spirit  of  the  feudal  lords,  the  Pope  was  used  as  an  ally  to  the 
crown  and  even  the  Reformation  was  employed  to  aid  the  king  against  the  nobles, 
but  when  it  proved  inimical  to  the  royalty  it  was  crushed.  The  wars  with  England 
and  Austria  had  for  their  aim  the  establishment  of  absolute  monarchy.  Increased 
powers  were  given  to  the  cities,  but  provision  was  taken  that  “ the  third  estate  ” 
could  not  check  the  rising  power  of  the  king,  and  the  nobility  itself  was  made  an  ad- 
junct to  the  throne.  The  spirit  of  French  nationality  was  early  developed  and  con- 
spicuously displayed  itself  in  the  long  and  severe  struggles  which  France  sustained 
with  England,  Germany,  and  other  European  powers. 

Louis  VI.  (1 108-1 137)  waged  a long  war  with  Henry  I.  of  England  over  Normandy 
which,  by  the  Norman  invasion  of  England,  seemed  to  be  lost  to  him,  and  though 
the  French  vassals  held  a loose  alliance  with  their  sovereign,  they  furnished  200,000 
men  at  one  call  for  the  defence  of  France.  He  was  a very  judicious  ruler  and  abol- 
ished serfdom  in  his  realm  and  formed  the  contiguous  cities  into  corporations,  thus 
by  his  example  compelling  his  neighbors  to  pursue  the  same  course.  Philip  Augus- 
tus (1180-1223)  took  the  first  successful  steps  toward  a centralization  of  power.  He 
instituted  a chamber  of  peers  of  six  secular  and  six  ecclesiastical  members,  and  ac- 
knowledged the  right  of  appeal  from  the  feudal  lords  to  the  royal  court.  He  con- 
quered at  one  battle,  that  of  Bouvines,  1214,  the  provinces  of  Normandy,  Maine, 
Touraine  and  Poitou,  which  he  added  to  his  domain.  Philip  III.  (1270-1285),  by 
negotiation  secured  Toulouse  and  Venaissin,  while  Philip  IV.  (1285-1314)  obtained, 
by  his  marriage,  the  povinces  of  Navarre,  Champagne,  and  Brie.  He  convoked  the 
general  estates  where  the  burghers  for  the  first  met  side  by  side,  and  voted  with  the 
nobility  and  the  clergy  in  1302.  When  the  house  of  Valois  began  its  dynasty,  in 
1328,  under  Philip  VI.,  a nephew  of  Philip  IV.,  the  English  king,  Edward  III.,  set 
up  his  claim  to  the  throne  of  France  as  the  grandson  of  Philip  IV.,  and  the  long  and 
bitter  wars  between  the  two  nations  began  only  to  end  with  the  surrender  of  Calais 
and  the  relinquishment  of  the  English  to  all  claim  upon  the  throne.  These  wars 
lasted  for  one  hundred  years  and  left  the  two  national  contestants  well-nigh  bank- 
rupt. But  when  Joan  d’Arc,  Maid  of  Orleans,  aroused  the  patriotism  of  the  French 
and  carried  Charles  VII.  to  Rheims  to  be  crowned  in  1429,  the  people  clustered 
about  their  king  with  wonderful  enthusiasm,  in  spite  of  all  the  corruption  and  inca- 
pacity which  had  marked  the  kings  of  France  for  a century.  Louis  XI.  (1461-1483), 
Catharine  de  Medici,  the  real  mistress  of  France  during  the  reign  of  her  three  sons, 
F'rancis  II.  (1559-1560),  Charles  IX.  (1560-1574),  and  Henry  III.  (1574-1579)  were 


880 


THE  PRINCIPAL  NATIONS  OF  THE  WORLD. 


profligate  and  tyrannical,  but  they  served  to  make  royalty  feared  and  respected  by 
the  people.  Charles  IX.  caused  the  leaders  of  the  Protestant  party  to  be  massacred 
on  St.  Bartholomew’s  day  in  1572,  and  Henry  III.  had  all  the  leaders  of  the  Catholic 
party  murdered,  one  by  one,  while  he  was  in  power. 

In  1589,  Henry  IV.  ascended  the  throne,  the  first  of  the  Bourbon  dynasty. 
Then  the  royal  power  stood  victorious  and  almost  alone.  Louis  XIII.  reigned  from 
1610  to  1643,  under  whom  the  Cardinal  Richelieu  made  the  royal  power  exalted  and 
solemn.  Then  came  the  long  reign  of  Louis  XIV.,  from  1643  to  1715.  During  the 
early  part  of  his  reign  France  was  prosperous  and  maintained  a leading  place  in 
European  affairs.  Commerce  flourished,  industrial  activity  was  on  every  hand,  the 
army  and  navy  were  efficient,  and  the  royal  treasury  was  full.  Turenne,  Conde,  and 
Luxembourg  made  the  French  arms  famous,  and  added  new  provinces  to  the  royal 
domain.  Other  kings  strove  to  imitate  the  prodigal  luxuriance  and  lust  of  the  French 
court.  A long  list  of  noted  names  made  the  French  literature  to  be  recognized  and 
respected  by  other  nations.  The  true  character  of  this  monarch  came  to  be  exhib- 
ited later  in  life.  The  mistress  of  Louis  XIV.  was  under  Jesuitical  influence,  and 
persuaded  him  to  revoke  the  Edict  of  Nantes  in  1685.  The  guarantee  of  religious 
freedom,  given  in  1598  to  the  Protestants  by  Henry  IV.,  was  taken  from  them. 
Thousands  of  the  most  industrious  and  intelligent  people  were  driven  from  France. 
Some  of  the  largest  manufacturing  interests  were  stopped,  and  the  public  revenue 
impaired  to  such  an  extent  as  to  cripple  the  treasury. 

But  the  profligate  monarch  heeded  not  the  condition  of  things.  He  continued 
to  build  stupendous  edifices  and  maintain  a gorgeous  court,  and  his  expenditures 
seem  to  increase  with  the  decrease  of  the  public  revenue.  The  war  which  he  began 
in  1689  and  continued  for  nine  years  was  unsuccessful,  and  that  from  1700  to  1713 
was  an  utter  and  disastrous  failure  from  first  to  last.  He  died  in  1715  leaving  France 
burdened  with  an  enormous  debt,  a demoralized  court,  and  a discontented  people. 
But  the  people  did  not  know  the  reason  of  their  discontent. 

The  two  reigns  of  Louis  XV.  (1 7 1 5-1774)  and  of  Louis  XVI.  (1774-1793)  taught 
the  people  the  prolific  cause  of  their  discontent  and  precipitated  the  crisis  which 
came  in  the  bloody  revolution  and  the  “ Reign  of  Terror.”  Among  the  causes  lead- 
ing to  this  crisis  may  be  mentioned  these : the  nobility  and  the  church  estates  were 
relieved  from  taxation;  the  public  offices  were  made  a source  of  revenue  by  their 
sale,  while  the  holding  of  office  entailed  the  right  of  nobility.  The  nobility  came  to 
number  1 in  every  250  of  the  inhabitants,  and  these  were  exempt  from  military  duty 
as  well  as  taxation.  The  third  estate,  therefore,  had  the  entire  burdens  of  produc- 
tion, taxation,  and  defence  upon  it  alone,  and  at  the  same  time  was  hampered  by  the 
most  absurd  and  rigorous  laws  that  political  economy  ever  knew. 

At  last  the  tornado  broke  and  startled  the  world  with  its  violence.  The  reign 
of  terror,  too  horrible  for  details,  ended  in  1795  by  the  convention  which  decieed  a 
new  constitution,  giving  the  executive  power  to  five  persons,  termed  the  Directory. 
The  people  of  Paris  were  not  pleased  with  this  and  the  sections  and  National  Guard 
were  eager  to  compel  the  convention  to  yield  to  their  wishes;  but  Barras,  commander 
of  the  regular  forces,  made  a young  Corsican  officer  commander  of  the  Tuileries,  and 


THE  PRINCIPAL  NATIONS  OF  THE  WORLD. 


881 


he  settled  the  matter  with  grape  shot,  October  4th,  1795,  putting  an  end  to  the  most 
fearful  and  shocking  revolution  that  ever  convulsed  any  nation. 

From  this  time  the  young  officer  who  ended  the  Reign  of  Terror,  became  the 
real  master  of  France,  and  French  history  became  greatly  changed  by  the  person- 
ality  and  genius  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte.  He  was  in  France  until  June  18th,  1815, 
and  she  needed  such  a master  to  bring  her  out  of  the  troublous  times  upon  which 
she  had  fallen.  In  Napoleon’s  first  campaign,  with  a force  one-half  as  large  as  his 
contestants,  he  drove  the  Austrians  out  of  Italy.  In  the  second,  he  forced  the  treaty 
of  Campo  Formio  by  which  France  gained  Milan,  Mantua,  Bologna,  Modena,  and 
all  of  the  Austrian  Netherlands,  October,  1797.  In  the  next  two  years  his  forces 
had  taken  Egypt,  planted  the  tricolor  of  France  on  the  gates  of  Gaza,  won  one  vic- 
tory over  the  Turks,  at  Mont  Tabor,  and  another  at  Aboukir,  in  Egypt. 

In  the  mean  while  the  internal  affairs  of  France  at  home  under  the  Directory 
had  not  equalled  her  military  success  abroad.  Two  hundred  thousand  men  entered 
the  field  by  conscription:  the  wars  had  everywhere  been  successful  and  the  French 
arms  seemed  invincible.  In  spite  of  the  great  indemnities  exacted  from  Belgium, 
Germany  and  Italy,  the  public  funds  were  exhausted  and  the  Directory  could  not 
pay  its  debts.  It  declared  the  state  bankrupt  and  reduced  its  obligations  to  one-third 
their  original  amount.  Affairs  were  unsettled  at  La  Vendee  and  the  government 
resorted  to  extreme  measures.  The  royalists  returned  and  commenced  anew  their 
intrigues.  Napoleon  heard  of  the  disordered  condition  of  affairs  and  secretly  left 
Egypt,  returned  to  France,  and  on  the  9th  of  November,  1799,  overthrew  the  Direc- 
tory and  seized  the  reins  of  government  for  himself. 

He  caused  a new  constitution  to  be  adopted  with  a consulate,  under  which  he 
became  the  “ First  Consul.”  His  elevation  to  this  office  took  place  December  27th, 
1799.  In  the  spring  of  the  following  year  he  crossed  the  Alps,  and  fell  upon  the 
Austrians,  defeating  them  at  Marengo,  compelling  them  to  cede  Belgium  and  the 
left  bank  of  the  Rhine  to  France.  Then  followed  Austerlitz,  Jena,  Wagram,  which 
added  new  lustre  to  the  French  name. 

In  1802  Napoleon  was  declared  First  Consul  for  life,  and  May,  1804,  he  was  pro- 
claimed by  the  Senate  Emperor  of  France.  He  was  crowned  Emperor  of  Italy  in 
May,  1805.  The  French  arms  carried  all  before  them  on  land,  but  her  naval  forces 
were  not  so  successful,  for  the  fleet  was  destroyed  by  Lord  Nelson.  Josephine,  the 
wife  of  Napoleon,  was  divorced,  and  he  married  Maria  Louisa,  Archduchess  of  Aus- 
tria, in  1809.  Under  his  brilliant  career  as  consul  and  emperor,  the  frontier  of  France 
was  removed  to  the  Elbe  and  the  Adriatic  Sea.  Vast  treasures  were  poured  into 
the  exchequer,  and  the  rest  of  Europe  lay  at  her  feet.  Then  came  the  disastrous 
campaign  into  Russia.  By  the  burning  of  Moscow,  to  save  it  from  falling  into  his 
hands,  and  by  the  starvation  and  cold  which  wasted  away  his  noble  army  of  500,000 
men,  he  was  left  at  the  mercy  of  the  allied  forces  who  fell  upon  him  before  he  could 
recover;  he  was  forced  to  abdicate  April  4th,  1814.  But  ten  months  later,  having 
effected  an  escape  from  the  island  of  Elba,  he  landed  in  France,  quickly  raised  an 
army  and  fought  the  battle  of  Waterloo,  in  which  he  suffered  a final  defeat  and  was 
subsequently  sent  to  St.  Helena  as  a prisoner  by  England.  Here  he  died  May  5th, 
(1821. 


882 


THE  PRINCIPAL  NATIONS  OF  THE  WORLD. 


Then  came  the  restoration  of  the  Bourbon  dynasty  in  1815,  which  lasted  to  1830, 
including  the  reigns  of  Louis  XVIII.  and  Charles  X.  The  exile  of  this  family  for 
twenty  eventful  years  had  left  bitter  memories  for  them,  and  after  the  reaction,  their 
rule  was  characterized  by  arbitrary  and  despotic  measures.  A revolution  again  de- 
posed them  July  25th,  1830.  Louis  Philippe,  who  established  the  Orleans  dynasty, 
followed,  but  although  he  was  shrewd  he  could  not  quell  the  restless  rising  of  the 
French  spirit.  Another  revolution,  in  1848,  compelled  him  to  flee,  under  an  as- 
sumed name,  to  England,  where  he  died  two  years  later. 

A republic,  again  followed  by  anarchy,  until  Louis  Napoleon,  a nephew  of 
Bonaparte,  was  elected  president,  December,  1848.  He  was  re-elected  for  ten  years 
in  December,  1851,  and  one  year  after  was  proclaimed  emperor  under  the  title  of 
Napoleon  III.  He  turned  his  energies  to  the  beautifying  of  Paris  and  the  prosper- 
ity of  France,  and  the  administration  of  his  government  had  a generally  beneficent 
effect.  But  his  fatal  error  was  in  declaring  war  with  Prussia  in  1870,  which  ended 
in  the  humiliation  of  France  at  Sedan,  and  the  deposition  of  the  emperor  three  days 
thereafter,  September  4th,  1870. 

The  French  republic  was  re-established,  and  M.  Thiers  was  chosen  president, 
May,  1871.  It  seemed  as  if  France  would  be  unable  to  rally  from  the  enormous  bur- 
den which  Germany  had  put  upon  her:  the  loss  of  the  provinces,  of  one-fifth  of 
Lorraine  and  all  of  Alsace,  and  the  payment  of  a war  indemnity  of  one  billion  dollars. 
To  the  utter  astonishment  of  the  whole  world,  this  vast  amount  was  provided  for,  one 
and  a half  years  before  it  became  due  under  the  terms  of  the  treaty. 

The  presidency  of  M.  Thiers  and  his  successor,  M.  MacMahon,  were  rendered 
stormy  enough  by  the  plots  and  counterplots  of  Royalists,  Legitimists,  Orleanists, 
Bonapartists,  and  Communists ; but  the  administration  of  M.  Grevy,  who  was  inducted 
into  office  January  30th,  1879,  was  calmer  and  less  unsettled.  President  Grevy  was 
re-elected  December  28th,  1885,  and  held  office  until  he  resigned  in  December,  1887. 
The  National  Assembly  chose  as  his  successor  M.  Sadi  Carnot,  formerly  Minister  of 
Finance,  who  still  holds  that  office  (1890). 

GERMANY. 

The  history  of  the  German  Empire  begins  in  843,  when  the  treaty  of  Verdun 
stipulated  that  Germany  should  be  forever  separated  from  France,  but  Lorraine  was 
left  between  them  to  be  a perpetual  cause  of  discord. 

Prior  to  this  the  Germans  were  divided  into  a number  of  independent  states 
with  no  bond  of  union  save  a common  tongue.  The  signification  of  the  word  Ger- 
man is  war-man,  and  Germania  has  been  the  prolific  source  of  warriors  of  undoubted 
courage  since  the  days  when  her  soldiers  were  chosen  by  Caesar  for  his  imperial 
guard,  until  the  realization  of  the  fond  dream  of  a thousand  years,  when  William  I.t 
King  of  Prussia,  was  proclaimed  Emperor  of  Germany  by  his  princes  in  the  palace 
of  Versailles,  January  18th,  1871. 

Caesar  defeated  the  Germans  in  58  B.C.,  and  48  B.C.,  and  enrolled  many  of  them 
in  his  army.  In  the  year  9 A.D.,  Hermann,  called  by  the  Romans  Arminius,  defeated 
and  totally  annihilated  the  forces  of  Quintillius  Varus  in  the  Teutoburger  Wald. 


THE  PRINCIPAL  NATIONS  OF  THE  WORLD. 


883 


and  may  truly  be  said  to  have  won  the  independence  of  the  German  tribes.  From 
then  until  the  time  of  Pepin,  the  German  tribes  were  independent  of  any  foreign 
power.  This  ruler  greatly  increased  his  dominions,  but  in  755  A.D.,  he  gave  Lom- 
bardy to  Pope  Stephan  III.  This  was  the  commencement  of  the  temporal  power  of 
the  Church. 

Charlemagne,  than  whom  as  a man  and  a monarch  the  world  has  seen  no  superior, 
was  the  son  and  successor  of  Pepin.  Of  him  Hallam  has  truly  said,  “ He  stands 
alone  like  a beacon  upon  the  waste,  or  a rock  in  the  broad  ocean.”  He  was  a giant 
in  size,  over  seven  feet  high;  of  mild  temper,  with  a just  and  liberal  disposition;  a 
close  student  encouraging  the  arts,  learning,  and  commerce.  No  less  than  fifty-six 
expeditions  were  made  by  this  monarch  for  the  conquest  of  other  countries.  In 
the  year  800  he  was  crowned  by  Pope  Leo  II.  as  emperor  of  the  “ Holy  Roman 
German  Empire,”  which  embraced  all  Europe  then  known. 

The  Karlings  were  the  descendants  of  this  emperor,  but  they  made  no  great 
impress  upon  the  page  of  history.  The  lasFof  this  line  was  Charles  III.,  surnamed 
“the  Fat”;  he  was  deposed  in  888.  France  had  become  a separate  kingdom  in  843, 
and  when  Charles  III.  was  deposed,  the  final  separation  of  the  German  empire  took 
place. 

The  separate  states  came  to  have  more  power  and  the  empire  was  scarcely  more 
than  a name.  The  crown  was  made  elective.  The  P'ranks  elected  their  own  duke, 
Conrad  I.,  king  of  Germany,  and  he  was  acknowledged  by  all  the  other  tribes  ex- 
cept  Lorraine,  which  fell  to  France.  But  Conrad  failed  to  consolidate  the  empire 
and  at  his  death  the  Saxons  and  Franks  elected  Henry  I.,  Duke  of  Saxony,  for  king 
(912-936).  He  established  the  throne  on  a firm  basis,  lessened  the  power  of  the 
dukes,  improved  the  military  discipline  of  the  realm,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  the 
kingdoms  of  Saxony  and  Prussia. 

But  his  son,  Otto  the  Great,  who  succeeded  him,  did  more  to  increase  the  jDower 
of  Germany  by  defeating  the  Slavs,  the  Huns,  and  the  Danes.  He  died  in  973,  after 
a reign  of  thirty-eight  years.  After  him  came  three  emperors  of  the  Saxon  house  : 
Otto  II.,  Otto  III.,  and  Henry  II.,  but  the  royal  power  then  diminished  and  the 
Pope,  at  Rome,  became  dictatorial  in  the  affairs  of  Germany.  With  Conrad  II. 
(1024-1039)  the  Franconian  or  Salic  dynasty  commenced  and  continued  until  1125, 
when  it  came  to  an  end  in  the  person  of  Henry  V.  The  last-mentioned  monarch  lost 
more  for  Germany  than  had  been  gained  by  his  ancestors.  He  was  forced  by  the 
papal  party  to  sign  the  Concordat  of  Worms,  in  1122. 

The  Saxon  Lothaire  reigned  from  1125  to  1137  and  left  his  possessions  to  the 
House  of  Guelph.  On  his  death  the  powerful  House  of  Hohenstauffen  came  to  the 
German  crown.  During  the  Crusades,  Germany  took  a conspicuous  part  in  the  en- 
terprises and  her  emperors  find  prominent  mention  in  history.  One  of  them,  Fred- 
erick (Barbarossa,  or  red  beard)  was  third  on  the  list  and  ruled  with  a master  hand. 
He  reigned  from  11 52-1 190,  and  tried  to  extend  the  boundary  of  his  empire  without 
success,  but  overcame  the  internal  disturbances  at  home,  and  “was  a terror  to  evil- 
doers and  a protector  to  them  who  do  well.”  He  died  while  on  a Crusade  in  Asia- 
His  son,  Henry  VI.,  reigned  only  seven  years.  Then  arose  a contention  between 


884 


THE  PRINCIPAL  NATIONS  OF  THE  WORLD. 


the  Houses  of  Hohenstauffen  and  of  Guelph.  The  Pope  favored  the  latter,  and  Otto 
was  given  the  crown,  but  not  satisfying  the  papal  power  he  was  superseded  by  Fred* 
erick  II.  (1212-1250).  In  his  reign  he  subdued  the  Danes  and  Prussia  was  conquered 
by  the  Teutonic  Order,  but  he  was  obliged  to  contend  against  the  Church  all  his  life. 
After  him  came  two  foreign  princes  and  then  an  interregnum  which  lasted  until  1273. 
Rudolph  I.  ascended  the  throne,  restored  order  and  at  the  battle  in  which  Othokar 
II.  was  killed,  he  won  the  duchy  of  Austria,  and  founded  the  Hapsburg  dynasty 
which  still  reigns  in  that  country.  Albert  I.  (1298-1308)  oppressed  Switzerland  and 
in  consequence  the  Swiss  Confederation  was  formed.  After  him  there  followed 
Henry  VII.  of  Luxembourg  who  held  the  crown  five  years,  then  Ludwig  of  Bavaria 
(1314-1347).  He  made  the  election  of  emperor  independent  of  papal  interference. 
Charles  IV.  (1347-78)  established  the  first  university  in  Germany  in  1348,  and  pub- 
lished the  “ Golden  Bull  ” by  which  the  election  of  a German  king  by  seven  electors 
was  finally  settled.  A period  of  contentions  between  factions  and  different  houses 
followed  with  varying  success,  until  the  House  of  Hapsburg  again  came  to  the  throne 
in  the  person  of  Albert  II.  (1438-1439).  Thirteen  kings  of  this  line  ruled  in  Ger- 
many until  1740. 

In  this  period  Luther,  the  Reformer,  preached,  and  a diet  convened  at  Augsburg 
in  1518  condemned  him  as  a heretic.  The  Diet  of  Spires,  1529,  issued  a decree  in 
which  the  ban  of  the  empire  was  added  to  the  excommunication  of  the  pope.  The 
protest  of  Luther  and  his  friends  gave  rise  to  the  name  of  Protestant.  The  Thirty 
Years’  War  began  in  1518,  in  which  the  Danes,  Swedes,  and  French  espoused  the 
cause  of  the  Protestants,  and  Austria  and  Spain  that  of  the  Catholics.  The  real  ob- 
ject of  the  French  was  to  check  the  growing  power  of  Austria,  and  that  of  Sweden 
to  extend  her  domain.  The  war  left  an  equal  freedom  in  Germany  to  both  the 
Protestant  and  Catholic  religions.  By  the  peace  of  Westphalia  (1648)  much  terri- 
tory was  lost  by  France  and  Sweden;  the  German  principalities  were  released  to  a 
great  extent  from  the  influence  of  the  emperor,  and  Switzerland  and  the  Netherlands 
were  made  independent  States.  Under  Leopold  I.,  Germany  sank  to  a low  estate, 
but  the  Kingdom  of  Prussia  was  formed  with  Frederick  I.  as  king,  1701.  Two  great 
wars  were  in  progress  in  Europe;  one  in  the  north  that  brought  Russia  to  the  front 
at  the  expense  of  Sweden,  and  touched  Germany  on  her  north-eastern  frontier,  but 
the  other,  the  war  of  the  Spanish  succession,  was  fought  chiefly  on  her  soil.  By  the 
peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  the  French  lost  the  Netherlands  in  1748.  Three  years 
before  this,  Francis  I.,  husband  of  “King”  Maria  Theresa,  was  elected  Emperor  of 
Germany  and  held  the  crown  from  1745  to  1765. 

Meanwhile  Frederick  the  Great  of  Prussia  had  prepared  for  a mighty  struggle 
which  is  called  the  Seven  Years’  War.  Austria  was  allied  with  France,  Sweden,  and 
Russia  to  curb  the  rising  power  of  the  new  kingdom,  but  they  were  compelled  to 
make  peace  with  Prussia  at  Hubertsburg,  February  15th,  1763.  The  advantage  of 
this  peace  was  all  on  the  side  of  Frederick  the  Great. 

The  French  Revolution  which  changed  the  political  aspect  of  all  Europe,  came 
in  the  reign  of  Francis  II.,  Emperor  of  Austria  and  Germany  (1792-1806).  Germany 


THE  PRINCIPAL  NATIONS  OF  THE  WORLD. 


885 


was  in  the  six  coalitions  against  France,  and  most  bitterly  was  she  made  to  suffer 
while  the  power  of  Napoleon  lasted. 

In  1806  Francis  abdicated  as  German  Emperor,  and  was  afterward  called  Francis 

I.  of  Austria.  In  that  year  the  “ Rhinebund  ” was  formed  by  a confederation  of  na- 
tive princes.  This  was  under  the  protectorate  of  Napoleon.  Prussia  declared  war 
against  France  in  the  same  year,  but  was  speedily  subdued  with  a loss  of  one-half  of 
her  possessions,  keeping  the  other  half  only  on  the  hardest  conditions. 

After  the  defeat  and  overthrow  of  Napoleon  at  Waterloo,  June  18th,  1815,  the 
Germans  secured  back  their  territory  as  it  existed  at  the  beginning  of  the  Revolu- 
tion. Hanover  was  raised  to  a kingdom;  Weimar,  Mecklenburg,  and  Aldenburg, 
grand  duchies.  Lubeck,  Hamburg,  and  Frankfort  were  made  free  cities.  The  Ger- 
man Empire  was  not  restored,  but  a confederation  was  formed.  This  did  not 
accomplish  much  for  the  nation  as  a whole.  Austria  had  the  greater  military  influ- 
ence until,  as  the  result  of  wise  discipline,  Prussia  recovered  from  her  great  disasters 
in  the  Napoleonic  wars,  and  began  to  take  the  lead. 

Count  Bismarck,  prime  minister  of  Prussia,  opened  a quarrel  with  Austria  when 
he  saw  that  his  country  was  ripe  for  war.  Austria  was  taken  at  great  disadvantage, 
and  after  a short  but  decisive  contest  retired  from  the  German  confederation.  Prussia 
gained  Hanover,  Hesse  Cassel,  Nassau,  and  Frankfort.  The  North  German  Con- 
federation accepted  the  leadership  of  Prussia.  The  two  countries  of  Holstein  and 
Schleswig  had  been  wrested  from  Denmark  in  1864;  and  now,  1866,  Austria  was 
humbled  and  Prussia  was  at  the  head  of  Germany. 

The  Franco-Prussian  War  (1870-71)  resulted  in  the  unity  of  Germany  and  the 
restoration  of  tjie  German  Empire,  the  very  thing  which  the  French  desired  to  pre- 
vent, and  for  which  purpose  they  began  the  war.  William  I.  had  ruled  Prussia  as 
regent  under  his  brother  from  1857  to  1861.  Then  he  was  crowned  king,  and  at  the 
close  of  the  war  with  France,  received  the  title  of  Emperor  of  Germany.  Bismarck 
was  raised  to  the  dignity  of  a prince.  The  Empefor  William  I.  died  March  9th, 
1888,  at  the  age  of  ninety-one. 

He  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Frederick,  who  will  be  known  in  history  as  Em- 
peror Frederick  I.  of  Germany  and  King  Frederick  III.  of  Prussia.  He  was  suffer- 
ing from  a cancer  of  the  throat,  and  died  from  that  malady  June  15th  of  the  same 
year.  His  son  William  II.  became  emperor,  and  on  June  1 8th,  1888,  issued  his  pro- 
clamation in  which  “ he  promised  to  be  a just  and  mild  prince,  to  foster  piety  and  the 
fear  of  God,  to  protect  peace,  to  promote  the  welfare  of  his  country,  and  to  be  a 
helper  of  the  poor  and  oppressed,  and  a true  guardian  of  the  right.”  On  November 
22d  he  opened  the  Reichstag  with  great  pomp,  and  made  a speech  in  which  he  said, 
“ The  confidence  shown  to  me  and  my  policy  warrants  me  that  I and  my  allies  and 
friends  will,  with  God’s  help,  succeed  in  maintaining  the  peace  of  Europe.”  He  had 
previously  visited  his  allies,  the  sovereigns  of  Austria  and  Italy,  and  also  Alexander 
of  Russia. 

King  Hubert  of  Italy  visited  Berlin,  May  2ist-28th,  1889,  and  Emperor  William 

II.  visited  England,  August  ist~7th.  The  Emperor  of  Austria  came  to  Berlin  August 


886 


THE  PRINCIPAL  NATIONS  OF  THE  WORLD. 


I2th-i6th,  and  the  Czar  of  Russia,  the  I2th-i6th  of  the  same  month..  The  German 
emperor  and  empress  visited  Constantinople  November  2d~5th,  of  the  same  year. 

Prince  Bismarck  seemed  to  have  the  full  confidence  of  the  young  emperor  dur- 
ing the  first  year  of  his  reign,  but  in  the  second  year,  the  relations  became  strained, 
and  Bismarck  lost  the  position  which  he  had  held  under  three  emperors,  and  retired 
to  private  life.  The  emperor  and  empress  visited  England  in  August,  1890. 


OR 


EAT  BRITAIN. 


The  union  of  England  and  Scotland  was  finally  established  on  the  1st  of  May, 
1707,  and  the  history  of  Great  Britain  properly  commences  at  that  date.  Prior  to 
this,  their  histories  run  in  independent  channels.  Great  Britain,  so  called  to  distin- 
guish it  from  lesser  Britain  or  the  Bretagne,  is  the  largest  island  in  Europe.  It  em- 
braces England,  Scotland,  and  Wales.  Its  greatest  length  is  608  miles,  and  greatest 
width  325.  The  peace  of  the  realm  was  disturbed  for  years  after  the  union,  by  the 
intrigues  for  the  restoration  of  the  Pretender,  the  representative  of  the  exiled  Stuarts. 
Queen  Anne,  who  was  the  sovereign  at  the  time  of  the  union,  was  succeeded  by 
the  Elector  of  Hanover  in  1713.  He  took  the  title  of  George  I.  The  Whigs  under 
the  leadership  of  Walpole  had  the  ascendency,  and  an  uprising  in  favor  of  the  Pre- 
tender, encouraged  by  the  Earl  of  Mar  in  Scotland,  and  the  Earl  of  Derwentwater 
in  England,  was  promptly  quelled  in  1715.  A commercial  crisis,  involving  thousands 
of  persons  in  financial  ruin,  known  as  the  South  Sea  Bubble,  burst  upon  the  country 
in  1720.  George  II.  came  to  the  throne  in  1 727,  and  Walpole  still  continued  as  prime 
minister.  He  was  forced  into  a war  with  Spain  on  account  of  an  illicit  trade  car- 
ried on  by  the  British  with  South  America.  This  war  terminated  disastrously  for 
Great  Britain.  The  War  of  t&e  Austrian  Succession  involved  the  government  in  the 
contest.  The  battle  at  P'ontenoy  at  which  the  French  were  victorious,  completely 
paralyzed  the  efforts  of  England.  The  peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  left  the  contestants, 
as  far  as  territory  was  concerned,  just  as  they  had  previously  been.  A second  at- 
tempt made  to  win  the  throne  by  Prince  Charles  Edward  Stuart  had  been  completely 
crushed  at  Culloden  in  1746.  In  the  Seven  Years’  War  on  the  Continent,  Great  Bri- 
tain took  sides  with  Prussia.  She  was  unfortunate  in  Europe,  for  40,000  men  under 
the  Duke  of  Cumberland  surrendered  in  Hanover,  but  Clive  drove  the  French  out  of 
India  and  saved  that  vast  empire  for  his  monarch.  Wolfe  defeated  the  French  at 
Quebec,  and  Canada  was  made  a British  province. 

George  III.  became  king  in  1760  and  died  in  1820.  His  reign  was  a long  one, 
covering  a most  eventful  period.  The  war  with  France  and  Spain  terminated  in 
1783  with  a large  acquisition  of  colonial  territory  to  Great  Britain.  The  appoint- 
ment of  Pitt,  Earl  of  Chatham,  to  the  prime  ministry,  allayed  the  bitter  dissatisfac- 
tion among  the  people  which  had  been  caused  by  the  Tory  government.  It  was 
under  King  George  III.  that  the  United  States  achieved  her  independence.  An  at- 
tempt to  tax  the  American  Colonies  led  to  an  open  rupture  with  the  home  govern- 
ment, which  lasted  for  seven  years  and  ended  in  the  establishment  of  the  new  republic. 
Fox,  Burke,  and  Sheridan  were  conspicuous  statesmen  of  this  period,  but  the  younger 
Pitt,  who  held  office  until  his  death  in  1806,  takes  the  preeminence.  He  declared 


THE  PRINCIPAL  NATIONS  OF  THE  WORLD 


887 


war  agairtst  France  in  1793  for  no  real  cause  except  that  he  was  opposed  to  repub- 
licanism. It  has  been  said  that  this  war  ended  only  with  the  battle  of  Waterloo 
(1815).  To  this  period  belongs  the  war  with  the  United  States  in  1812.  An  Irish 
rebellion  which  was  an  incident  of  the  war  with  France,  was  finally  quelled.  The 
naval  battles  of  Cape  St.  Vincent,  Aboukir,  and  Trafalgar  (1805)  shed  lustre  upon 
the  British  flag.  Vittoria  and  Waterloo  upon  the  land  were  great  victories.  The 
almost  incessant  war  had  burdened  the  country  with  an  immense  national  debt,  and 
caused  great  distress  to  the  laboring  classes.  Most  severe  measures  were  enacted 
to  suppress  the  discontent  arising  among  them. 

The  mind  of  George  III.  had  been  naturally  infirm,  and  after  several  attacks  of 
insanity,  in  1811  the  Prince  of  Wales  became  regent.  The  entire  period  of  his  long 
reign  was  one  of  great  commercial  and  literary  activity.  He  died  at  length  at  Wind- 
sor, January  29th,  1820. 

With  the  accession  of  George  IV.  an  era  of  reform  set  in.  Commercial  measures 
of  relief  and  great  practical  benefit  were  introduced  by  Huskisson  and  Canning, 
and  an  act  emancipating  the  Catholics  was  passed  in  1829.  The  conquest  of  Aracan 
and  the  Tenasserim  provinces,  the  slo^but  healthy  growth  of  liberal  ideas,  and  above 
all,  the  advance  in  the  physical  sciences  during  this  reign,  made  the  short  period  one 
of  marked  prosperity.  William  IV.  became  king  in  1830,  and  the  British  reformers 
increased  in  influence.  A Whig  government  was  called  to  office  with  Earl  Grey  as 
prime  minister  after  the  Tories  had  held  office  for  fifty  years.  Under  their  admin- 
stration  the  Parliamentary  Reform  bill  was  passed.  The  abolition  of  slavery  was 
decreed  in  1834,  and  the  Poor  Law  was  amended  for  the  better.  William  IV.  died 
in  1837,  and  was  succeeded  by  Victoria,  daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Kent.  The  promi- 
nent statesmen  of  her  long  and  eventful  reign  form  a long  list  of  illustrious  names, 
among  which  we  mention  Sir  Robei^flpLeel,  Lord  John  Russell,  the  Earl  of  Derby, 
Lord  Palmerston,  Gladstone,  and  Disraeli.  Cobden  and  Bright  have  been  the  most 
able  advocates  of  free  trade.  Their  united  efforts  brought  about  the  abolition  of 
the  Corn  Laws,  and  the  removal  of  restrictions  upon  trade  and  commerce.  The  grad- 
ual broadening  of  the  elective  franchise,  the  Irish  Land  act  of  1870,  the  act  disestab- 
lishing the  English  Church  in  Ireland  (1874),  and  that  creating  school  boards,  have 
been  among  the  most  important  Parliamentary  measures  enacted  in  modern  time. 
The  two  great  wars  have  been  that  with  Russia,  1854  (in  which  occurred  the  siege  of 
Sebastopol),  and  the  Indian  Mutiny  (1857).  There  have  been  minor  wars  in  China, 
Abyssinia,  Ashantee,  Egypt,  Soudan,  etc. 

GREECE. 

The  Heroic  Age  extended  from  1384  B.C.  to  1184  B.C.  At  the  latter  date  the  siege 
of  Troy  took  place.  These  heroes  were  regarded  as  of  divine  descent,  superior  to 
ordinary  men  in  mental  and  physical  qualities.  Hercules  is  the  national  hero,  and 
his  labors  represent  the  triumph  of  mind  over  physical  and  moral  evils,  the  attainment 
of  wealth  and  power.  Theseus  displays  the  establishment  of  civil  government  in 
Attica ; Minos,  the  triumph  of  law  and  social  order ; Jason  and  the  Argonauts,  the  pro- 


THE  PRINCIPAL  NATIONS  OF  THE  WORLD. 


gress  of  commerce.  The  Trojan  War  as  sung  by  Homer  in  the  “Iliad”  and  “Odyssey” 
is  only  a vivid  portraiture  of  the  manners  and  customs  of  early  Greece  and  a decrip* 
tion  of  the  contest  between  Greek  and  Oriental  civilization.  The  Hellenes  were 
divided  into  Dorians,  yEolians,  Ionians,  and  Achaeans,  each  taking  the  name  respect- 
ively from  Dorus  and  Aiolus,  the  sons  of  Helen,  and  Ion  and  Achaeus,  the  sons  of 
Xanthus,  who  was  the  third  son  of  Helen.  There  is  a suspicion  that  the  early  history 
of  Greece  has  been  written  backward.  That  is  to  say,  that  myth  and  fable  have  been 
invented  to  fit  the  required  data  prior  to  the  dawn  of  authentic  history. 

The  state  of  Greece  at  the  beginning  of  history  was  not  unlike  that  of  the  feu- 
dal ages  in  Europe.  The  king  ruled  in  his  own  state,  and  his  authority  was  not  lim- 
ited by  any  law,  but  he  was  held  in  check  by  the  council  of  chiefs.  The  assembly 
met  to  hear  the  decrees  of  the  king  and  chiefs.  The  people  were  divided  into  three 
classes — the  nobles,  rich  and  powerful ; the  freemen,  some  of  whom  possessed  estates ; 
and  the  slaves.  The  Achaeans  were  the  most  warlike  during  the  heroic  age.  The 
two  most  important  states  of  Greece  were  Attica  and  Laconia,  better  known  from 
the  name  of  their  capitals,  Athens  and  Sparta.  The  other  states  were  simply  inde- 
pendent cities  for  the  most  part.  Sparta  was  the  type  of  a Grecian  oligarchy  as 
Athens  was  that  of  democracy.  Between  these  two  extremes  there  was  every  type 
of  government.  Sometimes  one  was  in  ascendency  and  sometimes  the  other. 

Sparta  owed  her  supremacy  in  Greece  to  the  political  and  military  institutions 
of  Lycurgus,  who  flourished  from  850  to  776  B.C.  They  were  then  a mere  handful  of 
men,  hemmed  in  by  enemies  and  obliged  to  be  soldiers.  The  laws  of  Lycurgus  and 
the  severe  gymnastic  and  military  training  to  which  the  Spartan  youth  were  inured, 
made  them  almost  irresistible  when  they  came  to  actual  war.  This  discipline  en- 
abled them  to  conquer  Messinia,  Arcadia,  and  Argus.  Lycurgus  induced  his  coun- 
trymen by  a most  rigid  oath  to  obey  his  laws  until  his  return,  and  then  disappeared 
forever.  The  Spartans  regarded  him  as  divine  and  worshipped  him. 

Sparta  and  Athens  were  great  rivals  for  supremacy,  one  taking  the  lead  and  then 
the  other,  except  when  a third  State  came  to  the  front.  The  Athenians  desired  a 
code  of  laws,  and  Draco,  a man  of  undoubted  integrity  and  wisdom,  wrote  one  so 
severe  and  exacting  that  it  did  not  accomplish  the  desired  result.  After  a period  of 
anarchy  Solon,  one  of  the  wise  men  of  Greece,  reformed  these  laws,  but  during  his 
absence  of  ten  years  the  former  abuses  were  renewed.  Soon  after  the  return  of 
Solon,  Pisistratus  assumed  the  chief  power  and  held  it,  with  two  intervals  of  banish- 
ment, until  his  death.  Hippius,  the  son  of  this  tyrant,  was  driven  away  and  applied 
to  the  Persian  king  for  assistance.  Athens  refused  to  reinstate  him  at  the  request 
of  Darius.  Then  came  the  first  Persian  invasion,  previous  to  which  Darius  sent  two 
heralds  to  the  cities  of  Sparta  and  Athens  to  demand  earth  and  water  as  a sign  of 
submission.  The  heralds  were  cast,  one  into  a well  and  the  other  into  a ditch,  and 
told  “ to  take  their  earth  and  water  there.”  A vast  army  and  numerous  fleet  began 
the  invasion.  On  the  plains  of  Marathon  the  Athenian  general  Miltiades,  with  60,000 
warriors  and  some  troops  from  Platea  defeated  the  Persian  army,  took  some  of  their 
ships,  and  set  others  on  fire  (490  B.C.) 

A second  invasion  under  Xerxes  the  Great  was  made  ten  years  later,  when 


THE  PRINCIPAL  NATIONS  OF  THE  WORLD. 


889 


Leonidas,  a Spartan  prince,  with  6,000  chosen  men,  held  the  narrow  pass  of  Ther- 
mopylae for  two  days,  and  was  betrayed  by  a traitor  who,  on  the  third  day,  led  the 
enemy  to  his  rear  by  another  pass.  The  little  band  was  defeated,  and  the  Persians 
hurried  on  to  Athens,  took,  and  destroyed  the  city.  But  about  this  time  the  Grecian 
fleet  captured  and  sank  thirty  of  the  enemy’s  vessels,  and  later  came  the  news  of  the 
destruction  and  dispersion  of  the  entire  Persian  fleet  at  Salamis.  Thereupon  the 
Persian  monarch  hastened  back  to  the  Hellespont,  to  find  his  bridge  broken  down. 
He  was  obliged  himself  to  cross  in  a small  fishing  vessel,  quite  differently  from  his 
pompous  entrance  into  Europe. 

The  following  spring  the  Persian  general  was  defeated  and  lost  his  life  in  a battle 
near  the  city  of  Platea,  in  which  the  Greeks  gained  a signal  victory  over  a superior 
number.  The  combined  forces  of  Athens  and  Sparta  won  this  and  another  victory 
on  the  same  day,  the  latter  being  a naval  victory  over  the  Persian  fleet  at  Mycale. 
These  were  led  respectively  by  Pausanius  and  Aristides. 

When  the  invasion  had  been  repelled,  there  arose  a quarrel  concerning  the  re- 
building of  Athens,  which  threatened  to  break  out  in  civil  war.  This  terror  was  hap- 
pily overcome  by  the  discretion  of  Themistocles  and  Aristides.  The  confederated 
forces  made  an  expedition  which  emancipated  all  the  cities  of  Cyprus  from  the  Per- 
sian dominion,  and  resulted  in  the  capture  of  the  rich  city  of  Byzantium.  But  the 
immense  wealth  contaminated  the  purity  and  simplicity  for  which  the  Greeks  had 
hitherto  been  distinguished.  Pausanius  was  convicted  of  treason;  Themistocles  for 
being  accessory  to  the  treachery,  was  banished;  but  Aristides  the  Just  gained  the 
most  distinguished  reputation  for  patriotism  and  integrity.  He  was  for  a long  time 
the  custodian  of  the  public  treasury,  but  at  his  death  did  not  leave  property  enough 
to  defray  the  expenses  of  his  funeral. 

Cimon,  the  son  of  Miltiades,  was  a man  of  great  wisdom  and  integrity.  He 
won  decisive  victories  over  the  Persians  by  sea  and  land.  The  wealth  he  acquired 
in  these  victories  was  expended  in  beautifying  his  native  city  of  Athens.  Athens  now 
attained  the  height  of  her  grandeur  and  power  with  a population  of  200,000.  Pericles, 
a rival  of  Cimon,  caused  his  banishment,  but  after  five  years  he  was  recalled  from 
his  unmerited  exile  and  died  in  a war  with  Cyrus.  Pericles,  however,  held  a wonder- 
ful influence  over  the  people,  and  had  almost  sovereign  power  in  a free  State.  He 
died  429  B.c. 

The  Peloponnesian  War  was  a long  and  sanguinary  struggle  between  Sparta  and 
Athens,  involving  the  other  Grecian  states,  begun  431  B.C.,  and  ended  in  403  B.C. 
Sparta  completely  humbled  Athens  and  left  her  with  depleted  treasury  and  demol- 
ished walls,  without  navy  and  without  men. 

About  this  time  Socrates,  the  wisest  and  best  of  the  Greeks,  was  put  to  death, 
having  been  accused  of  infidelity  to  the  gods,  and  corruption  of  the  Grecian  youths. 
But  at  once  the  Athenians  were  deeply  moved  by  the  great  injustice  which  they  had 
done  him,  and  a statue  was  erected  to  his  memory. 

The  celebrated  Anabasis  or  flight  of  the  ten  thousand,  occurred  about  401  B.C. 
Cyrus  the  Younger  led  an  expedition  against  his  brother  Artaxerxes,  and  was  de- 
feated at  the  battle  of  Cunaxa.  The  Greeks  under  Xenophon  who  formed  a part 


890 


THE  PRINCIPAL  NATIONS  OF  THE  WORLD. 


of  the  defeated,  were  led  back,  consuming  fifteen  months  on  the  journey.  The  dis- 
tance in  going  and  returning  was  3,450  miles. 

After  the  downfall  of  Athens,  Sparta  held  the  supremacy  in  Greece,  the  other 
states  furnishing  their  quota  of  troops  for  the  army.  Agesilaus,  the  chosen  leader 
of  the  Spartan  forces,  gained  a victory  over  the  Persians,  but  the  other  states  re- 
volted, and  in  the  end  a treaty  was  effected  with  the  Persians  dishonorable  to  Greece, 
by  the  terms  of  which  she  became  a Persian  province.  It  is  said  that  Agesilaus  was 
heavily  bribed  by  the  Persians  to  betray  his  country. 

A war  between  Sparta  and  Thebes  in  379  B.C.  was  concluded  by  the  victory  of 
the  latter  in  362  B.C.  in  which  the  Theban  commander,  Epaminondas,  lost  his  life. 
The  rising  state  of  Macedonia,  on  the  north,  was  coming  into  notice.  Philip,  the  king, 
had  won  several  victories  over  the  Grecian  states  and  finally  they  all  yielded  to  him. 
In  Athens,  Demosthenes,  the  world’s  most  celebrated  orator,  in  vain  used  all  his  ability 
and  influence  against  the  Macedonian.  Alexander,  the  son  of  Philip,  ascended  the 
throne  in  336  B.C.,  after  the  assassination  of  his  father  by  a noble  of  Macedon.  The 
brilliant  victories  of  this  monarch  in  Greece,  Persia,  Syria,  Egypt,  and  more  distant 
countries,  earned  for  him  the  title  of  “ the  Great.” 

The  city  of  Alexandria  was  founded  by,  and  named  after  the  Macedonian  con- 
queror. He  married  Roxanna,  daughter  of  King  Axertes,  marched  into  and  sub- 
dued India.  On  arriving  at  Susa  in  325  B.C.,  he  contracted  two  Asiatic  marriages. 
He  sought  a remedy  for  his  grief  at  the  death  of  his  friend,  Hephaestion,  commander 
of  his  horse,  in  excessive  intemperance,  and  died  at  the  early  age  of  thirty-one,  in  the 
thirteenth  year  of  his  reign.  The  crown  of  Alexander  was  given  to  his  illegitimate 
brother,  Aridaeus,  but  Roxanna  giving  birth  to  a son,  who  received  the  name  of  his 
father,  Alexander,  he  shared  the  kingdom  under  a regency.  Soon,  however,  the  vast 
Macedonian  empire  was  divided  between  the  four  generals  of  the  army,  and  the  sov- 
ereigns, Alexander  and  Aridaeus,  being  put  to  death,  every  branch  of  his  family  be 
came  extinct  thirty-eight  years  after  the  death  of  Alexander  the  Great. 

Internal  commotions  and  continued  revolutions  between  the  States  left  Mace- 
don and  all  Greece  an  easy  prey  to  the  Romans,  who  first  reduced  Macedon  to  a 
province  and  soon  annexed  all  the  other  States  to  the  immense  Roman  empire.  It 
remained  in  this  condition  until  the  division  of  that  great  empire  in  395  A.D.,  when 
it  fell  to  the  Byzantine,  or  Eastern  empire.  It  remained  as  such  up  to  the  time  the 
Latin  princes  conquered  and  divided  the  Eastern  empire  in  the  eleventh  century. 

On  the  fall  of  Constantinople  under  Moslem  power  in  1453,  Greece  came  under 
the  yoke  of  the  conqueror,  and  remained  so  until  1687,  when  Athens  was  taken  by 
the  Venetians  and  held  by  them  for  a short  time.  In  1718  all  Greece  again  groaned 
under  Moslem  rule,  and  continued  under  this  cruel  tyranny  for  more  than  a hun- 
dred years.  A patriotic  uprising  of  the  Greeks  in  1821  led  to  a struggle  with  the 
Turks  which,  after  a series  of  achievements  and  glorious  exploits,  watched  with  deep 
interest  and  sympathy  by  other  nations,  ended  in  the  independence  of  the  nation. 
England.  France,  and  Russia  aided  in  this  consummation  by  winning  the  naval  vic- 
tory at  Navarino,  October  20th,  1827. 

The  presidency  of  Greece  was  assumed  by  the  Count  Capo  d’lstria  in  1828,  but 


THE  PRINCIPAL  NATIONS  OF  THE  WORLD. 


891 


when  the  allied  powers  agreed  to  make  Greece  an  independent  kingdom,  the  crown 
was  offered  to  several  persons.  Count  Capo  d’Istria  was  assassinated  at  Nauplia, 
October,  1831,  which  event  induced  the  protecting  powers  to  settle  the  affair  of 
Greece.  Otto,  second  son  of  Louis  of  Bavaria,  was  chosen  as  king,  and  this  choice 
being  solemnly  ratified  by  the  Greek  people,  the  young  prince,  scarcely  eighteen 
years  old,  arrived  at  the  capital  of  Greece,  Nauplia,  in  1833.  He  remained  here, 
under  a regency,  until  1835,  when  at  the  age  of  twenty  he  took  control  of  the  gov- 
ernment and  removed  the  capital  to  Athens. 

A constitution  was  demanded  by  the  people  who,  led  by  the  garrison,  surrounded 
the  palace  of  Otto  on  the  night  of  September  14th,  1843.  The  king  summoned  a 
national  assembly  in  November  of  the  same  year,  and  after  continued  discussions  a 
constitution  was  adopted  and  submitted  to  the  king,  March  14th,  1844,  and  signed 
by  him  two  days  afterward.  Thus,  without  the  shedding  of  blood  the  people  gained 
a constitutional  government.  In  October,  1863,  while  the  king  and  queen  were  away 
for  a ten  days’  pleasure  trip,  Greece  decided  to  exchange  rulers,  and  upon  their  re- 
turn, the  royal  pair  were  forbidden  to  land.  They  were  transferred  by  a British  man- 
of-war  to  Venice,  and  thence  they  proceeded  to  their  early  home. 

An  election  by  universal  suffrage  resulted  in  the  almost  unanimous  choice  of 
Prince  Alfred,  second  son  of  Queen  Victoria,  as  constitutional  king.  But,  the  three 
allied  powers  having  stipulated  that  no  one  of  the  royal  family  of  either  should  sit 
upon  the  Grecian  throne,  they  declared  the  throne  still  vacant,  and  by  another  pro- 
tocol offered  the  crown  to  Prince  George  of  Denmark.  He  accepted  it  under  certain 
conditions,  which  were  acceded  to;  and  in  October,  1863,  arrived  in  Athens  to  take 
possession,  and  was  crowned  on  the  31st  of  that  month,  before  he  had  become  eigh- 
teen years  of  age.  A new  constitution  was  adopted  in  1864  and  sworn  to  by  the  king 
November  28th.  The  young  king  was  married  October  27th,  1867,  to  Her  Royal 
Highness  Olga,  daughter  of  Duke  Constantine  and  niece  of  Alexander  II.  of  Russia. 
The  heir  apparent  is  Prince  Konstantinos,  Duke  of  Sparta,  born  August  2d,  1868. 

GUATEMALA. 

One  of  the  five  independent  republics  of  Central  America.  The  confederation 
continued  from  1832  to  1839,  since  which  Guatemala  has  had  a representative  near 
the  government  at  Washington.  A constitution  adopted  October  2d,  1859,  was  mod- 
ified December  nth,  1879.  President  General  Rufino  Barrios  was  elected  May  9th, 
1873.  His  term  of  office  was  prolonged  for  four  years  by  a decree  of  the  Constitu- 
tional Assembly,  October  23d,  1876,  and  he  was  re-elected  for  another  term,  March 
15th,  1880.  President  Barrios  had  earnestly  desired  and  labored  for  a federation  of 
the  five  states.  On  the  28th  of  February,  1885,  he  issued  a proclamation  declaring 
“ the  union  of  Central  America  as  one  republic.”  He  counted  on  the  alliance  of 
Salvador  and  Honduras,  but  the  smaller  states  were  suspicious  of  the  greater  influ- 
ence of  Guatemala.  In  the  disturbances  which  arose  the  President  lost  his  life,  April 
2d,  1885.  Zoldiver,  President  of  Salvador,  telegraphed  to  General  Barillas,  who  had 
assumed  the  presidency  of  Guatemala,  proposing  the  very  thing  he  had  resisted  under 
the  late  president,  because  he  had  found  out  that  his  course  had  rendered  him  un- 


892 


THE  PRINCIPAL  NATIONS  OF  THE  WORLD. 


popular  in  his  own  state.  But  nothing  could  be  done  until  after  an  election  to  fill 
the  vacancy  caused  by  the  death  of  Barrios,  and  Zoldiver  at  once  abandoned  his 
country,  leaving  Gen.  Figueroa  to  take  his  place. 

Gen.  Manuel  L.  Barillas  was  elected  president  at  the  election  of  1886,  and  was 
inaugurated  March  16th,  1886.  An  attempt  against  his  life  the  same  year  was  frus- 
trated. Reform  measures  affecting  education,  commerce,  and  the  general  interests 
of  the  people,  were  enacted.  Treaties  with  other  powers  were  formed,  and  prosperity 
with  great  increase  of  population  ensued. 

HAWAII. 

The  Hawaiian  group  of  islands  was  discovered  by  a Spaniard  in  1542,  and  cor- 
rectly located  by  another  Spaniard  in  1567,  but  long  before  this  one  or  two  Spanish 
ships  had  been  wrecked  at  Hawaii  and  the  survivors  had  married  with  the  natives. 
Their  descendants  may  be  traced  at  the  present  day  and  are  called  Kekea . The 
English  navigator,  Captain  Cook,  landed  on  these  islands  in  1778.  He  sailed  for  the 
American  coast,  and  returned  to  meet  the  king  Kamehameha  I.,  who  was  then  a young 
man.  Captain  Cook  was  killed  in  a quarrel  provoked  by  his  abuse  of  the  friendship 
of  the  islanders,  February  14th,  1779.  In  1790  Kamehameha  was  attacked  by  the  king 
of  the  other  part  of  the  island,  and  after  defeating  him  became  king  of  the  whole. 
Then  he  invaded  and  conquered  all  the  other  islands  but  two,  which  were  to  become 
his  upon  the  death  of  their  king.  Vancouver  came  in  1792  and  again  in  1819.  At 
the  last  visit  he  introduced  cattle  into  the  islands. 

After  a long  and  successful  reign,  resulting  in  bringing  the  whole  group  under 
his  sway,  Kamehameha  I.  died  and  left  his  throne  to  his  son,  who  took  his  name. 
Kamehameha  II.,  aided  by  the  widow  of  his  father,  Kaahumanu,  abolished  the  taboo 
system  and  overthrew  the  idols.  The  American  missionaries  came  soon  after  and 
introduced  a written  language  in  1820.  In  1823  the  king  and  queen  visited  England, 
where  they  both  died,  and  Kaahumanu,  the  premier,  ruled  as  regent  for  nine  years, 
until  the  younger  brother  of  the  late  king  came  of  age.  Kamehameha  III.  began 
his  rule  in  1833,  and  in  1839  Commander  Laplace  of  the  French  war  frigate  obtained, 
under  threats  of  war,  civil  and  religious  freedom  for  the  Catholic  missionaries  and 
their  converts,  who  had  been  subjected  to  severe  persecutions  since  1827.  The  king 
gave  his  people  a civil  constitution  in  1840.  In  1846,  by  signing  the  famous  Land 
Act,  he  renounced  the  royal  claim  to  a large  portion  of  land  and  provided  for  its 
conveyance  to  the  people.  Free  suffrage  was  granted  as  a civil  right.  This  wise 
and  progressive  king  died  December  15th,  1854,  and  was  succeeded  by  Kamehameha 
IV.  He  enjoyed  a quiet  and  prosperous  reign  of  nine  years  and  was  followed  by 
his  brother,  Lot  Kamehameha.  He  forcibly  abrogated  the  constitution  and  enacted 
a new  one,  limiting  the  right  of  suffrage  by  a property  qualification.  He  beautified 
the  capital,  Honolulu,  with  fine  public  buildings,  and  after  a period  of  commercial 
prosperity  died  without  an  heir  in  1872.  Lulalilo,  a high  chief,  was  elected  king  after 
an  interregnum  of  four  weeks.  He  died  without  issue  February  4th,  1874. 

February  12th  the  legislature  elected  Kalakaua  king  with  the  determined  oppo- 
sition of  the  late  Queen  Emma,  which  led  to  a riot  and  the  partial  destruction  of  the 


THE  PRINCIPAL  NATIONS  OF  THE  WORLD. 


893 


legislative  hall.  Order  was  restored  by  the  intervention  of  the  English  and  Ameri* 
can  war-ships. 

The  independence  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands  was  acknowledged  by  the  United 
States  in  1829  and  1843,  by  Belgium  in  1844,  and  by  Great  Britain  and  France  later 
in  the  same  year.  Kalakaua  visited  the  United  States  in  1876,  and  in  1881  made  a 
tour  of  the  world.  He  made  a great  display  at  his  coronation  in  1883,  and  his  other 
extravagances  ran  the  government  in  debt.  The  royal  palace  cost  twice  the  amount 
estimated;  the  celebration  of  the  king’s  birthday  and  the  funeral  of  a relative  cost 
vast  amounts  of  money.  The  purchase  of  Gatling  guns  to  fortify  the  palace,  and  a 
steamer  fitted  up  as  a man-of-war  for  his  use  swelled  the  amount,  and  with  many 
other  expenses  brought  the  treasury  to  the  verge  of  bankruptcy.  This  brought 
about  a revolution  in  1887,  when  a new  constitution  was  extorted  from  the  king, 
making  the  office  of  noble  an  elective  instead  of  a royal  one,  they  to  be  elected  for  a 
term  of  six  years;  and  the  king  solemnly  swore  not  to  interfere  with  any  election  or 
influence  political  action.  Many  among  the  natives  thought  that  the  king  had  been 
badly  used  and  that  the  constitution  which  he  was  forced  to  sign,  and  the  oath  taken 
by  him  under  threats  of  violence,  were  not  binding.  The  old  constitution  prescribed 
the  method  by  which  it  could  be  amended,  and  that  was  by  the  vote  of  two  successive 
legislatures.  The  king,  however,  contented  himself  with  vetoing  certain  acts  passed 
by  the  legislature  which  had  been  elected  under  the  new  constitution.  He  conveyed 
all  his  property  interests  to  trustees  to  pay  his  royal  debts,  amounting  to  $250,000. 
The  King  died  at  San  Francisco,  Cal.,  January  20,  1891. 

HAYTI. 

The  republic  of  Hayti  lies  in  the  western  or  French  part  of  the  island  of  the 
same  name.  The  old  Carribean  meaning  of  the  word  is  mountainous.  It  was  the 
second  place  which  Columbus  visited  in  America  and  the  site  of  the  first  European 
colony,  which  was  called,  in  honor  of  the  Spanish  queen,  Isabella.  The  first  negro 
slaves  were  brought  here  in  1522.  The  native  Indian  population  had  dwindled  from 
2,000,000  to  21,000  in  1 7 1 1,  and  it  is  doubtful  if  any  of  their  descendants  now  exist. 
The  French  came  in  1630  and  grew  so  rapidly  that  their  settlement  was  formed  into 
an  independent  Department  in  1714.  The  Spaniards  tried  in  vain  to  drive  them 
from  the  island,  and  by  the  Treaty  of  Ryswick  France  held  the  western  part  of  the 
island,  but  the  boundary  was  not  definitely  fixed  until  1777.  The  free  colored  pop- 
ulation demanded  to  be  put  on  an  equal  footing  with  the  whites  in  1790,  and  organ- 
ized an  army  to  enforce  their  demands.  The  whites  defeated  them  and  put  their 
leaders  to  death.  But  in  1791  the  assembly  granted  the  demand,  and  order  was  ap- 
parently restored.  The  same  year,  however,  the  slaves  rose  in  insurrection  and  the 
colony  was  rent  by  civil  war.  The  Spaniards  and  English  interfered  and  the  French 
commissioners  in  retaliation  declared  all  the  population  free  and  equal.  They  ap- 
pointed Toussaint  l’Overture  commander  of  the  black  army.  The  English  and  Span- 
ish were  driven  out,  and  by  the  Treaty  of  Basle  in  1795  the  Spanish  part  of  the  island 
was  ceded  to  France.  L’Overture  restored  order  and  prosperity,  but  was  treacher- 
ously captured  and  sent  to  Paris  by  the  order  of  Napoleon,  who  sent  a fleet  under 
General  Leclerc  to  restore  slavery  to  St.  Domingo.  The  gallant  captive  died  a 


•394 


THE  PRINCIPAL  NATIONS  OF  THE  WORLD. 


prisoner  soon  after,  but  Dessalines,  who  succeeded  him  as  leader,  was  also  a vigorous 
and  sagacious  man.  The  French  were  compelled  to  give  up  their  attempt  and  cap< 
itulated  to  the  English  fleet  January  ist,  1804.  St.  Domingo  declared  itself  a free  and 
independent  republic,  and  Dessalines  was  chosen  governor  for  life,  but  October  8th 
he  violated  his  oath  and  proclaimed  himself  emperor  of  Hayti.  He  was  assassinated 
in  1806.  The  eastern  part  of  the  island  was  given  back  to  Spain  and  the  western 
portion  or  Hayti  was  left  at  the  mercy  of  rival  factions  for  some  years.  In  1822 
Boyer  united  the  whole  island  in  one  government,  and  France  acknowledged  its  in- 
dependence in  1825.  In  1842  Boyer  was  expelled,  and  the  east  set  up  a republic  by 
itself,  and  Hayti  was  left  to  factional  feuds.  Soulonque  was  elected  president  of 
Hayti  in  1847,  assumed  the  title  of  emperor  two  years  later,  and  was  deposed  and 
exiled  in  1858,  when  a republic  was  again  established.  Two  presidents  were  ex- 
pelled in  turn,  but  the  third,  Nissage-Saget,  restored  peace  and  order.  Gen.  Salo- 
men  was  elected  in  1879  for  seven  years.  He  put  down  an  attempted  rebellion  and 
was  re-elected  for  seven  years  more,  June  2d,  1888.  President  Salomen  expelled 
two  of  his  generals,  Marrigat  and  Legitime;  this  was  followed  by  a general  uprising, 
and  the  president  abdicted  and  left  the  country.  Then  a rival  contest  between  Gen. 
Hippolyte  and  General  Legitime  continued,  in  which  the  latter  was  brought  into 
conflict  with  the  United  States  on  accont  of  the  seizure  of  an  American  vessel,  and 
the  provisional  president,  Legitime,  had  to  recede  from  his  position.  August  22d, 
1889,  he  abandoned  Hayti  and  left  his  rival,  General  Florvil  Hippolyte  as  president. 

HONDURAS. 

The  name  is  from  the  Spanish  Honduras , and  reminds  the  reader  of  the  difficulty 
which  the  earlier  navigators  experienced  in  finding  a chance  to  anchor  along  the 
coast.  Columbus  discovered  this  land  on  his  fourth  voyage,  August  14th,  1502.  It 
flourished  as  a Spanish  colony  until  1823,  when  it  threw  off  the  foreign  yoke  and 
joined  the  confederation  mentioned  above.  Since  1839  ^ has  been  like  the  other 
states  in  Central  America,  independent.  The  present  constitution  was  adopted  in 
1880.  President  Louis  Bogran  was  elected  in  1883  and  re-elected  in  1887,  holding 
the  office  for  a term  of  four  years.  Treaties  of  commerce  and  amity  are  in  operation 
with  Great  Britain,  France,  Germany,  and  the  United  States.  Silver  mining  is  a 
prolific  source  of  revenue  to  the  government.  Lines  of  steamers  ply  between  the 
coast  and  the  bay  islands,  and  the  country  is  prosperous. 

ITALY. 

The  history  of  the  middle  ages  commences  with  the  year  476,  when  the  Em* 
pire  of  Rome  fell.  The  history  of  Italy  from  this  point  is  not  so  much  that  of  one 
compact  kingdom  as  of  a number  of  cities  and  states,  each  of  which  presents  a special 
and  glorious  record.  The  barbarians  under  Alaric  had  destroyed  Rome  and  under 
Attila  had  overcome  Aquileia.  The  city  of  Venice  was  established  by  the  fugitives 
who  had  escaped  from  the  latter  city.  Odoacer,  of  the  tribe  of  Heruli,  was  the  first 
king  after  the  conquest.  He  was  slain  in  493,  and  Theoric,  king  of  the  Eastern 
Goths,  who  had  vanquished  him,  established  a monarchy.  This  was  soon  broken  up 


THE  PRINCIPAL  NATIONS  OF  THE  WORLD. 


895 


by  the  Greeks,  who  added  it  to  the  Empire  of  the  East  in  553.  The  Lombards 
ruled  from  568  to  774.  The  temporal  power  of  the  popes  began  in  this  period, 
when  Astolph  gave  the  papal  states  to  Pope  Stephen  III.,  754.  This  gift  was  con- 
firmed by  Charlemagne,  who  had  made  war  upon  the  Lombards  and  put  their  king- 
dom to  an  end.  Charlemagne  was  crowned  by  the  pope  Emperor  of  the  Holy 
Roman  Empire  in  800,  and  died  in  814.  The  successors  of  this  wise  and  good 
monarch  were  weak  and  unable  to  check  the  power  of  the  nobles.  The  last  of  them, 
Charles  the  Fat,  died  in  888,  and  the  nobles  contended  over  a successor,  and  one  of 
them,  Berengarius  I.,  Marquis  of  Friuli,  gained  the  supremacy  in  894.  Under  his 
rule  and  that  of  two  successors,  the  condition  of  Italy  was  unhappy  in  the  extreme. 
Civil  war  and  invasion,  corruption  and  barbarism  put  an  end  to  the  first  period  of 
Italian  history — that  of  conquest  and  feudalism. 

The  second  period  is  that  of  communism  and  the  republics.  In  northern  Italy, 
the  free  communes,  after  long  and  sanguinary  struggles  with  the  German  emperors 
and  the  pope,  finally  won  the  Peace  of  Constance,  1183,  which  conformed  the  tri- 
umph of  the  free  cities.  ‘In  the  south  of  Italy  the  republican  spirit  was  smothered, 
first  by  the  invasion  of  the  Normans,  and  then  by  the  Swabians.  Frederick  II.,  a 
Swabian  king,  with  the  aid  of  Pope  Innocent  IIP,  was  able  to  take  the  crown  from 
Otto  IV.,  but  the  pope  turned  against  him  and  instigated  the  formation  of  a second 
Lombard  league.  Frederick  II.,  however,  defeated  this  combination  against  him  at 
Cartenova,  1239.  Frederick  died  in  1250,  and  the  papal  power  vented  its  hatred 
against  his  descendants.  Charles  of  Anjou,  at  the  invitation  of  Pope  Urban  IV.,  put 
an  end  to  the  Swabian  dominion  in  Italy  in  1268.  The  French  rule  was  short. 
Then  followed  internal  disturbances — the  free  cities  contended  for  the  dominion, 
and  for  the  commerce  upon  the  seas  destroyed  each  other.  The  states  contended 
together.  Lombardy  was  rising  to  superiority,  and  a general  decline  of  patriotism 
followed. 

Then  came  the  period  of  decadence.  The  lack  of  military  spirit  left  Italy  com- 
pletely at  the  mercy  of  her  internal  and  foreign  foes.  This  lasted  for  two  hundred 
years.  During  this  time  Italy  was  reduced  to  a very  low  level  politically — nothing 
but  the  glory  of  her  literature  and  art  remained.  The  Turk  was  establishing  a Mos- 
lem kingdom  in  Europe.  The  discovery  of  America  and  the  establishment  of  the 
Spanish  colonies  were  diverting  commerce  from  the  old  channels.  But  worst  of  all 
were  the  religious  contentions  and  bloody  persecutions  which  made  these  centuries 
one  long  night  of  terror  to  Italy.  She  became  the  battle-ground  on  which  the  am- 
bition and  intrigues  of  foreign  princes  found  a theatre  for  display.  But  during  the 
seventeenth  century,  when  the  ancient  states  of  Italy  were  at  their  lowest  state,  the 
House  of  Savoy  was  displaying  increasing  splendor,  under  the  three  Charles  Emman- 
uels and  Victor  Amadeus. 

To  these  princes,  aided  by  the  popular  heroes,  Pietro  Mecca  and  Picasso,  belonged 
the  honor  of  inspiring  the  spirit  of  the  regeneration  of  Italy.  In  the  Wars  of  Succes- 
sion, and  especially  of  the  Austrian  succession,  they  vindicate  the  glory  of  Italy  and 
gave  the  signal  for  the  awakening  of  a renewed  national  life.  But  a long  period  of 
stormy  war  and  bloody  contention  was  passed  through  before  the  end. 


896 


THE  PRINCIPAL  NATIONS  OF  THE  WORLD. 


Sardinia  became  a kingdom  in  1720,  and  in  1772  Savoy  and  Nice  were  taken  by 
France  with  force  of  arms.  Then  came  the  Wars  of  the  Republic  and  of  the  First  Erm 
pire.  Napoleon  crossed  the  Alps  and  became  master  of  Lombardy,  invaded  the  terri- 
tory of  the  pope,  and  extorted  tribute.  He  won  the  battle  of  Montenotte,  1796,  of  Cal- 
diera,  Arcole,  and  caused  the  fall  of  Venice  in  1797.  The  battle  of  Novi  and  of  Ma- 
rengo were  fought  and  won  in  1800.  With  the  downfall  of  the  emperor  came  the  Treaty 
of  Vienna,  but  by  its  terms  Italy  was  ignored  for  the  Holy  Alliance.  Secret  soci- 
eties were  formed,  insurrections  broke  out  at  Naples  and  Piedmont  in  1820,  and  a 
national  uprising,  inspired  by  the  French  Revolution  of  1848,  had  for  its  object  the 
expulsion  of  the  Austrians.  Venice  drove  out  the  Austrian  garrison;  Charles  Albert, 
King  of  Sardinia,  took  sides  with  the  popular  party  and  invaded  Lombardy,  won  a 
few  minor  victories,  but  was  defeated.  Milan  and  Venice  once  more  fell  to  the  Aus- 
trians. Charles  Albert  granted  a constitution  to  his  realm.  In  the  mean  while  a re- 
bellion broke  out  in  the  papal  states.  Garibaldi  led  his  victorious  army  into  Rome, 
and  a Republic  was  formed.  His  holiness  the  pope  retired  to  Galta,  where  he 
joined  the  exiled  king  of  Naples.  There  was  a revolution  in  Tuscany,  and  the  Sar- 
dinians took  opportunity  from  this  to  drive  the  Austrians  out  of  Italy,  but  were 
defeated. 

Charles  Albert  abdicated  in  favor  of  his  son  Victor  Emanuel  II.  A French 
army  captured  the  city  of  Rome  July  2d,  1849,  and  his  holiness  returned  to  the 
Vatican  in  April,  1850.  In  1853,  by  the  aid  of  the  French  the  Austrians  were  ex- 
pelled from  Lombardy,  after  their  defeat  at  Magenta  and  Solferino  by  the  French, 
under  General  MacMahon.  Lombardy  was  ceded  to  Sardinia  but  Venetia  remained 
to  Austria.  The  royal  army  was  defeated  in  Sicily,  and  Garibaldi  proclaimed  dic- 
tator, i860.  By  a popular  vote  Naples  and  Sicily  were  annexed  to  Sardinia.  At 
the  close  of  the  short  war  between  Austria  and  Prussia,  1866,  Venetia  was  ceded  to 
Italy.  In  the  Franco-Prussian  war  of  1870,  the  French  force  had  to  be  withdrawn 
from  Rome,  where  it  had  been  kept  for  the  safety  of  the  pope  since  1850.  Victor 
Emmanuel  seized  this  opportunity  and  entered  Rome,  September  20th,  1870,  and 
Rome  became  the  capital  of  united  Italy.  At  the  death  of  Victor  Emmanuel  in  1878, 
Humberto  was  crowned  as  king.  Pope  Leo  XIII.  was  raised  to  the  pontificate 
of  Rome  on  the  death  of  Pius  IX.,  which  latter  event  occurred  February  7th,  1878. 

JAPAN, 

This  is  perhaps  the  most  interesting  country,  to  the  American  reader,  of  all  the 
Asiatic  countries.  The  first  authentic  information  which  the  Europeans  had  with 
Japan  was  in  1541,  when  three  Portuguese  merchants  were  wrecked  upon  the  coast 
of  Kiusiu.  The  firearms  which  they  possessed  made  such  an  impression  upon  the 
Japanese  as  to  find  mention  in  their  national  calendar.  These  Portuguese  returned 
to  the  Island  Kingdom  of  the  East  two  years  later,  and  brought  with  them  some 
Jesuit  missionaries.  This  brought  the  country  into  the  notice  of  Europe. 

The  history  of  Japan,  prior  to  this  date,  as  chronicled  by  the  native  historians, 
shows  one  unbroken  line  of  monarchs,  or  mikados,  from  667  B.C.,  and  the  advance  of 
the  nation  in  civilization  and  the  arts.  The  conquest  of  Corea  and  the  negotiations 


THE  PRINCIPAL  NATIONS  OF  THE  WORLD. 


89*? 


with  China  and  the  detailed  steps  of  their  progress  are  too  many  to  chronicle  in  the 
brief  space  allotted  to  this  subject.  Francis  Xavier  came  to  Japan  in  1549,  and  re- 
mained two  years.  He  departed  disheartened  at  the  outlook  for  missionary  work, 
A military  chieftain  called  Nobu  Nanga,  who  attained  regal  power  under  the  Mikado, 
wielded  the  sway  for  twenty  years  from  1557.  He  led  a crusade  against  the  Bud- 
dhists, whose  religion  had  been  established  in  Japan  for  a thousand  years,  and  many 
of  their  priests  were  massacred,  and  their  temples  overthrown.  At  the  same  time  for 
selfish  purposes,  the  Shiogoon,  as  this  chieftain  was  termed,  encouraged  the  Jesuits, 
who  rose  to  favor  and  power,  until  in  1581  they  claimed  to  have  in  Japan  200  churches 
and  not  less  than  150,000  Christians.  When  this  man  died  the  Jesuit  power  began 
to  wane.  The  immense  treasure  which  he  had  collected  was  given  away  and  squan- 
dered in  three  days  by  a man  who  had  been  his  servant  and  then  his  chief  military 
assistant,  Akitchi-mitsu-hide.  He  arose  to  the  military  position  held  by  his  former 
master.  After  changing  his  name  a number  of  times,  in  1585  he  received  from  the 
emperor  the  family  name  of  Toyotomi.  When  he  thought  that  his  plans  were  ma- 
ture he  ordered  the  Jesuits  to  quit  the  country.  In  1586,  he  took  Nagasaki  and 
made  it  a royal  town.  The  threat  against  the  Jesuits  was  not  carried  out,  but  four 
missionaries  of  the  Order  of  St.  Francis  came  in  1592.  In  1596  a comet  was  visible, 
and  an  earthquake  occurred  in  this  country.  The  people  thought  that  these  events 
foretold  the  death  of  the  Shiogoon;  he  caused  twenty-six  of  the  Jesuits  to  be  cruci- 
fied and  ordered  the  rest  to  be  sent  home  in  their  ships.  The  beginning  of  the  sev- 
enteenth century  saw  the  rise  of  Iyeyas  Mikawa-no-Kami  to  power.  He  treated  his 
enemies  with  kindness  and  granted  a general  amnesty  to  all  except  the  chief,  who 
was  beheaded.  He  removed  the  capital  to  Yeddo,  promulgated  a code  of  one  hun- 
dred laws  to  govern  his  successors,  who  he  hoped  would  be  of  his  family,  in  their 
office.  These  laws  have  had  a great  influence  ever  since,  and  his  hopes  to  a great 
extent  were  realized.  An  interval  of  two  hundred  years  of  peace  succeeded  his 
reign.  The  Jesuits  were  again  accused  of  intrigue  and  sedition,  and  in  1636  he 
ordered  the  image  of  the  Saviour,  which  was  inscribed  on  the  copper  coin,  to  be  dese- 
crated by  trampling  it  under  foot.  An  edict  had  been  issued  against  the  Jesuits  in 
1614,  but  was  not  carried  out  with  any  success  until  fifteen  years  later.  In  1666  a 
new  decree  of  banishment  against  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  was  promulgated  and 
two  years  after  an  order  forbidding  the  erection  of  Buddhist  temples.  These  are 
still  in  force. 

In  1639  the  Portuguese  and  Spanish  were  driven  out  of  the  land.  The  Church 
of  Rome  made  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  regain  Japan  in  1709,  and  a number  of 
attempts  were  made  by  the  foreign  powers  to  effect  an  entrance  for  commerce,  but 
the  Japanese  opposed  all  such  overtures.  According  to  native  records,  ten  visits 
were  made  by  foreign  ships  from  1637-1826,  inclusive.  Commodore  Brindle,  of  the 
American  navy,  arrived  at  Nagasaki  in  1846,  and  Com.  M.  C.  Perry  came  in  1853. 
The  latter  effected  a treaty  which  opened  Japan  to  commerce.  Sir  James  Stirling, 
an  admiral  of  the  British  navy,  concluded  a treaty  with  Japan  for  England  the  next 
year.  In  1858  Japan  announced  to  the  other  powers  that  she  had  treaty  relations 
with  the  American,  Dutch,  English,  Portuguese,  and  Russian  nations.  The  last  of 


898 


THE  PRINCIPAL  NATIONS  OF  THE  WORLD. 


the  Shiogoons  who  really  held  any  power  died  in  1 866.  In  the  following  year  an 
unsuccessful  attempt  to  be  recognized  as  Shiogoon  was  made  by  Yoshi-hisa,  but  the 
spiritual  emperor,  who  was  a lineal  descendant  of  the  Mikados,  was  received  as  the 
true  and  only  ruler  of  Japan.  Thus  the  dual  government  of  the  empire  came  to  an 
end. 

This  Mikado  died  in  1867,  leaving  a son  fifteen  years  of  age  as  his  successor. 
Mutso  Nito  is  at  present  (1890)  upon  the  throne. 

The  advance  and  civilization  of  Japan  for  the  last  thirty  years  have  been  the 
marvel  of  history.  Their  record  reads  like  the  tales  of  romance,  and  find  no  parallel. 

In  i860  treaties  were  signed  with  Holland  and  Prussia.  In  1862,  an  embassy  was 
sent  to  the  western  nations,  consisting  of  thirty-five  members.  They  came  to  the 
United  States.  In  1863,  a retrograde  movement  resulted  in  the  destruction  of  the 
Legation  House  of  the  English  and  American  governments  for  which  Japan  was 
forced  to  pay  a large  indemnity  to  those  nations.  In  1870  the  new  government  of  the 
empire,  which  had  been  successfully  established  at  home,  began  with  renewed  zeal  the 
work  of  reform.  Young  noblemen  were  sent  to  foreign  countries  to  be  educated. 
Diplomatic  relations  were  established  with  the  United  States,  Great  Britain,  Russia, 
Germany,  Austria,  and  France.  In  1872,  the  great  embassy  led  by  Tomomi  Iwakura 
came  to  the  United  States  and  Europe.  The  old  Japanese  calendar  was  changed 
to  conform  with  the  one  used  by  all  Christendom,  save  Russia.  Western  customs 
were  adopted;  railroads  and  telegraphs  were  introduced,  and  Japan,  with  rapid 
strides,  was  taking  her  place  in  the  great  family  of  nations.  The  great  questions  of 
taxation  and  revenue  are  in  process  of  successful  settlement;  a currency  similar  to 
that  of  the  United  States  has  been  established.  The  Japanese  are  going  ahead  with 
the  genius  allied  to  that  of  “the  universal  Yankee  nation.”  The  United  States  has 
returned  the  money  indemnity  taken  from  Japan  in  1863,  and  the  greatest  cordiality 
exists  between  the  two  nations.  The  first  Japanese  parliament  was  opened  November  1, 
1890. 

LIBERIA. 

• 1 

Was  established  as  an  independent  state  in  1847.  It  was  founded  by  the  Ameri- 
can Colonization  Society  in  1820.  It  stretches  from  the  Sherboro  River  to  the  Pedro, 
a distance  of  600  miles  along  the  Atlantic  coast  of  Africa.  The  American  Baptist 
Society  sent  missionaries  to  the  native  tribes  in  1835.  The  president  of  the  repub- 
lic is  elected  for  two  years;  the  senators  for  four,  and  representatives  for  two.  The 
first  president  was  Joseph  J.  Roberts,  who  served  for  four  terms — from  1848-1856. 
Hilary  R.  W.  Johnson  has  served  in  that  office  since  1884  to  the  present  time.  The 
official  language  is  English.  The  capital  is  Monrovia.  A lively  trade  in  sugar,  cot- 
ton, ivory,  camwood,  palm  oil,  and  native  fruits  is  carried  on  with  Europe  and 
America.  The  constitution  follows  that  of  the  United  States  quite  closely. 

MEXICO. 

From  the  time  of  the  final  conquest  of  Mexico  by  Cortez  in  1521,  for  three  cen- 
turies the  history  of  Mexico  presents  little  for  the  general  historian  to  record.  There 
were  no  foreign  wars  and  no  internal  disturbances  worthy  of  note.  The  pure  Cas- 


THE  PRINCIPAL  NATIONS  OF  THE  WORLD. 


899 


tilians  who  inhabited  the  country  were  regarded  as  foreigners,  but  they  usurped  the 
positions  of  trust  and  emolument.  The  great  landed  estates  and  commercial  posts 
were  in  their  possession.  The  revolution  against  the  Spanish  Colonial  Government 
after  eleven  years  of  contest  culminated  in  the  independence  of  Mexico,  in  1821. 
The  natives  having  gained  the  victory  ruined  the  aristocracy,  and  finally  expelled  all 
Spaniards  from  Mexico  in  1829.  The  earliest  independent  government,  that  of  the 
Liberator  Iturbide,  was  intended  only  as  a change  of  masters,  but  Spain  refused  to 
permit  one  of  its  princes  to  take  the  crown,  and  Iturbide  was  declared  emperor. 
Santa  Anna  declared  a republic  in  1822,  and  in  1824  a constitution  was  adopted 
after  that  of  the  United  States.  This  was  too  radical,  and  the  laws  passed  were  too 
far-sweeping  and  resulted  in  thirty  years  of  contention  and  dictatorship.  The  fifth 
dictatorship  of  Santa  Anna  was  overthrown  in  1855,  and  the  next  year  a constitution 
was  adopted  which,  with  some  minor  amendments,  is  still  in  force.  The  war  of  re- 
form (1857-1860)  and  the  French  intervention  (1861-1867)  were  two  desperate 
struggles  against  the  corrupt  national  church,  the  army,  and  the  conservative  aris- 
tocracy, who  were  the  privileged  classes.  The  Austrian  Archduke  Maximilian  was 
seated  upon  the  throne  of  Mexico  by  the  intervention  of  France  for  three  years  (1864- 
1867),  but  was  overcome  and  put  to  death.  In  both  these  contests  the  master 
spirit  who  led  the  native  forces  was  the  Indian  statesman,  Benito  Juarez.  He  was 
president  from  1857  to  his  death  in  1872.  His  chief  was  the  Minister  of  Foreign 
Affairs,  Sebastian  Lerdo  de  Tejada,  who  succeeded  him  in  the  presidency.  The 
present  incumbent  is  Porfirio  Diaz,  who  was  proclaimed  by  the  Mexican  Congress 
as  elected  September  26th,  1884. 

THE  NETHERLANDS. 

The  Netherlands  or  Low  Countries  formerly  denoted  all  the  vast  plains  which 
border  on  the  North  Sea  and  extend  to  the  foot  of  the  Vosges  and  the  Ardennes. 
The  present  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands  came  to  be  a power  among  the  states  of 
Europe  after  the  long  War  of  the  Spanish  Succession  (1648).  By  the  peace  of  West- 
phalia the  independence  of  the  Seven  Provinces  was  acknowledged  by  Spain.  Its 
progress  for  a hundred  years  was  most  remarkable.  It  crushed  the  Spanish  power, 
checked  the  Portuguese,  kept  down  the  English,  and  acquired  great  possessions  in 
America  and  the  East  Indies.  The  Dutch  Admiral,  Van  Tromp,  gained  a naval  vic- 
tory at  Goodwin  Sands,  November  29th,  1652.  He  sailed  along  the  English  coast 
with  a broom  at  his  mast  head,  as  a token  that  he  had  swept  the  Channel.  In  1667  a 
Dutch  fleet  sailed  up  the  Thames  and  blockaded  London.  While  they  held  in  their 
grasp  the  commerce  of  the  seas,  they  made  great  achievements  in  art  and  science, 
and  gained  the  applause  of  the  entire  world.  They  were  almost  the  only  people  in 
Europe  to  resist  the  arrogance  of  Louis  XIV.  of  France.  In  a contest  with  Eng- 
land in  1782,  the  Netherlands  lost  their  supremacy  on  the  seas,  and  the  internal  dis- 
turbances of  two  rival  parties  left  an  easy  path  for  Napoleon,  who  permitted  the 
United  Provinces  to  form  a constitution,  but  changed  it  as  often  as  the  whim  took 
him.  William  V.  fled  to  England,  and  the  republic  was  formed  May  16th,  1795. 
In  1806  Napoleon  made  his  brother,  Louis  Bonaparte,  king  of  Holland,  and  in  1810 


900 


THE  PRINCIPAL  NATIONS  OF  THE  WORLD. 


annexed  it  to  France.  The  Treaty  of  Vienna  again  erected  the  kingdom  of  Holland, 
and  joined  Belgium  with  it.  The  kingdom  of  Belgium  was  made  independent  of  it 
again  in  1830.  Since  1848,  when  the  great  revolutions  swept  over  Europe,  the 
Netherlands  have  been  peaceful,  prosperous,  and  progressive.  In  that  year  some 
modifications  in  the  constitution  were  enacted.  There  has  been  some  unimportant 
conflict  in  the  colonies,  but  nothing  to  affect  the  home  government.  King  William 
III.  came  to  the  throne  in  1849.  He  died  November  23,  1890,  and  his  daughter, 
Wilhelmina,  born  August  31,  1880,  became  Queen  under  the  regency  of  her  mother, 
Emma,  daughter  of  George  Victor,  of  Waldeck. 

NICARAGUA. 

An  independent  republic  of  Central  America  since  the  dissolution  of  the  con- 
federation with  the  other  four  states  in  1839,  has  been  the  scene  of  continual  revolu. 
tion  and  counter-revolution.  It  would  serve  no  good  purpose  to  detail  these  con. 
tests.  She  has  been  brought  into  prominence  only  through  various  schemes  for  the 
building  of  a ship  passage  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific.  Her  population,  industry, 
and  commerce  are  declining.  The  English  and  American  governments  have  been 
interested  in  the  proposed  canal.  A concession  was  made  to  a United  States  com- 
pany, called  the  “Vanderbilt  Concession,”  in  1849,  which  was  annulled  in  1856,  to  be 
renewed  the  next  year.  The  Clayton-Bulwer  Treaty  between  the  United  States  and 
Great  Britain  in  1850  declared  that  neither  country  should  maintain  exclusive  con- 
trol of  the  projected  canal.  This  treaty  is  still  in  force.  The  original  company  to 
which  concessions  had  been  granted  was  replaced  by  the  Central  American  Transit 
Company.  In  1862  the  Nicaraguan  government  confiscated  the  property,  but  through 
the  intervention  of  the  United  States  government  it  was  returned.  In  1868  the 
property  was  again  seized  and  sold  for  debt,  and  in  1869  President  Grant  was  re- 
quested to  intervene  for  the  recovery  of  the  property  and  damages.  Upon  the  fail- 
ure of  the  scheme  to  build  a canal  across  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  the  old  project 
was  renewed,  and  a New  York  company  received,  in  March,  1887,  the  exclusive  right 
of  way  through  the  territory  of  the  Republic  of  Nicaragua,  for  the  purpose  of  con- 
structing a canal.  The  United  States  had  caused  the  route  to  be  twice  surveyed,  and 
the  cost  has  been  estimated  at  $65,000,000.  The  entire  length  is  169.8  miles,' but  of 
this  only  28.9  miles  has  to  be  dug.  In  May,  1887,  important  concessions  were  ob- 
tained by  the  payment  of  $100,000  in  American  gold.  With  proper  restrictions,  the 
canal  is  declared  to  be  neutral  to  belligerents  during  the  ninty-nine  years  that  Nica- 
ragua binds  itself  not  to  grant  concessions  to  a rival  canal  or  railroad  company.  A 
valuable  concession  has  been  obtained  by  the  company  from  Costa  Rica  on  a sim- 
ilar basis.  The  president  of  Nicaragua,  Dr.  Sacasa,  took  his  office  August  1st,  1889. 

ORANGE  FREE  STATE. 

A small  independent  republic  in  the  eastern  part  of  South  Africa.  It  was 
founded  by  the  Boers  who  quitted  Cape  Colony  in  1836  and  subsequently  established 
a republic.  Its  president,  F.  W.  Rietz,  took  that  office  January,  1889.  Its  capital 
is  Bloemfontein. 


THE  PRINCIPAL  NATIONS  OF  THE  WORLD. 


901 


PARAGUAY. 

A nominal  republic,  but  since  1870  really  under  the  control  of  Brazil.  It  was; 
discovered  in  1526  by  Sebastian  Cabot.  Asuncion  was  colonized  seventy-three 
years  before  Jamestown,  in  Virginia,  and  was  never  broken  up.  The  Jesuits  were 
expelled  from  the  country  in  1767.  The  independence  of  the  country  from  Spain 
was  gained  in  1811.  Dr.  Jose  Gaspar  Rodriguez  Francia  became  absolute  dictator, 
and  died  in  1840.  His  will  was  law,  and  when  he  died  Paraguay  was  without  a gov- 
ernment. Lopez  in  some  way  obtained  for  himself  the  power,  and  ruled  until  his 
death  in  1862.  He  was  followed  by  another  man  of  the  same  name  who  died  in 
1870.  The  Paraguans  were  well-nigh  annihilated  in  the  wars  which  had  occurred,, 
and  Brazil  was  called  upon  to  interfere.  The  country  is  hopelessly  and  irretrievably 
insolvent,  her  debt  to  Great  Britain  being  $15,000,000.  In  1870  a constitution 
was  adopted,  modelled  after  that  of  the  United  States.  An  attempt  to  compromise 
the  British  debt  was  made  in  1885.  Juan  G.  Gonzalez  became  President  Sept.  25,  1891. 

PERU. 

When  the  Spaniards  came  to  Peru  they  found  a high  state  of  civilization  among 
two  kindred  native  races.  These  were  then  united  under  the  Incas  in  one  kingdom. 
A small  band  of  Spanish  adventurers  headed  by  Pizarro  and  Almagro  plundered  and 
conquered  Peru  in  1531-33.  The  Inca  Atahuallpa  was  put  to  death,  and  his  half- 
brother  placed  on  the  throne  as  nominal  emperor.  Pizarro  was  made  Marquis  of 
Peru  by  the  King  of  Spain.  He  founded  Lima.  In  a contest  with  his  associate  in; 
1541  he  was  killed.  The  Spanish  retained  possession  of  the  country  until  1821,  when 
it  was  declared  independent  after  a successful  invasion  by  General  Jose  de  San  Matin 
who  had  previously  liberated  Chili.  He  was.  made  Protector  of  Peru  but  soon  re- 
signed, and  General  Bolivar  was  received  as  dictator.  Bolivar  retired  to  Colombia 
in  1825  and  a republican  government  was  formed.  A Peru-Bolivian  confederation 
was  formed  in  1836,  which  lasted  only  three  years.  Civil  wars  and  numerous  changes 
of  constitutions  followed.  Slavery  was  abolished  in  1855.  A war  with  Spain  in  1866 
for  the  Chincha  Islands  arose  and  Peru  had  as  her  allies  the  sister  Republics  of  Chili, 
Bolivia,  and  Ecuador.  In  1875  there  was  a failure  in  the  supply  of  guano,  which  had 
been  a source  of  revenue  to  the  State,  and  in  consequence  the  credit  of  Peru  in  Europe 
fell  so  low  as  to  result  in  great  financial  depression.  A war  with  Chili  began  in  1879, 
and  resulted  in  the  loss  of  the  southern  province  and  the  occupation  of  Lima  by  the 
Chilians.  By  the  influence  of  the  invaders,  F.  Garcia  Calderon  was  chosen  president 
at  Lima,  July  10th,  1881,  but  he  was  soon  taken  prisoner,  and  Admiral  Lezardo  Mon- 
tero  was  put  into  his  place.  General  Caceres,  the  present  incumbent,  was  elected  in 
1886.  A treaty  of  amity  and  commerce  with  the  United  States  was  concluded  No- 
vember 7,  1888.  Remigio  Morales  Bermudez  became  President,  August  10,  1890. 

PORTUGAL. 

The  national  history  of  Portugal  begins  about  1095,  when  Henry,  son-in-law  of 
Alphonso  V.,  King  of  Leon  and  Castile,  received  the  territory  after  the  expulsion 


•902 


THE  PRINCIPAL  NATIONS  OF  THE  WORLD. 


of  the  Moors.  Henry  called  himself  Count  of  Portugal  at  first,  but  after  the  success, 
ful  battle  of  Ourique  in  1139,  in  which  he  extended  his  domain  to  the  Tagus,  he  as- 
sumed the  title  of  king.  The  kingdom  of  Portugal  was 'about  the  same  in  size  in 
1253  as  it  is  to-day,  but  it  began  to  assume  a greater  importance  in  European  affairs, 
and  in  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries  had  reached  the  height  of  prosperity  and 
power.  This  had  been  brought  about  by  their  scientific  knowledge,  practical  experb 
ence,  extent  of  their  commerce,  and  the  spirit  of  discovery.  In  1500  Lisbon  was  the 
commercial  centre  of  the  world,  and  for  fifty  years  Portugal  was  one  of  the  great 
powers  of  Europe, 

In  the  reign  of  John  III.  (1521-57),  the  Jesuits  introduced  the  Inquisition 
into  the  country,  and  there  soon  followed  a national  decline.  In  1578,  King  Sebas- 
tian and  his  entire  army  were  overwhelmed  by  the  Moors  in  the  battle  of  Kassrel- 
Kebir,  and  his  dynasty  became  extinct  two  years  after. 

The  military  and  financial  power  of  the  country  was  broken,  and  it  passed  into 
the  hands  of  Philip  II.  of  Spain.  In  the  wars  of  the  Netherlands  all  its  colonies  were 
swept  away.  It  reconquered  its  independence  in  1640,  and  John  IV.  of  Braganza 
was  placed  on  the  throne.  He  reigned  from  1640  to  1656.  The  country  began  a 
rapid  and  prosperous  advance  once  more,  but  again  the  Jesuits,  during  the  long  reign 
of  Maria  I.,  which  extended  from  1 777  to  1816,  came  to  have  influence  and  brought 
disaster  on  the  country.  Napoleon  of  France  compelled  the  royal  family  to  flee, 
and  they  went  to  Brazil  in  November,  1807.  England  succeeded  in  bringing  back 
the  dynasty  to  the  throne  by  the  treaty  of  Cintra,  August  30th,  1808.  The  finances 
of  the  country  were  depressed,  and  its  trade  held  by  London  monopolies.  John  VI., 
returned  from  Brazil  in  1821,  but  before  he  landed  in  Portugal  was  compelled  to  sign 
a liberal  constitution.  Brazil  became  a separate  kingdom  in  1821,  under  Dom  Pedro, 
son  of  John  VI. 

Maria  II.  reigned  from  1826  to  1853,  and  was  succeeded  by  Pedro  V.,  who  reigned 
until  1861.  He  was  followed  by  Louis  I.,  who  died  October  18th,  1889,  and  Charles 
I.  became  king.  The  liberal  constitution  forced  from  John  VI.,  was  replaced  by  one 
in  1826;  this  was  altered  in  1852,  and  further  amended  in  1885.  The  Cortez,  or 
National  Assembly,  consists  of  a Chamber  of  Peers  of  162  members,  and  a Chamber 
of  Deputies  of  173  members.  The  Constitution  of  1885  provides  for  the  gradual  abo- 
lition of  hereditary  peerage,  and  in  its  place,  the  appointment  of  one  hundred  peers 
for  life  only  by  the  king,  and  for  fifty  elective  peers. 

ROUMANIA  or  ROMANIA. 

This  country  claims  to  be  a completely  independent  State  under  the  Treaty  of 
Paris  in  1856  and  the  Convention  of  Paris  in  1858.  Her  statesmen  claim  that  the 
annual  contribution  to  the  Porte  is  not  a tribute  to  Turkey,  but  a compensation  for 
the  obligation  which  Turkey  has  assumed  to  defend  Roumanian  soil.  Turkey  denies 
this,  and  in  1872  the  question  of  sovereignty  was  discussed  with  bitterness.  In  1881 
the  Chief  of  State  who  is  hereditary  ruler  in  the  male  line  of  the  House  of  Hohenzol 
lern,  assumed  the  title  of  King.  The  constitution  is  very  liberal,  giving  freedom  of 
conscience  and  ©f  the  press  to  all.  Carl  I.  was  king.  In  absence  of  heirs  to  his 


THE  PRINCIPAL  NATIONS  OF  THE  WORLD. 


903 


body  he  chose  Prince  Frederick  of  Hohenzollern  to  be  his  successor.  An  unsuccess- 
ful attempt  was  made  upon  the  life  of  the  prince  minister,  M.  Brattano,  September 
16th,  1886,  which  led  to  the  mobbing  of  the  only  opposition  paper  in  Bucharest. 
The  irritating  policy  of  the  Austro-Hungarian  Government  strengthened  the  pro- 
Russian  party,  but  the  boundary  dispute  between  Roumania  and  Austro-Hungary 
was  settled  by  a mixed  commission  in  April,  1887.  This  added  about  32,000 
square  miles  of  territory  to  the  kingdom.  Although  legally  in  force,  no  foreign 
power  had  exercised  consular  jurisdiction  since  her  independence  up  to  1890. 

RUSSIA. 

The  dawn  of  the  modern  history  of  the  Russian  Empire  may  properly  be  set  at 
1612,  when  the  founder  of  the  present  dynasty  ascended  the  throne,  having  been 
elected  thereto  by  the  “boyars,”  or  noblemen.  The  previous  period  of  their  struggle 
to  form  a fixed  government  among  nomadic  tribes  which  by  degrees  settled  in  rather 
a chaotic  condition  upon  the  plains,  is  without  sufficient  data  to  be  authentic.  Michael 
Feodororich  Romanoff,  the  first  Czar,  was  the  ancestor  of  Peter  the  Great.  The 
latter  ascended  the  throne  in  1689.  He  moulded  the  empire  to  his  will,  advanced 
his  people  in  civilization,  and  made  his  empire  a power  in  European  affairs.  There 
are  numerous  anecdotes  of  the  first  visit  which  Peter  made  to  the  western  nations 
before  he  came  to  the  throne,  which  are  still  current,  showing  how  Russia  was  regarded 
by  them.  When  he  came  to  power  the  other  countires  had  but  little  knowledge  of 
or  appreciation  for  the  Russians.  He  saw  that  to  become  an  influential  nation  in 
Europe  he  must  extend  his  dominions  to  the  great  seas,  establish  seaports,  and  con- 
struct a navy.  In  1696,  he  took  Azof  from  the  Turks  and  held  it  firmly  in  spite  of 
military  misfortunes.  He  thoroughly  drilled  and  equipped  his  army  and  made  ready 
to  attack  Sweden.  The  army  suffered  a fearful  defeat  in  1700,  but  three  years  after- 
ward, while  the  Swedes  were  engaged  in  war  in  Poland,  he  conquered  the  shores  of 
the  Gulf  of  Finland  and  founded  St.  Petersburg,  which  he  made  his  capital.  By  the 
Peace  of  Nystad,  November  1st,  1721,  he  added  large  territories  to  his  realm.  Two, 
years  after  saw  him  in  possession  of  the  Caspian  Sea.  Internal  improvements  kept 
pace  with  extent  of  empire.  Canals  were  dug,  schools  were  founded,  roads  built, 
and  manufactures  established.  Skilful  mechanics,  engineers,  artists,  and  scholars 
were  invited  to  visit  Russia,  and  engaged  at  good  prices.  He  died  February  8th, 
1725,  but  left  the  spirit  and  policy  of  his  reign  as  a legacy  to  his  successors. 

Catherine  I.  ruled  from  1725  to  1727;  Peter  to  1730;  Anne  to  1741;  Elizabeth 
to  1762.  Elizabeth  founded  the  first  Russian  university  at  Moscow.  These  all  car- 
ried forward  the  policy  of  their  great  predecessor,  but  under  Catherine  II.  there  was 
a most  decided  advance.  Peter  the  Great  had  assumed  the  dignity  of  Emperor  of 
Russia  after  the  Peace  of  Nystad,  but  Catherine  II.  had  trouble  in  getting  the  powers 
to  acknowledge  her  right  to  the  title  of  empress.  She  waged  successful  wars  with 
Sweden,  Persia,  and  Turkey;  conquered  the  crown  from  the  latter,  and  by  her  mar- 
vellous diplomatic  ability  acquired  Courland  and  the  half  of  Poland.  These  achieve- 
ments gained  great  influence  for  her  in  Europe.  She  induced  a tide  of  healthful  im- 
. migration  into  her  realm.  Her  son,  Paul  I.,  reigned  for  five  years  (1796-1801),  and 


904 


THE  PRINCIPAL  NATIONS  OF  THE  WORLD. 


continued  the  intercourse  which  had  begun  with  Europe.  Alexander  I.,  his  suc- 
cessor, held  the  throne  for  twenty-four  years,  and  under  him  Russia  became  not  only  a 
great  power  but  the  real  arbiter  in  the  political  affairs  of  Europe.  He  divided  the 
world  with  Napoleon,  giving  him  the  western  portion  and  he  kept  the  east.  A 
rupture  with  the  French  emperor  led  to  the  invasion  of  Russia,  the  burning  of  Mos- 
cow, and  the  destruction  of  the  French  army.  In  1814  Alexander  I.  was  regarded 
as  the  liberator  of  Europe,  but  his  character  suddenly  seemed  to  change;  he  founded 
the  Holy  Alliance  and  was  the  chief  support  of  the  reaction.  He  died  in  1825  and 
left  the  throne  to  his  brother,  Nicholas  I.,  who  reigned  until  1855.  The  empire  pros- 
pered under  him  and  the  nations  under  his  rule  became  Russianized,  and  the  national 
spirit  greatly  advanced.  The  Crimean  War  broke  out,  and  in  consequence  of  French 
and  English  intervention,  resulted  in  the  loss  to  Russia  of  control  of  the  Black  Sea. 
Alexander  II.,  came  to  the  throne  while  the  war  was  in  progress.  He  was  of  a pro- 
gressive turn,  and  in  1861,  serfdom  was  abolished.  But  the  emperor  had  awakened 
the  intense  opposition  of  the  old  Russians,  and  the  severe  measures  of  repression 
which  he  employed  gave  increasing  influence  to  the  spirit  of  nihilism.  He  was 
assassinated  in  1881,  and  Alexander  III.  became  emperor. 

SALVADOR. 

This  is  the  smallest  of  the  independent  republics  of  Central  America,  and  since 
the  dissolution  of  the  confederacy  in  1839,  has  had  an  unimportant  history  as  far  as 
internal  affairs  are  concerned.  Its  capital  is  San  Salvador,  and  for  that  reason  the 
country  is  better  known  by  that  name. 

SAMOA. 

The  prominence  given  to  Samoan  affairs  in  diplomatic  correspondence  and  by 
the  press,  warrants  us  in  giving  a short  history  of  recent  events  in  that  kingdom.  It 
comprises  the  Samoan  or  Navigator  Islands.  In  1873  the  foreign  residents  induced 
the  ten  chiefs  to  form  one  government  under  the  joint  reign  of  two  kings.  The  com- 
merce of  the  islands  was  in  the  control  of  American  and  English  merchants.  In 
1875,  Steinberger,  a secret  agent  of  a German  company,  instigated  one  of  the  kings 
to  make  war  upon  the  other,  and  Malietoa  made  himself  sole  king,  choosing  Steinberger 
as  prime  minister.  This  man  was  removed  and  banished  as  soon  as  the  king  saw  his 
real  design,  and  the  Germans  then  took  sides  with  his  rival,  Tupua.  But  a majority 
of  the  people  were  loyal  to  the  newly  established  king,  and  by  aid  of  the  Americans 
he  was  fully  established  as  king.  The  port  of  Pango  Pango  was  assigned  to  the 
United  States  as  a coaling  station,  with  extra  territorial  jurisdiction  by  a treaty,  signed 
January  17th,  1878.  Similar  treaties  were  subsequently  made  with  Germany  and 
England.  The  Germans  continued  their  intrigue  and  interference  with  Samoan 
affairs.  Tamasese  was  set  up  as  king  by  German  aid,  and  in  1866  Admiral  Knorr 
was  sent  with  a squadron  to  Samoa.  He  visited  and  saluted  the  rebel  as  king.  The 
real  king  asked  the  American  Consul  to  proclaim  a protectorate  over  the  kingdom. 
In  August,  1887,  four  German  ships  of  war  arrived  at  Apia.  On  the  23d  of  that 
month  the  king  was  requested  to  pay  an  indemnity  of  $12,000  for  cocoanuts  alleged  ^ 


THE  PRINCIPAL  NATIONS  OF  THE  WORLD. 


905 


to  have  been  stolen,  and  two  days  later  Tamasese  was  proclaimed  as  king  by  the  Ger- 
mans. But  the  British  and  American  consuls  protested.  Still  the  Germans  arrested 
Malietoa  and  carried  him  as  a state  prisoner  to  Hamburg,  in  1888.  The  English 
recognized  Tamasese  as  king  de  facto , but  the  United  States  had  no  communication 
with  him. 

SWEDEN  AND  NORWAY. 

Christianity  was  introduced  into  Sweden  under  the  reign  of  Eric  IX.,  who  died 
in  1160.  After  him  there  was  war  between  two  rival  families,  which  continued  for 
ninety  years.  A new  dynasty  ascended  the  throne  in  1266  and  held  possession  for 
nearly  a hundred  years.  Then  follow  a succession  of  internal  and  foreign  disturb- 
ances, chiefly  of  a religious  nature,  until  Charles  IX.,  a zealous  Protestant,  overcame 
his  uncle,  who  was  of  the  Catholic  faith.  Charles  IX.  reigned  from  1600  to  1611,  and 
left  the  throne  to  his  son,  Gustavus  Adolphus,  the  renowned  king  and  general,  who 
was  a strong  defender  of  the  Protestants.  He  took  a conspicuous  part  in  the  Thirty 
Years’  War,  and  was  the  dangerous  enemy  of  Austria.  Charles  X.  and  Charles  XI., 
who  followed  him,  succeeded  in  regulating  the  relations  of  Sweden  to  the  other  Euro- 
pean countries  around  her.  But  the  highest  point  of  her  glory  was  reached,  for  under 
Charles  XII.  she  received  such  disaster  as  crippled  her  for  a hundred  years.  Two 
parties  arose  in  1720  and  continued  to  distress  the  country — the  Hats  and  the  Caps. 
The  king  was  left  almost  without  influence  in  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
In  the  Seven  Years’  War  Sweden  joined  France,  but  gained  little  by  the  alliance. 
Sweden  never  regained  her  position  in  the  political  affairs  of  Europe.  Although 
Bernadotte,  a French  marshal  who  refused  to  join  Napoleon  against  England  and  led 
a Swedish  army  in  alliance  with  Russia  in  1813,  became  Crown  Prince,  ascended  the 
throne  in  1818  as  Charles  XIV.,  and  recovered  Norway  from  Denmark,  his  govern- 
ment failed  to  confer  any  lasting  benefit  upon  the  country.  He  died  March  8th, 
1844,  and  was  succeded  by  his  son  Oscar  I.,  who  had  a weak  and  vacillating  policy. 
The  constitutional  reform  promised  by  Oscar  was  not  carried  into  effect  until  his 
son  Charles  XV.  came  to  the  throne.  It  was  granted  in  1866.  The  latter  was 
followed  by  his  son  Oscar  II.,  a weak  but  obstinate  character. 

Norway  protested  against  the  disposal  made  of  her  in  1814  so  strongly  that  she 
is  not  now  a province  of  Sweden  but  a separate  kingdom  under  the  same  ruler. 

SWITZERLAND. 

The  first  Swiss  league  was  formed  in  1291  and  became  the  nucleus  of  the  twenty- 
two  Cantons  of  the  present  time.  The  House  of  Hapsburg  was  instituted  by  the  Duke 
Zahringen,  Protector  of  the  “ Lands, ”as  the  first  Cantons  of  Switzerland  were  called. 
The  Swiss  attempted  to  free  themselves  from  the  tyranny  of  this  house.  The  league 
of  1291  was  renewed  in  1313,  after  the  Swiss  victory  over  the  Austrians  at  Morgarten. 
The  battle  of  Sempach  was  fought  in  1336,  in  which  the  Austrians  were  defeated. 
The  Austrian  power  was  overcome  entirely  in  the  years  1412-31.  In  the  same 
century  the  Swiss  were  obliged  to  fight  a number  of  battles  with  foreign  foes — at  St. 
Jacobs  in  1444,  at  Granson  and  Morat  in  1476.  The  Thirty  Years’  War  was  very 


906 


THE  PRINCIPAL  NATIONS  OF  THE  WORLD. 


disastrous  to  Switzerland,  but  the  Peace  of  Westphalia  left  her  independent  of  Ger- 
many. During  the  long  reign  of  Louis  XIV.  of  France,  disorder  prevailed  among 
the  Swiss,  and  in  the  time  of  the  revolution  and  empire  she  was  the  battleground  for 
foreign  armies.  By  the  Convention  of  Vienna  her  independence  was  guaranteed, 
since  which  time  she  has  been  peaceful  and  prosperous.  A constitution  voted  by  the 
people  in  1874  looks  toward  a centralization  of  power. 

TURKEY. 

The  first  notice  of  Turkey  in  history  is  found  in  800.  The  Turks  are  of  Tartar 
origin.  Mohammed  II.  conquered  Constantinople  in  1453  and  made  it  the  capital 
of  his  empire.  His  grandson  Selim  I.  took  Syria  and  Egypt,  and  .Soliman  the  Mag- 
nificent seized  Hungary  and  extended  his  domain  eastward.  In  1683  the  Turks 
were  driven  out  of  Austria  and  Hungary  by  the  Polish  king,  John  Sobieski.  Austria,. 
Venice,  and  Poland  were  permitted  to  have  back  in  1699  the  territory  which  had 
been  wrested  from  them  by  Turkey.  Russia  and  Turkey  were  at  conflict  almost 
continuously  during  the  eighteenth  century,  to  the  great  detriment  of  Turkey. 
Servia,  Montenegro,  and  Roumania  had  gained  a semi-independence  in  the  early 
part  of  the  nineteenth  century.  Greece  won  her  independence  in  1829  by  the  aid 
of  Russia,  France,  and  England. 

The  Crimean  War  with  Russia  closed  in  1856,  in  which  France  and  England 
sided  with  Turkey.  A revolt  took  place  in  the  Danubean  Provinces  in  1875,  anc^ 
Russia  took  part  in  aid  of  the  insurgents.  The  provinces  secured  their  independence, 
and  Russia  gained  large  possessions  in  Asia.  Turkey  and  her  relations  with  Egypt 
have  received  attention  under  the  history  of  Egypt. 

UNITED  STATES. 

See  “ Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Men  and  Women/'  “American  Au- 
thors and  Literature,”  “ Valuable  State  Papers,”  “ Duties  of  Officers  of  Government,” 
and  “Outlines  of  History — United  States,”  in  other  parts  of  this  work. 

A sketch  of  the  United  States  is  not  presented  here,  as  it  would  necessarily  be  so 
brief,  within  the  space  permitted,  as  to  be  of  little  value  to  readers  of  our  own  country. 
Therefore  we  refer  them  to  the  articles  mentioned  above,  which  cover  the  ground  in 
detail  and  will  prove  more  useful  and  interesting  to  the  general  reader. 

URUGUAY. 

The  first  settlement  was  made  in  this  country  of  Spanish  Jesuits  in  1622.  There 
was  much  contention  with  the  Portuguese  who  wished  to  make  the  River  Platte  the 
boundary  of  Brazil,  but  the  Spanish  gained  the  control  of  the  country  in  1724.  It 
continued  a province  of  Spain  until  the  War  of  Independence  broke  out  in  1811,  but 
the  Portuguese  again  interfered  in  annexing  it  to  Brazil  in  1821.  A new  revolution 
broke  out  in  1825,  and  the  independent  Republic  of  Uruguay  was  established,  which 
was  acknowledged  by  Brazil  in  1828.  The  existing  constitution  was  adopted  in  1830. 
Montevideo  is  the  capital.  The  unsettled  character  of  the  population  has  made 
this  period  of  freedom  very  pernicious  to  the  prosperity  of  the  country. 


BIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX 


ENGLISH  AUTHORS  AND  LITERATURE. 

The  name  of  each  author,  the  dates  of  his  birth  and  death,  as  far  as  could  be  ascertained,  the  title  of  the  work  by  which  he 
is  best  known.  The  names  are  arranged  under  three  heads  : Imagination  ; Fact ; Speculative  and  Scientific.  The  first  include* 
the  Poets  and  Novelists  ; the  second  the  writers  on  History,  Geography,  and  other  matters  of  exact  detail ; the  third,  those  who 
treat  of  Philosophy  and  Science.  This  division  cannot  be  perfect,  for  an  author  is  often  celebrated  in  various  departments  of 
knowledge.  His  name  will  here  be  found  in  the  division  which  includes  his  best  known  productions. 


IMAGINATION. 


600 Coedman,  Saxon  Poems. 

849 — 901  Alfred*  Saxon  Poems;  Translations,  etc. 

Robert  of  Gloucester,  Chronicle  in 

Verse. 

—1352  Lawrence,  Minot,  Historical  Poems. 

1 326— 1396  Jno.  Barbour,  “ The  Bruce* 

28 — 1400  Geof.  Chaucer,  Canterbury  Tales. 

1465 — 1530  Wm.  Dunbar,  “ Thistle  and  Rose .* 

7 5 —  1522  Ga win  Douglas,  Translation  0/ Virgil, 

80—  1535  Thos.  Moore,  “ Utopia .* 

—1565  Jno.  Heywood,  Drama. 

—1546-7  Earl  of  Surrey,  Poems. 

1553—1598  Edm’d  Spenser,  Faery  Queen . 

54 —  1586  Philip  Sidney , Arcadia. 

64— 1616  William  Shakespeare,  Dram 
74 — 1637  Ben.  Jonson,  Drama. 

76 —  1625  Jno.  Fletcher,  Drama. 

86—1615  F.  Beaumont,  Drama. 

1608 — 1674  Jno.  Milton,  “ Paradise  Lost.* 

12— i688  Sam’l  Butler,  “ Hudibr as .” 

28—i688  John  Bunyan,  Pilgrim's  Progress. 

31 — 1701  Jno.  Dryden,  Tragedy  ; Satire ; “ Virgil* 
40— 1715  Wm.  Wycherly,  u Country  Wife;* 
Comedy. 

51—1685  Thos.  Otway,  Tragedy. 

55 —  1692  Nathaniel  Lee,  The  Mad  Poet ; Drama 
60  — 1731  Jos.  Addison,  “ Spectator ; * "Cato* 
64—1721  Matthew  Prior,  Poems. 

* — 1729  R.  Steele,  Drama  ; “ Tattler .* 

67—1745  Jonathan  Swift,  Satire;  Tales. 

71 — 1757  Colley  Cibber,  Poet  Laureate. 

74 — 1748  J.  Watts,  Hymns. 

81—  1765  Edw’d  Young,  Night  Thoughts. 

88 — 1744  Alex.  Pope,  Poetry. 

— 1732  John  Gay,  “ Beggars'  Opera;*  Fable*, 
90—1762  M.  W.  Montague,  Letters. 

96—1758  Allan  Ramsay,  “ The  Gentle  Shepherd." 
98  —1743  Rich’d  Savage,  Poems. 

I7OO—1748  Jas.  Thomson,  " Seasons.* 

7 — 1754  H.  Fielding,  “ Tom  Jones*  etc. 

13— 1768  Lawrence  Sterne,  “ Tristram  Shandy?' 
16— 1771  Thos.  Gray,  Elegies ; Odes. 

— 1779  D.  Garrick,  Drama. 

20 —  1771  T.  Smollett,  Novels. 

21 —  1770  M.  Akensid  Pleasure  of  Imagination" 
31 — 1774  O.  Goldsmith,  Vicar  of  Wake, field. 

— 1800  Wm.  Cowper,  Poems. 

35 — 1805  Jas.  Beattie,  Poems. 

43—1825  Anna  Barbauld,  Tales. 

45 — 1833  Hannah  More,  Sacred  Dramas. 

51 —  1816  R.  B.  Sheridan,  Drama. 

52— 1842  Frances  Burney  (Mad.  D’Arblay), 

“ Evelina." 


1754—1832  Geo.  Crabbe,  Poems . 

56 — 1833  Wm.  Sotheby,  Poems ; Translations. 

— 1851  Harriet  Lee,  Canterbury  Tales. 

59 —  1796  Robt.  Burns,  Poems. 

- — — 1808  J.  Home,  Drama. 

60 —  1844  If111'  Beckford,  Vathek ; Romance. 

62— 1851  Joanna  Baillie,  Drama;  Passions. 

63 —  1855  Sam.  Rogers,  Pleasures  0/  Memory. 

64— 1823  Ann  Radcliffe,  Novels. 

—1845  Regina  Maria  Roche,  Children  0/  tht 
Abbey ; No7/els. 

67—1849  Maria  Edgeworth,  Moral  Tales ; Nov ' 
els. 

70—  1850  W111.  Wordsworth,  Poems. 

71—  1832  Sir  Walter  Scott,  Ivanhoe;  Poems. 

—1854  J as.  Montgomery,  Poems. 

72— 1834  Sam’l  Coleridge,  Ancient  Mariner ; 

Poems;  Essays. 

—1835  James  Hogg,  Poems;  Tales. 

— 1844  Hy.  F.  Cary,  Translation  0/  “ Dante.* 

74— 1843  Rob’t  Southey,  Poems. 

75 —  1834  Clias.  Lamb,  Poems  ; “ Essays  of  Elia." 
— 1817  Jane  Austin,  “ Priae  and  Prejudice 
—1864  Walter  Savage  Landor,  Poems. 

76— 1850  Jane  Porter,  “ Scottish  Chiefs." 

77— 1844  Thos.  Campbell,  “ Pleasures  of  Hope?* 

79 —  1852  TllOS.  Moore,  Poems  ; Irish  Melodies. 

80—  1863  Frances  Trollope,  “ The  A bbess ." 

84 —  1859  Leigll  Hunt,  Poems ; Essays. 

—1862  Jas.  Sheridan  Knowles,  “ Leo,  or  the 
Gypsy." 

85— i8o6  Hy.  Kirke  White,  Poems. 

86 —  1859  Thos.  De  Quincey,  Confessions  of  an 

Opium  Eater. 

87— 1874  Bryan  Waller  Procter  (Barry 

Cornwall),  Dramas  ; Poems. 

88— 1824  Geo.  Lord  Byron,  Poems. 

— 1841  Theo.  E.  Hook,  Novels. 

— 1845  H.  Barham,  “ Ingoldsby  Legends .* 

89— 1855  Mary  Russell  Mitford,  Poems. 

90 —  1866  Jno.  Kcble,  Christian  Year. 

91— 1823  Chas.  Wolfe,  Burial  of  Sir  J.  Moore. 

92 —  1843  F.  Marryatt,  Peter  Simple  ; Sea  Novels. 

93— 1822  Percy  Bysshe  Shelley,  Poems. 

94— 1835  Felccia  Hcmans,  Poems. 

—i860  Anna  Jameson,  Female  Characters  of 
Shakespeare ; Art. 

96 —  1821  John  Keats,  Poems. 

97— i868  Sam’l  Lover,  “ Rory  O' More?* 

98 Wm.  Carleton,  Irish  Stories. 

— 1845  Thos.  Hood,  “ Song  of  the  Shirt  :*  Poem* 
99 — 1827  Robert  Pollok,  Course  of  Time. 

llaric  A.  Watts,  Poems. 


908 


BIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX 


IMAGINATION. — Continued. 


1800— 1842  John  Banirn,  Irish  Novels. 

Catharine  St.  Clair,  Beatrice. 

1—  1860  G.  P.  It.  James,  Novels. 

2— 1839  Latitia  E.  Landon  (Mrs.  McLean), 

Poems. 

Anna  Maria  Hall,  Sketches  of  Irish 

Character. 

3—  1857— Douglas  Jerrold,  Mrs.  Caudle's  Lee - 

tures ; Drama. 

4— 1879  Mary  Howitt,  Poems. 

5 W.  H.  Ainsworth,  “ Rookwood"  Novels . 

—1881  B.  Disraeli  (Beaconsiield),  Vivian 
Grey  ; Novels. 

—1873  Sir  E.  G.  E.  L.  Bui wer  (Lord  Lyt« 

ton),  “ The  Caxtons." 

6 —  1844  Jno.  Sterling,  Poems:  Tales : Essays. 

7 —  1877  Sam’l  Warren,  Ten  Thousand  a Year. 

8 —  1861  Chas.  Jas.  Lever,  Charles  O'Malley ; 

Novels. 

— 1879  Hon.  Mrs.  Norton,  The  Undying  One ; 
Poems. 

9—  1861  Eliz.  Barrett  Browning,  Aurora 

Leigh  ; Poems. 

Jno.  S.  Backie,  Laws  and  Legends  of 

Greece. 

10 Martin  Farquhar  Tupper,  Prover- 

bial Phil. 


500 Gildas,  Conquest  of  Britain. 

67 2—  735  Bede,  Eccl.  History  of  England. 

900 Ethelwood,  History  of  Great  Britain. 

1100 Geoffrey  of  Monmouth,  History  of 

Britain. 

1143  William  of  Malmesbury,  History  of 

Britain. 

1181  John  of  Salisbury,  Life  of  Becket. 

Henry  of  Huntington,  Chronicles  ’of 

England. 

Gervase  of  Canterbury,  History  of 

England. 

— 1259  Matthew  Paris,  History  of  England. 

1328  Nicholas  Trivetli,  History  of  Physic; 

Theology. 

1372  J110.  Maunderville,  Travels. 

— — Jno.  Fordun,  Chronicles  of  Scotland. 

— 1400  Andrew  of  Wyntoun,  Chronicles 

Scotland. 

1506— 1582  Geo.  Buchanan,  History  of  Scotland. 

1 7—1587  J.  Fox,  Book  of  Martyrs. 

. Sir.  T.  North,  Trans,  of  Plutarch. 

— *-  — 1547  T.  Hulls,  Houses  of  York  and  Lancaster . 
52 — 1617  W.  Balelgll,  History  of  the  World. 
93—1683  Izaak  Walton,  Biography. 

1608 — 1661  Tlios.  Fuller,  History  ; Biography- 
— 1673  Clarendon,  History  of  Rebellion. 

23—i682  Sir  W.  Petty,  Statistics. 

29 — 1700  Win . Temple,  History. 

— 1700  B.  Brady,  History  of  England. 

32—1703  Sam’l  Pepys,  Diary. 

43—1737  John  Strype,  Eccl.  History. 

—1715  Gilbert  Burnet,  “ History  of  His  Times? 
83 — 1750  C.  Middleton,  Life  of  Cicero , etc. 
86—1754  Thos.  Carte,  History  of  England. 


181 0 Alfred  Tennyson,  Poems. 

11—1863  W.  M.  Thackeray,  Vanity  Fair  Nov- 
els. 

12 Robert  Browning,  Poems. 

—1881  Chas.  Dickens,  Sketches  by  Boz  Novels. 
13— 186s  W.  E.  Aytoun,  “ Lays  of  Scot.  Cav." 

chas.  Mackay,  Life  and  Lib.  in  Amer' 

ica  ; Poems. 

16  P.  J.  Bailey,  Festus. 

17  Eliza  Cook,  /Vmi. 

19— 1875  Chas.  Kingsley,  Alton  Locke. 

20—  1880  Marian  Evans  (Geo.  Eliot),  Daniel 

Deronda. 

22—1865  Elizabeth  C.  Gaskell,  Mary  Barton. 
24—1855  Charlotte  Bronte  (Currer  Bell), 

“ Jane  Eyre  ;"  Novels. 

25  W.  Wilkie  Collins,  Woman  in  White ; 

Novels. 

Adelaide  Anne  Procter,  Legends; 

Lyrics  ; Poems. 

26  Dinah  Maria  Mulock,  Jno.  Halifax , 

Gentleman. 

28 Gerald  Massey,  Poems. 

31  Edward  Robert  Bui  wer  Lytton 

(Owen  Meredith),  Lucille. 

32  Edwin  Arnold,  “ The  Light  of  Asia." 

41 Wm.  Black,  “ Princess  of  Thule." 


FACT. 

— 1763  Nathaniel  Hook,  History  of  Rome. 

1703 — 1767  Jno.  Swinton,  History  of  Antiquity. 
9—1778  Eordli  y tt  leton,  History  ; Poems  ; Divin- 
ity. 

—1784  Sam’l  Johnson,  Lives  of  Poets  ; Diet. 

11—  1776  David  Hume,  Hist,  of  England ; Essays 
1776  Jas.  Granger,  Biography ; History  0} 

England. 

12— 1786  Jonas  Han  way,  Travels  in  the  East. 
26  — 1790  John  Howard,  Prisons  of  Europe. 
28—1790  Tlios.  Warton,  History  of  England ; 

Poetry. 

— — — 1797  H.  Walpole,  Authors'  Letters. 

23 — 1780  W.  Blackstone,  Laws  of  Eng. 

—1790  Adam  Smith,  Wealth  of  Nations. 
28—1793  John  Hunter,  Medicine. 

30  — 1802  J.  Moore,  Society;  Manners. 

— 1794  Jas.  Bruce,  Travels. 

—1797  Edmund  Burke,  Oratory;  Ref.  on  Fr. 
Rev. 

32— 1807  John  Walker,  English  Diet. 

33— 1804  Jos.  Priestley,  Metaphysics ; Chem. 

37  —1794  E.  Gibbon,  Decline  and  Fall  of  Roman. 

Empire. 

38—1822  W.  Herscliel 9 Astronomy. 

40  — 1795  J . Boswell,  Biography. 

—1818  Sir  Philip  Francis,’  Alleged  authox 
of  Letters  of  Junius. 

—1837  John  Latham,  Ornithology. 

43  —1820  Sir  Jos.  Banks,  Nat.  Hist. 

44 — 1797  J.  Milner,  Church  History. 

1814  Clias.  Burney,  History  of  Music. 

44 — 1827  W.Mitford,  History  of  Greece. 

47—1836  John  Gillies,  Hist,  of  An.  Greece 
49—i8o6  Chas.  Jas.  Fox,  History. 


BIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX, 


aos 


F ACT. — Continued. 


17  £9—1834  Alexander  Clialmers,  Biog. ; Diet. 
63—1815  Jas.  Forsyth,  Travels  in  Italy. 

—1845  Henry  John  Todd,  New  Ed.  Johnson's 
Diet. 

65— 1832  Sir  Jas.  Mackintosh,  Ethics ; Philos- 

ophy. 

—1836  Wm.  Taylor,  Hist.  German  Poetry. 

66— 1848  Isaac  Disraeli,  Hist.:  Curiosities  of  Lit- 
68—1847  Sharon  Turner,  Sacred  History  of  Aw 

glo-Saxons. 

70— 1842  T.  D.  Fosbroke,  Topography ; Archeol- 

ogy- 

71 —  1851  John  Lingard,  Hist,  of  Eng. 

77 —  1836  Sir  W.  Gell,  Topography ; Antiquities. 

78 —  1859  Henry  Hallam,  Const.  Hist,  of  England, 

79— 1853  Sir  William  Bentliam,  Irish  A ntiquco • 

rian  Researches. 

—1861  Jno.  Lord  Campbell,  Lives  of  Lord- 
Chancellors  and  Chief-Justices. 

—1868  Henry  Lord  Brougham,  Col.  Policy; 
Hist.  Mem.  Pol.  Phil. 

82 — 1830  Jas.  Bennell,  Geography. 

88—1861  Sir  Francis  Palgrave,  Hist,  of  Anglo- 
Saxons. 

89 J.  Payne  Collier,  Works  of  Shakespeare, 

9O—1849  Pat.  Frazier  Tytler,  Hist,  of  Scotland. 
—1855  Sir  Edward  Parry,  A retie  Regions. 

— 1860  Wm.  Mure,  Hist,  of  Greek  Literature. 

91  Chas.  Knight,  History  of  England. 

— 1868  H.  H.  Milman,  History  of  Christianity, 

92  Sir  A.  Allison,  Hist,  of  Europe. 

—1855  Sir  T.  £.  Mitchell,  A ustralia. 

94 —  1854  Jno.  G.  Lockhart,  Life  of  Sir  W.  Scott. 
— 1871  Geo.  Grote,  History  of  Greece. 

95— 1842  Thos.  Arnold,  History  of  Rome. 

— 1882  Thos.  Carlyle,  Life  of  Schiller. 

98— 1875  Sir  J.  G.  Wilkinson,  A nc't  Egyptians. 

99— 1860  Sir  Charles  Fellows,  Travels  in  Asia- 

Minor. 

1800— 1859  Thos.  Lord  Macaulay,  Essays;  His- 
tory of  England. 


1800—  — Wm.  Chambers,  Book  of  Scotland. 

1 — Sam’l  Carter  Hall,  I reland  : Its  Scenery, 

etc.  ; Art  Journal. 

—1875  Jno.  Timbs,  Laconics ; Year  Book  oj 
Facts. 

2—  — Bob’t  Chambers,  Traditions  of  Edin- 
burgh. 

—1876  Harriet  Martineau,  Hist,  of  England. 

4— 1854  John  Kitto,  Hist,  of  Bible 

Sir  J as.  E.  Tennent,  Hist,  of  Mod.  Gr. 

—1872  Sir  Hy.  Lytton  Bulwer,  Historical 

Characters. 

5— 1875  Earl  Stanhope  (Lord  Mahon),  Hist, 

of  England. 

—1874  Agnes  Strickland,  Queens  of  England; 
Letters  of  Mary,  Queen  of  Scotts. 

7  W.  F.  Ainsworth,  All  Around  the 

World. 

8  Chris.  Wordsworth,  Piet.  Dis.  and 

Hist. 

9  Mrs.  Cowden  Clarke,  Com.  to  Shakes- 

peare. 

Jno.  Hill  Burton,  Hist,  of  Scotland. 

10 — 1877  Thos.  Wright,  Queen  Elizabeth  and  Her 
Times. 

12 Sir  Geo.  Grey,  Dis.  in  Australia. 

Sir  E.  S.  Creasy,  Fifteen  Decisive  Battles. 

of  the  World. 

— 1843  Jno.  Foster,  Life  of  Goldsmith. 

17  Austin  Hy.  Layard,  Nineveh  and  its 

Remains. 

—1873  David  Livingstone,  Missionary  Trav- 
els in  South  A frica. 

18  J.  A.  Froude  Hist,  of  England. 

21 J.  O.  Halliwell,  Diet. ; Life  of  Shak. 

Wm.  Hepwortli  Dixon,  Jno.  How- 
ard, a Memoir. 

22—i862  Hy.  T.  Buckle,  Hist . of  Cir.  in  Eng. 

3 0 J u stin  McC  ar thy,  History  of  Our  Own 

Times. 


SPECULATIVE  AND  SCIENTIFIC. 


• — 804  Alcuin,  Theology  ; History ; Poetry. 

~ — — 883  I.  Scott  Erigena,  Nature  of  Things. 

—1150  Robert  Pulleyn,  Theology. 

■ Ralph  Glanville,  Laws. 

Robert  Grosteste,  Nat.  Phil. 

. — - — 1245  Alexander  Hales,  Aristotelian . 

• — 1256  John  Holiwood,  A sir  on.  ; Mat K. 

1214 — 1292  Roger  Bacon,  Chem.;  Optics. 

Walter  Burleigh,  Philosophy. 

1324 — 1384  John  Wycliffe,  Theo.  ; Trans,  of  Bible, 

— 1400  Jno.  Fortescuc,  Laws  of  Eng. 

1475 — 1555  H.  Latimer,  Sermons. 

1515—1568  Roger  Ascliem,  “ The  Schoolmaster'' 
22 — 1570  J.  Jewel,  Divinity. 

40 — 1603  W.  Gilbert,  “ On  the  Loadstone ." 
50-1634  Edw’d  Coke,  Law. 

60-  1626  Francis  Bacon,  Philosophy : Hist. 

76^  1639  Rob’t  Burton,  Anat.  of  Melancholy. 

78'  1657  Wm.  Harvey,  Circulation. 

88  1679  Tlios.  Hobbes,  Metaphysics. 

— r677  Jeremy  Taylor,  Divinity. 


1615 — 1691  R.  Baxter,  Saints'  Rest. 

1 7—1683  Algernon  Sidney,  Government 
20 — 1706  J.  Evelyn,  “ Sylva." 

30— 1694  J.  Tillotson,  Sermons. 

32—1704  John  Locke,  Metaphysics. 

42— 1719  Isaac  Newton,  “ Principia." 

Bl — 1740  R.  Bentley,  Divinity  ; Philology. 
72—1751  Lord  Boling-broke,  Politics;  Lit. 
92—1752  Bishop  Butler,  Divinity. 

94—1773  Earl  of  Chesterfield,  Letters. 

— — — 1740  Eph.  Chambers,  Cyclopedia. 

1701  — 1751  P.  Doddridge,  Divinity. 

3— 1791  Jno.  Wesley,  Divinity. 

—1758  Jonathan  Edwards,  On  the  Will. 

4 —  1757  D.  Hartley,  Observations  on  Man. 
9—1779  W.  Warburton,  Theology. 

10 — 1796  T.  Reid,  Metaphysics. 

16— 1795  F.  Balguy,  Divinity. 

17 —  1797  Horace  W^alpole,  Cat.  of  Noble  Authors. 
23—1792  Sir  J.  Reynolds,  Art. 

43— 1805  Wm.  Paley,  Theology . 


»iO 


BIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX, 


SPECULATIVE  AND  SCIENTIFIC. — Continued. 


1746— 1794  Sir  Wm.  Jones,  Persian  Grammar. 

47 —  1822  John  Aikin,  “ Evenings  at  HomeN 

48— 1819  John  Playfair,  Euclid's  Geometry. 

49— 1836  Sir  Chas.  Wilkins,  Oriental  Lit. 
55—1826  Jno.  Flaxman,  Sculpture. 

59 —  1838  Jno.  Jamieson,  Diet,  of  Scot.  Lan. 

60—  1832  Adam  Clarke,  Oriental  Lit.:  Bible  Com . 

61 —  1834  Wm.  Carey,  Trans,  of  Scrip. ; East.  Lan. 

63 —  1831  Jno.  Abernethy,  Physiology  ; Surgery. 
— 1820  Jno.  Bell,  Anatomy. 

64 —  1831  Rob’t  Hall,  Apology  for  the  Freedom  of 

the  Press. 

66 — 1844  Jno.  Dalton,  Chemistry. 

—1832  Sir  Jno.  Leslie,  Physics. 

68—1840  Sir  Anthony  Carlisle,  Anatomy ; Sur* 

gery. 

—1841  Sir  Astley  Cooper,  Surgery. 

TO— 1847  Theo.  Chalmers,  Theo..  Met.,  Pol.y  atsS 

Soc.  Econ. 

71—1845  Sydney  Smith,  Politics ; Essays. 

73— 1836  Jas.  Hill,  Pol.  Econ.:  Hist,  of  India . 

74— 1844  Francis  Bailey,  Astronomy. 

— 1851  Geo.  Dunbar,  Greek  Lexicon. 

75—  1861  Sir  Howard  Douglass,  Mil.  and  No* 

val  Defenses. 

78— 1829  Sir  Humphrey  Davy,  Chemistry. 

—1849  Anthony  Todd  Thomson,  Materia 

Medica. 

— 1857  Andrew  lire,  Chem.  Diet,  of  Arts  and 

Manufactures. 

—i860  Alex.  Fletcher,  Theology. 

79 —  1851  Geo.  Crabbe,  Diet,  of  Synonyms. 

81— 1844  John  Abercrombie,  Met.  Theo. 

83 — 1862  Sir  B.  C.  Brodie,  Influence  of  Brain  on 
Heart. 

86— 1850  Edw’d  Bic-kersteth,  Scripture  Help. 

— 1860  Horace  H.  Wilson,  Sanskrit  Law. 

87— 1863  Archbishop  Whately,  Bampton  Lee - 

tures  ; Logic. 

88 —  1829  Thos.  Fredgold,  Building:  Engineer • 

ing. 

—1856  Sir  Wm.  Hamilton,  Metaphysics. 

— 1858  Geo.  Combe,  Phren.  Const'  n of  Man. 
—1876  Jos.  Bosworth,  Elements  of  A nglo-Sax* 
ons. 


92 

93—1865 

94 

95—i866 

97 — 1874 

1800— 1873 
1 

2—1856 


4 — 1852 

5 

1873 

—1863 

7  

8  

9 — 1882 
—1882 

10 

12 


13 

14— 1874 

15 

15— 1854 

1 6— 1853 

19  

20  

21 

22 

25-- 


Sir  J.  F.  W.  Herschel,  Calculus;  As- 
tronomy. 

M.  D.  Hill,  Jurisprudence. 

Sir  Chas.  Fastlake,  P.R.A.,  Fine 

Arts. 

Mich.  Farrady,  Chem.  Manipulations. 
Wm.  Whewell,  Bridgewater  Treatise 
on  Astronomy. 

Andrew  Combe,  Physiology  Applied  to 
Health. 

Thos.  Guthrie,  Gospel  in  Ezekiel. 

G.  B.  Airy,  Gravitation. 

Hugh  Miller,  Geology. 

Nicholas  Wiseman,  Doct.  and  Practice 

of  Catholic  Church. 

Jno.  Dalrymple,  Anatomy  of  the  Eye. 
Sam’l  Wilberforce,  Sermons ; Life  of 

Wm.  Wilberforce. 

Jno.  Stuart  Mill,  Logic;  Political 

Economy. 

Sir  G.  C.  Lewis,  Authority  in  Matters 

of  Opinion. 

B.  C.  French,  Notes  on  the  Miracles. 
Jas.  Ferguson,  Prin.  Beauty  and  Art. 
W.  E.  Gladstone,  State  and  Church. 
Chas.  Darwin,  Origin  of  Species. 

Sir  H.  C.  Rawlinson,  Philology. 
Alex.  W.  Crawford  (Lord  Lind- 
say), Christian  Arts. 

R.  G.  Latham,  Var.  of  Mankind. 

W.  B.  Carpenter,  Prin.  of  Physiology. 
Edwin  Lankester,  Natural  History. 
Wm.  Smith,  Diet,  of  Gr.  and  Rom.  Ant. 
Arthur  Stanley,  Sinai  and  Palestine » 
Pub.  1856. 

Edward  Forbes,  Geology;  Nat.  Hist. 
F.  W.  Robertson,  Sermons. 

Jno.  Ruskin,  Modern  Painters. 

Sain’l  Smiles,  Self-Help , Pub.  1859. 
Herbert  Spencer,  Sociology. 

Arthur  Cayley,  Math.  ; Terminology. 
Matthew  Arnold,  God  and  the  Bible  j 
Poems. 

Tlios.  W.  Huxley,  Physiology. 


\ 


AMERICAN  AUTHORS  AND  LITERATURE. 


The  name  of  each  author,  the  dates  of  his  birth  and  death,  as  far  as  could  be  ascertained,  the  title  of  the  "work  by  which  he 
Is  best  known.  The  names  are  arranged  under  three  heads  : Imagination  ; Fact ; Speculative  and  Scientific.  The  first  includes 
the  Poets  and  Novelists  ; the  second,  the  writers  on  History,  Geography,  and  other  matters  of  exact  detail ; the  third,  those  who 
treat  of  Philosophy  and  Science.  This  division  cannot  be  perfect,  for  an  author  is  often  celebrated  in  various  departments  of 
knowledge.  His  name  will  here  be  found  in  the  division  which  includes  his  best  known  productions. 


IMAGINATION. 


1612 — 167a  Anne  Bradstreet,  The  Tenth  Muse. 
1737—1791  Frances  Hopkinson,  The  Battle  of  the 
Kegs. 

55 — 1812  Joel  Barlow,  Columbia  Poems. 

79—1843  Frances  S.  Key,  Star  Spangled  Banner. 
—1843  "W • Allston,  Elijah  in  the  Desert. 

83—1859  Washington  Irving,  Sketch  Book. 
85—1842  S.  Woodworth,  The  Old  Oaken  BucktL 
87—1879  Bich’d  Hy.  Dana,  Buccaneer. 

—1858  Eliza  Leslie,  A Young  Lady' s Vicissitudet 

89 —  1841  Jas.  A.  Hillhouse,  The  Judgment. 
—1865  Hannah  F.  Gould,  The  Mother's 

Dream. 

—1851  Jas.  Fen.  Cooper,  Sea  Stories. 

90—  1867  Fitz-Green  Halleck,  “ Marco  Boz- 

zaris." 

91— 1865  Mrs.  L.  H.  Sigourney,  Moral  Pieces. 

92— 1852  Jno.  Howard  Payne,  “ Home , Sweet 

Home?' 

93 —  1876  Jno.  Neal,  Keep  Cool , Brother  Jonathan. 

94 Caroline  Gilman,  Oracle  from  the 

Poets. 

—1878  Wm.  Cullen  Bryant,  “ Thanatopsis .** 
95 — 1820  Jos.  R.  Brake,  The  A merican  Flag. 

4 —1856  Jas.  G.  Percival,  The  Mind;  Poems. 

—1870  Jno.  P.  Kennedy,  HorseShoe  Robinson. 

—1868  Daniel  P.  Thompson,  The  Green 
Mountain  Boys.  {Other  Poems. 

— 1845  Mrs.  Maria  G.  Brooks,  Esther , and 
96  — 1828  Jno.  G.  C.  Brainard,  Poems  and  Son- 
nets. 

97—1852  Wm.  Ware,  A urelian  and  Julian. 

99—1867  Catherine  M.  Sedgwick,  Ridgewood 
Novels. 

1800 — 1856  Caroline  L . Hentz,  The  Moorish  Bride . 

2— 1864  Geo.  P.  Morris,  Woodman , Spare  that 

Tree. 

3—  — Will.  J.  Thoms,  Lays  and  Legends. 
Maria  J.  McIntosh,  Meta  Gray. 

4 —  1864  Nathaniel  Hawthorne,  Scarlet  Letter. 

6— 1863  Emma  C.  Embury,  Constance  Latimer . 

— — Wm.  G.  Simms,  The  Wigwam  and  th4 

Cabin. 

—1884  Chas.  F.  Hoffman,  Grapslaer. 

— — Jno.  G.  Whittier,  Voices  of  Freedom. 

7— 1882  Hy.  W.  Longfellow,  Hiawatha. 

— — Tlieo.  S.  Fay,  The  Countess  Ida. 

—1848  Jos.  C.  Neal,  Charcoal  Sketches. 

—1862  Cornelius  Conway  Felton,  On  Liter* 

ature  and  A rt  ; Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe. 

8— 1850  Seargent  S.  Prentiss,  The  Dying  Year. 
—1867  Nathaniel  P.  Willis,  Sacred  Poems. 

9 Oliver  Wendell  Holmes,  Guardian 

A ngels. 

11  h— 1858  Robert  T.  Conrad,  Conrad  of  Naples. 


1811 — 1849  Edgar  Allen  Poe,  Raven ; The  Bells. 
—1881  Alfred  B.  Street,  The  Indian  Pass. 

— 1850  Francis  S.  Osgood,  The  Happy  Release.. 

1 2 Harriet  Beecher  Stowe,  “ Uncle  Tom's 

Cabin;"  Novels. 

— — Augustus  C.  Thompson,  Songs  in  the 

Night. 

—1888  Cephus  G.  Thompson,  The  Mother's 

Prayer. 

13— 1878  Sarah  H.  Whitman,  Hours  of  Life. 

— 1886  Ann  Stephens,  Fashion  and  Famine. 

14 —  1880  Epes  Sargent,  The  Bride  of  Gensa; 

The  Priestess. 

15— 1852  Mrs.  Eliz.  Stuart  Phelps,  Sunny - 

Side ; Tell-Tale. 

—1850  Eleanor  W.  Lee,  Wife  of  Leon  ; Poems, 

16—  1887  Jno.  G.  Saxe,  Progress ; Poems;  Satires. 

17 —  1877  Catharine  A.  Warfield,  Esther  How- 

ard's Temptation. 

18—  1885  Susan  Warner,  The  Wide , Wide  World. 

Annie  Warner,  The  Other  Shore. 

—1877  Eliz.  F.  Ellet,  Evening  at  Woodlawn. 

— — Emma  D.  E.  South  worth,  The  De 

serted  Wife  ; Thirty-five  Novels. 

19 W.  W.  Story,  Poems. 

—1870  Anna  C.  Ritchie,  Sketches  and  Essays. 

— — Walt  Whitman,  iMmc/Graw. 

— — Thos.  W.  Parsons,  The  Magnolia 

Poems. 

— — Chas.  A.  Dana,  Household  Book  of  Poe- 

try. 

Jas.  Russell  Lowell,  Bigelow  Papers. 

22  Donald  G.  Mitchell,  Reveries  of  a 

Bachelor. 

—iZjz  Thos.  B.  Read,  Wagoner  of  the  Alle- 

ghanies. 

—1890  Wm.  T.  Adams  (Oliver  Optic), 

Stories. 

23  Mrs.  Sarah  J.  Lfppincott,  Greenwood 

Leaves  j Poems . 

24 — 1880  Estelle  A.  Lewis,  The  Child  of  the  Sea. 
Chas.  G.  Leland,  Sunshine  in  Thought. 

Adeline  D.  Whitney,  Odd  and  Even . 

25 Wm.  A.  Butler,  Nothingto  Wear  ; Law- 

yer and  Client. 

—1873  Caroline  Chestro,  The  Foe  in  the  House- 
hold. 

—1878  Bayard  Taylor,  Jno.  Godfrey's  Fortune, 

27 Jno.  T.  Trowbridge,  Cudjo's  Cave. 

28—1861  Theo.  Wintlirop,  Cecil  Dreeme. 

— 1863  Alice  B.  Haven,  No  Such  Word  as  Fail. 

29  Chas.  Dudley  Warner,  My  Summer 

in  the  Garden. 

30  Mary  A.  Dodge  (Gail  Hamilton), 

Woman's  Wrongs;  The  Battle  of  the  Books 


912 


BIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


IMAGINATION. — Continued. 


1831 E.  Eggleston,  The  Hoosier  Schoolmaster. 

—1865  Mortimer  M.  Thompson,  Doesticks. 
33 — 1889  Louisa  M.  Alcott,  “ Old  Fashioned 
Girl." 

Edward.  C.  Stedman,  Victorian  Poets. 

35—1867  Chas.  F.  Brown  (Artemus  Ward), 

Humorous. 

Sam’l  L.  Clemens  (Mark  Twain), 

Innocents  A broad. 

— — Louise  C.  Moulton,  Some  Women's 
Hearts. 


1835 


36  

37  

39 


41 

43  

44  


Harriet  E.  Spofford,  N.  E.  Stories. 
Margaret  Freston,  Beechen  Brook. 
Jno,  J.  Platt,  Nuts  at  Washington. 

T.  Bailey  Aldriclt,  Prudence  Palfrey. 
William  I>.  Howells,  No  Love  Lost. 
Francis  Brete  Harte,  Heathen  Chi- 
nee; Flip;  Poems. 

C.  H.  Miller  (Joaquin),  Song  of  the 

Sierras;  The  Danites. 

Henry  James,  Portrait  of  a Lady. 

MissE.  Stuart  Plielps,  “ Gates  Ajar 


FACT. 


1652  — 1730  Sam.  Sewall,  Description  of  New  Haven. 

7 1 —  1753  William  Stephens,  Journals  in  Georgia. 
1727 — 1795  Ezra  Stiles,  Settlement  of  Bristol. 

32 — 1799  Geo.  Washington,  Farewell  Address. 

35 —  1826  Jno.  Adams,  Canon  on  Feudal  Law. 

36 —  1799  Patrick  Henry,  Orations  and  Speeches. 

38— 1820  Benjamin  West  (. Painter ),  Life. 

39— 1823  William  Bartram,  Travels  and  Obs. 

44— 1775  Josiah  Quincy,  Jr.,  Boston  Port  Bill. 

45— 1826  Lindley  Murray,  English  Grammar. 
—1813  Benjamin  Rush,  Diseases  of  the  Mind. 

50 — 1813  Theophilus  Parsons,  Comm,  on  Law. 
52— 1816  Gouveneur  Morris,  Law  and  Practice. 
— 1835  Nathan  Bane,  Ordinance  of  1787. 

54 —  1829  John  Jay,  Federalist. 

55 —  1789  John  Ledyard,  Travels  in  Africa. 

— 1832  Hannah  Adams,  Hist,  of  New  Eng. 

57— 1804  Alexander  Hamilton,  Federalist. 

58 —  1843  Noah  Webster,  Dictionary. 

59 —  1836  William  Kawle,  On  Constitution  of  U.S. 

63 —  1847  James  Kent,  Comm,  on  Law. 

64 —  1846  Theodore  B wight,  Life  of  J ejferson. 

— 1836  Edw’d  Livingston,  Penal  Law. 

70 — 1838  James  Gould,  Pleading  in  Civil  Action . 

72— 1834  Wrn.  Wirt,  Life  of  Patrick  Henry. 

78— 1849  A.  T.  Thomson,  Medical  Depository. 

79 —  1845  Jos.  Story,  Comment' s on  the  Constitution. 
— 1860  Jas.  K.  Paulding,  Bulls  and  Jonathans. 

80—  1840  Timothy  Flint,  Hist,  of  Western  States. 
—1859  Richard  Rush,  Legal  Works. 

— 1865  Hannah  F.  Lee,  Luther  and  His  Times. 
82 — 1852  Baniel  Webster,  Reply  to  Hay ne. 

— 1858  Thos.  H.  Benton,  Thirty  Years  in  U. 
S.  Senate. 

— *862  Chas.  J.  Ingersoll,  War  of  1812. 

8 3 — 1858  Bennett  Tyler,  Hist,  of  N.  E. ; Theology . 
84— 1866  J.  E.  Worcester,  Dictionary. 

— 1851  Nathaniel  B.  Tucker,  Constitutional 

Law. 

66—1867  Lucius  M.  Sargent,  Life  of  Dexter. 

89 — 1866  Jared  Sparkes,  Writings  of  Geo.  Wash — 

ington. 

—1873  Ricli’d  S.  Storrs,  Life  of  Sait?  I Green • 
— 1855  Win.  C.  Redtield,  Theory  of  Storms. 

93 —  1861  Sam’l  G.  Goodrich,  History  and  Travel. 
— 1879  Hy.  C.  Carey,  Political  Economy. 

94— 1875  Nathan  Sargent,  Life  of  Clay. 

95 —  1876  Wm.  R.  Sprague,  Life  of  Timothy 

Dwight. 

—1865  Joshua  R.  Giddings,  The  Rebellion. 

96— 1859  Wm.  H.  Prescott,  Hist,  of  U.  S. 

—1856  Zadoc  Thompson,  Hist,  of  Vermont. 

— 1866  Theo.  B wight,  Life  of  Garibaldi. 


1797—i882  Theophilus  Parsons,  Law  of  Con- 
tracts. 

98— 1868  Waddy  Thompson,  Recollections  of 

Mexico. 

99— 1832  Rob’t  C.  Sands,  Life  of  Paul  Jones. 

1800 Geo.  Bancroft,  Hist,  of  the  U.  S. 

1—  1872  W illiam  H.  Seward,  Life  of  J.  Q. 

Adams. 

—1876  Sam’l  G.  Howe,  Greek  Revolution. 

—1872  Chas.  A.  Lee,  Dictionary  of  Medicine. 

2—  1881  Geo.  Ripley,  Appleton's  Cyclopcedia. 

Jno.  C.  Redpath,  Hist,  of  the  U.  S. 

3 Jno.  G.  Morris,  Exposition  of  the  Gospels. 

—1882  Ralph  Waldo  Emerson,  The  Conduct 

of  Life. 

4— 1852  Wm.  Lloyd  Garrison,  Orations  and 

Speeches. 

—1876  Isaac  F.  Redtield,  Legal  Works. 

5— 1877  J.  S.  C.  Abbott,  Life  of  Nap. ; Hist,  of 

Russia. 

—1852  Jno.  L.  Stephens,  Incidents  of  Travels. 

6— 1883  Stephen  Alexander,  Solar  Eclipse. 

7— 1871  Samuel  H.  Taylor,  Classical  Study. 
—1865  Rich’d  Hildreth,  Theory  of  Legislation. 
—1873  Louis  Agassiz,  Researches  on  Fossil 

Fishes. 

8— 1889  Jefferson  Bavis,  Civil  War. 

—1879  Geo.  S.  Hilliard,  Six  Months  in  Jail. 

10 Asa  Gray,  Elements  of  Botany;  How 

Plants  Grow. 

— 1877  Jno.  S.  Hart,  Prose  Writers  of  A?nerica  ; 
Am.  Lit. 

Jno.  O.  Sargent,  Improvement  in  Naval 

Warfare. 

—1873  James  Brooks,  Seven  Months  Around 

the  World. 

11— 1872  Horace  Greeley,  History  of  Rebellion. 
—1884  Wendell  Phillips,  Speeches  in  Faneuil 

Hall. 

—1879  EliliU  Burritt,  Speeches  and  Lectures. 

— 1859  Theo.  Sedgwick,  Measure  ef  Damages. 

12— 1867  I110.  H.  Alexander,  Inter.  Coinage : 

Weights  and  Measures. 

—1883  Alexander  H.  Stephens,  Constitution- 
al View  of  Civil  War. 

13 — — Jas.  Dwight  Sana,  Geology ; Journal 

of  Science. 

14— 1877  Jno.  L.  Motley,  Dutch  Republic. 

—1873  Jas.  R.  B rod  bead,  History  of  New 

York  State. 

15— 1882  Rich.  Hy.  Bana,  Jr.,  Inter.  Law. 
—1881  Edw.  Joy  Morris,  The  Turkish  Empire. 

16 —  1874  Jos.  Hatcn,  Mental  and  Moral  Phil. 


BIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX, 


913 


F ACT. — Continued. 


1816—  — Geo.  Lewis  Prentiss,  Life  of  Dr. 
Skinner  : Biographies. 

Win.  S.  Tyler,  Hist.  A mherst  College. 

17  — 1862  Henry  1>.  Tlioreau,  The  Maine  Woods • 
— 1886  Jno.  B.  Gough,  Life  and  Reminiscences. 
18 — 1879  Caleb  Cushing,  Manual:  Treaty  of  Ge- 
neva. 

19 Fordyce  Barker,  On  Perpetual  Diseases. 

Chas.  J.  Steele,  Hist,  of  U.  S.  San.  Com. 

OI—1889  Tlieo.  D.  Woolsey,  Inter.  Law;  Com- 
munism and  Socialism. 

21 — 1872  Jas.  Hadley,  Greek  Grammar  ; Essays. 
Philological  and  Critical. 

22 James  Parton,  Life  of  Aaron  Burr : 

Andrew  Jackson;  Biographies. 

Rick.  Grant  wilite,  Every-Day  Eng- 
lish. 


1823 Francis  Parkman,  Conspiracy  Of  Pon- 

tiac. 

24 Geo.  Wm.  Curtiss,  Potiphar  Papers: 

Nile  Notes. 

—1864  Thos.  Starr  King,  White  Hills. 
25—1870  Wintlirop  Sargent,  Life  of  Andre. 

27 Wm.  Dwight  Whitney,  Ph  ilosophical 

Works. 

29 — 1867  Henry  Timrod,  Journalist  Essays  and 
Sketches. 

31 Mary  L.  Booth,  Uprising  of  a Great 

People ; Results  of  Slavery. 

33 James  Redpath,  Life  of  John  Brown. 

35 George  F.  Barker,  Text  Book  on  Chem- 

istry. 

Moses  C.  Tyler,  Hist,  of  Am.  Lit.: 

Brownville  Papers. 


SPECULATIVE  AND  SCIENTIFIC. 


t #05—1776  Jotham  Parsons,  u Sixty  Sermons etc. 
6—1790  Benj.  Franklin,  Electricity ; Philos. 

29 —  1824  Chas.  Tomson,  Four  Evangelists. 

30 —  1807  Samuel  West,  Liberty  and  Necessity. 

35 — 1819  Stephen  West,  On  Moral  Agency. 

37 — 1789  Sam’I  H.  Parsons,  Antiquities  of  the 
West. 

51 — 1836  James  Madison,  Ancient  and  Modern 
Confederacies. 

64 — 1845  Henry  Ware,  Evidences  of  Christianity. 

71 —  1858  Robt.  Owen,  New  Views  of  Society. 

72 —  1825  Archibald  Alexander,  Evidences  of 

Christianity  ; Moral  Science. 

75 — 1836  Lyman  Beecher,  Views  on  Theology. 
80 — 1870  Nathaniel  Willis,  Theological  Articles. 

83 —  1827  Edw’d  Payson,  Theological  Works. 

— 1850  Jno.  C.  Calhoun,  Treatise  on  the  Na- 
ture of  Government. 

84 —  1869  William  Allen,  Junius  Unmasked : 

Christian  Sonnets. 

88—1852  Francis  Burkman,  The  Offering  of 
■Suffering. 

91 — 1871  Geo.  Ticknor,  History  of  Spanish  Lit- 
erature. 

— 1858  Sam’I  Gilman,  Pleasures  of  Student  Li fr. 
— 1875  Chas.  Sprague,  Ode  of  Speculation. 

93— 1879  Hy.  C.  Carey,  Political  Economy. 

94 —  1865  Edw’d  Everett,  Orations  and  Speeches. 
— 1864  Nathaniel  West,  The  Ark  of  God. 

— 1843  Hy.  Ware,  Jr.,  Life  of  Our  Saviour. 

— 1844  James  Marsh,  Spirit  of  Hebrew  Poetry. 

96 —  1859  Horace  Mann,  Slavery ; Letters ; 

Speeches. 

— 1859  Geo.  Bush,  New  Church  Repository  ; Life 
of  Mohammed. 

97 —  1843  Hugh  S.  Eegaree,  Essays  on  Roman 

Literature. 

yf600— 1885  Daniel  D.  Wliedon,  Onthe  Will;  Com- 
mentary on  the  New  Testament. 

—1871  Rob’t  J.  Brecken bridge,  Popism  in 
the  United  States. 

I-1864  Mrs.  C.  M.  Kirkland,  Home  Beauty  ? 
Holidays  A broad. 

—1877  Rob’t  Dale  Owen,  The  Debatable  Land. 
— 1882  Geo.  P.  Marsh,  Man  and  Nature. 

— 1877  Asa  D.  Smith,  The  Christian  Ministry. 
— — Eliz.  O.  Smith,  Woman  and  Her  Needs. 


1801 — 1876  Rich.  Fuller,  Baptism  and  Communion. 
—1859  Jas.  W.  Alexander,  Thoughts  on 

Preaching. 

6—1878  Nehemiah  Adams,  On  the  Unitarian 
Faith  ; A S.  Side  View  of  Slavery. 

8  Geo.  B.  Cheever,  God  Against  Slavery. 

9  Samuel  Tyler,  Dissertation  on  Baconian 

Phils. 

10—  1870  Edward  Tomson,  Moral  Essays . 

—1850  Margaret  Fuller,  Women  of  the  Nine- 
teenth. Century. 

— 1860  Theo.  Parker,  Sermons  and  Essays. 

11 —  1874  Chas.  Sumner,  True  Grandeur  of  Na- 

tions. 

12 —  1880  Sam’I  Osgood,  Mile  Stones  in  Life  ; Stu- 

dents' Life. 

Thos.  M.  Clark,  Early  Discipline  of  the 

Church. 

13  Hy.  Ward  Beecher,  Star  Papers;  One 

Half  of  the  Life  of  Christ. 

—1871  Hy.  T.  Tuckerman,  Book  of  the  Art- 
ists. 

14  Sam’I  Harris,  Kingdom  of  Christ  on 

Earth. 

Daniel  Kirkwood,  Comets  and  their 

Origin. 

1 5—1890  Jos.  Cummings,  Moral  Philosophy. 

— 1877  Henry  B.  Smith,  The  Relation  of  Faith 
and  Philosophy. 

18 —  1869  Frederick  S.  Cozzens,  Sfarrowgrass 

Papers. 

1 9 —  1879  J os.  P.  Thompson,  The  Holy  Comforter. 

20—  1881  Erast  us  O.  Haven,  Pillars  of  Truth; 

Rhetoric. 

21—  1880  Gilbert  Haven,  Pilgrim's  Wallet ; Ser- 

mons. 

Rich.  S.  Storrs,  Constitution  of  Human 

Soul. 

23—1858  Thos.  Iiitke  Harris,  A rcana  of  Chris- 
tianity ; The  Great  Republic. 

24 Thos.  Preston,  Ark  of  the  Covenant. 

29 Albert  L.  Rawson,  The  Divine  Origin 

of  the  Bible. 

32 Moncure  D.  Conway,  The  Rejected 

Stone  : The  Golden  Hour. 

35 Wm.  H.  Wood,  Articles  in  Bibliotheca 

Sacra. 


HISTORY,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN, 

FROM  3800,  B.  C.  TO  1890  A.  D. 

OUTLINED  IN 

CONTEMPORANEOUS  AND  CHRONOLOGICAL  ORDER. 


2800—3  B.C. 


CHINA. 

2200— The  Hia  Dynasty  founded ; First  Historical 
Period. 

571— CONFUCIUS  born. 

•CHALDEA,  ASSYRIA,  AND 
BABYLONIA. 

2234— First  authentic  date;  beginning  of  Chaldean 
astronomy. 

1850— Assyria  conquered. 

1500— Arabians  conquer  Chaldea;  a new  dynasty 
established. 

.1250— Assyria  absorbs  Chaldea,  or  Early  Babylonia. 

1 1 50— Babylon  (NEBUCHADNEZZAR  I.)  invades 

Assyria. 

820— Babylon  becomes  subject  to  Assyria. 

750 — Babylon  regains  independence 
709 — Babylon  conquered  bv  SARGON  of^Assyria.; 
625 — Independence  of  Babylon;  SARDANAPA- 
LUS  burns  himself  and  palace. 

598 — NEBUCHADNEZZAR  conquers  the  Jews  and 
takes  away  King  JEHOIAKIM. 

587— Jerusalem  surrenders. 

539— BELSHAZZAR  king  of  Babylon. 

538— CYRUS  turns  the  course  of  the  Euphrates  and  en- 
ters Babylon,  which  becomes  subject  to  Persia. 

EGYPT. 

.2717— Thurite  Dynasty  founded. 

2122— Hieroglpyhics  invented. 

2120— Pyramids  built. 

1822— Egyptian  alphabet  invented. 

1707 — JOSEPH  and  family  in  Egypt. 

1707 — 1491— Egyptian  bondage. 

1491— Departure  of  the  Hebrews, 

781— Saite  Dynasty  founded. 

686— Egypt  divided  between  twelve  kings. 

610— One  hundred  and  twenty  thousand  men  lOtt  io 
attempt  to  cut  Suez  Canal. 

535— Egypt  subject  to  CYRUS  the  Great, 

THE  HEBREWS. 

1 996— Birth  of  ABRAHAM. 

I 729— JOSEPH  sold. 

1571  -MOSES  boro. 

. i 191  —Exodus  from  Egypt. 

: 5 -5  1 The  nation  led  into  Canaan  by  JOSHUA. 


1413 — To  1136  b.c.  the  Hebrews  undergo  six  period* 
of  bondage. 

1015-Death  of  DAVID. 

1012— SOLOMON  begins  the  Temple. 

975— Death  of  SOLOMON;  Ten  Tribes  revolt; 

kingdom  of  Israel  established. 

971 — The  Egyptians  pillage  Jerusalem. 

901 — Syrians  besiege  Samaria. 

741— Jerusalem  besieged. 

721— Ten  Tribes  carried  into  captivity  ; their  kingdom 
destroyed. 

710— Judaea  invaded  by  Assyrians  ; one  hundred  and 
eighty-five  thousand  Assyrians  slain  in  the 
night  by  the  Destroying  Angel. 

SYRIA. 

1040— King  DAVID  subdues  the  Syrians. 

975— Independence  of  Syria  recovered  at  death 
of  SOLOMON. 

901— Syrians  defeated  in  war  with  the  Israelites. 
892— Syrians  besiege  Samaria. 

740— Syria  subject  to  Assyria. 

604— NEBUCHADNEZZAR  subdues  Syria. 

596— Syria  under  Persia  for  nearly  three  centuries. 
333— ALEXANDER  the  Great  conquers  Syria. 

323 — A Dynasty  founded  by  SELEUCUS  I. 

300 — Antioch  becomes  the  capital. 

246 — Egypt  conquers  Syria. 

198— Independence  regained. 

170— Jerusalem  captured  by  ANTIOCCUS  EP- 
PHANES. 

65— Syria  becomes  subject  to  Rome. 

57— Many  devastated  cities  restored. 

47— The  liberties  of  the  cities  confirmed  by  JU- 
LIUS CAESAR. 

PHOENICIA. 

2800— Phoenicia  said  to  be  peopled  by  the  children 

of  ANAK. 

1497— AGENOR  first  historical  king  of  Phoenicia. 
1060— Tyre  the  leading  city. 

870— The  Assyrians  conquer  Phoenicia. 

850— Carthage  founded. 

723— Invasion  bv  Assyrians. 

587— Invasion  by  Babylonians. 

536— The  country  subdued  by  CYRUS  the  Great. 
466— Defeated  by  the  Greeks  while  aiding  Persia| 
battle  of  Eurymedon. 

352— Be  volt  from  the  Persians. 

331— The  country  subdued  by  ALEXANDER 
323— Annexed  to  Egypt. 

63— Absorbed  in  the  province  of  Syria. 


OUTLINES  OF  HISTORY,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


915' 


PERSIAN  EMPIRE. 

Persian  history  enveloped  in  fable  until  the 
time  of  CYRUS  the  Great. 

642 — CYAXARES  founds  Kainite  Dynasty. 

640— Scythians  subjugate  the  country. 

559 —  CYRUS  founds  a mighty  empire. 

543 — Asia  Minor  annexed. 

538 — Babylon  conquered  by  CYRUS. 

525 — Egypt  conquered  by  CAMBYSES. 

508 — DARiUS  subdues  Macedon  and  Thrace. 

492 — Greece  invaded  by  MARDONIUS,  who  is  de- 
feated. 

485— Reign  of  AHASUERUS  (XERXES  I.). 

465— Death,  of  XERXES  I.;  ARTAXERXES  reigns. 
449— Persians  defeated  at  Salamis  by  Greeks. 

425— XERXES  II.  reigns. 

401 — CYRUS  rebels;  he  is  defeated  and  slain. 

394—  Persians  and  Athenians  defeat  Spartans. 

351— Sidonians  revolt  and  burn  their  city. 

3 3 1— Persians  defeated  by  ALEXANDER  the  Great. 
330— Assassination  of  DARIUS  III.;  Persia  made 
part  of  the  Macedonian  empire. 

GREECE. 

185  6 — Kingdom  of  Argos  founded. 

1493— CADMUS  founds  Thebes. 

1453— Olympic  games  introduced. 

1313— Kingdom  of  Mycenae  founded. 

1193— Trojan  War. 

884— Legislation  of  LYCURGUS  at  Sparta. 

7 7 6 — Earliest  authentic  date  in  Greek  history  the 
Olympiads  commence. 

743 — Sparta  victorious  in  Messenian  wars. 

683 — CREON  becomes  first  archon  of  Athens. 

621— Draconian  laws. 

590 — The  Seven  Wise  Men  of  Greece  flourish. 

560—  PISISTRATUS  tyrant  of  Athens. 

499 — Ionian  War ; the  rebellion  put  down. 

492 — MARDONIUS,  witha  Persian  fleet,  wrecked. 
490— Second  Persian  invasion;  battle  of  Marathon  | 

Persians  defeated  by  the  Greeks. 

480-Third  invasion  of  Persians  under  XERXES  j 
battles  of  Artimesium,  Thermopylae  and  Sala» 
mis. 

479— Battles  of  Mycale  and  Plataea. 

477— Athens  becomes  chief  Greek  State. 

464— Third  Messenian  war ; Sparta  defeats  Messenla. 
445— Thirty  years  truce  between  Athens  and  Lace- 
demonia. 

443— HERODOTUS  flourishes. 

440— PERICLES  defeats  the  Samians. 

431— Peloponnesian  War,  ending  in  the  defeat  of 
Athens  by  the  Spartans. 

41 5 — Invasion  of  Sicily  by  the  Athenians. 

400 — Death  of  SOCRATES ; retreat  of  the  Ten 
Thousand  under  XENOPHON. 

395 —  Corinthian  War  begins  ; Corinth.  Athens,  Ar- 

gos, Thebes  and  Thessaly  against  Sparta. 

388 — PLATO  founds  Athenian  Academy. 

387— Close  of  Corinthian  War. 

385— Sparta  subdues  the  Olynfftians. 

378— Union  of  Thebes  and  Athens  against  Sparta. 
372— Treaty  between  Athens,  Sparta  and  the  Allies. 
356— Third  Sacred  War. 

346— Athens  makes  peace  with  Macedon. 
339-Fourth  Sacred  War,  between  PHILIP  of  Mace- 
don and  the  Athenians. 

338- Battle  of  Chaeronea;  PHILIP  victorious. 


336— Accession  of  ALEXANDER  the  Great. 

335— Athens  submits  to  ALEXANDER. 

323 — Samian  War;  ANTIPATER  victorious. 

300 — Athenian  democracy  restored. 

268 — ANTIGONUS  of  Macedon  takes  Athens. 

211 — Treaty  concluded  with  the  Romans  against 
PHILIP  V.  of  Macedon. 

200— The  Allies  attack  Macedon  and  defeat  PHILIP. 

196— Greece  declared  free  from  Macedon. 

146 — Greece  becomes  a Roman  province. 

86 — Sylla  besieges  and  reduces  Athens. 

21— AUGUSTUS  CAESAR  founds  confederacy  ot 
Laconian  cities. 

ROME. 

753— Rome  founded  by  ROMULUS  (legendary) 

716— Assassination  of  ROMULUS. 

715— NUMA  POMPILIUS  king. 

615 — The  Capital  begun  in  honor  of  Jupiter,  Juno  and 
Minerva. 

578— First  coinage. 

566— First  census,  eighty-four  thousand  seven  hundred 
inhabitants. 

534— SERVIUS  assassinated  by  his  daughter  TULLIA  ; 
TARQUINIUS  SUPERBUS  reigns. 

510— Rape  of  LUCRETIA;  the  Tarquins  banished; 

republic  founded  ; L.  JUNIUS  BRUTUS  and 
L.  TARQUINIUS  COLLATINUS  consuls. 

501— TITUS  LAERTIUS  dictator. 

494— Patricians  secede ; tribunes  of  the  people 
appointed. 

493— Independence  of  the  Latins. 

491— CORIOLANUS  banished. 

489 — The  Volscians  and  CORIOLANUS  besiege 
Rome. 

488— CORIOLANUS  withdraws  at  his  mother’s  en- 
treaty ; the  Volscians  slay  him. 

-184 — First  Agrarian  law  proposed. 

471— Election  of  plebeian  magistrates  given  to  the 
Comitia  Tributa. 

458— CINCINNATUS  dictator;  defeats  the  ^Equi. 

457— Decemviri  govern  (Council  of  Ten) ; they  in- 
stitute the  Ten  Tables  (Code  of  Laws). 

449— VIRGINIUS  kills  his  daughter  VIRGINIA  to 
save  her  from  CLAUDIUS  ; decemvirate  abol- 
ished. 

440— Terrible  famine  in  Rome. 

407— The  Volscians  defeat  the  Romans. 

396— The  dictator  CAMILLUS  captures  Veii. 

391 — CAMILLUS  impeached  and  exiled. 

390— Battle  of  Allia  ; Romans  defeated  ; Rome  burnt. 

389— Gauls  expelled  and  city  rebuilt. 

3 7 6 — Civil  war  between  patricians  and  plebeians  ; law 
passed  that  one  consul  should  be  plebeian. 

362— CURTIUS  leaps  into  a gulf  to  save  Rome. 

350— The  Gauls  defeated. 

343— Fifty  Years’  War  with  Samnites. 

340— War  with  Latins;  Romans  victorious. 

332— Treaty  with  ALEXANDER  the  Great. 

321 — Romans  terribly  defeated  by  Pontius. 

312— The  Via  Appia  completed  (a  great  military  road). 

295— QUINTUS  FABIUS  defeats  the  Etruscans,  Gauls 
and  Samnites. 

266— All  Italy  subject  to  Rome. 

264— First  Punic  War  ; Carthage  disputes  Rome’s  em- 
pire. 

256— Naval  victory  over  the  Carthaginians  by  REG* 
ULUS. 

250— REGULUS  slain  at  Carthage. 


916 


OUTLINES  OF  HISTORY,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN, 


Rome. — Continued. 

241— End  of  First  Punic  War ; Sicily  a Roman  prov- 
ince. 

225— Invasion  of  Gauls  ; Gauls  defeated. 

218— Second  Punic  War;  HANNIBAL  defeats  SCIP- 
IO. 

211— FLA  MIN  IUS  defeats  HANNIBAL. 
216—Battle  of  Cannae;  Romans  defeated. 

202— SCIPIO  AFRICANUS  defeats  HANNIBAL. 
201— End  of  Second  Punic  War. 

191—  PHILIP  of  Macedon  defeated. 

192 —  War  -with  ANTIOCHUS  of  Syria;  peace  con- 

cluded b.c.  188. 

1 68— Battle  of  Pydna ; PERSEUS  killed  and  Macedon 
subject  to  Rome. 

149— Tliird  Punic  War ; SCIPIO  invades  Africa. 

146 — Cartilage  destroyed. 

134— Servile  War;  Sicilian  slaves  rebel ; conquered 
and  slain  b.c.  132. 

121— Civil  War;  CAIUS  GRACCHUS  killed. 

1 1 1- Jugurtliini  War. 

106— JUGURTHA  defeated  and  Numidia  subjected. 

1 02— Servile  War  in  Sicily. 

101— MARIUS  and  CATULLUS  defeat  the  Cimbri. 
91— Social  War ; the  Marsians,  at  first  successful,  are 
defeated  b.c.  89. 

88— Mithridatic  War. 

81—  Civil  War  between  SYLLA  and  MARIUS  ; MA- 

RIUS slain. 

82—  SYLLA  becomes  dictator. 

19-Abdication  of  SYLLA. 

14— SPARTACUS  leads  revolt  of  the  slaves,  b.c.  71. 
63 — Conspiracy  of  CATILINE  suppressed  by 
CICERO. 

60— First  Triumvirate ; JULIUS  CAESAR,  POM- 
PEY  and  CRASSUS. 

58— CICERO  banished  ; CAESAR  invades  Gaul. 

48— Battle  of  Pharsalia;  CAESAR  defeats  POM- 
PEY. 

46 — CAESAR  becomes  dictator  ; suicide  of  CATO. 
44— Assassination  of  JULIUS  CAESAR. 

43— Second  Triumvirate ; OCTAVIUS,  ANTONY 
and  LEPIDUS  ; CICERO  put  to  death. 

42— Battle  of  Philippi ; defeat  and  death  of  BRU- 
TUS and  CASSIUS. 


41— War  between  ANTONY  and  OCTAVIUS  end 
ed  by  marriage  of  ANTONY  and  OCT  AVIA. 
32— Civil  War  of  ANTONY  and  OCTAVIUS. 

31— Defeat  and  death  of  ANTONY. 

21 — OCTAVIUS  becomes  emperor  under  title  of  AU- 
GUSTUS CAESAR. 

15—  Pantheon  erected. 

4-BIRTH  of  JESUS  CHRIST. 


GAUL  (France  and  Germany). 

Very  little  is  known  about  the  Gauls  until  the 
time  of  JULIUS  CAESAR  (Gauls  in  Germany 
and  France  587  b.c.). 

340— Gauls  in  Greece. 

283— Gauls  conquer  Roman  arm#  at  Aretium. 

219— Gauls  near  Delphi. 

241— Gauls  attacked  by  EUMENES  and  ATTALUS. 
109-101— War  with  Romans. 

58 — War  with  CAESAR  Begins. 

51— Gaul  subjugated  ; Gaul  a province  of  Rome. 
11-3 — Teutons  and  Cimbri  invade  Gaul. 


ALBION  (Britain). 

st  Believed  to  have  been  a part  of  the  Continent ; 
English  Channel  dug  by  King  UTOPAS  (Bru- 
tus), the  Colonizer,  whose  name  the  island  bear- 
eth  (legendary).  The  Bri tains  were  known  as 
Celts ; Druidism  exists ; the  priests  called 
Druids.” 

55 — JULIUS  CAESAR  invades  Britain  ; Roman  laws 
and  customs  introduced. 

ERIN  (Ireland). 

NEMEDH  is  said  to  have  come  to  Ireland  2,000 
b.c.  He  was  followed  by  the  Firbolgs ; they 
by  the  Twatha  de  Danans,  and  they  by  the 
Milesians  of  Scoti  (legendary).  During  this 
period  there  is  no  authentic  history  of  Ireland, 
although  it  was  inhabited  by  a people  in  a good 
degree  of  civilization. 


FROM  THE  BIRTH  OF  CHRIST  TO  1200  A.D. 


GREECE  (A  Province  of  Rome) 

52— Tlie  Apostle  PAUL  in  Athens;  Nero  in  Greece. 
122— HADRIAN  in  Greece. 

Remained  under  the  dominion  of  Rome  unth 
476  (overthrow  of  the  Western  Empire). 

262 — Tlie  Goths  invade  Greece. 

261— The  Herculi  invade  Greece  and  are  repulsed  by 
DEXIPPUS. 

395 — ALARIC  I.  invades  Greece. 

442— ATTILA  ravages  Thrace  and  Macedon. 

415 — THEODORIC,  the  Ostrogoth,  lays  waste  Thessa- 
ly  and  Thrace.  [sian. 

502— Greece  devastated  by  CHARBADES,  the  Per- 
581— Slavonians  overrun  Greece. 


EGYPT  (A  Province  of  Rome). 

Ill— Revolt  against  Rome. 

213 — AURELIAN  regains  possession. 

288 — ACHILIUS  revolts  in  Upper  Egypt. 

291— Alexandria  captured  by  DIOCLETIAN,  who 
subdues  the  revolt. 

319— Pagan  worship  prohibited  and  their  famous  tem 
pies  destroyed. 

395— Becomes  a province  of  the  Eastern  Eihpire 

ROME. 

14-Death  of  AUGUSTUS  j TIBERIUS  the  em 
peror. 


OUTLINES  OF  HISTORY,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN, 


917 


Rome. — Continued. 

37— CALIGULA. 

41— CLAUDIUS.  54— NERO. 

68—  GALBA  and  NERO. 

69—  OTHO,  VITELLIUS,  VESPASIAN  emperors. 

79— TITUS.  81— DOMITIAN. 

96— NERVA. 

98— TROJAN. 

117— HADRIAN  emperor. 

138— ANTONINUS  PIUS  emperor. 

161— MARCUS  AURELIUS  and  LUCIUS  VERUS 
emperors. 

1 69— VERUS  dies. 

180— COMMODUS. 

185— ORIGEN  born. 

193—  Disorders  in  Rome. 

194—  SEVERUS  sole  emperor. 

202— Christians  persecuted. 

211—  CARACALLA  and  GETA  joint  emperors. 

21 2—  GET  A murdered.  21 7— MACRINUS  emperor. 
21 8— ELAGABALUS. 

222— ALEXANDER  SEVERUS. 

231— Persian  war. 

233 — SEVERUS  triumphs. 

235— MAXIMIAN  murders  SEVERUS. 

238— Four  emperors. 

244— GONDIAMUS  murdered;  PHILIP  the  Arabian. 

249—  DECIUS  emperor. 

250 —  First  invasion  of  the  Goths. 

251—  GALLUS  emperor.  254— VALERIAN. 

259—  Goths  take  Trapesus. 

260—  GALLIENUS  sole  emperor. 

268—  CLAUDIUS  emperor. 

269—  Defeats  the  Goths. 

270—  AURELIUS  emperor  ; defeats  the  Goths. 

275— TACITUS  emperor.  276— PROBUS. 

277— Defeats  the  Alemanni.  282— CARUS. 

284— DIOCLETIAN. 

292 — CONSTANTINE  and  GALERIUS  ; division  of 
the  empire. 

298— Defeat  of  NARSES. 

306—  CONSTANTINE  the  great  emperor. 

307—  Revolts  of  MAXENTIUS. 

312— Death  of  MAXENTIUS  and  success  of  CON 
STANTINE. 

323 — CONSTANTINE  sole  emperor. 

325—  First  general  council  of  the  Church  at  Nicea. 

326 —  Arian  controversy. 

336— ARIUS  dies. 

3 3 7-CONST ANS  and  CONSTANTINE  II.  joint  em- 
perors. 

338-Death  of  EUSEBIUS. 

347— Synod  of  Sardica. 

361—  JULIAN  emperor. 

362—  Religious  toleration. 

363—  JULIAN  killed  ; Persian  war. 

375— Invasion  of  the  Huns. 

390— Suppression  of  Paganism. 

410 — Rome  sacked  by  the  Huns. 

451 — The  Ostrogoths  overrun  Italy. 

475—  THEODORIC  the  Ostrogoth  lays  waste  Thessaly 

and  Thrace. 

476—  O DO  ACER  captures  Rome  and  establishes  the 

kingdom  of  Italy. 

489— Ostrogoths  return. 

493 — THEODORIC  founds  the  Ostrogothic  kingdom 
ol  Italy,  Hungary  and  South  Germany. 

529 — The  Justinian  Code  promulgated. 


552— Ostrogoths  expelled. 

568— NARSES,  governor  of  Italy,  invites  the  Lombards 
from  Germany. 

590— GREGORY,  the  great  pope  of  Rome. 

596 — The  Lombards  overrun  Italy. 

N.  B. — Ancient  History  ends  with  the  over- 
throw of  the  Western  Empire  in  476~ 

GAUL  (France  and  Germany). 

9— VARUS  and  the  Roman  Legion  destroyed  by 
HERMAN,  the  German  hero. 

14-16— Campaigns  of  GERMANICUS  successful. 

70 — CIVILIS  surrenders. 

79— Death  of  SABINUS  and  his  wife. 

The  land  occupied  by  over  forty  different 

TRIBES. 

214 — First  contact  of  the  Romans  with  the  Germans 
of  the  Upper  Rhine. 

263 — The  Franks  invade  Gaul. 

273 — AURELIAN  in  Gaul;  battle  of  Chalons-sur- 
Marne. 

277 — PROBUS  makes  an  expedition  into  Gaul;  the 
Franks  settle  here  about  this  time. 

305— The  Franks  defeated  by  CONSTANTIUS. 

355— The  Franks  take  Cologne  ; JULIAN  named  pre* 
feet  of  Transalpine  Gaul. 

357 — JULIAN  defeats  six  German  kings. 

370 — The  Saxons  land  in  Gaul. 

376— Huns  settle  in  France. 

382 — ALARIC  king  of  Gaul. 

413 — GONDICARIUS  founds  the  kingdom  of  Bur- 
gundy. 

420 — PHARAMOND  begins  the  kingdom  of  the  Franks. 

426 — ALLIUS  defeats  the  Franks  on  the  Rhine. 

438— The  Franks  get  a permanent  foothold. 

451— Battle  of  Chalons. 

458 — CHILDERIC,  king  of  the  Franks,  deposed. 

462 —  The  Ripurian  Franks  take  Cologne. 

463 —  CHILDERIC  recalled  by  the  Franks. 

486 — CLOVIS  I.  defeats  the  Romans. 

496— Baptism  of  CLOVIS. 

507— CLOVIS  defeats  and  slays  ALARIC  II.  and 
founds  the  kingdom  of  the  Franks. 

511— CLOVIS  died  in  Paris,  leaving  his  kingdom  to  his 
four  sons. 

558— CLOT  AIRE,  his  son,  unites  the  kingdom. 

561— CLOTAIRE  dies  ; the  kingdom  is  again  divided!. 

581— Paris  mostly  destroyed  by  fire. 

656— CLOVIS  II.  king  of  France. 

687— THIERY  defeated  by  PEPIN. 

681 — MEBROUIN,  the  la§t  of  the  Merovingian  kings, 
assassinated. 

714— CHARLES  MARTEL  duke  of  France. 

732 — Battle  of  Poitiers ; Franks  gain  victory  over 
Saracens. 

739— Provence  conquered  by  CHARLES  MARTEL. 

747— CARLOMAN  abdicates  the  throne  of  France. 

768— CHARLEMAGNE  and  CARLOMAN  govern 
France  and  Germany. 

771— CHARLEMAGNE  sole  ruler. 

774— Italy  annexed  after  defeating  the  Lombards. 

778— Beginning  of  the  age  of  chivalry  ; CHARLE** 
MAGNE  invades  Spain. 

785— Saxons  subdued  ; embrace  Christianity. 

799—  CHARLEMAGNE  subdues  Avas. 

800 —  CHARLEMAGNE  crowned  at  Rome  emperor  <4 

the  West. 


918 


OUTLINES  OF  HISTORY,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN, 


ENGLAND. 

43 — CLAUDIUS  in  Britain. 

47 — London  founded  by  the  Romans. 

61— Insurrection  of  BOADICEA. 

78 — AGRICOLA  in  Britain. 

84 — AGRICOLA  sails  around  Britain. 

120—  HADRIAN  in  Britain. 

1 21—  Hadrian’s  Wall  built. 

139— Conquest  of  LOLLIUS  URBICUS  in  Britain' 
Wall  of  ANTONINUS  built. 

1 83-Success  of  ULPIUS  MARCELLUS. 

208  -Expedition  of  SEVERUS  to  Britain. 

211— SEVERUS  dies  at  York. 

296 — Britain  recovered  by  CONSTANTINE. 

306— CONSTANTINE  dies  at  York. 

367-9— THEODOSIUS  in  Britain. 

396 — HONORIUS  invited  to  Britain  to  fight  the  Scots 
and  Piets. 

402-1 8— Tlie  Romans  gradually  retire  from  Britain. 
429-49 — The  Saxons  and  Angles  are  called  in  to  ait 
the  natives  in  their  wars. 

455—' The  Angles  drive  the  Britons  into  Wales. 

457— The  Saxon  Heptarchy. 

477— The  second  Saxon  invasion. 

491 — The  kingdom  of  Sussex. 

495 — The  third  Saxon  invasion. 

506-542— Beign  of  King  ARTHUR  (legendary). 
519 — The  kingdom  of  Wessex  established  by  CERDIC. 
527— Fourth  Saxon  invasion  ; Essex  established. 
547— Northumbria  established  as  a kingdom. 
565— ETHELBERT  king  of  Kent. 

577— West  Saxons  defeat  the  Britons. 

586— Kingdom  of  Mercia  founded. 

597— ST.  AUGUSTINE  arrives. 

603— Bernieia  invaded  by  the  Scots;  invaders  ex- 
pelled. 

642— Mercians  defeat  Bernicians. 

678— The  last  king  of  the  Britons. 

68 5— Britons  driven  into  Wales  and  Cornwall  by 
the  Saxons. 

687 — Wessex  and  Sussex  united. 

694— Kent  ravaged  by  West  Saxons. 

155—  Insurrection  in  Mercia. 

156—  Ravina  annexed  to  the  see  of  Rome  by  PEPIN. 
T 8 7— Danes  land  in  England. 

323— Essex  annexed  to  Wessex. 

825 — Kent  and  Northumbria  annexed  to  Wessex. 

827 — EGBERT  becomes  king  of  all  England. 

871 — ALFRED  defeated  by  the  Danes  at  Merton. 
878— ALFRED  the  Great  driven  out  of  England. 
890— ALFRED  the  Great  promulgates  a code  and 
founds  the  University  of  Oxford. 

901— Death  of  ALFRED. 

920— Mercia  annexed  to  Wessex  by  Edward. 

937— ATHELSTANE  becomes  chief  king. 

979 — EDWARD  the  Martyr  murdered. 

|002 — Danes  massacred  in  England. 

|003 — ETHELRED  flees  to  Normandy. 

1013— England  conquered  by  SWEYN. 

1016—  England  divided  between  CANUTE  and  ED- 

MUND IRONSIDES. 

101 7—  CANUTE,  the  Dane,  sole  king. 

1042— The  Saxon  dynasty  restored. 

1051— GODFREY  of  Kent  rebels. 

1066— WILLIAM  of  Normandy  conquers  England;  bat- 
tle of  Hastings. 

1070 — Feudal  system  introduced. 

1086-  Census  completed  ; Doomsday  book. 


1 100— HENRY  I.  grants  a charter  restoring  Saxon  laws 

1106— HENRY  deteats  ROBERT  and  gams  Normandy, 

1135 — Civil  war  between  STEPHEN  and  Empress 
MAUDE,  HENRY’S  daughter. 

1147 — MAUDE  defeated  and  goes  to  France. 

1154— HENRY  II.  the  first  Plantagenet. 

1162— Constitutions  of  Clarendon. 

1 1 70— THOMAS-A-BECKET  murdered. 

1 1 72— Ireland  conquered. 

1 1 77— For  the  administration  of  justice,  England  divid- 
ed in  six  circuits. 

1 1 8 1— Digest  of  English  laws. 

1 189— Massacre  of  Jews  in  London. 

1191 — RICHARD  joins  the  crusades. 

1194 — RICHARD  Cceur  de  Lion  imprisoned  in  Ger- 
many ; ransomed  for  three  hundred  thousand 
pounds. 

SCOTLAND. 

Occupied  by  the  two  Celtic  races  of  Piets  and 
Scots,  the  chief  seat  of  the  latter  being  Ireland. 
The  Scots’  original  seat  in  Northern  Britain  was 
in  Argyle,  which  they  acquired  by  colonization 
or  conquest  before  the  end  of  the  fifth  century. 

503— FERGUS  arrives  in  Scotland  from  Ireland  and 
founds  a kingdom. 

562- ST.  COLUMBA  lands  in  Scotland;  CONAL, 
great-grandson  of  FERGUS,  king  of  the  British 
Scots,  succeeded  by  his  nephew  AIDEN. 

68  5 — Scots  under  some  kind  of  subjection  to  the  king 
of  Northumbria  ; recover  independence  on  the 
defeat  and  death  of  King  EGFRID  in  battle 
with  the  Piets  at  Nechtansmere. 

836 — KENNETH,  son  of  Alpine,  descendant  of  FER- 
GUS and  AIDEN,  is  king ; in  Northern  Britain 
Scots  acquire  predominance  by  a revolution. 

881 — Danes  overrun  Scotland  ; Piets  and  Scots  grad- 
ually coalesce  into  one  people. 

933 — ATHELSTANE  of  England  ravages  Scotland  ; 

battle  of  Brunan-burh  ; CONSTANTINE,  the 
king,  escapes ; his  son  is  killed. 

953— CONSTANTINE  dies  ; a portion  of  the  Cambrian 
kingdom  restored  to  MALCOLM  by  EDWARD 
of  England. 

1039— MACBETH  murders  DUNCAN  I. 

1041— Danes  driven  out. 

IRELAND. 

During  the  first  and  second  centuries  Ireland  is 
governed  by  native  kings.  There  were  four 
petty  kingdoms,  Ulster,  Connaught,  Munster, 
and  Leinster.  Over  these  there  was  a principal 
king  who  had  his  residence  at  Tara.  The  an- 
cient religion  was  Druidism. 

227— CORMAC  ULLA  king  at  Tara. 

266— CORMAC  ULLA  abdicates  the  throne  and  is 
killed  by  the  Druids  for  being  in  secret  a Chris- 
tian. After  him  came  a long  line  of  little  note. 

322— FIACHA  SRAEBHTINE  slain  by  the  three  Col- 
las.  He  was  succeeded  by  kings  of  no  impor- 
tance. 

378— CRIMTHAN  poisoned  by  his  sister  ; NIAL,  of  the 
nine  hostages,  succeeds  him,  and  after  him 
DATHI,  who  was  killed  while  crossing  the 
Alps. 

387— ST.  PATRICK  born  in  Gaul. 


OUTLINES  OF  HISTORY,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN, 


919 


I reland. — Continued ’ 

403 — ST.  PATRICK  taken  to  Ireland  as  a prisoner, 
and  after  seven  years  is  liberated. 

432— He  returns  to  convert  the  Irish  people. 

438— He  reforms  the  laws  and  customs  ; the  compila- 
tion of  the  Brehon  Code. 

493— Death,  of  ST.  PATRICK. 

503 —  CONAIRE  II.  reigning  in  Ireland. 

504 —  MUIRCHEATACH  the  first  Christian  king. 
554— Destruction  of  Tara. 

556— Death  of  DAMAID. 

566  93-Reign  of  HUGH  II. 

624 — DONALD  II.  began  to  reign. 

640— CONAL  and  KILLACT. 

656— DERMID  and  BLATHMAC. 

663— SHANASAGH. 

669— KINFALA. 

673— FINACTA. 

693 — LOINGSECT. 

701— COMGAL. 

708— FEARGHUL. 

7 1 8— Battle  of  Almhaim  ; king  killed. 
718-733-Three  kings;  HUGH  V. 

739— DONALD  I. 

759— NEAL  FEARSAGH. 

776-797— DONOGH  I. 

797— HUGH  VI. 

802-830 — Repeated  raids  of  the  Danes  and  Scandi- 
navians for  plunder. 

819— CORNOR  II. 

833 — Dublin  taken  by  Danes  ; continual  war. 

845— MALACHY  I.  860— HUGH  VII. 

8 7 7— FL ANN  of  Shannon.  8 8 3— NEAL  III. 

893— Dublin  recovered  by  the  Irish. 

912-  Invasion  of  the  Northmen. 

913 —  Dublin  taken  by  them. 

916— DONOGH,  son  of  FLANN  SINNA ; repeated 
repulses  of  the  Danes. 

94£— CONGAL,  who  was  killed  by  the  Danes  in  954; 

he  was  succeeded  by  DONNEL  O’NEIL,  and 
he  by  MALACHY  II. 

948— Danes  converted  to  Christianity.  [AN. 

990-1 001- War  between  MALACHY  Il.Jand  BRI- 
1001— BRIAN  deposes  MALACHY  II. 

1010 — Deace  with  the  Danes. 

1012 —  Another  invasion  of  the  Northmen. 

1013 —  Defeat  of  the  Northmen  ; Danish  power  broken. 
1018 — War  of  the  succession,  which  lasted  till  the  time 

of  STRONGBOW.  There  were  in  this  time 
seven  crownless  kings. 

1095— Pestilence  in  Ireland. 

1 101— North  of  Ireland  devastated  by  MORTOUGH. 
Ill  4— MORTOUGH  resigns. 

Ill  8 — RORY  O’CONNOR  died. 

1 1 41 -Massacre  by  DERMOD  MAC  DURROUGH. 
1166— DERMOD  in  England  to  seek  aid. 

1169 — English  land  in  Ireland  ; marriage  of  STRONG- 
BOW  with  EVA. 

1 171 —  HENRY  of  England  lands  in  Ireland. 

1 1 72 —  Ireland  conquered  by  the  English. 

1 1 75— The  decree  of  the  council  of  St.  Michael ; Irish 
king  pays  tribute  to  England. 

GERMANY. 

843— The  treaty  of  Verdun;  the  sons  of  Louis  divide 
ihe  empire  ; Germany  a separate  kingdom. 

934 — HENRY  I.  defeats  the  Danes. 


951 — OTHO  invades  Italy. 

962 — OTHO  the  Great  emperor  ; union  with  Italy. 

982 — OTHO  III.  defeated  by  Saracens  and  Greeks.  3 
996— OTHO  III.  makes  German  empire  elective. 
1002-1123 — Quarrel  between  the  pope  and  emperor 
concerning  investiture  of  bishops. 

1042 — HENRY  I.  conquers  Bohemia. 

1073 — HENRY  IV.  disputes  the  pope’s  title. 

1075 — HENRY  humbled  by  the  pope. 

1077— He  submits  and  does  penance  at  Canossa. 

1 08 1— Italy  invaded  by  HENRY  IV.  [made  pope. 
1084 — Pope  deposed  ; Rome  captured  and  Clement  III, 
1090— HENRY  IV.  takes  Mantua. 

1147 — CONRAD  III.  joins  the  crusades;  army  destroyed. 
1 1 54-1 1 77— Wars  between  Italic  republics  and 
FREDERICK  I. 

1162— Milan  destroyed  by  FREDERICK  I. 

1167 — FREDERICK  I.  takes  Rome  ; Italian  league. 
1176 — FREDERICK  I.  (Barbarosa)  defeated  by  the 
Lombard  league. 

1 190—  Order  of  Teutonic  Knights  established  ; death  of 

BARBAROSA. 

FRANCE. 

830 — LOUIS,  the  Debonnair,  imprisoned  in  France. 
843 — A separate  kingdom. 

848— Independence  of  Brittany. 

851 — Northmen  make  an  incursion  into  France. 
858— Kingdom  of  Navarre  established. 

875 — CHARLES  the  Bald  becomes  emperor. 

888 — Paris  attacked  by  Northmen. 

911 —  Death  of  LOUIS  the  Child;  extinction  of  the 

Carlovingian  dynasty.  [Normandy. 

912—  ROLLO,  the  Northman,  created  Robert,  duke  of 
939 — HUGH  CAPET,  of  Paris,  subdued  by  Louis  IV. 
978 — OTHO  II.  invades  France. 

1098 — War  between  France  and  England. 

1185 — Amiens  and  Valois  annexed  to  France. 

1189— England,  France  and  Germany  unite  in  third 
crusade  ; siege  of  Acre. 

1191 —  Artois  annexed  to  France. 

OTHER  NATIONS. 

600— Italy  overrun  by  Sclavonians. 

611 —  Persian  conquest  m Syria,  Egypt  and  Asia  Mi 

nor  ; Rome  besieged  by  them. 

612 —  Persecution  of  Jews  in  Spain. 

614 — Jerusalem  captured  by  Persians. 

622- Medina  entered  by  MOHAMMED  ; the  Hegira 
630 — MOHAMMED  acknowledged  as  prophet. 

632 — He  dies  ; Mohammedanism  spreads  to  Persia. 

638 — Saracens  conquer  Syria. 

640— Alexandrian  library  burned. 

653 — The  Saracens  take  Rhodes.  [Italy. 

666 — CONSTANS  II.  defeated  by  the  Lombards  id 
668— Saracens  besiege  Constantinople. 

672— Saracens  driven  out  of  Spain, 

678— Bulgaria  founded  in  Northern  Greece. 

697— ANAFESTO  first  doge  of  Venice.  [Bulgarians. 

71 1—  Arabs  invade  Spain  ; Eastern  Empire  ravaged  by 

712 —  Arabs  establish  an  empire  in  Spain. 

716 — Gothic  monarchy  founded  in  Greece. 

720— Saracens  defeated  at  Constantinople. 

730 — Emperor  LEO  excommunicated  by  Pope 
GREGORY  II.,  who  died  731. 

791 — ALFONSE,  the, Chaste,  reigns  in  Spain  ; independ- 
ence of  Christians  established. 


OUTLINES  OF  HISTORY,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


Other  Nations. — Continued. 

§07— War  between  Peloponnesians  and  slaves. 

43-4— Spain  ravaged  by  the  Northmen. 

46— Rome  sacked  by  the  Saracens. 

50— RUSSIC  establishes  the  Russian  monarchy. 

65— Constantinople  attacked  by  Russians. 

67 — Rassillian  dynasty  established  at  Constantino* 
pie. 

69— (Ecumenical  council  at  Constantinople  (Latin 
Church). 

79— (Ecumenical  council  of  Greek  Church. 

90— Eastern  empire  conquers  Rome. 

96— Rome  captured  by  Germans. 

907— The  Russians  receive  tribute  from  Constantino* 
pie. 

88 — VLADIMIR  of  Russia  embraces  Christianity. 
1015— Russia  divided  at  death  of  VLADIMIR. 

19 — Moors  enter  Spain. 

26— Kingdom  of  Castile  founded. 

35 — Kingdom  of  Aragon  founded. 


1037— Leon  and  Castile  united. 

40— Eastern  Empire  regains  Sicily  and  loses  Servia. 
43— Russians  defeated  at  Constantinople. 

65 — Turks  capture  Rome. 

95 —  Portugal  becomes  a separate  power. 

96 —  The  first  crusade  begins. 

99— GODFREY  DE  BOUILLON  takes  Jerusalem. 
104— Capture  of  Acre. 

06 — Mila  a free  republic. 

22— Treaty  of  Worms  between  emperor  and  pope. 
39 — Portugal  becomes  a kingdom. 

43— Moors  repelled  in  Spain. 

46-8— Second  crusade ; France  and  Germany  de- 
feated ; Greece  plundered. 

59— Wars  of  Guelphs  and  Ghibellines. 

72 — Great  conquests  by  SALADIN. 

83 — Peace  of  Constance;  free  cities  established  in 
Italy. 

87— Jerusalem  taken  by  SALADIN. 

91 — Kiugdom  of  Cyprus  founded  ; Acre  captured  ; 
Jerusalem  open  to  pilgrims. 


FROM  1200  A.D.  TO  THE  TIME  OF  THE  FRENCH  REVO- 
LUTION. 


ENGLAND. 

1204— Loss  of  Normandy. 

8— Papal  interdict  of  England. 

1 5 — Magna  charta. 

62-68 — War  of  the  barons. 

65— First  regular  parliament. 

83— Union  of  England  and  Wales. 

87 —  Jews  banished. 

1308,  515,  ’25 — Wars  with  barons. 

50— Order  of  the  Garter. 

56 — First  book  written  in  English. 

62 — English  made  the  language  of  the  realm. 

80—  Translation  of  the  Bible  by  WYCLIFFE. 

81 —  WAT  TYLER’S  insurrection  put  down. 

85— Death  of  JNO.  WYCLIFFE.  [English. 

88 —  Rattle  of  CHEVY  CHASE  between  Scots  and 

97 —  Lollards  or  Wycliffites  persecuted. 

99— Order  of  the  Bath. 

1400— Death  of  CHAUCER  and  FROISSART. 

1— Rebellion  in  Wales  ; the  PERCIES  and  GLEN- 
DOWERS  defeated.  [England. 

22 — HENRY  VI.  proclaimed  king  of  France  and 
55 — Wars  of  the  Roses  commenced. 

61— HENRY  VI.  deposed  by  EDWARD  IV. 

71— First  printing  press  established  by  WILLIAM 
CAXTON. 

83 — Murder  of  EDWARD  V.  in  the  Tower ; RICH- 
ARD III.  usurps  the  throne. 

85-Death  of  RICHARD  III.  on  Bosworth  field; 

HENRY  VII.  succeeds. 

87 — Institution  of  Star  Chamber. 

92-  HENRY  VII.  sells  the  sovereignty  of  France. 

94-  -Lollards  persecuted. 

9 8-  -Insurrection  of  Perkin  Warbeck. 

1509  -HENRY  VIII.  marries  CATHERINE  of  Aragon. 
13— Invasion  of  England  by  JAMES  IV.  of  Scot- 
land ; Scots  defeated. 

29-Fall  of  Cardinal  WOLSEY. 

33—  F'ENRY  VIII.  marries  ANNE  BOLEYN. 

34—  Papal  supremacy  denied. 


1536 — ANNE  BOLEYN  executed;  HENRY  marries 
Lady  JANE  SEYMOUR. 

37—  Lady  JANE  SEYMOUR  dies. 

38—  Monasteries  suppressed. 

40 —  HENRY  marries  ANNE  of  Cleves ; is  divorced 

and  marries  CATHERINE  HOWARD. 

42—  Execution  of  CATHERINE  HOWARD. 

43—  HENRY  marries  CATHERINE  PARR. 
49-Execution  of  Lord  SEYMOUR. 

52—  Execution  of  SOMERSET;  Common  Prayer 

Book  established. 

53 —  MARY  reigns  ; Roman  Catholic  religion  restored  ; 

Lady  JANE  GREY  proclaimed ; the  duke 
of  Northumberland  executed. 

54—  WYATT’S  insurrection  suppressed  ; Lady  JANE 

GREY  executed  ; MARY  marries  PHILIP  of 
Spain  ; Lord  DUDLEY  beheaded. 

55_6— CRANMER,  LATIMER  and  RIDLEY  burned. 
59— Church  of  England  re-established  by  ELIZA- 
88— Spanish  armada  defeated.  [BETH. 

1600  — East  India  Company  chartered. 

1 — Earl  of  Essex  executed. 

3-Death  of  Queen  ELIZABETH. 

5— Gunpowder  Plot. 

11— JAMES  I.  creates  title  of  baronet. 

14— Portuguese  defeated  in  Bombay. 

16— Death  of  SHAKESPEARE. 

18-Execution  of  Sir  WALTER  RALEIGH. 

21 — Lord  BACON  impeached  for  bribery. 

25- Marriage  of  CHARLES  I. 

26—  Death  of  BACON. 

28— Assassination  of  duke  of  Buckingham. 

37— Trial  of  JOHN  HAMPDEN. 

41—  Execution  of  Earl  STRAFFORD,  [civil  war. 

42—  CHARLES  I.  tries  to  arrest  members  of  the  House; 

44—  CROMWELL  victorious  at  Marston  Moor. 

45 —  Battle  of  Naseby ; royalists  defeated  ; execution 

of  Archbishop  LAUD. 

49— CHARLES  I.  executed  ; the  commonwealth. 

53 — CROMWELL  dissolves  long  parliament  and  be* 
comes  lord  protector. 


OUTLINES  OF  HISTORY,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN 


m 


England. — Continued. 

1655 — Five  years’  war  with  Spain. 

58—  Death,  of  CROMWELL  ; succeeded  by  RICH- 

ARD CROMWELL. 

59—  RICHARD  resigns. 

60—  Restoration  ; CHARLES  II.  returns. 

62 — Act  of  uniformity  ; church  of  England  restored. 

65 — The  great  plague  in  London. 

65- 6— Dutch  wars. 

66—  Great  fire  in  London. 

78— 9— TITUS  OATES  and  the  false  popish  plot. 

79—  Habeas  corpus  act  passed. 

80—  Execution  of  Lord  STAFFORD. 

83 — Rye  house  plot ; Lord  RUSSELL  and  ALGER- 
NON SIDNEY  executed. 

85— MONMOUTH’S  rebellion  and  execution. 

8 8— The  seven  bishops  tried  and  acquitted  ; arrival  of 
the  prince  of  Orange  ; JAMES  II.  abdicates 
and  flees  to  France. 

89— WILLIAM  and  MARY  proclaimed. 

92— National  debt  begins.  [MARY. 

94— Rank  of  England  founded  ; death  of  Queen 
1 704-6-9— MARLBOROUGH  victorious. 

SCOTLAND. 

1275— Wars  of  JOHN  BALLIOL  and  ROBERT 
BRUCE. 

96 —  Scotland  subdued  by  the  English. 

97—  Scotland  revolts;  days  of  WALLACE. 

99— Rattle  of  Falkirk;  Scots  defeated  by  EDWARD  I. 
1303— EDWARD  I.  invades  Scotland. 

5— WILLIAM  WALLACE  executed  in  London. 

14— EDWARD  defeated  by  ROBERT  BRUCE. 

27— Independence  of  the  Scots. 

33 — EDWARD  defeats  the  Scots. 

46— Rattle  of  Dundee. 

71— ROBERT  II.  first  of  the  Stuart  line  in  Scotland. 
141 1—  Lowlanders  defeat  Highlanders. 

37—  JAMES  I.  murdered. 

52— JAMES  II.  murders  DOUGLAS. 

1540 — MARY  proclaimed  queen  of  Scots. 

46— CARDINAL  BEATON  assassinated. 

50-60— KNOX  reformation.  [France. 

58 — MARY,  queen  of  Scots,  marries  the  dauphin  of 

65—  Marriage  of  Lord  DARNLEY  and  MARY. 

66— p.IZZIO  murdered  by  DARNLEY. 

67—  DARNLEY  assassinated;  MARY  marries  BOTH- 

WELL  ; she  abdicates  ; Earl  MURRAY  regent. 

68 —  MARY  defeated  at  Langside  ; escapes  from  pris- 

on ; seeks  shelter  in  England. 

70—  Murder  of  MURRAY  ; LENNOX  regent. 

71 —  MAR  regent. 

, 87— MARY  executed. 

1603 — JAMES  VI.  of  Scotland  becomes  JAMES  I.  of  Eng- 
land. 

4 — JAMES  assumes  the  title  of  king  of  Great  Brit- 
ain ; the  union  of  Scotland  and  England  as 
Great  Britain  was  not  formally  accomplished  by 
acts  of  parliament  until  May  ist  in  England  and 
January  7th  in  Scotland,  1707. 

38—  The  Covenanters  and  solemn  league. 

39—  English  army  withdrawn  by  CHARLES  I. 

45-  -MONTROSE  defeated  by  Covenanters. 

46 —  CHARLES  I.  takes  refuge  in  Scotland  and  is 

given  up  to  parliament. 

50— Execution  of  Montrose. 


1651 — CHARLES  II.  crowned  at  Scone;  escapes  after 
battle  of  Worcester. 

61 —  Duke  of  ARGYLE  executed. 

85— Rebellion  and  execution  of  ARGYLE. 

8 9— Clav erho use — rebellion  suppressed. 

GREAT  BRITAIN. 

1707 — Scotland  and  England  united  as  Great  Britain. 
8 — French  squadron  routed  by  Admiral  BYNG. 
10— Saclieveral’s  riots.  [I. 

14 —  Hanoverian  succession  begins  with  GEORGE 

1 5 —  Scotch  rebellion  suppressed. 

19 —  Ostend  East  India  Company  founded. 

20—  Collapse  of  “ South  Sea  Bubble.” 

22— Death  of  Marlborough. 

27— Death  of  Sir  ISAAC  NEWTON. 

39 — England  declares  war  with  Spain. 
43-Battle  of  Dettingen  ; French  defeated. 

45—  The  youqg  Pretender  lands  in  Scotland  ; defeat 

of  Royalists. 

46 — Total  defeat  of  Pretender  at  Culloden. 

47—  Tor d LOVAT  executed. 

50— Treaty  of  Madrid. 

52 — Chronology  changed  ; Sept.  3d  is  made  Sept. 
14th. 

56 —  Seven  Years’  War  commences. 

57—  CLIVE  victorious  in  India;  Admiral  BYNG  exe- 

cuted. 

59— Conquest  of  Canada. 

62—  War  with  Spain. 

63 —  Peace  of  Paris. 

65 — American  stamp  act ; Pretender  dies  at  Rome. 
73— American  colonies  revolt. 

78—  Death  of  Lord  CHATHAM  ; Irish  Catholic  re- 

lief bill  passed. 

79—  Siege  of  Gibraltar  by  French  and  Spanish  ; war 

renewed. 

80 —  War  with  Holland  ; anti-popery  riots  in  London 

(Lord  GEORGE  GORDON). 

81 —  GORDON  tried  and  acquitted. 

82—  Provisional  treaty,  acknowledging  indepen- 

dence of  United  States. 

83—  Treaty  of  Versailles. 

88 — WARREN  HASTINGS’  impeachment ; the  young 
Pretender  dies  at  Rome. 

IRELAND. 

1201— Munster  laid  waste  by  English  barons. 

10— King  JOHN  of  England  lands  in  Ireland. 

13— HENRY  DE  LOND RES  archbishop  of  Dublin. 
77— THURLOUGH  BRIAN  treacherously  slain. 

81— Battle  of  Moyne. 

1315  -Invasion  of  BRUCE. 

16—  Defeat  of  the  Irish. 

30-9 — Wars  between  the  English. 

34— Sir  JNO.  MORRIS  sent  to  Ireland. 

48 —  Black  death  devastates  the  land. 

67-Duke  of  Clarence  viceroy. 

77— Earl  of  March  viceroy. 

94— RICPIARD  II.  in  Ireland. 

1402— THOMAS,  duke  of  Lancaster,  viceroy. 

4 — English  defeated  at  Leix. 

12 — Ulster  devastated  by  the  O’NEILS. 

25— EDWARD  MORTIMER  lord  deputy. 

46— Fearful  plague. 

62 — Earl  of  Desmond  lord  deputy  ; battle  of  Pilltown, 


922 


OUTLINES  OF  HISTORY,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN, 


I reland. — Continued. 

1467— Earl  of  Desmond  beheaded. 

87— LAMBERT  SIMNEL  crowned  at  Dublin  as  ED- 
WARD VI. 

92— WARBECK  plot  promulgated. 

1534— FITZGERALD  rebels. 

42 — HENRY  VIII.  of  England  takes  the  title  of  king 
of  Ireland. 

79 —  Irish,  rebellion  suppressed. 

80—  Admiral  WINTER  and  Lord  GREY  take  for- 

tress of  Smirwick  from  Italians  and  butcher 
seven  hundred  or  eight  hundred  prisoners. 

98—  O’NEIL,  earl  of  Tyrone,  rebels  ; defeats  English 

at  Blackwater. 

1609— Irish  driven  from  Ulster  ; land  divided  between 
English  and  Scotch. 

41 — Ulster  rebellion  ; O’NEIL’S  proclamation. 

49— CROMWELL  in  Ireland  ; massacre  and  capture 
of  Drogheda. 

5 3 — Irish  property  confiscated  by  the  English  ; Iristl 
transplanted  beyond  the  Shannon. 

67— Parliament  of  Westminster  proscribe  thre© 
wild  beasts — •“  wolves,”  kt  tories,”  and  “ beasts.” 

90—  WILLIAM  III.  in  Ireland  ; the  battle  of  the  Boyne 

and  defeat  of  JAMES  II. 

91 —  Treaty  of  Limerick,  which  deprives  JAMES  of 

power  and  bestows  amnesty  to  all  his  adher- 
1 704— Irish  “ popery  ” act  passed.  [ents. 

14— Ireland  loyal  to  GEORGE  I.  during  the  rebell- 
ion of  JAMES  III.  the  Pretender. 

23—  Patent  granted  to  WOOD  to  coin  half  pence. 

28—  Catholics  of  Ireland  offer  an  address  to  King 

39— Severe  famine.  [GEORGE  II. 

47 — GEORGE  STONE  primate. 

51-3 — Disputes  between  the  Irish  and  English 
parliaments  over  questions  of  privilege. 

60 — THUROT’S  invasion. 

AMERICA. 

Inhabited  by  Indian  tribes. 

1492 — COLUMBUS  discovers  West  Indies. 

97— JOHN  CABOT  and  son  discover  North  America. 

99—  AMERIGO  VESPUCCI  discovers  America.; 
1513 — BALBOA  discovers  the  P .cific. 

19— handing  of  Cortez  in  Mexico. 

24 —  Settlement  of  New  France. 

41— The  Mississippi  discovered  by  De  Soto. 

62 — Huguenots  found  Port  Royal. 

65 — MILLENDEZ  founds  St.  Augustine. 

76— FROBISHER  at  San  Francisco  bay. 

79— DRAKE  on  the  Pacific  coast. 

1604— Settlements  in  Nova  Scotia. 

7 —  Jamestown  settled. 

8 —  Quebec  settled  by  CHAMPLAIN. 

9—  HENRY  HUDSON  discovers  Hudson  River. 

14 — New  York  built  by  the  Dutch  (New  Amster- 
dam). 

19 —  Introduction  of  slavery  in  Virginia. 

20—  Puritans  land  at  Plymouth. 

23— Settlement  of  New  Hampshire. 

27 — Settlement  of  Delaware  by  Swedes  and  Dutch. 

29 —  French  possessions  in  Canada  seized  by  Eng- 

lish ; Massachusetts  Bay  Colony. 

30—  Boston  founded. 

32— Canada  restored  to  France  ; Maryland  granted 
to  Lord  BALTIMORE. 

35— Connecticut  and  Rhode  Island  settled. 


1637— Pequot  war. 

38— New  Haven  founded. 

42— Montreal  founded. 

44— Rhode  Island  chartered  ; Indian  massacre  in 

Virginia. 

63 —  Canada  a royal  government  under  France. 

64—  Elizabeth,  New  Jersey,  settled  ; North  Carolina 

settled  ; the  English  take  New  York. 

65 —  Slavery  introduced  in  North  Carolina. 

7 0 — English  settle  South  Carolina. 

73— Discoveries  of  MARQUET  and  JOLIET. 
75— Ring  PHILIP’S  war. 

80— Mississippi  explored  ; Charleston  founded. 

82 — PENN  settles  Pennsylvania;  LA  SALLE  on  the 
Mississippi  ; names  Louisiana. 

85 — Texas  colonized. 

89 — Ring  WILLIAM’S  war  ; French  and  Indian 
wars  ; failure  of  Canadian  expedition. 

92 — Salem  witchcraft. 

1701— Detroit  founded. 

2 — Queen  ANNE’S  war  ; treaty  of  French  with 
Five  Nations;  Massachusetts  frontier  ravaged. 
1.0 — Port  Royal  taken  and  called  Annapolis. 

1 1 — Wreck  of  the  expedition  against  Quebec. 

13 — Queen  ANNE’S  war  ends  by  treaty  of  Utrecht. 
1 7 — Settlement  of  New  Orleans. 

32—  Birth  of  GEORGE  WASHINGTON. 

33 —  OGLETHORPE  settles  Savannah. 

44 —  Third  intercolonial  war  (King  GEORGE). 

45 —  Uouisburg  conquered  by  PEPPERILL. 

48 — Treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  ends  the  war. 

53—  Hudson  Bay  Company’s  posts  seized  by 

French  ; WASHINGTON  sent  to  St.  Pierre. 

54—  French  and  Indian  war  ; DANIEL  BOONE 

settles  Kentucky. 

55—  English  forces  commanded  by  General  BRAD- 

DOCK  ; Fort  Du  Quesne  expedition  fails  by  de- 
feat and  death  of  BRADDOCK  ; WASHING- 
TON takes  command. 

56— 57 — Several  expeditions  against  French  fail. 

58 —  ABERCROMBIE  takes  command;  English  gen- 

erally successful ; Fort  Du  Quesne  taken  by 
WASHINGTON. 

59—  English  victory  at  Quebec;  death  of  WOLFE 

and  MONTCALM. 

60 —  Surrender  of  Montreal ; French  and  Indian 

war  ends. 

63 —  Canada  formally  annexed  to  British  dominions: 

Indian  massacres. 

64 —  Indians  seek  peace ; heavy  duties  on  colonial 

imports. 

65 —  Stamp  act  passed  in  England;  first  congress  at 

New  York ; stamp  act  resisted. 

66—  Stamp  act  repealed. 

67—  Tax  on  tea  and  other  articles. 

68—  Massachusetts  protests;  General  GATES  in 

Boston  with  troops. 

70—  Affray  between  citizens  and  troops;  repeal  of 

taxation. 

71—  Governor  TYRONE  defeats  insurgents  in  North 

Carolina. 

73—  Masked  men  destroy  the  tea  sent  to  Boston. 

74—  Boston  port  bill;  second  colonial  congress  at 

Philadelphia ; issue  of  declaration  of  rights. 

75 —  Revolution  begins;  formation  of  colonial 

union  ; GEORGE  WASHINGTON  comman- 
der-in-chief ; Lexington  ; Bunker  Hill ; Ticon- 
deroga. 


OUTLINES  OF  HISTORY,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


923 


UNITED  STATES. 

1776 — Evacuation  of  Boston  ; Declaration  of  In- 
dependence ; American  fleet  captured. 

77—  Arrival  of  LA  FAYETTE. 

78 —  English  evacuate  Philadelphia  ; massacre  of 

Wyoming  ; France  declares  war  with  England 
in  aid  of  America. 

80 —  ARNOLD’S  treason  ; ANDRE’S  execution. 

81 —  Eirst  confederate  congress;  Cowpens  ; Eutaw 

Springs  , surrender  of  Cornwallis  at  Yorktown. 

82—  Independence  of  United  States  acknowledged 

by  Holland  ; in  1783  by  Prussia,  Spain,  Den- 
mark and  Sweden  ; Treaty  of  Paris  ; peace; 
New  York  evacuated  ; WASHINGTON  re- 
signs. 

85 —  JOHN  ADAMS  first  minister  to  England. 

86—  SHAY’S  rebellion. 

87 —  Constitution  of  United  States  adopted. 

88 —  Eleven  States  ratify  the  constitution. 

89—  GEORGE  WASHINGTON  first  president 

GERMANY. 

1208 — OTHO  crowned  emperor  at  Rome. 

17— Fifth  crusade  by  Hungarians  and  Germans. 

36 — War  with  the  Lombard  league. 

45— Hansiatic  league  formed. 

73 — RUDOLF  of  Hapsburg  emperor. 

1310 — HENRY  VII.  subdues  Lombards. 

13— FREDERICK  and  LOUIS  V.  contend  for  the 
empire. 

22— LOUIS  V.  defeats  FREDERICK  at  Muhldorf. 

26 —  Turks  invade  Germany. 

56— The  41  Golden  Bull  ” issued  by  CHARLES  IV. 
87— Division  of  the  empire. 

1410— SIGISMUND  of  Hungary  becomes  emperor. 

15—  JOHN  HUSS  burned  at  the  stake. 

16- 19— War  with  Prague. 

35—  Invention  of  printing  by  Guttenberg. 

38—  Pragmatic  sanction;  ALBERT,  duke  of  Aus- 

tria, becomes  emperor. 

39—  Title  of  emperor  to  the  house  of  Hapsburg. 

40—  FREDERICK  III.,  who  reigned  from  1440-1493, 

was  an  avaricious  and  indolent  prince,  who 
neglected  the  interests  of  Germany  for  Austria. 

92—  Turks  invade  parts  of  Germany. 

93 —  Peace  with  France;  German  provinces  restored. 
99— Switzerland  permanently  separated  from  Ger- 
many. 

1517 — Reformation  under  LUTHER  begins. 

19 —  CHARLES  V.  of  Spain  made  emperor. 

21 —  LUTHER  excommunicated  ; diet  at  Worms. 

22—  Bible  and  liturgy  translated  by  LUTHER. 

27—  Rome  captured. 

29—  Diet  at  Spires. 

30—  A usburg  confession.  [kald. 

31—  Protestant  princes  form  the  league  of  SmaU 
34— Anabaptists’  war;  Munster  captured. 

36—  Anabaptists  suppressed. 

46-Death  of  LUTHER. 

46-5 2- War  on  the  Protestants  by  CHARLES  V.; 

they  are  assisted  by  HENRY  II.  of  France. 
52— End  of  religious  wars. 

56— Abdication  of  CHARLES  V. 

64— Accession  of  MAXIMILIAN  II. 

76— RUDOLF  II.  reigns. 

161  8— Thirty  Years’  War  commenced.  [Palatine. 

20—  Battle  of  Prague  ; total  overthrow  of  the  elector 


1630-Invasion  by  GUSTAVUS  ADOLPHUS  of 
Sweden.  [PHUS  at  the  battle  of  Lutzen. 

32- Victory  and  death  of  GUSTAVUS  ADOL- 
48— End  of  Thirty  Year^’  War  ; treaty  of  Westphalia. 
56— Prussia  declared  independent  of  Poland. 

Turks  commit  ravages  in  Germany  during  the 
reign  of  LEOPOLD  I. 

83— JOHN  SOBIESKI  pf  Poland  defeats  the  Turks  at 
Vienna. 

97 — War  ended  with  France  ; peace  of  Ryswick. 
99— Peace  with  the  Turks.  [Prussia. 

1700— The  Elector  FREDERICK  recognized  as  king  of 
2 — War  with  France. 

4 — Battle  of  Blenheim. 

13— Peace  of  Utrecht. 

15— War  between  Prussia  and  Sweden. 

22 — The  succession  settled  by  Pragmatic  Sanction. 
26 — League  between  Prussia  and  the  empire. 

40 — FREDERICK  the  Great  of  Prussia ; Prussians  en- 
ter Silesia. 

42— Silesia  and  Glatz  ceded  to  Prussia. 

44 —  Prussia  annexes  Friesland.  [THERESA). 

45 —  FRANCIS  I.  elected  emperor  (consort  of  MARIA 
56— Beginning  of  Seven  Years’  War. 

62 —  FREDERICK  defeats  Austrians  in  Silesia. 

63—  Seven  Years’  War  ends  ; Silesia  ceded  to  Prus- 

sia. ( 

69— Convention  between  Austria  and  Prussia. 
72— Partition  of  Poland. 

88— Turkish  war. 


FRANCE. 

1209— Crusade  against  Albergeoise. 

19—  Germans  defeated  at  Bovines. 

29— Albergeoise  defeated. 

48— Eighth  crusade  under  LOUIS  IX. 

50— Saracens  capture  LOUIS  ; ten  years’  truce. 
68— Ninth  crusade  by  LOUIS  IX.  and  prince  of 
Wales. 

70 — Death  of  LOUIS  IX.  at  Carthage. 

80 — Massacre  of  Sicilians  ; crusade  against  Aragon. 
1302 — First  convocation  of  States-general. 

28 —  House  of  Valvis  begin  to  reign. 

37— War  with  Flanders.  [Cressy. 

46—  War  with  England;  EDWARD  victorious  at 

47—  The  English  capture  Calais. 

56— Battle  of  Poitiers;  eight  thousand  English  de- 
’ feat  sixty  thousand  French  ; JOHN  II.  cap- 
tured by  the  44  Black  Prince.” 

58— Jacquerie  insurrection. 

60 — Peace  of  Brittany  between  England  and  France. 
1415— Battle  of  Agincourt ; fifty  thousand  French  de- 
feated by  ten  thousand  English. 

20—  Paris  captured  by  the  English  ; treaty  of  Troyes. 

29—  JOAN  OF  ARC  raises  siege  of  Orleans. 

31— TOAN  OF  ARC  burned  at  Rouen. 

35 — Treaty  of  Arras  with  Burgundy. 

53 — End  of  the  French  and  English  wars. 

75— Invasion  by  EDWARD  IV. 

77— Burgundy  and  Artois  united  to  France. 

93 —  Treaty  of  Barcelona  between  France  and  Spaia 

94—  CHARLES  VIIL  invades  Italy. 

99— French  seize  M.lan. 

1503— Spain  invaded  by  LOUIS  XII. 

8— Eeague  of  Cambray. 

1 1 — Pope  JULIUS  II.  forms  the  Holy  League. 

13— English  invasion. 


924 


OUTLINES  OF  HISTORY,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN 


F rance. — Continued. 

1515 — FRANCIS  I.  invades  Italy;  defeats  Germans, 
Swiss  and  Italians. 

20 — 46  Field  of  the  Cloth  of  Gold.” 

25 — Battle  of  Pavia  ; defeat  and  capture  of  FRAN- 
CIS I. 

29 — Peace  of  Cambria. 

32— Brittany  annexed. 

44— English,  invasion. 

46—  Treaty  of  peace  with  England. 

57 —  War  with  Spain. 

58 —  Calais  taken  by  duke  of  Guise. 

60—  Regency  of  CATHERINE  DE’  MEDICI. 

62—  Massacre  of  Protestants ; GUISE  defeats 

Huguenots. 

63—  Siege  of  Orleans  ; GUISE  killed. 

67—  Battleof  St.  Denis. 

72 — Massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew. 

74— Reign  of  HENRY  III.,  last  of  the  Valois. 

5 5—  HENRY  III.  killed;  HENRY  IV.,  first  of  Bour- 

bon line  ; duke  of  Guise  and  brother  killed. 

90 — Battle  of  Ivry  ; league  defeated  by  HENRY  IV, 
93 — HENRY  IV.  adopts  Catholicism. 

98 — Edict  of  Nantes  in  favor  of  Protestants. 

1610— RAVAILAC  assassinates  HENRY  IV.;  MA- 
RIA DE’  MEDICI  regent. 

20— Navarre  annexed. 

24 — RICHELIEU’S  administration. 

28—  RICHELIEU  reduces  Rochelle. 

31 — Treaty  of  Cherasco  (Italy). 

34 — Invasion  by  Spaniards. 

42—  Heath  of  RICHELIEU. 

43—  Regency  of  ANNE  of  Austria;  MAZARIN  in 

the  ascendent. 

48 — The  Fronde — civil  wars. 

61—  Death  of  MAZARIN. 

64 —  War  with  Holland. 

68—  Triple  alliance— England,  Holland  and  Swe- 

den join  against  France. 

70 — Sweden  breaks  alliance  and  joins  France. 

72 — Holland  overrun  by  Cond£  and  Turenne  ; dykes 
opened  and  expulsion  of  French. 

78 — Peace  of  Nimeguen. 

85 — Edict  of  Nantes  revoked. 

90— The  grand  alliance  against  France. 

97—  Peace  of  Ryswick  ends  war  with  England,  Hol- 

land, Germany  and  Spain. 

98 —  Spain  cedes  territory  ; first  partition  treaty. 
1701— Alliance  with  Spain. 

2— War  of  the  Spanish  succession— England,  Aus- 
tria and  Holland  opposed  to  France  and  Spain. 

6 —  Battle  of  Ramifies  ; French  defeated. 

7 —  War  with  England,  Germany  and  Holland. 

1 3— Treaty  of  Utrecht. 

15— Death  of  LOUIS  XIV. 

20— Collapse  of  Mississippi  scheme  of  JOHN  LAW. 

29—  Alliance  of  Seville  with  France  and  England. 

42 —  Claim  of  the  elector  of  Bavaria  supported  by 

France. 

43—  Battle  of  Dettingen  ; French  repulsed.  [ship. 

47 —  Invasion  of  Flanders  ; revival  of  stadtholder- 

48 —  Peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  ; receives  part  of  Flan- 

ders. 

56—  Seven  Years’  War. 

57 —  Attempt  to  kill  LOUIS  XV.  ; treaty  with  Aus 

tria  for  division  of  Prussia. 

63— Canada  ceded  to  England  (peace  of  Paris). 
66— Accession  of  Lorraine. 


1 7 69 — Ascendency  of  Madame  DU  BARRE. 

70-Dauphin  marries  MARIE  ANTOINETTE. 
74— LOUIS  XV.  dies. 

76— Dismissal  of  TURGOT. 

77 —  NECKER  appointed  minister  of  finance. 

78—  War  against  England  in  aid  of  the  Americas 

colonies. 

81— NECKER  resigns. 

83— Peace  with  Spain  and  England  (treaty  of  Ver- 
sailles). 

85 — "Excitement  over  the  diamond  necklace  af 
fair.” 

87 —  Dispute  over  taxation  ; assembly  of  notables. 

88 —  Recall  of  NECKER  ; second  assembly. 

89—  French  Revolution;  States-general  declare  them 

selves  a national  assembly  ; overthrow  of  Bas- 
tile  ; French  Republic. 

OTHER  NATIONS. 

1202— Fourth  crusade. 

3 —  Constantinople  taken  by  crusaders. 

4 —  Latins  divide  Greece. 

9 — Inquisition  established. 

28 —  Sixth  crusade. 

29—  Ten  years’  truce  with  the  sultan  ; Jerusalem  re- 

stored. 

35 — Mongolians  invade  Russia. 

38 —  MOHAMMED  I.  founds  Moorish  kingdom  of  Gra- 

nada. 

39—  Seventh  crusade. 

44 —  Carismians  seize  Jerusalem. 

50—  Egypt  ruled  by  Mamelukes. 

51 —  Rise  of  the  Medici  family  in  Italy. 

52—  ALEXANDER  I.  reigns  in  Russia. 

59— Pekin  built  by  KUBLA  KHAN. 

76— House  of  Hapsburg  founded  in  Austria. 

91— Acre  taken  by  Mamelukes. 

99— Turkish  Empire  established. 

1300— Moscow  capital  of  Russia. 

8— Swiss  revolt  in  Austria  ; WILLIAM  TELL. 

21—  DANTE  died. 

34—  First  doge  of  Genoa. 

39—  The  Colonna  rise  to  power  in  Italy. 

40—  War  in  Spain  ; Moors  defeated. 

47— Democracy  established  by  Rienzi. 

54—  RIENZI  slain. 

55 —  Turks  enter  Greece. 

61— Italy  overrun  by  the  Free  Lances. 

63— Austria  possesses  the  Tyrol. 

67— Armenia  conquered  by  the  Mamelukes. 

69— Empire  of  TAMERLANE  founded. 

7 4—  Death  of  Petrarch  ; rebellion  against  the  pope. 

75- Death  of  BOCCACCIO.* 

80— The  Tartars  defeated  by  DIMITRI  II.  of  Russia. 

90 —  Loss  of  power  in  Asia  by  the  Eastern  Empire. 

95 —  Russia  invaded  by  Tartars. 

96—  Hungarian  Christians  defeated  by  Turks. 
1402— Turks  defeated  by  Tartars  ; BAJAZET  I.  cap- 
tured. 

14— Pope  JOHN  XXIII.  deposed;  council  of  Con* 

stance. 

22—  AMURATH  II.  reunites  the  Ottoman  empire. 

25 — War  between  Venice  and  Milan. 

30—  AMURATH  II.  conquers  Macedonia. 

33— Lisbon  capital  of  Portugal. 

35—  Birth  of  COLUMBUS ; war  between  Venice 

and  the  Turks  ; Sicily  and  Naples  unite. 

45- Birth  of  LEONARDO  DA  VINCI. 


OUTLINES  OF  HISTORY,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


925 


Other  Nations. — Continued. 

1453 — MOHAMMED  conquers  Constantinople;  end  of 
Eastern  Empire ; FREDERICK  III.  creates 
archduchy  of  Austria. 

56— Hungarians  repulse  the  Turks  at  the  battle  of 
Belgrade. 

60 — Greece  conquered  by  the  Turks. 

62 —  Modern  Russian  Empire  founded  by  IVAN  the 

Great. 

63—  War  between  Turks  and  Venice. 

74— FERDINAND  and  ISABELLA  reign  in  Spain ; 

birth  of  MICHAEL  ANGELO. 

77— Holland  annexed  to  Austria. 

79—  ARAGON  and  CASTILE  unite. 

80—  Mongolian  power  in  Russia  overthrown. 

84 — Turks  invade  Spain. 

88 — War  between  Sweden  and  Russia. 

Q.7 — Passage  to  India  discovered  by  PASCO  DE 
GAMA. 

1500-2 — Spanish.  Moors  suppressed  and  compelled  to 
adopt  Christianity. 

1— Basle  and  Schaffhausen  join  the  Swiss  confed- 
eracy. 

6 — Holland  under  CHARLES  V.  of  Spain. 

10 — Invasion  of  Russia  by  Tartars. 

12—  Spain  annexes  Navarre. 

1 7 — First  foothold  in  China  by  Europeans  ; Egypt 
annexed  to  Ottoman  Empire. 

23— Italian  league  against  France. 

26— Hungarians  defeated  by  Turkey  ; Mogul  dy- 
nasty founded  in  India  ; Bohemia  and  Hungary 
united  to  Austria. 

29—  Turks  oveirun  Austria  for  a long  pericd. 

30—  CHARLES  V.  of  Spain  conquers  Italy  ; progress 

of  the  reformation  in  Switzerland. 

40 —  Ottoman  power  in  Greece. 

41 —  Great  Tartar  invasion  repelled. 

44 — Confederacy  joined  by  the  Grison  league. 

55 — PHILIP  H.  of  Spain  governs  Holland. 

62 — Union  of  Russia  and  Sweden  against  Poland. 

70 —  Twenty-five  thousand  people  massacred  by 

IVAN  the  Terrible  of  Russia. 

71—  Tartars  burn  Moscow  • Turks  defeated  ; battle 

of  Lepanto. 

72—  Bebellion  of  WILLIAM  of  Orange. 

76 — Peace  of  Ghent. 

79—  League  of  Utrecht. 

80 —  Portugal  conquered  by  ALVA  of  Soain. 

84 —  WILLIAM  of  Orange  assassinated. 

85—  Prince  of  Parma  subdues  southern  provinces. 

87 — Prince  MAURICE  stadt-holder. 

98—  Netherlands  ceded  to  Austria. 

99 —  Apenzel  joins  the  Swiss  Cantons. 

1601 — Alleged  discovery  of  Australia  by  Portuguese. 

6 — Massacre  of  Poles  by  Russians  ; Dutch  observe 
Australia. 

9— Independence  of  United  Provinces. 

13—  Accession  of  ROMANOFF  dynasty  in  Russia. 
16 — TSING  dynasty  founded  in  China  (still  reign- 
ing). 

21— Dutch  war  with  Spain  ; formation  of  the  Dutch 
West  India  Company. 

38—  Persians  defeated  by  Turks,  who  take  Bagdad. 

39—  VAN  TROMP  (dutch  admiral)  captures  two  Span- 

ish fleets. 

40—  Spaniards  driven  from  Portugal. 

42  —Death  of  GALILEO. 

IS  Spain  relinquishes  Holland  (treaty  of  West- 


phalia) ; republic  of  the  provinces  recognized, 
by  Europe. 

1652- War  between  Holland  and  England ; Admiral 
VAN  TROMP  sweeps  the  channel. 

53—  BLAKE  defeats  DE  RUYTER  ; peace. 

62 — Thirty  thousand  killed  at  Pekin  by  earthquake. 
68— Independence  of  Portugal  recognized  ; treaty 
of  Lisbon. 

72— The  French  acquire  Pondicherry,  India. 

86—  Bussia  and  Poland’s  alliance  against  the  Turks. 

87 —  JOSEPH  I.  of  Austria  ; Venetians  capture  Athens. 
89— PETER  I. 

91 — Spain  invaded  by  France  allies. 

95— Turks  invade  Hungary.  [allies. 

99 — Treaty  of  Carlowitz  between  Turkey  and  the 
1700— Bussia  defeats  Sweden;  first  Russian  frigate 
built  by  PETER  the  Great. 

3—  St.  Petersburg  founded. 

4—  British  take  Gibraltar. 

6 — Naples  and  Lombardy  surrendered  to  Italy. 

8 —  MAZEPPA  and  Cossacks  revolt. 

9—  PETER  defeats  CHARLES  XII.  of  Sweden. 

13— Naples  ceded  to  Austria. 

18 — Turkish  supremacy  re-established  in  Greece. 
20 — Sardinia  founded  as  a kingdom. 

24 —  Jesuits  expelled  from  China;  CHARLES  V.  of 

Spain  abdicates  ; resumes  power. 

25 —  PETER  the  Great  dies. 

30— PETER  II.  dies ; Romanoff  dynasty  extinct; 
ANNE  empress. 

33— Invasion  of  Poland  by  Russia. 

35 —  DON  CARLOS  becomes  king  of  the  Sicilies. 

36 —  War  between  Spain  and  Portugal. 

37 —  Hungarian  war  with  Turkey. 

39— Treaty  between  Russia,  Austria,  and  Turkey  • 
Russian  rights  on  the  Black  Sea  renounced  | 
Persian  invasion  of  India  ; Delhi  sacked. 

42— ELIZABETH  empress  of  Russia. 

45—  MARIA  THERESA  empress  of  Austria. 

46—  French  take  Madras  from  the  English. 

51— CLIVE  takes  Arcot. 

54 —  Peace  in  India. 

56—  Calcutta  captured  by  viceroy  of  Bengal; 

BlackLhole  tragedy. 

57 —  Bussia  joins  in  Seven  Years’  War  ; Prussia  in- 

vaded ; CLIVE  takes  Calcutta  ; English  power 
established  in  India. 

60 — Berlin  taken  by  Russians  and  Austrians  ; allies 
enter  Berlin  ; Austrians  defeated. 

62—  Devolution  at  St.  Petersburg  ; PETER  III.  de- 

posed ; CATHARINE  the  Great  reigns;  Por- 
tugal invaded  by  Spain. 

63—  Treaty  of  Madrid  restores  peace  ; CARTERET 

and  WILLIS’  explorations  in  Australia. 

64—  IVAN  VI.  killed  in  prison. 

67—  Jesuits  expelled  from  Spain  and  Mexico. 

68—  Turkey  declares  war  against  Russia. 

70— Bebellion  of  ALI  BEY  suppressed  in  Egypt ; 
insurgent  Greeks,  aided  by  Russia,  are  defeated 
by  Turks  ; Captain  COOK  at  Botany  Bay  ; 
country  named  New  South  Wales;  terrible 
famine  in  India. 

72 — First  partition  of  Poland  r WARREN  HAST- 
INGS governor  of  Bengal. 

74 — Australia  and  New  Zealand  explored  by  Cap- 
tain COOK. 

75  -Spain  resumes  war  with  Portugal. 

77— Alliance  between  Switzerland  and  France; 
third  voyage  of  COOK. 


926 


OUTLINES  OF  HISTORY,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN, 


Other  Nations. — Continued. 

1 778— Prince  POTEMKIN  prime  minister  of  Russia. 

80 —  Russia,  Denmark  and  Sweden  maintain  armed 

neutrality  ; they  declare  that  “ free  ships  make 
free  goods.” 

81 —  Civil  commotion  in  Switzerland;  France  inter- 

feres. 

84— Crimea  ceded  to  Russia  by  the  Turks. 


1786— CORNWALLIS  governor-general  cf  India  upon 
return  of  WARREN  HASTINGS. 

87—  Turks  defeated  by  Russia  and  Austria;  wal 

between  Russia  and  Turkey. 

88—  Suppression  of  Saliot  rebellion  in  Greece  ; waj 

between  Russia  and  Sweden  ; PHILLIPS, 
first  governor,  founds  Sidney,  New  South 
Wales. 


FROM  THE  FRENCH  REVOLUTION  TO  1890. 


GREAT  BRITAIN. 

1792 — First  coalition  against  France. 

93 —  War  declared. 

94—  Suspension  of  the  habeas  corpus  act ; HOWfe 

defeats  French  fleet. 

95— Acquittal  of  WARREN  HASTINGS. 

96—  Spanish  war  renewed  ; death  of  BURNS. 

97 —  Spanish,  fleet  defeated;  death  of  EDMUND 

BURKE  ; suspension  of  specie  payments. 

98—  England,  Austria  and  Russia  coalesce  against 

NAPOLEON  ; battle  of  the  Nile ; suspension 
of  the  habeas  corpus  act. 

S 803— War  with  France. 

5—  Rattle  of  Trafalgar;  Admiral  NELSON  de- 

feats Spanish  and  French  fleets ; NELSON  dies. 

6 —  PITT  and  FOX  die  ; treaty  of  Presburg  ; Austria 

cedes  Venice  and  the  Tyrol. 

7 —  Russia  joins  war  with  Turkey  ; British  fleets 

pass  the  Dardanelles ; slave  trade  abolished  J 
death  of  Cardinal  STUART,  the  Pretender. 

8—  Peninsular  War  begins. 

9—  Death  of  Sir  JOHN  MOORE ; duke  of  Wel- 

lington enters  Spain  ; French  enter  Vienna; 
Vienna  restored  ; impeachment  of  the  duke  of 
York  : Walcheren  expedition. 

10 —  Repeal  of  union  agitated  by  Ireland. 

11—  Prince  of  Wales  regent ; Roman  Catholic  board 

formed  by  DANIEL  O’CONNELL. 

12—  Assassination  of  Mr.  PERCEVAL,  premier, 

in  the  house. 

14—  Peace  with  France  ; treaty  of  Ghent. 

1 5—  Rattle  of  Waterloo  ; insurrection  in  Ireland. 

1 7— Habeas  corpus  act  suspended. 

19— Queen  VICTORIA  born. 

20—  GEORGE  III.  dies;  GEORGE  IV.  on  the  throne. 

21—  Death  of  Queen  CAROLINE;  outrages  in 

Ireland. 

22—  GEORGE  IV.  in  Scotland. 

24-Death  of  Lord  BYRON. 

26—  Commercial  crisis. 

27—  Rattle  of  Navarino;  defeat  of  Egyptian  and 

Turkish  fleets. 

29 —  Passage  of  Catholic  relief  bill ; London  riots. 

30—  GEORGE  IV.  dies  ; succeeded  by  WILLIAM  IV. ; 

duke  of  Wellington  ministry. 

31—  Bristol  riots. 

32 —  Passage  of  English  and  Irish  reform  bills;  Sir 

WALTER  SCOTT  dies. 

34- End  of  slavery  in  the  British  colonies. 

35 —  PEEL  ministry. 

37—  WILLIaM  IV.  dies;  VICTORIA  reigns;  Han 

over  and  Great  Britain  separated. 

38—  Viscount  MELBOURNE  ministry. 


1839— Chinese  war;  Lord  NORBURY  murdered  in 

Ireland. 

40—  VICTORIA  marries  Prince  ALBERT. 

41 —  Birth  of  prince  of  Wales  ; Peel  ministry  formed. 

42—  Peace  with  China. 

44 —  DANIEL  O’CONNELL  tried,  imprisoned  and  re« 

leased. 

45—  Great  Irish  famine;  railway  excitement. 

46—  Commercial  crisis ; corn  law  repealed ; bread 

riots  in  Ireland  ; Russell  ministry. 

47 —  DANIEL  O’CONNELL  dies;  ten  million  pounds 

granted  to  Irish  sufferers. 

48—  SMITH  O’BRIEN,  MEAGHER,  and  others  head 

Irish  rebellion  ; suppressed  ; leaders  condemned 
to  death. 

49—  Sentence  on  leaders  of  rebellion  commuted  to 

transportation. 

50—  Poet  WORDSWORTH,  Sir  ROBERT  PEEL 

and  duke  of  Cambridge  die. 

51—  Great  exhibition. 

52—  De  th  of  THOMAS  MOORE  (Irish  poet);  duke 

of  Wellington  dies. 

53—  English  and  French  fleets  in  the  Bosphorus. 

54 —  Crimean  war ; crystal  palace  ; treaty  with  Uni- 

ted States  (fishery  claims). 

55—  PALMERSTON  ministry. 

56—  Peace  with  Russia;  Chinese  war  ; Persian  war. 

67— Beginning  of  Indian  mutiny;  end  of  Persian 

war ; commercial  crisis. 

58—  DERBY-DISRAELI  ministry. 

59—  PALMERSTON-RUSSELL  ministry;  death  of 

Lord  MACAULAY. 

60—  Commercial  treaty  with  France  • peace  with 

China. 

61—  SLIDELL  and  MASON  taken  from  the  Trent: 

death  of  ALBERT,  prince  consort. 

62—  International  exhibition;  Prince  ALFRED 

rejects  the  Greek  throne  ; riots  in  It  eland. 

63—  Marriage  of  prince  of  Wales;  death  of 

THACKERAY,  the  novelist. 

65— Death  of  COBDEN  and  PALMERSTON; FeniaH 
movement : STEVENS  arrested  ; escapes  ; com- 
mercial treaty  with  Austria  ; Atlantic  cable  fin- 
ished ; habeas  corpus  suspended  in  Ireland  ? 
raid  of  Fenians  on  Canada. 

67—  War  with  Abyssinia. 

68 —  DISRAELI  ministry,  Feb.  29th ; King  THEO- 

DORE of  Abyssinia  commits  suicide  when  de- 
feated ; Lord  BROUGHAM  dies;  GLAD- 
STONE ministry,  Dec.  9th. 

69 —  Alabama  claims  convention  rejected  by  United 

States;  Earl  SPENCER  becomes  lord-lieutenanl 
of  Ireland  ; Irish  church  bills  in  force ; earl  of 
Derby  dies. 


OUTLINES  OF  HISTORY,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


927 


Great  Britain. — Continued. 

1 870 — Death  of  CH AS.  DICKENS  ; Irish  land  bill; 

treaty  of  Prussia  and  France  for  neutrality  of 
Belgium. 

71 — Death  of  Sir  JOHN  HERSCHEL ; death  of 
GROTE  ; riots  in  Dublin;  Alabama  claims; 
treaty  with  United  States;  Alabama  award; 
commercial  treaty  with  France. 

73 — Death  of  BULWER  (Lord  LYTTON) ; Ashantee 
war ; end  of  TICHBORNE  trial. 

75 —  O’CONNELL  centennial  in  Ireland  ; queen  em- 

press of  India. 

76—  DISRAELI  becomes  earl  of  Beaconsfield. 

77—  Duke  of  Marlborough  becomes  lord-lieutenant  of 

Ireland. 

78 —  Death,  of  Earl  RUSSELL;  earl  of  Leitrim  shot 

(in  Ireland) ; Berlin  conference  and  treaty ; 
war  in  Afghanistan  ; English  victorious. 

79—  Zulu  war ; total  defeat  and  capture  of  CETE« 

WAYO;  famine  in  Ireland  ; visit  of  PARNEL& 
to  United  States. 

80 —  Afghan  war  continues  with  great  vigor ; Gen. 

ROBERTS  in  command;  BEACONSFIELD 
ministry  resigns;  GLADSTONE  forms  cabinet; 
BRADLAUGH  ejected  for  not  taking  the  oath  ; 
Lord  MOUNT  MORRIS  shot ; Boycotting  prac- 
ticed in  Ireland ; PARNELL  and  others  ar- 
rested. 

81 —  Death  of  Lord  BEACONSFIELD;  coercion  act 

and  Irish  land  bill  passed ; many  arrests ; 
jury  in  PARNELL’S  case  disagree;  PAR- 
NELL arrested  under  coercion  act. 

82 —  Earl  SPENCER  becomes  lord-lieutenant  of  Ire- 

land; Lord  FREDERICK  CAVENDISH  chtef 
secretary;  assassination  of  the  chief  secretary 
and  Mr.  Burke;  OTTO  TREVELYAN  ap- 
pointed chief  secretary ; Egyptian  War  ends 
with  capture  and  exile  of  ARABI  BEY. 

83 —  Trial  of  persons  suspected  of  complicity  with 

the  murder  of  Lord  CAVENDISH;  March 
15th,  attempt  to  blow  up  the  government  offices 
in  Westminster. 

84 —  Dynamite  conspiracies;  extension  of  the  elec- 

tive franchise. 

85 —  Ministry  of  Lord  Salisbury. 

87 — Proclamation  of  the  Irish  Nat  onal  League. 

90 —  Strike  of  London  Police  and  P.  0.  Employees. 

IRELAND. 

1795 — Orange  clubs  organized. 

98 —  Habeas  corpus  act  suspended  ; rebellion  ; battle 

of  Kilecullen  ; rebels  successful ; battle  of  An- 
trim ; rebels  defeated. 

99—  Rebellion  suppressed. 

1801— Legislative  union  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland; 

habeas  corpus  act  suspended ; EMMET’S  re- 
bellion and  execution. 

UNITED  STATES. 

1790— Deatli  of  BENJAMIN  FRANKLIN;  ALEX. 
ANDER  HAMILTON’S  financial  scheme. 

91—  Rank  of  United  States  established ; Vermont 

admitted. 

92 —  Washington,  D.  C.,  made  the  capitol  ; Kentucky 

admitted  to  the  Union. 

42 


1793 — ELI  WHITNEY  invents  the  cotton  gin ; WASH- 
INGTON’S second  term. 

94— Whiskey  rebellion ; JAY’S  treaty  with  Eng- 
land. 

96—  Tennessee  admitted  ; WASHINGTON  declines 

a third  term. 

97 —  JOHN  ADAMS’  administration  treaty  with 

France  annulled. 

98 —  Naval  conflicts  with  France. 

99—  Death  of  WASHINGTON. 

1800 — Capitol  removed  to  Washington;  treaty  with 
France. 

1 —  JEFFERSON’S  administration ; war  with  Tripoli. 

2 —  Ohio  admitted. 

3 —  Purchase  of  Louisiana. 

4—  AARON  BURR  kills  ALEXANDER  HAMIL- 

TON in  a duel. 

5 —  Peace  with  Tripoli. 

©—American  commerce  affected  by  French  and 
English  blockade  of  the  coasts  of  each. 
f~BURR’S  trial  for  conspiracy  ; rights  of  neutrals  • 
Chesapeake  fired  on  bv  Leopard-,  embargo 
on  American  ships  ; MADISON’S  administra- 
tion. 

8 —  Abolition  of  sla^e  trade. 

9 —  Embargo  repealed  ; commerce  with  Great  Brit- 

ain and  France  prohibited. 

11—  Rattle  of  Tippecanoe. 

12 —  Louisiana  admitted  • war  with  Great  Brit- 

ain. 

13 —  Commodore  PERRY  victorious  on  Lake  Erie. 

14 —  Public  buildings  at  Washington  burned;  Hart- 

ford convention  ; treaty  of  Ghent. 

15 —  Rattle  of  New  Orleans;  JACKSON’S  victory; 

peace  with  Great  Britain  ; war  with  Algiers. 

16—  Indiana  admitted. 

17 —  MONROE’S  administration  ; Mississippi  admitted. 

18—  Florida  war ; Illinois  admitted. 

19—  Alabama  admitted. 

20—  Spain  cedes  Florida;  Missouri  compromise 

Maine  admitted. 

21—  Missouri  admitted. 

22 —  MONROE  doctrine. 

24—  Visit  of  LA  FAYETTE. 

25—  JOHN  QUINCY  ADAMS’  administration. 

26—  Death  of  JEFFERSON  and  ADAMS  ; indemnity 

convention  with  Great  Britain. 

28 —  Protective  tariff  adopted. 

29 —  JACKSON’S  administration. 

30—  Treaty  with  Turkey. 

32—  New  tariff  law  passed  ; Black  Hawk  War. 

33—  South  Carolina  nullification  suppressed  by 

JACKSON. 

35—  Seminole  war. 

36—  Arkansas  admitted  ; national  debt  paid. 

37—  Michigan  admitted  ; VAN  BUREN’S  adminis- 

tration ; financial  crisis  and  panic. 

39 — Ranks  suspend  specie  payments. 

41 —  HARRISON’S  administration  ; he  dies  April  4th; 

TYLER’S  administration  ; resignation  of  meow 
bers  of  the  cabinet,  except  WEBSTER. 

42—  WEBSTER-ASHBURTON  treaty  with  England. 

44 —  First  telegraph  line  (from  Washington  to  Balti» 

more). 

45 —  Texas  annexed  ; Iowa  and  Florida  admitted » 

POLK’S  administration. 

45- 8 — Mexican  war. 

46 —  North-western  boundary  settled. 


928 


OUTLINES  OF  HISTORY,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN 


United  States. — Continued. 

1848 — Treaty  with  Mexico  ; California  and  New  Mexi- 
co annexed  to  United  States  (gold  discovered)  j 
Wisconsin  admitted. 

49 —  TAYLOR’S  administration ; great  emigration  to 

the  gold  regions  ; French  ambassador  dismissed. 

50—  TAYLOR  dies  in  office  (Julygth) ; FILLMORE’S 

administration  ; fugitive  slave  bill  ; California 
admitted  ; treaty  with  England  for  Panama 
transit. 

51—  Congressional  library  burned  ; KOSSUTH’S 

visit.  [tion. 

52—  Fishery  dispute  with  England  ; Japan  expedi- 

53 —  PIERCE’S  administration;  international  exhibi- 

tion in  New  York. 

54 —  Japan  treaty;  anti-slavery  riots  in  Boston  ; set- 

tlement of  fishery  question  ; repeal  of  Missouri 
compromise  (slavery  question) ; Kansas 
troubles. 

55 —  Treaty  with  Denmark  annulled. 

56 —  WALKER’S  expedition  to  Nicaragua  ; British 

minister  dismissed  ; Chinese  fleet  destroyed  by 
Commodore  ELLIOTT. 

57—  BUCHANAN’S  administration;  commercial  pan- 

ic ; New  York  riots. 

5 8— Minnesota  admitted  ; Atlantic  cable  finished. 

59 —  Oregon  admitted ; PRESCOTT  died  ; Chinese 

treaty  ; JOHN  BROWN  hanged  ; death  of 
WASHINGTON  IRVING. 

60 —  WALKER  shot  at  Honduras  ; visit  of  the  prince 

of  Wales  ; ABRAHAM  LINCOLN  elected  j 
South  Carolina  secedes  ; U.  S.  vessel  fired  on. 

61 —  Kansas  admitted  ; ten  other  States  secede ; 

West  Virginia  admitted  ; Confederate  States 
formed  (Feb.  4th)  ; DAVIS  president ; LIN- 
COLN’S administration  ; Fort  Sumter  fired 
upon  (April  12th) ; Civil  War  begins ; Bull  Run 
(July  21st). 

62—  New  Orleans  taken  (April  22d);  Antietam  (Sept. 

17th);  Alabama  does  much  damage;  Freder- 
icksburg (Dec.  13th). 

63 —  Emancipation  proclamation  Jan.  1st ; West  Vir- 

ginia admitted;  Gettysburg  July  1st  to  3d; 
Vicksburg  July  4th. 

64—  GRANT  in  chief  command  ; capture  of  Atlanta 

Sept.  1st  ; Nevada  admitted ; SHERMAN’S 
“ march  to  the  sea.” 

65 —  Capture  of  Richmond  ; surrender  of  LEE  April 

9th  ; LINCOLN’S  assassination  April  14th  > 
JOHNSON’S  administration  ; end  of  Civil  War ; 
general  amnesty  May  30th ; habeas  corpus  re- 
stored. 

66—  Disputes  between  the  president  and  congress  ; 

many  bills  passed  over  his  veto  ; Colorado  ad- 
mitted ; Fenian  raids  on  Canada. 

67 —  Nebraska  admitted  ; reconstruction  bill  ; Alas- 

ka purchased. 

68—  President  JOHNSON  impeached  and  acquit- 

ted ; Southern  States  re-admitted  over  presi- 
dent’s veto  ; Indian  troubles. 

69 — A  labama  arbitration  ; XV.  amendment  passed  ; 

GRANT’S  administration. 

71—  Ku-Klux-Klan  outrages;  Corean  forts  de- 

stroyed by  Commodore  PERRY  ; great  fire  in 
Chicago. 

72—  General  amnesty  bill ; Geneva  award  Alabama 

claims,  over  fifteen  million  dollars. 

73—  Modoc  war  ; financial  panic. 

74—  Resumption  bill  passed. 


1875— Civil  rights  bill  passed  ; Colorado  admitted. 

76—  Sioux  war  ; centennial  exhibition  ; presidentia 

election  in  dispute,  settled  by  electoral  com- 
mission giving  HAYES  one  hundred  and  eighty 
five  votes,  TILDEN  one  hundred  and  eighty- 
four,  Jan.  30th,  1877. 

77 —  HAYES’  administration  ; Pittsburg  railway  riots. 
7 8— Yellow  fever  spread  in  the  South  ; gold  at  par. 
79 — Specie  resumption. 

81 —  GARFIELD’S  administration  ; CONKLING  and 

PLATT  resign  seats  in  senate  ; GARFIELD’S 
assassination  July  2d;  dies  Sept.  19th; 
ARTHUR’S  administration. 

82 —  GUITEAU  sentenced  and  hanged  ; Mississippi 

river  overflows  ; anti-Chinese  bill  passed  ; river 
and  harbor  bill  passed  over  president’s  veto ; 
star  route  trials  ; great  democratic  victories  in 
the  fall  elections. 

83—  Deatll  of  ex-governors  MARSHALL  JEWELL. 

E.  D.  MORGAN,  ISRAEL  W ASHBOURNE 
Postmaster-general  T.  ().  HOWE,  a-  d Govern- 
or A.  H.  STEPHENS;  treaty  with  Corea;  May 
24th,  Brooklyn  Bridge  opened. 

84 —  Treaties  with  Mexico  and  Spain. 

85 —  CLEVELAND’S  administration 

86 —  BARTHOLDI’S  Statue  of  L berty  erected  on 

Bedloe’s  Island 

89—  HARRISON’S  administration  ; International  con- 

vention of  American  Nations  ; North  and  South 
Dakota,  Montan  , Washington.  Idaho  and 
Wyoming  admitted  into  the  Union, 

90 —  ERICSSON’S  body  conveyed  to  Sweden  in  U.  S. 

Man-of-War  Baltimore. 

GERMANY. 

1791  — Conference  between  the  emperor  and  FRED- 
ERICK the  Great. 

93 — Revolt  of  Rhenish  provinces ; Prussians  acquire 
Posen  and  siege  of  Dantzic. 

95 — Warsaw  ceded  to  Prussia. 

95-1803— War  with  France. 

1801— Hanover  seized  by  Prussians. 

5 —  Downfall  of  German  empire;  kingdoms  of 

Westphalia,  Bavaria  and  Wirtemberg  formed 
by  NAPOLEON. 

6—  Confederation  of  the  Rhine  formed,  with  Ba- 

varia and  Wirtemberg  at  the  head  ; Prussia  de- 
declares  war  with  NAPOLEON  ; French  en- 
ter Berlin ; dissolution  of  confederation  and 
FRANCIS  II.  abdicates  to  become  hereditary 
emperor  of  Austria  as  FRANCIS  I. 

7 —  Treaty  of  Tilsit  between  Prussia  and  France. 

8—  Prussia  abolishes  serfdom. 

10 — France  annexes  North  Germany.  [Prussia. 

12—  Austria  and  France  conclude  alliance  with 

13—  Berlin  evacuated  by  French;  war  against 

France  ; Silesia  invaded  by  NAPOLEON  ; NA- 
POLEON completely  defeated  by  the  allies  • 
war  of  liberation ; uprising  of  the  people ; 
“ landwehr  ” formed. 

14 —  Allies  invade  France. 

15 —  Congress  at  Vienna  ; Germanic  confederation  ; 

Prussia  joins  Holy  Alliance.  [education. 

17 —  Insurrection  in  Breslau  quelled;  ministry  of 

18 —  Prussian  commercial  union  ; Zoll-Verein. 

19—  Anti-revolutionary  congress  ; death  of  Mar. 

shal  BLUCHER. 

30— Revolution  in  Brunswick;  flight  of  the  duke  j 
king  of  Saxony  abdicates. 

32—  Poet  GOETHE  dies. 

33- 4— Ti»c  Zoll-Verein  joined  by  other  States. 

44— Discussions  about  the  holy  coat;  attempted 

assassination  of  the  king. 


OUTLINES  OF  HISTORY,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


Germany. — Continued. 

1848 — Insurrection  and  revolts  throughout  Ger- 
many ; national  assembly  at  Frankfort ; Berlin 
in  a state  of  siege ; new  Russian  Constitution. 

49 —  Assembly  elects  king  of  Prussia  emperor ; he  de- 

clines ; Austria  protests  against  alliance  ; martial 
law  declared  ; revolt  in  Baden  suppressed. 

50—  Treaty  of  Munich  ; king  takes  the  oath  to  the 

new  constitution ; attempt  to  kill  the  king  of 
Prussia  ; peace  with  Denmark  ; Hesse-Cassel 
entered  by  forces  of  Austria,  Bavaria  and  Prus- 
sia ; convention  of  Almutz  restores  peace. 

51—  Tl»e  king  visits  Russia.;  diet  at  Frankfort. 

52— King  re-establishes  council  of  State. 

53—  Revolutionary  plot  in  Berlin  discovered. 

54 —  Treaty  between  Austria  and  Prussia. 

56 —  Prussia  takes  part  in  conference  at  Paris. 

57—  Crown  Prince  WILLIAM  (since  emperor)  be- 

comes regent. 

58—  Marriage  of  FREDERICK  WILLIAM  (now 

crown  prince)  to  princess  royal  of  England. 

60—  Hesse-Cassel  constitution  maintained  by  fed- 

eral diet  against  Prussia. 

61—  Accession  of  WILLIAM  I. 

62 —  National  assembly  at  Berlin  ; uniform  coinage 

favored  ; BISMARCK  prime  minister. 

63 —  WILLIAM  I.  closes  lower  house  ; German  States. 

except  Prussia,  meet  at  Frankfort ; plan  of  fed- 
eral reform  approved  ; freedom  of  the  press 
suppressed ; Germany  maintains  the  rights  of 
Schleswig-Holstein. 

64—  Peace  between  Prussia  and  Denmark. 

65 —  Prussia  and  Belgium  make  treaty. 

66 —  Prussians  invade  Holstein ; war  between 

Prussia  and  Austria,  resulting  in  the  annexation 
of  Frankfort,  Nassau  and  Hesse-Cassel  to  Prus- 
sia ; treaty  of  Prague  ; formation  of  North- 
German  confederation;  Schleswig-Holstein  in- 
corporated with  Prussia  ; Hanover  annexed  to 
Prussia. 

67 —  First  meeting  of  New  North  German  parliament; 

constitution  settled. 

68 —  Prussia  passes  the  Rhine  ; navigation  treaty. 

70 —  War  with  France;  Prussian  parliament  asks 

WILLIAM  I.  to  become  emperor;  he  accepts, 
and  is  declared  emperor  of  Germany  at  Ver- 
sailles. 

71—  Treaty  of  peace  ratified. 

72—  Meeting  at  Berlin  of  the  emperors  of  Germany, 

Austria,  and  Russia  ; BISMARCK  resigns. 

73—  Treaty  with  France  for  payment  of  indemnity 

and  return  of  territory. 

74 —  Arrest  of  Count  ARNIM  for  tampering  with 

official  papers. 

75—  Civil  marriage  bill ; aid  to  Catholic  clergy  with- 

drawn. 

76—  Czar  of  Russia  visits  Berlin. 

77—  Code  of  laws  enacted. 

78—  Attempt  on  emperor’s  life  by  HODEL,  socialist, 

followed  by  Dr.  NOBELING  ; emperor  wound- 
ed ; crown  prince  assumes  the  control  of  gov- 
ernment ; King  GEORGE  of  Hanover  dies; 
Berlin  conference  ; HODEL  executed  ; NO- 
BELING suicides  ; newspapers  and  clubs  sup- 
pressed. 

— Adoption  of  BISMARCK’S  protectionist  bill; 
meeting  of  BISMARCK  and  ANDRASSY  at 
Vienna  ; code  of  1877  goes  into  effect. 


1880 — Prussia?  Saxony  and  Bavaria  outvoted  on  stamp 
duties  ; S ates  yield  after  BISMARCK  iesigns  ; 
formation  of  new  liberal  party. 

8 1 —  German  reichstag  opened 

82 —  Extreme  rights  f>f  emperor  asserted  by  imperial 

rescript,  afterward  notified  by  explanation. 

83 —  Frince  CHARLES,  brother  of  the  emperor 

WILLIAM  I , died  January  1st;  silver  wed- 
di  g of  Crown  Pri..ce  FREDERICK  WIL- 
LIAM. 

88 —  Emperor  WILLIAM  I.  died  Ma*\  9 ; succeeded 

by  FREDERICK  WILLIAM,  who  reigned  three 
months,  and  was  fo  lowed  by  WILLIAM  II. 

89 —  WILLIAM  II.  visits  Turkey,  Italy,  etc. 

90—  The  Emperor  visits  England. 

FRANCE 

1790— Titles  of  honor  and  nobility  abolished. 

91 —  MIRABEAU  dies.  [royalty  abolished. 

92—  War  with  Austria ; Tuileries  taken  by  mob ; 

93—  LOUIS  XVI.  and  MARIE  ANTOINETTE  be- 

headed ; ROBESPIERRE  dictator ; Reign  of 
Terror  ; MURAT  assassinated  ; first  victory  of 
NAPOLEON ; ORLEANS  executed. 

93— 7— War  with  Austria,  resulting  in  treaty  of 

Campo  Formio  ; NAPOLEON  receives  Venice 
and  gives  up  Lombardy. 

94—  Fall  and  execution  of  ROBESPIERRE  ; reign 

of  terror  ends  ; French  invade  Spain. 

95 —  LOUIS  XVII.  dies  in  prison  ; establishment  of 

96 —  NAPOLEON  victorious  in  Italy.  [the  directory. 

97— Return  of  NAPOLEON  to  Paris.  [the  Nile. 

98 —  Expedition  to  Egypt ; victory  of  NELSON  at 

99 —  Coalition  of  six  nations  against  NAPOLEON  ; 

NAPOLEON  first  consul ; Austria  renews  the 
war  and  is  defeated. 

1800— Parma  ceded  to  Spain;  total  defeat  of  the 
Austrians. 

1 —  Treaty  of  Luneville  ; loss  of  territory  by  Austria* 

treaty  of  Madrid. 

2 —  NAPOLEON  president  of  Italian  republic. 

4 —  NAPOLEON  emperor ; crowned  by  the  pope. 

5—  NAPOLEON  king  of  Italy  ; battle  of  Austerlitz  ; 

allies  defeated  ; end  of  third  coalition.  [tion. 

6—  Defeat  of  Prussian  army  ; end  of  fourth  coali- 

7—  NAPOLEON  and  ALEXANDER  meet  at  Tilsit ; 

treaty  of  Spain  for  partition  of  Portugal. 

8 —  Demand  for  Spanish  territory  ; MURAT  enters 

Madrid  ; FERDINAND  VIII,  abdicates  ; JOS- 
EPH BONAPARTE  crowned  king  of  Spain ; 
driven  from  Madrid  ; French  victory  at  Du- 
range  ; NAPOLEON  enters  Madrid. 

9 —  JOSEPH  returns  ; defeat  of  French  ; Spanish 

defeat  at  Ocana  ; NAPOLEON  enters  Vienna  ; 
treaty  of  Vienna  ; JOSEPHINE  divorced. 

10—  NAPOLEON  marries  MARIA  LOUISE  of  Aus- 

tria ; Holland  annexed. 

11—  King  of  Rome  born  (NAPOLEON  II.). 

12—  Russian  war  ; retreat  from  Moscow. 

13 —  Treaty  with  pope  (concordat) ; alliance  of 

Prussia,  Russia,  Austria  and  England  ; WEL- 
LINGTON in  France. 

14 —  Abdication  of  NAPOLEON  I.;  restoration  of 

Bourbon  dynasty  ; LOUIS  XVIII. ; NAPO- 
LEON at  Elba  ; treaty  of  Paris  ; Prussians  in 
Paris. 

15—  NAPOLEON’S  return  ; empire  restored  ; great 

alliance ; battle  of  Waterloo ; NAPOLEON 
banished  to  St.  Helena ; LOUIS  XVIII.  returns 
to  France  ; Marshal  NEY  executed. 

16 —  BONAPARTES  excluded  from  the  throne  forever. 


930 


OUTLINES  OF  HISTORY,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN, 


F rance. — Continued. 

1 820— Due  DE  BERRI  assassinated. 

21 — NAPOLEON  dies  at  St.  Helena. 

24— LOUIS  XVIII.  dies;  CHARLES  X.  reigns. 

30 —  Dissolution  of  chamber  of  deputies  ; streets 

barricaded  ; revolution  ; CHARLES  abdicates ; 
ORLEANS  becomes  LOUIS  PHILIPPE  I. 

31—  Riots  in  Paris. 

32—  NAPOLEON’S  son  dies. 

35—  Infernal  machine  plot. 

36—  LOUIS  NAPOLEON’S  insurrection  fails. 

38 —  War  with  Mexico  ; TALLEYRAND  dies. 

39—  Insurrection  in  Paris. 

40—  LOUIS  NAPOLEON  imprisoned  after  failure  of 

his  second  attempt  ; re-interment  of  NAPO- 
LEON I.  in  the  Hotel  des  Invalides. 

42  - Deatli  of  the  duke  of  Orleans. 

46—  Escape  of  LOUIS  NAPOLEON. 

47—  AB-DEL-KHAN  sui  renders. 

48 —  Devolution  ; abdication  of  the  king;  republic 

proclaimed  ; LOUIS  NAPOLEON  a member  of 
tie  national  assembly;  Paris  in  a sate  of 
siege  ; NAPOLEON  president  elect  of  French 
republic 

50—  Death  of  LOUIS  PHILIPPE. 

51 —  Coup  d’etat  (Dec.  2d). 

52—  NAPOLEON  installed  as  prince  president;  pro- 

claimed as  emperor  (Dec.  2d) ; NAPOLEON 
III. 

53—  Hlarriage  of  LOUIS  NAPOLEON. 

54 —  Treaty  of  Constantinople  ; Crimean  war — Eng- 

land, France  and  Turkey  against  Russia. 

56 —  Birth  of  prince  imperial. 

57—  Assassination  of  archbishop  of  Paris. 

58—  ORSINI’S  bomb. 

59—  War  with  Austria ; treaty  of  Zurich. 

60 —  Nice  and  Savoy  ceded  to  France. 

61—  Intervention  in  Mexico. 

64 —  France  agrees  to  leave  Rome. 

65—  NAPOLEON  III.  visited  at  Paris  by  BISMARCK. 

66 —  Paris  congress  on  Roumanian  troubles. 

67—  International  exhibition. 

68—  Treaty  with  Prussia,  Italy  and  Mecklenburg. 

69 —  Deatli  of  LAMARTINE;  new  constitution; 

election  riots. 

70 —  LEOPOLD’S  nomination  for  Spanish  throne 

causes  warlike  feeling ; France  requires  guar- 
antees ; Prussian  war ; Germans  victorious  in 
every  battle  but  one ; NAPOLEON  prisoner 
Sept.  2d  ; Paris  invested. 

71 —  France  gives  up  part  of  Alsace  and  Lorraine, 

and  an  indemnity  of  five  milliards  francs  ; Paris 
entered  in  triumph  ; NAPOLEON  deposed ; 
outbreak  of  commune  ; THIERS  president. 

73—  Deatli  of  NAPOLEON  III.  at  Chiselhurst; 

Thiers  resigns;  MAC  MAHON  president;  war 
indemnity  paid  in  full  Sept.  5th ; presidential 
terms  fixed  at  seven  years. 

74—  Communists  executed  ; escape  of  BAZAINE. 

75—  New  constitution. 

76—  Amnesty  to  communists. 

77—  Deatli  of  THIERS  ; great  Republican  gains. 

78—  International  exhibition. 

79—  Prince  EUGENIE  killed  in  Zululand. 

80—  Jesuits  expelled  with  other  orders. 

81—  Invasion  of  Tunis  ; GAM BETT A premier, 

82—  Tiventy-two  seats  gained  for  Republicans. 


1883 — Deatli  of  GAMBETTA,  January  1st ; General 
CHANZY,  January  4th  ; General  DE  VAL- 
DAU,  January  8th;  and  GUSTAVE  D()RE, 
January  23d  ; manifesto  of  Prince  NAPOLEON. 
84 — Constitution  revised ; war  in  Ponquin  and 
Formosa. 

86 —  GEN.  BOULANGER  becomes  minister;  socialistic 

agitation. 

87 —  M.  S ARDI-CARNOT  elected  president ; attempted 

assassination  of  M.  FERRY. 

88 —  Fall  of  <he  third  c binet. 

89—  Cabinet  of  M.  TIRAND. 

90—  Flight  and  trial  of  Gen.  BOULANGER. 

OTHER  NATIONS. 

1793 — Eilglisli  embassy  arrives  at  Pekin  ; Netherlands 
invaded  by  France;  a.liance  of  England  and 
Russia  ; second  partition  of  Poland. 

95 — Russia,  Austria  and  Prussia  divide  Poland. 

98 — Egypt  invaded  by  NAPOLEON ; republic 
founded  in  Switzerland  ; division  of  Venetian 
States  between  France  and  Austria;  Cisalpine 
republic  founded;  NAPOLEONS  second  in- 
vasion  of  Italy. 

S9  -1804— English,  gain  accessions  in  India;  four 
thousand  five  hundred  English  troops  defeat 
fifty  thousand  natives. 

1800 — Internal  commotion  in  Switzerland;  NAPO- 
LEON crosses  the  Alps ; Austrians  totally  de- 
feated. 

1— English  aid  Turks;  NAPOLEON  draws  out; 
end  of  war  with  Spain  and  Portugal ; peace  of 
Amiens  ; end  of  Spanish  war  ; assassination  of 
PAUL  I. ; ALEXANDER  I.  czar. 

3—  Insurrection  of  Mamelukes  at  Cairo  ; discov- 

ery of  Van  Dieman's  Land. 

4—  Insurrection  of  convicts  in  Australia  quelled. 

6—  MEHEMET  pasha  of  Egypt ; NAPOLEON  I. 

crowns  his  brother  king  of  Holland ; Austria 
loses  Italian  possessions. 

7 —  Peace  of  Tilsit ; publication  of  decree  of  Milan. 

10—  English,  Spanish,  and  French  war. 

11 —  Massacre  of  Mamelukes  in  Egypt;  MEHEM- 

ET supreme. 

12 —  Edict  against  Christianity  in  China;  Moscow 

burned  by  Russians. 

13—  Holland  revolted  from  France. 

14—  Free  constitution  in  Holland  ; Belgium  annexed  ; 

dissolution  of  kingdom  of  Italy  ; Lombardy  and 
Venice  formed  into  a kingdom  for  Austria. 

1 5—  Swiss  independence  secured. 

21—  Independence  of  Mexico. 

22—  Independence  of  Greece. 

23—  Federal  constitution  in  Mexico  ; death  of  MAR- 

CO BOZZARIS. 

24—  Burmese  war  begins. 

25—  Death  of  ALEXANDER  I.  of  Russia ; NICHO- 

LAS I.  emperor. 

27 —  Turks  take  Athens ; foreign  powers  establish 

independence  of  Greece. 

28—  Turko-Russtan  war  ; “ Sons  of  Liberty  ” rise 

in  Montreal  (PAPINEAU’S  rebellion). 

29—  Slavery  abolished  and  Spaniards  expelled  from 

Mexico  ; Russians  victorious ; treaty  of  peace ; 
West  Australia  made  a province. 

30—  Belgium  independent. 

31 —  MEHEMET  of  Egypt  revolts  against  Turkey. 

Russians  in  Constantinople. 

32—  Defeat  of  Turks ; Texas  revolts  from  Mexico. 

33 —  General  HOUSTAN  (Texan  war)  defeats  Mex- 

icans ; offensive  and  defensive  treaty  between 
Turkey  and  Russia. 


OUTLINES  OF  HISTORY,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


931 


Other  Nations. — Continued. 

1834 — Quadruple  alliance  ; DON  CARLOS  expelled 
3 5— Victoria,  Australia,  colonized. 

36— South  Australia  becomes  a province. 

36— 77 — Internal  dissensions  ; riots  and  civil  wars 

in  Spain  destroy  its  power.  [in  Spain. 

37 —  Melbourne  founded  • dissolution  of  monasteries 

38 —  French  and  Mexican  war;  slavery  abolished 

in  India  ; Afghan  war. 

39— 41— Opium  war  in  China. 

40—  Egyptians  defeated  by  allied  powers. 

41 —  Treaty  gives  Hong  Kong  to  the  English;  Up- 

per and  Lower  Canada  consolidated. 

42—  Second  treaty  between  China  and  England  ; in- 

corporation of  New  South  Wales. 

43—  New  constitution  in  Greece;  Sir  CHARLES 

NAPIER  defeats  ameer  of  Scinde. 

45 — English  purchase  Danish  possessions  in  India. 

45— 9— Sikh  wars  in  India. 

46—  Earl  of  Elgin  governor-general. 

47 —  General  SCOTT  enters  city  of  Mexico ; Jesuits 

expelled  from  Switzerland  ; civil  war  in  Switz- 
erland. 

48 —  British  envoy  ordered  from  Spain  ; Lombardy 

and  Venice  revolt  against  Austria ; Sardinia 
annexes  Lombardy ; revolution  in  Hungary  j 
FREDERICK  I.  abdicates  in  favor  of  FRAN- 
CIS JOSEPH. 

49—  Austria  regains  Lombardy  ; war  between  Aus- 

tria and  Hungary : Hungarians  declare  their 
independence  ; KOSSUTH  declared  governor 
and  defeated  r annexation  of  Punjaub. 

50— 7-Trouble  between  Greece  and  England , 

Greece  pays  indemnity ; French  and  English 
evacuate  Greece  ; Victoria,  Australia,  made  a 
province ; Bengal  mutiny  ; parliament  houses 
burned  ; riots  in  Montreal. 

51— Gold  excitement  in  Australia  ; ninety-six  million 

pounds  sent  to  England  from  Australia  in  ten 
years.  1851-3— Second  Burmese  war. 

54—  Siege  of  Savastopol  and  battle  of  Balaklava; 

Canadian  treaty  with  United  States. 

55—  Death  of  NICHOLAS  ALEXANDER  II.,  em- 

peror of  Russia. 

56 —  Treaty  of  Holland  and  Japan  ; amnesty  to  Hun- 

garian rebels ; Oude  annexed  to  British  India. 

57—  Great  Indian  mutiny  (see  Great  Britain). 

58—  Partial  emancipat;on  of  serfs  in  Russia. 

59—  War  between  Spain  and  Morocco ; VICTOR 

EMANUEL  declares  war  against  Austria  and 
totally  defeats  her;  NAPOLEON  III.  aids 
Sardinia ; Queensland  made  a province  ; Pun- 
jaub made  a presidency. 

60—  GARIBALDI  declares  himself  dictator  and  enters 

Naples ; VICTOR  EMANUEL  enters  Naples 
as  king ; GARIBALDI  resigns  ; imperial  coun- 
cil meets  at  Vienna  ; prince  of  Wales  in  Can- 
ada. 1 861-7— French  in  Mexico. 

61—  Terrible  floods  in  Holland  ; VICTOR  EMAN- 

UEL king  of  Italy ; Austrian  constitution 
granted ; Lord  MONCK  governor-general  of 
Canada ; Trent  excitement. 

63—  Slavery  abolished  in  Dutch  colonies ; emancipa** 

tion  of  twenty-three  million  serfs  in  Russia ; 
death  of  Lord  ELGIN ; Sir  JOHN  LAW- 
RENCE succeeds  as  viceroy  of  India. 

64 —  MAXIMILIAN  emperor  of  Mexico  , consolida 

tion  of  American  colonies  discussed  ; Confeder- 
ate raid  from  Canada  upon  St.  Albans. 


1 865 — Congress  of  international  social  science  at  Berne, 

66—  Italy  forms  alliance  with  Prussia  and  declares 

war  with  Austria ; Venetia  ceded  to  Italy ; 
great  famine  in  Bengal ; meeting  of  first  Domin- 
ion (Canada)  parliament ; Fenian  invasion  ; 
habeas  corpus  suspended. 

67—  Execution  of  MAXIMILIAN;  French  leave 

Rome  ; union  of  English  colonies  as  dominion 
of  Canada. 

68 —  BURLINGAME’S  embassy  from  China. 

69 —  Suez  canal  opened  ; oecumenical  council  at 

Rome  ; Socialist  conspiracy  in  Russia  ; purchase 
of  Hudson’s  Bay  territories  for  three  hundred 
thousand  pounds. 

70 —  Sir  SAMUEL  BAKER’S  expedition  up  the  Nile; 

dogma  of  infallibility  ; Papal  States  proclaimed 
part  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy  ; PIUS  IX.  ex- 
communicates Italian  government ; railroad 
from  Calcutta  to  Bombay  ; province  of  Manito- 
ba formed. 

fl-Many  Socialists  in  Russia  imprisoned ; Austria 
recognizes  New  German  empire ; British  Col- 
umbia joins  Dominion  of  Canada. 

7®—' Telegraph  cable  between  Austria  and  England  ; 
earl  of  Dufferin  governor-general  of  Canada. 

73—  Khedive  of  Egypt  made  almost  independent  by 

the  sultan  ; republic  proclaimed  in  Spain  ; Jesu- 
its expelled  from  Italy  ; opening  of  interna- 
tional exhibition  at  Vienna  ; Prince  Edward’s 
Island  joins  Dominion  of  Canada. 

74—  International  postal  congress  at  Berne;  St. 

Gothardis  tunnel ; ALPHONSE  XII.  declared 
king  of  Spain  ; great  famine  in  Bengal. 

7 5— English  obtain  control  of  Suez  canal ; Prince  of 
Wales  in  India. 

75— 6— Insurrection  in  Herzegovina;  Bosnia,  Bul- 

garia, Monienegro  and  Servia  against  Turkey. 

76 —  ALPHONSE  enters  Madrid  in  triumph  ; Cyclone 

in  India,  two  hundred  and  twenty  thousand 
lives  lost. 

77—  Terrible  famine  in  China ; general  amnesty  to 

rebels  in  Spain  ; fishery  award,  United  States 
to  pay  Canada  five  million  five  hundred  thou- 
sand dollars. 

77— 8— Turco-Russian  war,  resulting  in  defeat  of 

Turkey  ; treaty  of  Berlin  ; conference  of  the 
powers. 

78—  PIUS  IX.  and  VICTOR  EMANUEL  die ; mar- 

quis of  Lome  governor-general  of  Canada. 

79 —  Sultan  of  Turkey  deposes  khedive,  his  son 

TEWFIK  succeeds  ; Nihilists  convicted  in  Rus- 
sia ; international  exhibition  at  Sidney,  New 
South  Wales 'industrial  exhibition  in  Canada; 
massacres  at  Cabul. 

SO— Russian  troubles  with  China ; law  for  gradual 
abolition  of  slavery  in  Cuba ; Melbourne  exhi- 
bition. 

81—  Slavery  abolished  in  Egypt ; convention  between 

Greece  and  Turkey  ; Thessaly  ceded  to  Greece ; 
ALEXANDER  assassinated  ; accession  of  AL- 
EXANDER III.;  railroad  between  Melbourne 
and  Sidney  completed  ; Canadian  Pacific  rail- 
road company  receive  patent  to  build  rail- 
road from  Halifax  to  Buzzard  Inlet. 

82 —  American  railroad  companies  receive  exten 

sivc  grants  of  land  in  Mexico ; Franco-Span- 
ish  commercial  treaty  ; death  of  GARIBALDI ; 
anti-Jewish  riots  in  Russia  ; Jews  driven  out ; 
death  of  General  SKOBELOFF. 

83—  Coronation  of  King  KALAKAUA  at  Honolulu 

February  12th  ; ukase  of  Russian  czar  appoint- 
ing a commission  to  revise  the  laws  concerning 
Jews  ; insurrections  in  Armenia  ; Nihilists  causC 
trouble  in  Russia ; coronation  of  the  czar 
ALEXANDER  III.  at  Moscow  May  27th 


TOMB  OF  . COLUMBUS,  IN  THE  CATHEDRAL,  HAVANA* 


International  Conn,  or  the  Balance  of  He. 

By  GEORGE  A.  BUTLER,  Cashier  of  the  National  Tradesmen’s  Bank,  New  Haven,  Conn, 


E misapprehension  in  regard  to  the  significance  of  the  “Balance  of 
Trade”  is  so  general  that  one  need  offer  no  apology  for  discussing  the 
question.  A true  appreciation  of  what  is  implied  by  the  term  might  lead 
to  better  legislation.  The  balance  of  trade  is  not  a cause,  but  rather  an 
effect  of  causes  which  have  been  at  work  for  a long  time,  of  which  it  is 
the  legitimate  and  inevitable  result.  It  is  the  same  with  a drain  of  specie  or  an  influx  of 
the  same.  I do  not  attach  any  significance  to  the  balance  of  trade  save  that  it  is  an  in- 
dication of  causes  which  lie  behind,  to  which  we  must  look  if  we  would  ascertain  and 
understand  the  real  forces  operating  to  bring  about  a favorable  or  adverse  balance  of 
trade,  as  the  case  may  be. 

These  forces  are  well  known,  and  the  leading  ones  can  be  enumerated.  They  are 
loans,  interest  on  securities  held  abroad,  payments  for  freight  to  foreign  ships,  expenses 
of  citizens  residing  or  traveling  abroad,  premiums  to  foreign  insurance  companies,  &c«. 
These  may  be  called  fixed  charges  against  a nation,  and  while  they  will  vary  from  year 
to  year,  they  are  permanent  in  their  character,  and  must  be  paid  whether  the  nation  pur- 
chases any  goods  abroad  or  not.  The  nation  which  is  creditor  for  these  items  must 
receive  its  pay  for  them  without  reference  to  what  it  buys  or  sells. 

An  excess  oi  imports  does  not  necessarily  cause  a drain  of  specie,  and  if  there 
should  be  an  outflow  of  it,  the  amount  so  exported  could  not  be  measured  by  the  excess 
of  imports.  If  the  excess  of  imports  be  large,  it  does  not  follow  that  the  exportation  of 
specie  will  also  be  great,  or  that  there  will  be  any  exportation  of  it  at  all.  The  twa  hav^, 
only  incidental  relations  to  each  other,  except  under  quite  primitive  conditions.  It  will 
more  likely  be  found,  when  the  balance  of  trade  is  largely  against  a country,  that  it  has 
been  contracting  a debt  abroad,  and  that  it  is  receiving  goods  for  its  own  obligations, 
which  must  be  paid  some  time  in  the  future,  at  which  time  there  will  probably  be 
what  is  called  a favorable  balance  of  trade.  Or  it  may  be  that  it  has  been  selling 
the  securities  which  it  had  held  of  other  nations ; or  it  might  result  from  the  pay- 
ment of  interest  on  loans  previously  made  to  other  nations.  There  are  other  causes, 
but  it  is  not  now  necessary  to  mention  them.  An  excess  of  exports  does  not 
necessarily  bring  specie  into  a country,  and  if  there  should  be  an  importation  of 
it,  such  importation  could  not  be  measured  by  the  excess  of  exports  over  imports.  A 
'country  might  have  a balance  of  trade  in  its  favor  of  many  millions  of  dollars  every  year, 
and  yet  not  receive  any  specie  from  s-uch  excess  of  exports.  Should  this  be  the  case,  it 
would  be  in  consequence  of  recent  loans  to  other  nations,  or  on  account  of  purchasing 
its  own  securities  sold  abroad  years  before,  the  proceeds  of  which  had  been  received  in 
goods,  and  had  already  been  consumed  ; or  it  might  be  that  the  annual  charges  against 
the  country  in  the  form  of  interest,  foreign  travel,  &c.,  were  great,  and  the  excess  of  ex- 
ports went  to  pay  these  charges.  If  the  excess  of  exports  is  very  large,  it  is  a very  good 
indication  that  the  country  is  paying  for  past  and  perhaps  unwise  expenditures,  or  else 
that  it  is  loaning  other  nations  a large  amount  of  capital  for  which  it  receives  their  obli- 


934 


INTERNATIONAL  COMMERCE,  OR  THE  BALANCE  OF  TRADE. 


gations,  which  must-be  paid  at  some  future  time,  when  the  tables  would  probably  be 
turned,  and  there  would  be  an  excess  of  imports,  and  the  so-called  adverse  balance  of 
trade,  though  not  a drain  of  specie. 

If  the  transactions  between  nations  were  reduced  to  the  mere  exchange  of  merchan- 
dise, there  might  appear  to  be  a balance  of  trade  though  none  really  existed,  and  no 
specie  pass  from  one  to  the  other.  Take  for  an  example  one  cargo  as  it  leaves  New 
York.  A merchant  in  New  York  sends  a ship  to  Liverpool  with  a cargo,  worth,  and 
which  cost  him,  $500,000.  It  is  sold  in  Liverpool  at  a profit  of  say  $25,000.  The  mer- 
chant would  then  have  credit  in  Liverpool  for  $525,000.  Instead  of  bringing  home  the 
cash,  he  either  buys  goods  for  the  amount  or  sells  exchange  on  Liverpool  by  which  some 
other  person  purchases  goods  abroad.  The  position  would  then  be  as  follows : The 

books  of  the  New  York  Custom  House  would  show,  exports  $500,000,  imports  $525,000, 
thus  showing  an  adverse  balance  of  trade  when  in  fact  there  was  no  balance  at  all.  The 
sale  and  purchase  balance  each  other.  The  country  had  parted  with  goods  which  were 
worth  to  it  only  $500,000,  and  in  return  received  goods  which  were  worth  $525,000. 
The  merchant  gained  $25,000  by  the  trade.  Was  the  country  the  gainer  or  loser  by  the 
transaction  which  gave  it  $525,000,  for  $500,000  ? 

During  the  years  1863  to  1873  inclusive,  the  excess  of  imports  of  this  country  were 
in  round  numbers  $1,086,000,000.  The  net  export  of  specie  during  the  same  years  was 
$673, 000,000,  leaving  an  unsettled  balance  of  $413,000,000;  if  we  add  to  this  the 
amount  spent  by  citizens  abroad,  paid  for  foreign  freights,  and  interest  on  American 
securities  held  abroad,  the  total  of  which  we  will  estimate  at  $75,000,000  per  annum, 
which  I think  much  too  low,  we  should  have  the  sum  of  $1,238,000,000,  which  is  clearly 
an  unpaid  balance  against  the  country.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  amount  of  specie  exported 
did  not  bear  any  just  proportion  to  the  “adverse  balance  of  trade,”  and  if  we  include  the 
other  charges  against  the  country,  the  unsettled  claims  amount  to  the  enormous  sum  of 
$1,238,000,000.  If  there  is  any  significance  in  the  theory  of  the  “balance  of  trade,” 
this  country  should  have  exported  $1,200,000,000  more  of  specie  than  it  did  in  these 
years.  The  only  reasonable  conclusion  we  can  arrive  at  is,  that  the  country  got  trusted 
for  this  amount  and  that  it  must  pay  interest  on  it,  and  pay  the  principal  sometime  in 
the  future.  Perhaps  we  shall  discover  when  part  of  it  was  paid. 

The  excess  of  exports  for  the  years  1876  to  1879  inclusive,  was  $753,000,000,  and 
during  that  time  there  was  not  an  importation  of  specie,  but  on  the  contrary,  we  exported 
$64,000,000,  making  the  total  net  exports  $817,000,000.  What  did  we  get  for  this  great 
amount  of  merchandise  and  specie  ? Was  it  wines,  cloth,  tea,  coffee,  iron,  or  anything 
which  we  could  eat,  drink  or  wear,  or  in  any  way  use  in  the  creation  of  new  wealth  ? 
Did  it  bring  us  wealth  in  any  of  its  known  forms  ? What  has  the  country  got  to  show 
for  the  $817,000,000  of  its  products  which  it  has  parted  with,  and  which  other  nations 
have  had  the  benefit  of?  We  received  back  part  of  our  own  indebtedness,  and  thus 
reduced  the  amount  which  we  owed  to  other  nations  for  goods  purchased  in  the  preced- 
ing years.  But  we  did  not  reduce  our  indebtness  by  the  full  amount  of  the  $817,000,- 
000;  part  of  it  went  to  pay  interest  on  the  securities  held  abroad,  for  the  pleasure  of  such 
of  our  people  as  were  residing  or  traveling  abroad,  for  foreign  freights,  & c.  This  large 
amount  indicates  that  we  have  been  paying  for  goods  borrowed  and  already  consumed, 
and  that  instead  of  bringing  the  country  that  which  might  be  used  in  the  creation  of 


INTERNATIONAL  COMMERCE,  OR  THE  BALANCE  OF  TRADE. 


935 


wealth  we  have  been  merely  paying  some  of  our  debts,  and  thus  getting  nearer  the  time 
when  the  products  of  our  own  labor  will  bring  us  more  of  the  products  of  other  lands. 
It  indicates,  also,  that  we  have  been  reducing  the  interest  charges  against  the  country, 
that  we  have  been  paying  for  the  consumption  of  preceding  years,  as  well  as  the  fixed 
charges  of  the  present,  out  of  the  productions  of  the  country  for  the  past  four  years. 

Commonly  speaking  the  balance  of  trade  represents  the  amount  which  a country 
buys  more  than  it  sells,  or  sells  more  than  it  buys  ; it  has  no  other  significance,  and  bears 
no  true  relation  to  the  movements  of  specie.  If  there  were  no  transactions  between  nations 
except  buying  and  selling  goods,  then  the  balance  of  trade  and  the  movements  of  specie 
would  be  closely  connected.  But  then  the  balance  of  trade  could  hardly  be  more  than 
nominal,  for  assuming  that  each  country  had  only  its  share  of  metallic  money,  trading 
could  not  go  beyond  the  mere  exchange  of  goods.  One  country  could  buy  of  the  others 
only  by  so  much  as  it  should  sell  them,  and  could  sell  to  other  nations  only  to  the  amount 
which  they  should  buy  of  it. 

Of  course,  for  any  given  time  there  would  not  be  an  exact  exchange  of  goods,  but 
in  the  long  run  the  sales  and  purchases  must  balance  each  other,  for  as  the  different 
countries  would  probably  not  have  more  money  than  they  needed  to  effect  the  exchanges 
of  internal  trade,  none  could  be  spared  to  pay  for  goods  purchased  abroad.  The  effort 
to  send  specie  would  cause  a falling  off  of  imports,  and  stimulate  the  exportation  of  mer- 
chandise ; the  balance  would  thus  correct  itself,  and  in  the  long  run  the  exchange  of 
goods  would  be  equal. 

England,  with  her  excess  of  imports  for  1879  of  ^555,000,000,  and  of  more  than 
$700,000,000  for  1 878,  is  perhaps  the  best  illustration  that  can  be  given  of  the  fallacy 
that  the  balance  of  trade  and  the  movements  of  specie  have  any  connection  with  each 
other.  This  large  excess  of  imports  does  not  cause  alarm  in  the  breasts  of  British 
statesmen,  although  I fear  it  would  keep  some  of  our  own  awake  nights  in  endeavoring 
to  devise  some  means  of  averting  impending  danger,  and  would  probably  lead  to  the 
introduction  of  a bill  in  Congress  to  so  increase  the  duties  as  to  prevent  the  country 
being  deluged  with  foreign  goods. 

If  a country  has  a sound  system  of  finance,  possessing  its  share  of  metallic  money, 
and  does  not  introduce  paper  currency  of  such  a character  as  to  displace  and  drive  out 
any  of  its  specie,  it  will  not  be  difficult  to  tell  whether  it  ought  to  sell  more  than  it  buys, 
or  buy  more  than  it  sells.  If  it  has  charges  against  it  in  the  form  of  interest,  foreign 
freight,  &c.,  it  should,  and  for  a period  of  years  must  sell  more  than  it  buys,  but  if  the 
case  is  reversed,  it  will  buy  more  than  it  sells.  A country  may  buy  more  than  it  sells 
without  detriment  to  any  of  its  interests,  but  on  the  contrary  every  interest  be  subserved 
thereby. 

Exchange  may  be  against  a country,  and  there  be  a drain  of  specie,  even  when  the 
exports  greatly  exceed  the  imports  ; then  it  may  truly  be  said  that  the  balance  of  trade 
is  not  a favorable  one,  because  the  excess  of  exports  is  not  great  enough  to  pay  the  ma- 
turing demands  against  the  country,  and  specie  must  be  exported  for  that  purpose.  This 
state  of  things  may  be  brought  about  by  reason  that  the  country  has  more  than  its  just 
proportion  of  specie,  or  that  the  country  has  a paper  currency  that  displaces  the  specie, 
and  causes  it  to  go  where  it  can  find  employment  in  its  legitimate  field  of  action. 


936 


INTERNATIONAL  COMMERCE,  OR  THE  BALANCE  OF  TRADE. 


It  does  not  follow  that  an  exportation  of  gold  and  silver  is  an  indication  of  an  un- 
favorable condition  of  commerce.  A country  which  produces  the  precious  metals  must 
export  a portion  of  such  production,  unless  it  does  not  exceed  the  needs  of  that  country 
to  keep  good  its  metallic  circulation,  and  what  should  be  needed  in  the  arts  and  manufac- 
tures. Take  this  country  as  an  illustration.  It  has  an  annual  production  of  about  $75,- 
000,000  of  gold  and  silver ; under  ordinary  circumstances  it  would  need  only  a portion 
of  such  production.  If  we  assume  that  it  would  not  need  more  than  one-half  of  its  annua! 
production  for  the  purpose  above  named,  there  would  then  be  $37,500,000,  for  which 
there  would  be  no  use  ; it  would  therefore  be  exported.  If  the  annual  charges  against 
the  country  in  the  form  of  interest,  freight,  and  travel  should  be  $100,000,000,  a per- 
fectly healthy  condition  of  trade  would  require  that  the  net  exports  of  merchandise  should 
be  somewhere  near  $60,000,000,  and  the  balance,  say  $35,000,000  or  $40,000,000  in  gold 
and  silver.  There  would  then  be  a favorable  balance  of  trade,  and  a steady  outflow  of 
specie  at  the  same  time,  and  in  no  true  sense  could  it  be  said  that  the  balance  was  un- 
favorable, unless  the  exportation  of  merchandise  was  insufficient  to  prevent  the  outflow  of 
specie  from  exceeding  the  surplus  production  of  our  mines,  thus  falling  upon  that  needed 
for  monetary  purposes.  All  that  portion  of  the  production  of  our  mines  not  needed  for 
the  purposes  already  named,  is  as  much  a commodity  for  exportation  as  any  of  the  other 
products  of  the  country,  and  that  condition  which  shall  cause  a portion  of  it  to  go  else- 
where, is  a favorable  one,  whether  the  balance  of  trade  is  in  our  favor  or  not,  and  no 
outflow  of  specie  can  be  unfavorable,  unless  it  proceeds  so  far  as  to  draw  away  that  which 
is  needed  to  effect  the  internal  exchanges  without  disturbance.  If  the  outflow  should 
greatly  draw  upon  the  metallic  circulation,  unless  the  latter  was  in  excess  of  the  nation’s 
needs,  there  would  be  an  adverse  condition  of  trade,  however  much  the  exports  of  merchan- 
dise might  exceed  the  imports. 

If  the  finances  of  a country  are  as  they  should  be,  there  need  not  be  any  anxiety 
about  the  balance  of  trade  ; it  will  take  care  of  itself,  without  doing  any  harm.  It  is  the 
finances  that  should  be  looked  after.  There  should  be  a just  proportion  between  the  pa- 
per and  the  metallic  money ; paper  money  should  not  be  permitted  to  occupy  the  whole 
field  of  circulation,  nor  so  much  of  it  as  to  reduce  the  amount  of  specie  needed  to  a small 
portion  of  the  total  circulation.  Not  only  should  the  reserves  be  of  specie,  but  there 
should  be  a liberal  amount  circulating  among  the  people,  so  that  the  supply  will  be  suffi- 
cient to  meet  any  demand  for  exportation,  without  depleting  the  stock  to  such  an  extent 
as  to  cause  alarm,  and  perhaps  a panic.  If  the  country  has  a sound  currency,  the  balance 
of  trade  may  be  left  to  take  care  of  itself. 


HISTORY  OF  TARIFF  LEGISLATION 

IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

What  IS  Tariff? — The  word  tariff  is  said  to  be  derived  from  the  name  Tarifa, 
a Moorish  town  situated  north  of  the  Strait  of  Gibraltar.  In  the  modern  use  of  the 
word  it  signifies  a table  or  list  of  duties,  drawbacks,  and  bounties  charged  or  al- 
lowed upon  the  importation  of  goods  from  one  country,  state,  or  city  to  another. 
In  the  United  States  it  is  applied  to  that  law  of  Congress  which  fixes  the  amount  of 
duty  paid  on  imports.  By  one  provision  of  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States, 
*fAll  bills  for  raising  revenue  shall  originate  in  the  House  of  Representatives,  but  the 
Senate  may  propose,  or  concur  with  amendments,  as  on  other  bills.”  Article  I. 
Sec.  7 — i.  By  another  provision,  in  the  next  section  of  the  same  article,  “All 
duties,  imports,  and  excises  shall  be  uniform  throughout  the  United  States.”  There- 
fore the  subject  is  one  that  applies  to  the  whole  country  and  affects  the  material 
interests  of  all. 

How  to  Raise  Revenue. — There  must  of  course  be  a sufficient  amount  of 
money  raised  by  the  government  to  meet  its  legitimate  expenses  and  carry  out  the 
provisions  of  the  Constitution.  The  question  howto  do  this  with  the  least  amount  of 
friction,  without  laying  too  great  a burden  on  the  people,  and,  at  the  same  time, 
conserve  the  best  interests  of  all,  is  a question  that  has  puzzled  our  wisest  statesmen, 
and  the  discussion  of  which  has  given  rise  to  great  agitation  in  the  public  mind  upon 
several  occasions  in  our  history.  There  has  been  an  honest  division  of  opinion  upon 
the  subject,  but  it  has  come  to  be  the  policy  of  the  government  to  depend  upon  the 
duties  imposed  upon  imports  for  the  larger  amount  of  revenue.  Direct  taxation  has 
been  the  resort  only  in  times  of  exigency  like  that  occasioned  by  the  War  of  Seces- 
sion and  foreign  wars. 

Tariff  for  Protection. — As  distinguished  from  a tariff  for  revenue,  a tariff 
for  the  protection  of  home  industries  signifies  the  placing  of  a larger  duty  upon  arti- 
cles of  manufacture  or  of  production  which  our  own  citizens  can  furnish,  in  order 
that  the  importing  of  such  articles  may  be  discouraged,  and  thereby  the  productions 
of  our  own  country  be  in  greater  demand.  The  theory  is  to  stimulate  the  manufac- 
ture of  such  articles  and  protect  the  manufacturer  while  becoming  established  in  a 
new  enterprise,  and  at  the  same  time  to  maintain  the  wages  of  the  workingman  at  a 
point  where  he  will  not  be  obliged  to  compete  with  the  same  class  of  foreign  labor 
at  much  lower  wages.  The  advocates  of  a tariff  for  protection  take  the  ground  that 
the  duties  should  be  so  fixed  upon  that  class  of  manufactured  goods  and  farm  pro- 
ducts which  can  be  supplied  at  home,  as  to  discourage  the  use  of  like  foreign 
goods  and  products,  and  thus  secure  to  our  own  people  and  our  own  producers  the 
home  market,  while  competition  among  ourselves  will  always  result  in  reasonable 


938 


HISTORY  OF  TARIFF  LEGISLATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


prices  to  consumers  of  these  goods  and  products.  This  policy,  the  advocates  thereof 
claim,  will  not  only  maintain  and  enlarge  our  own  manufacturing  plants,  but  it  will 
also  foster  and  promote  American  production  and  diversity  of  American  industries 
by  checking  the  foreign  supply  of  those  articles  which  can  be  profitably  manufac- 
tured or  produced  at  home. 

A Tariff  FOR  Revenue  Only. — This  term  is  self-explanatory,  and  refers  to 
the  imposing  of  duties  upon  certain  articles  of  a sufficient  amount  in  the  aggregate 
to  meet  the  usual  expenditure  of  government,  with  the  incidental  protection  which 
may  arise  therefrom  to  the  manufacture  of  such  articles  as  are  subject  to  the  duties 
imposed. 

Free  Trade. — This  term  signifies  a policy  of  permitting  the  importation  of  all 
manufactured  goods  and  natural  products  free  of  any  duty,  and  thus  open  our  mar- 
kets to  the  competition  of  the  world.  The  advocates  of  this  policy  claim  that  a 
tariff  is  a tax  which  the  consumer  pays  not  only  upon  all  goods  imported,  but  also, 
incidentally,  upon  those  of  home  manufacture  and  production.  They  maintain  that 
the  price  of  each  article  is  enhanced  to  the  full  amount  of  the  duty  paid  upon  it. 

Specific  and  Ad  valorem. — Duties  imposed  upon  imports  are  of  two  kinds, 
specific  and  ad  valorem.  A specific  duty  is  so  much  paid  upon  an  article  for  each 
unit  of  measure  or  capacity,  for  example,  50  cents  per  yard,  10  cents  per  pound,  25 
cents  per  barrel,  etc.  An  ad  valorem  duty  is  the  amount  per  cent  that  is  paid  upon 
the  article  on  the  value  at  which  the  same  is  invoiced  to  the  purchaser.  Some  arti 
cles  have  duties  in  both  kinds  upon  them. 

History  of  Tariff  Legislation. — Among  the  earliest  questions  coming  be- 
fore the  First  Congress  in  1789  was  that  pertaining  to  the  raising  of  revenue  for  the 
Government.  The  public  finances  were  in  a deplorable  condition.  Madison  brought 
forward  the  matter  two  days  after  the  votes  for  President  and  Vice-President  had 
been  counted,  and  later  duties  were  imposed  upon  tonnage  and  a tariff  upon  foreign 
imports.  The  duties  were  favorable  to  the  interests  of  American  shipping.  These 
measures  convinced  the  British  legislators  of  the  necessity  of  reciprocity  in  trade 
between  the  two  countries.  A committee  of  Parliament  proposed  to  ask  the  United 
States  to  consent  to  the  arrangement  which  Mr.  Adams  had  suggested  six  years 
before,  and  which  England  had  with  scorn  rejected.  The  chief  feature  of  this  had 
been  reported  to  Parliament  in  1783  by  the  younger  Pitt,  and  embraced  the  free 
entry  into  the  British  West  India  ports  of  vessels  laden  with  the  products  of  Ameri- 
can industry,  with  a like  concession  to  the  West  Indies  of  free  trade  with  the  United 
States.  But  this  was  rejected,  and  the  Privy  Council  issued  orders  prohibiting  the 
importation  to  the  West  Indies  of  the  products  of  the  United  States,  even  in  British 
bottoms.  The  United  States  gave  the  subject  a respectful  hearing,  but  it  was  not 
until  after  the  War  of  1812  that  reciprocity  treaties  were  signed  between  the  two 
countries. 

During  the  War  of  1812  the  commercial  interests  of  the  United  States  had 
greatly  suffered,  and  at  its  close,  the  questions  which  relate  to  the  industrial  and 
financial  condition  of  the  country  assumed  supreme  importance.  The  foreign  supply 
of  iron,  cotton,  and  woollen  manufactures  had  been  cut  off,  and  in  consequence  infant 


HISTORY  OF  TARIFF  LEGISLATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


939 


industries  had  been  attempted  in  these  articles,  to  take  the  place  of  the  articles  for- 
merly imported.  With  the  return  of  peace,  these  home  manufactures  were  threatened 
with  annihilation.  Then  the  South,  desiring  the  creation  of  a home  market  for  her 
staple  product,  cotton,  demanded  protection  as  the  national  policy.  President  Mad- 
ison, during  his  first  term,  had  recommended  the  passage  of  a protective  tariff,  and 
under  the  leadership  of  Calhoun  and  Lowndes,  of  South  Carolina,,  Congress  passed 
the  first  distinctively  protective  tariff  known  in  this  country.  This  was  in  1816. 
The  law  had  for  its  avowed  purpose  the  fostering  and  protection  of  those  infant 
industries  of  the  country  which  had  been  inaugurated  by  her  citizens  under  stress  of 
the  exigency  arising  from  the  war. 

The  Eighteenth  Congress  passed  a tariff  in  1824  extending  the  scope  and 
strengthening  the  force  of  the  one  passed  eight  years  before.  In  the  mean  while,  the 
relation  of  the  two  sections  of  the  country  to  the  question  of  protection  had  materi- 
ally changed.  The  cotton-growing  States  had  gained  not  only  the  home  market  for 
their  staple  product,  but  were  able  to  export  vast  amounts  of  it  to  other  countries. 
Her  industries  were  largely  agricultural,  while  the  northern  and  eastern  States  had 
developed  great  manufacturing  interests.  There  was  a contest  over  the  question  of 
the  tariff  in  the  Twentieth  Congress,  led  by  Webster,  of  Massachusetts,  in  favor  of 
high  duties  on  the  one  side,  and  Calhoun,  of  South  Carolina,  in  favor  of  a low  tariff 
on  the  other.  In  1824  the  policy  of  protection  was  carried  to  its  highest  extreme. 
General  Andrew  Jackson  was  re-elected  president  in  1829,  and  in  1832  a new  tariff  was 
passed.  There  was  a convention  held  in  the  State  of  South  Carolina  which  “ nulli* 
fied  ” this  obnoxious  tariff  act  and  prohibited  the  collection  of  duties  within  the 
State.  The  convention  announced  that  any  attempt  to  enforce  such  collection  by 
the  general  government  would  be  deemed  a dissolution  of  the  Union.  Previous  to 
this  act  there  had  been  a prevalent  feeling  in  the  South  that  a home  market  for  their 
cotton  was. a matter  of  indifference,  and  that  the  protection  of  cotton,  iron,  woollen, 
and  hempen  goods  in  the  North  was  much  to  their  disadvantage.  South  Carolina 
and  Georgia  had,  in  their  capacity  as  sovereign  States,  protested  against  a tariff  for 
protection  as  unconstitutional. 

When  the  “act  of  nullification  ” was  passed,  President  Jackson  issued  his  famous 
proclamation,  declaring  his  intention  to  enforce  obedience  to  the  law,  even,  if  neces- 
sary, at  the  point  of  the  bayonet.  Calhoun  had  resigned  the  office  of  Vice-President 
and  taken  his  seat  in  the  United  States  Senate  as  Senator  from  South  Carolina. 
Daniel  Webster,  in  a masterly  speech  on  the  Constitution,  sustained  the  President, 
and  South  Carolina  submitted  under  protest.  Amid  all  the  excitement  of  threatened 
secession,  a presidential  election  was  held.  General  Jackson  was  sustained  by  the 
country  at  large  and  re-elected.  Henry  Clay,  of  Kentucky,  appeared  as  the  cham- 
pion of  compromise  and  successfully  carried  his  measure,  the  tariff  of  1833.  By  this 
law  the  duties  of  1828  were  to  be  reduced  for  a period  of  ten  years  by  a sliding  scale 
until  they  reached  a uniform  rate  of  20  per  cent.  This  concession  calmed  the  ex- 
cited minds  of  the  people  of  South  Carolina,  and  the  act  of  nullification  was  re-* 
pealed.  The  revenues  from  the  tariff  and  the  sale  of  public  lands,  from  1828  to  1832, 
had  been  far  in  excess  of  the  needful  expenditures  of  government,  and  what  to  do 


940 


HISTORY  OF  TARIFF  LEGISLATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


with  the  accumulating  surplus  was  the  agitating  question  before  the  people  from 
1833  to  1836.  In  the  last-mentioned  year  the  sum  of  $28,000,000  from  this  surplus 
was  distributed  to  the  several  States  according  to  the  population  of  each.  The  fear- 
ful financial  crisis  of  1837  followed  and  was  attributed  to  a variety  of  causes,  some 
claiming  that  it  was  due  to  the  reduction  in  the  tariff,  some  that  it  was  occasioned 
by  the  rigorous  policy  of  President  Jackson  in  opposition  to  the  United  States  Bank, 
while  his  adherents  claimed  that  it  was  the  natural  result  of  that  spirit  of  speculation 
induced  by  the  operations  of  the  bank. 

The  financial  condition  became  the  absorbing  question  in  the  campaign  of  1840, 
and  upon  that  issue  Gen.  W.  H.  Harrison  was  elected  President  and  John  Tyler,  Vice- 
President.  The  former  died  when  he  had  been  in  office  but  one  month,  and  Mr. 
Tyler  succeeded  to  the  office.  A bill  to  revive  the  Charter  of  the  United  States 
Bank  was  passed  by  Congress,  but  Mr.  Tyler  returned  it  with  his  veto  and  it  there- 
fore failed  to  become  a law.  A tariff  was,  however,  enacted  in  1842,  increasing  the 
duties  and  affording  protection  to  home  manufactures.  But  the  Whigs  were  de- 
feated in  the  next  presidential  election,  and  James  K.  Polk  became  President.  The 
protective  tariff  of  1842  was  repealed  in  1846,  and  one  with  greatly  reduced  rates  of 
duty  was  enacted  in  its  stead.  The  question  of  tariff  gave  way  to  the  more  absorb- 
ing questions  connected  with  the  annexation  of  Texas,  the  spread  of  slavery,  and 
the  war  with  Mexico.  The  tariff  of  1846  remained  in  force  until,  on  the  last  day  of 
President  Pierce’s  term  of  office, 'March  3d,  1857,  a tariff,  which  still  further  reduced 
the  rates  of  the  law  of  1846,  received  the  signature  of  the  President.  Then  came  the 
financial  crash  of  1857,  from  which  the  country  more  quickly  recovered  than  in  1837 
and  1839.  The  intense  excitement  aroused  by  the  discussion  of  the  question  of 
slavery,  that  at  last  culminated  in  a gigantic  civil  war,  overshadowed  all  other  ques- 
tions. 

In  the  exigency  of  war  a tariff  was  enacted  which  greatly  advanced  the  duties  be- 
yond those  of  1857.  Excise  laws  and  direct  taxation  of  the  people  had  to  be  resorted 
to  to  meet  the  heavy  drains  on  the  National  Treasury  occasioned  by  the  war.  The 
tariff  of  1862  imposed  duties  upon  imports  averaging  fifty  per  cent  ad  valorem. 
After  the  close  of  the  war,  between  the  years  1869  and  1883,  several  tariff  bills  were 
passed  reducing  the  rates  as  the  interests  of  the  country  seemed  to  warrant.  The 
direct  tax  was  taken  off  and  the  excise  duties  were  also  removed  from  almost  all 
articles  of  necessary  use.  The  war  debt  was  greatly  diminished  by  the  liquidation  of 
matured  bonds,  and  a sinking  fund  to  meet  other  bonds  as  fast  as  they  matured  was 
established.  Still  the  tariff  and  other  revenues  created  a growing  surplus  in  the 
National  Treasury.  This  surplus,  June  30th,  1888,  amounted  to  $103,000,000.  The 
presidential  campaign  of  1888  was  waged  on  the  issues  connected  with  tariff  reform 
and  tariff  protection.  All  shades  of  opinions  were  entertained,  from  the  extreme  of 
free  trade  on  one  side,  to  that  of  high  protection  upon  the  other.  In  the  midst  of 
the  political  discussion  of  the  question  by  the  country  at  large,  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives of  the  Fiftieth  Congress  passed  a tariff  known  as  the  “ Mills’  bill,”  which 
was  amended  in  the  Senate  by  the  substitution  of  a new  bill  known  as  the  “Senate 
bill,”  but  did  not  become  a law.  Benjamin  Harrison,  of  Illinois,  was  nominated  upon 


HISTORY  OF  TARIFF  LEGISLATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


941 


a platform  which  affirmed,  “ We  are  uncompromisingly  in  favor  of  the  American 
system  of  protection ; we  protest  against  its  destruction  by  the  President  and  his 
party.  . . . The  protective  system  must  be  maintained.  Its  abandonment  has  al- 
ways been  followed  by  general  disaster  to  all  interests  except  those  of  the  usurer  and 
the  sheriff.”  The  utterances  of  the  party  then  controlling  the  executive  administra- 
tion and  one  House  of  Congress  on  the  subject  of  the  tariff  was  as  follows:  “The 
Democratic  party  of  the  United  States  ....  indorses  the  views  expressed  by  Presi- 
dent Cleveland  in  his  last  message  to  Congress  as  the  correct  interpretation  of  that 
platform  (of  1884)  upon  the  question  of  tariff  reform,  and  also  indorses  the  efforts  of 
our  Democratic  representatives  in  Congress  to  secure  a reduction  of  excessive  taxa- 
tion. . . . The  Republican  party  controlling  the  Senate  and  resisting  in  both  Houses 
of  Congress  a reformation  of  the  unjust  and  unequal  tax  laws  which  have  outlasted 
the  necessities  of  war  and  are  now  undermining  the  abundance  of  a long  peace,  deny 
to  the  people  equality  before  the  law  and  the  fairness  and  justice  which  are  their 
right.” 

These  principles  upon  the  tariff,  as  enunciated  by  the  two  great  parties  in  their 
appeal  to  the  people  of  the  United  States,  became  the  issues  of  the  campaign  of 
1888,  which  resulted  in  the  election  of  Mr.  Harrison  as  President.  The  Fifty-first 
Congress  at  an  early  date  took  up  the  absorbing  question,  and  a tariff  bill,  known  as 
the  “ McKinley  bill, ” was  passed  by  the  House  of  Representatives,  May  21st,  1890. 
After  certain  modifications  it  passed  the  Senate  September  30th,  was  signed  by  the 
President  and  took  effect  October  6th,  1890. 


OFFICIAL  CEITSXJS  OF  1890 


POPULATION  OP  THE  CITIES  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES,  HAVING  50,000 

INHABITANTS  AND  OVER. 


CITIES. 

1890. 

1880. 

CITIES. 

1890. 

1880 

Albany,  N.Y.,  - 

94,640 

90,758 

Lynn,  Mass., 

55,684 

38,274 

Atlanta,  Ga., 

65,514 

37,409 

Memphis,  Tenn. , - 

64,586 

33,592 

Allegheny,  Pa.,  - 

104,967 

78,682 

Milwaukee,  Wis., 

204,150 

115,712 

Baltimore,  Md., 

435,151 

332,313 

Minneapolis,  Minn., 

164,738 

46,887 

Boston,  Mass.,  - 

446,507 

369,823 

Nashville,  Tenn., 

76,309 

62,882 

Brooklyn,  N.Y.,  - 

804,377 

566,663 

Newark,  N.J., 

181,518 

136,508 

Buffalo,  N.Y.,  - 

254,457 

155,134 

New  Haven,  Conn.,  - 

85,981 

62,882 

Cambridge,  Mass., 

69.837 

52,669 

New  Orleans,  La., 

241,995 

216,090 

Camden,  N.  J.,  - 

58,274 

41,659 

New  York,  N.Y., 

1,513,501 

1,206,299 

Charleston.  S.  C.,  - 

54,592 

49,984 

Omaha,  Neb., 

139,526 

30,518 

Chicago,  111., 

1,098,576 

503, 185 

Paterson,  N.J. , - 

78,358 

51,031 

Cincinati,  O. , 

296,309 

255,139 

Philadelphia,  Pa., 

1,044,894 

847,170 

Cleveland,  O.,  - 

261,546 

160,146 

Pittsburg,  Pa.,  - 

238,473 

156,389 

Columbus,  O., 

90,398 

51,647 

Providence,  R.I.,  - 

132,043 

104,856 

Dayton,  O., 

58,868 

38,678 

Reading,  Pa., 

58,926 

43,278 

Denver,  Colo., 

106,670 

35,629 

Richmond,  Va., 

80,838 

64,670 

Des  Moines,  la., 

50,067 

22,408 

Rochester,  N.Y., 

138,327 

89,336 

Detroit,  Mich., 

205,669 

116,340 

St.  Joseph,  Mo., - 

52,811 

32,431 

Evansville,  Ind., 

50,674 

29,280 

St.  Louis,  Mo., 

460.357 

350,518 

Fall  River,  Mass. , - 

74,351 

49,006 

St.  Paul,  Minn.,- 

133,156 

41,473 

Grand  Rapids,  Mich., 

64,147 

32,016 

San  Francisco,  Cal. , 

297,990 

233,959 

Hartford,  Conn., 

53,182 

42,551 

Scranton,  Pa.,  - 

83,450 

45,850 

Indianapolis,  Ind., 

107,445 

75,056 

Syracuse,  N.Y., 

87,877 

51,792 

Jersey  City,  N.J., 

163,987 

120,722 

Toledo,  O.,- 

82,652 

50,137 

Kansas  City,  Mo.,  - 

132,416 

55,785 

Trenton,  N.  J., 

58,488 

29,910 

Lincoln,  Neb.,  - 

55,491 

13,008 

Troy,  N.J., 

60,605 

56,747 

Los  Angeles,  Cal. , - 

50,394 

11,183  ; 

Washington,  D.C., 

229,796 

147,293 

Lowell,  Mass.,  - 

77,605 

59,475 

Wilmington,  Del.  - 

61,437 

42,478 

Louisville,  Ky., 

161,005 

123,758  1 

W orcester,  Mass. , 

84,536 

58,291 

POPULATION  OF  THE  STATES  AND  TERRITORIES. 
[From  the  Official  Census  of  1890.] 


States  & Territories. 

1890. 

1880. 

Increase 
Per  Cent. 

States  & Territories, 

1890. 

1880. 

Increase 

PerCent. 

Alabama 

1,513,017 

1,262,505 

19.84 

Nebraska  - 

1, 058,910 

452,402 

134.06 

Arizona 

59, 620 

40,440 

47. 43 

Nevada 

45, 761 

62,266 

d.  26.51 

Arkansas 

1,128,179 

802, 525 

40.  58 

New  Hampshire 

376, 530 

346,991 

8.51 

California  - 

1,208,130 

864,694 

39.  72 

New  Jersey  - 

1,444,933 

1,131,116 

27.74 

Colorado 

412, 198 

104,327 

112. 12 

New  Mexico 

153,593 

119,565 

28.46 

Connecticut 

746, 258 

622,700 

19.84 

New  York  - 

5,997,853 

5,082,871 

18.00 

Delaware 

168,493 

146,608 

14. 93 

North  Carolina 

1,617,947 

1,399,750 

15.59 

Dist.  of  Columbia 

230, 392 

177,624 

29.71 

N orth  Dakota  - 

182,719 

* 

395.05 

Florida  - 

391,422 

269,493 

45. 24 

Ohio  - 

3,672,316 

3,198,062 

14.83 

Georgia 

1,837,353 

1,542,180 

19.14 

Oklahoma  - 

61,834 

t 

Idaho  - 

84,  385 

32,610 

158. 77 

Oregon 

313,767 

174,763 

79.53 

Illinois 

3,826,351 

3,077,873 

24. 32 

Pennsylvania 

5,258,014 

4,282,891 

22. 77 

Indiana  - 

2,192,404 

1,978,301 

10. 82 

Rhode  Island  - 

345,506 

276,531 

24. 94 

Iowa  - 

1,911,896 

1,624,615 

17. 68 

South  Carolina  - 

1,151,149 

995,577 

15. 63 

Kansas  - 

1,427,096 

996,096 

43.27 

South  Dakota  - 

328,808 

* 

234.60 

Kentucky 

1,858,635 

1,648,690 

12.73 

Tennessee  - 

1,767,518 

1,542,359 

14. 60 

Louisiana 

1,118,587 

939,946 

19.01 

Texas 

2,235,523 

1,591,749 

40.44 

Maine 

661,086 

648,936 

1.87 

U tah  - 

207,905 

143,963 

44.42 

Maryland 

1,042,390 

934,943 

11.49 

Vermont  - 

332,422 

332,286 

0.04 

Massachusetts  - 

2,238,943 

1,783,085 

25.57 

Virginia 

1,655,980 

1,512,565 

9.48 

Michigan 

2,093,889 

1,636,937 

27. 92 

Washington 

349,390 

75,116 

365.13 

Minnesota  - 

1,301,826 

780,773 

66.74 

West  Virginia 

762,794 

618,457 

23.34 

Mississippi  - 
Missouri  - 
Montana 

1,289,600 

1,131,597 

13.96 

AYisconsin 

1,686,880 

1,315,497 

28.23 

2,679,184 

132,159 

2,168,380 

39,159 

23. 56 
237.49  i 

Wyoming  - 

60,705 

20,789 

192.01 

* Two  States  formed  from  the  territory  of  Dakota -Population  in  1880, — 135,177. 

\ New  territory  found  in  1890.  Total — 1890,  02,622,250—1880,  50,155,783 — Inc.  per  ct.  21.57. 


CHANGES  IN  THE  TARIFF. 


TTce,  Reuters  of  1890  omd  1883  Comp  cured. 


Mr.  Durfee,  clerk  of  the  senate  committee  on  finahee,  which  had  charge  of  the  bill  for  the 
senate,  has  compiled  a complete  list  of  the  changes,  which  is  presented  herewith.  It  has 
been  a work  of  great  labor,  requiring  an  expert  knowledge  of  the  tariff.  The  first  figures  in 
each  case  are  those  of  the  McKinley  bill;  the  last, — enclosed  in  parenthesis,  thus,  (2  cents), — are 
those  of  the  law  in  force  since  the  revision  of  1883.  As  the  change  in  many  instances  has  been 
from  ad  valorem  to  specific,  it  will  be  seen  that  per  cent,  is  in  many  cases  only  used  in  the  figures 
or  the  old  law : 


CHEMICAL  SCHEDULE. 

Acetic  acid  not  exceeding  1.047  specific 
gravity,  1£  cents  a pound ; (2  cents). 

Boracic  acid,  5 cents  a pound ; (4  cents  for 
commercial). 

Chromic  acid,  10  cents  ; (15  per  cent). 

Sulphuric  acid,  £ cent  a pound  ; (free). 

Tannin,  75  cents  ; ($1). 

Carbonate  of  ammonia,  If  cents;  (20  per 
cent). 

Muriate  of  ammonia,  § cent ; (10  per  cent). 

Sulphate  of  ammonia,  \ cent ; (20  per  cent). 

Blue  vitriol,  2 cents  ; (3  cents). 

Chloroform,  25  cents  a pound  ; (50  cents). 

Sulphuric  ether,  40  cents  ; (50  cents). 

Nitrous  ether,  25  cents ; (30  cents). 

Oil  of  Cognac,  $2. 50 ; ($4). 

Oil  of  rum,  $2.50  ; ($6). 

Dyeing  or  tanning  extracts,  £ cent  a pound 
(20  per  cent). 

Extract  of  hemlock  barZt,  | cent ; (20  per 
cent). 

Gelatine,  glue  and  isinglass,  value  below  7 
cent  a pound,  (1£  cents) ; between  7 and  30  cents 
a pound,  (25  per  cent. ) ; above  30  cents,  (30  per 
cent).  Old  law,  glue,  (20  per  cent. ) ; gelatine, 
(30  per  cent. ) ; isinglass,  (25  per  cent). 

Crude  Glycerine,  If  cents ; (2  cents). 

Refined  glycerine,  4|  cents  ; (5  cents). 

Indigo  pastes  or  extract,  f cent ; (10  per  cent). 

Carmined  indigo,  10  cents ; (10  per  cent). 

Iodoform,  $1.50;  ($2). 

Licorice,  5£  cents  ; (7  cents). 

Carbonate  of  magnesia,  4 cents  ; (5  cents). 

Calcined  magnesia,  8 cents  ; (10  cents). 

Epsom  salts,  3-10  cent ; (12  cents). 

Morphia,  50  cents  an  ounce  ; ($1). 

Alizarine  containing  50  per  cent,  or  more 
castor  oil,  80  cents  a gallon;  less  than  50  per 
cent. ; castor  oil.  40  cents ; all  others,  30  per 
cent.  Old  law,  (8  cents). 

Cod  liver  oil,  15  cents  a gallon  ; (25  per  cent). 


Cotton  seed  oil,  10  cents  ; (25  cents). 

Croton  oil,  30  cents  a pound  ; (50  cents). 

Flax  or  poppy  seed  oil,  32  cents  a gallon  ; 25 
cents.  Poppy  seed  oil  (free). 

Olive  oil,  35  cents  a gallon ; (25  per  cent). 

Pepperment  oil,  80  cents  a pound  ; (25  per 
cent). 

Fish  oil,  8 cents  a gallon  ; (25  per  cent). 

Opium  containing  less  than  9 per  cent,  of 
morphia  and  opium  prepared  for  smoking,  $1£ 
a pound ; ($10  a pound).  The  old  law  prohibited 
importation  of  opium  containing  less  than  9 
per  cent  of  morphia;  containing  more  than 
that,  crude,  ($1  a pound). 

Barytes,  crude,  $1. 12  a ton  ; (10  per  cent). 

Barytes,  manufactured,  $6. 72  a ton  ; (f  cent 
a pound). 

Blues,  6 cents  a pound  ; (20  per  cent). 

Satin  white,  f cent  a pound  ; (25  per  cent). 

Chromium  colors,  4f  cents  ; (25  per  cent). 

Artists’  water  color  paints,  30  per  cent ; (25 
per  cent). 

Ochre  and  umber,  dry,  \ cent;  ground  in  oil, 
1£  cents,  (£  and  1 cent). 

Ultramarine  blue,  4£  cents ; (5  cents). 

Varnishes,  gold  size  or  japan,  35  per  cent, 
and  $1.32  per  gallon  ad  valorem  on  spirit 
varnishes.  Old  law,  (40  per  cent,  on  varnishes  ;) 
gold  size  (free) ; japan,  (40  per  cent). 

Vermillion  red,  12  cents  a pound;  (25  per 
cent). 

Wash  blue  3 cents ; (20  per  cent). 

Orange  mineral,  3£  cents  ; (3  cents). 

Phosphorus,  20  cents  ; (10  cents). 

Caustic,  1 cent ; (20  per  cent). 

Saltpeter,  1 cent ; (1£  cents). 

Mercurial  medicinal  preparations,  35  per 
cent. ; (50  per  cent). 

Sartonine  and  salts  containing  over  80  per 
cent,  of  sartonine,  $2. 50  a pound  ; ($3). 

Castile  soaps,  1\  cents  a pound  ; (20  per  cent). 

Saleratus,  1 cent ; (If  cents). 

Sulphate  of  soda,  $1.25  a ton ; (20  per  centX 


944 


CHANGES  1A  T HE  TALI  FI. 


Strychnine,  40  cents  an  ounce  ; (50  cents). 

Refined  sulphur,  $8  a ton  ; ($10). 

Flowers  of  sulphur,  $10  a ton ; ($20). 

Sumac,  ground,  4-10  cent  a pound ; (3-10 
cent). 

EARTHS,  EARTHENWARE  AND  GLASS- 
WARE. 

Fire  brick,  plain,  $1.25  a ton  ; (20  per  cent). 

Fire  brick,  glazed,  45  per  cent. ; (20  per  cent). 

Tiles,  from  25  to  45  per  cent. ; (25  to  60  per 
cent). 

Hydraulic  cement,  7 cents  per  100  pounds ; 
(20  per  cent). 

Lime,  6 cents  per  100  pounds  ; (10  per  cent). 

Gypsum,  ground,  $1  a ton ; calcined,  $1.25  a 
ton.  Old  law,  (25  per  cent,  for  all). 

Common  plain  earthen  or  stone  ware,  25  per 
cent. ; (20  per  cent. ) above  ten  gallons  capacity. 

Decorated  ware  of  all  kinds,  including  lava 
tips  for  burners,  60  per  cent. . (55  per  cent). 

Gas  retorts,  $3  each  ; (25  per  cent). 

Glass  bottles,  holding  from  \ to  i pint,  1£ 
cents  a pound  ; holding  less  than  \ pint,  50 
cents  a gross.  Old  law— Green  and  colored 
glass,  (1  cent  a pound  ;)  flint  and  lime  glass,  (40 
per  cent). 

Decorated  flint,  lime  and  pressed  glassware, 
60  per  cent. ; (40  and  45  per  cent). 

Glass  chimneys,  etc. , 60  per  cent. ; (40  and  45 
per  cent). 

Heavy  blown  glass,  60  per  cent.;  (40  per 
cent). 

Porcelain  or  opal  glassware,  60  per  cent. ; (40 
per  cent). 

Unpolished  cylinder  crown  and  common 
window  glass,  from  1 3-10  to  3£  cents  a pound, 
according  to  size ; (1§  cents  to  2§  cents). 

Cylinder  and  crown  glass,  polished,  4 to  40 
cents  a square  foot ; (2|  to  40  cents). 

Plate  glass  obscured  in  any  way,  shall  pay 
same  duty  as  polished  glass  unsilvered  (new 
provision). 

Looking  glass  frames,  30  per  cent ; (new 
duty). 

Cast  polished  plate  glass  cyclinder  crown  or 
window  glass,  decorated,  10  percent,  additional 
duty  (new  provision). 

Spectacles  and  frames,  60  per  cent. ; (25  to  45 
per  cent). 

Lenses  costing  $1.50  gross  pairs  or  less,  60 
per  cent. ; (45  per  cent). 

Painted  window  glass,  glass  windows  or 
mirrors  not  exceeding  144  square  inches,  45  per 
cent. ; (30  and  40  per  cent). 


MARBLE  AND  STONE. 

In  measuring  marble  slabs  none  shall  be  com- 
puted at  less  than  one  inch  in  thickness  (new 
provision). 

Burr  stones,  15  per  cent. ; (20  per  cent). 

Undressed  building  or  monuemental  stone, 
11  cents  a cubic  foot ; ($1  a ton). 

Dressed,  40  per  cent. ; (20  per  cent). 

METALS,  IRON  AND  STEEL. 

Iron  ore  containing  not  more  than  3£  per 
cent,  copper,  75  cents  a ton  ; ore  containing  25 
per  cent,  or  more  of  sulphur,  free,  except  on 
the  copper  it  contains.  No  deduction  to  be 
made  from  weight  of  ore  on  account  of  moist- 
ure (new  provision). 

Ferro  manganese  and  ferro  silicon  iron  in 
pigs,  3-10  cent  a pound  (new  provision). 

Round  and  square  iron  not  less  than  f inch 
cross  section,  9-10  cent  a pound  ; (1  cent). 

Flat  iron  less  than  1 inch  wide  and  § inch 
thick,  round  iron  not  less  than  7-16  inch  in 
diameter  and  square  iron  less  than  f inch,  1 
cent  a pound  ; (1  1-10  cents). 

Round  iron  less  than  7-16  inch  and  rolled  iron 
shape,  1 1-10  cents;  (1  2-10  cents). 

Structural  iron,  9-10  cent ; (1  4-10  cents). 

Plate  iron  or  steel  not  thinner  than  No,  10, 
valued  at  less  than  13  cents  a pound,  $ to  34 
cents  a pound ; above  13  cents,  45  per  cent. 
Old  law,  (1£  cents  if  iron  ; 45  per  cent,  steel). 

Forgings  of  iron  or  steel  not  specially  pro- 
vided for,  2 3-10  cents,  but  shall  not  pay  less 
than  45  per  cent. ; (2|  cents). 

Band  or  scroll  iron,  valued  at  3 cents  a pound 
or  less,  8 inches  wide  or  less,  1 to  1 3-10  cents  a 
pound,  according  to  thickness;  (1  to  1 4-10 
cents). 

Hoops  or  ties,  manufactured,  2-10  cent  ad- 
ditional ; (1  1-10  cent  if  iron ; if  of  steel,  45  per 
cent). 

Railway  bars,  6-10  cent  a pound;  old  rates 
varied  from  7-10  cent  a pound  to  $17  a ton. 

The  duty  on  tin  plate  goes  into  effect  July  1, 
1891 ; 2 2-10  cents  a pound  on  manufactures  of 
which  tin  is  a part,  (55  per  cent).  It  is  pro- 
vided that  if  on  Oct.  1,  1897,  the  amount  of 
plates  manufactured  in  the  United  States  does 
not  equal  for  the  preceding  year  one-third  the 
importations,  then  the  duty  shall  cease.  The 
old  rate  was  (1  4-10  cents). 

Steel  ingot  billets,  saw  plates,  etc.,  4-10  to  7 
cents  a pound,  according  to  value  ; (old  law,  45 
per  cent,  on  all  valued  at  less  than  4 cents  a 
pound  ; from  2 to  3J  cents  a pound  on  higher 
values). 


CHANGES  IN  THE  TARIFF. 


945 


Wire,  smaller  than  No.  10  gauge,  If  to 
3 cents  a pound ; (1£  to  3 cents). 

No  article  manufactured  wholly  or  in  part  of 
tin  plate  or  hoop,  bound  or  scroll,  iron  or  steel, 
shall  pay  a less  duty  than  the  material  of  which 
it  is  composed  (new  provision). 

Forgings  of  iron  or  steel  or  both  combined. 
1 8-10  cents  a pound ; (2  cents). 

Axles,  2 cents;  (2i  cents).  When  fitted  in 
wheels  they  shall  pay  the  same  duty  as  the 
wheels. 

Heavy  tools,  2\  cents  ; (2£  cents). 

Boiler  tubes,  etc.,  2d  cents;  (2f  and  3 cents). 

Bolts,  hinges,  etc. , 2f  cents ; (2|  cents). 

Steel  card  cloth,  50  cents  a square  foot ; all 
others  25  cents ; (45  and  25  per  cent). 

Cast  iron  pipe,  9-10  cent  a pound ; (1  cent). 

Cast  iron  vessels,  1 2-10  cents  ; (1  4-10  cents). 

Castings,  malleable  iron,  If  cents  ; (2  cents). 

Chains,  1 6-10  to  2d  cents ; If  cents  to  2d 
cents ; no  chain  to  pay  less  than  (45  per  cent). 

Penknives  and  erasers,  12  cents  to  $2  a dozen 
and  50  per  cent. ; old  law,  (50  per  cent). 

Razors,  $1  to  $1.75  a dozen  and  30  per  cent.; 
all  others  knives,  10  cents  to  $5  a dozen  and  30 
per  cent. ; (35  per  cent). 

Files,  etc. , 35  cents  to  $2  a dozen  ; ($1. 50  to 
$2.50). 

Shotguns,  $1  to  $6  each  and  25  per  cent.;  (35 
per  cent). 

Revolvers,  40  cents  to  $1  and  35  per  cent.;  (35 
per  cent). 

Iron  or  steel  articles  glazed  with  vitreous 
glasses,  45  and  50  per  cent,  (new  provision). 

Cut  nails  and  spikes,  1 cent  a pound ; (If 
cents). 

Wire  nails,  2 to  4 cents  ; (4  cents). 

Spikes,  horseshoes,  etc. , 1 8-10  cents ; (2 

cents). 

Cut  tacks,  2\  and  2|  cents  ; (2d  and  3 cents). 

Plates,  engraved  or  lithographed,  for  print- 
ing, 25  per  cent,  (new  provision). 

Railway  splice  bars,  1 cent ; (If  cents). 

Wood  screws,  5 to  14  cents  a pound;  (6  to  14 
cents). 

Ingots  and  blooms  for  wheels,  If  cents ; (2 
cents). 

Aluminum,  crude  or  alloy,  15  cents  a pound  ; 
(free). 

Bronze  powder,  12  cents  ; (15  per  cent). 

Aluminum  in  leaf,  8 cents  a package ; (10  per 
cent). 

Copper  ore,  \ cent ; (2d  cents). 

Old  copper,  1 cent ; (3  cents). 

Coarse  copper  and  cement,  1 cent ; (3d  cents). 


Pig  copper,  etc. , If  cents  ; (4  cents). 

Free  copper  for  the  United  States  mint  is 
omitted  in  the  new  law. 

Bullion  and  metal  thread,  30  per  cent.;  (25 
per  cent). 

Gold  leaf,  $2  apackage ; ($1. 50). 

All  ores  containing  lead,  Id  cents  a pound  on 
the  lead  (new  provision). 

Sheet  lead  and  shot,  2d  cents  ; (3  cents). 

Mica,  35  per  cent.;  (free). 

Nickel  oxide  or  alloy,  10  cents  ; (15  cents. ) 

Gold  pens,  35  per  cent ; (12  cents  a gross). 

Quicksilver,  10  cents  a pound  ; (10  per  cent). 

Type  metal,  Id  cents  a pound  for  lead  con- 
tained ; (20  per  cent). 

Block  tin,  4 cents  ; (free  unless  product  of  tin 
mines  in  the  United  States  in  any  year  prior  to 
July  1,  1895,  shall  have  exceeded  5,000  tons; 
then  it  shall  come  in  free). 

Chronometers,  10  per  cent ; (25  per  cent). 

Pig  zinc,  If  cents  a pound,  Id  cents). 

Manufactures  of  metal,  including  aluminum 
(new  provision),  not  otherwise  provided  for,  45 
per  cent.  ; (40  per  cent). 

WOOD  AND  MANUFACTURES  OF. 

Hewn  timber,  etc. , 10  per  cent.  ; (20  per  cent). 

White  pine,  $1  a thousand  ; ($2).  In  estimat- 
ing board  measure  under  this  schedule  no 
deduction  shall  be  made  on  board  measure  on 
account  of  planing  tongue  in  and  grooving; 
provided  that  in  case  any  foreign  country  shall 
impose  an  export  duty  upon  pine,  spruce,  elm 
or  other  logs,  or  upon  stave  bolts,  shingle  wood, 
or  heading  blocks  exported  to  the  United  States 
from  such  country,  then  the  duty  upon  the 
sawed  lumber  herein  provided  for  when  import- 
ed from  such  country  shall  remain  the  same  as 
fixed  by  the  laws  in  force  prior  to  the  passage 
of  this  act  (new  provisions). 

Cedar  posts,  ties  and  poles,  20  per  cent,  after 
March  1,  1891 ; (free). 

Sawed  cabinet  woods,  15  per  cent.  ; ($2  a thou- 
sand). 

Veneers,  20  per  cent. ; (35  cents  a ton). 

Pine  clapboads,  $1  a thousand  ; ($2). 

Pickets  and  palings,  10  per  cent.;  (20  per  cent;. 

White  pine  shingles,  20  cents  a thousand  ; all 
others,  30  cents  ; old  law,  (35  cents)  for  all  shin- 
gles. 

Furniture  partly  finished,  35  per  cent ; (30  per 
cent). 

SUGAR. 

The  bounty  of  If  cents  on  all  sugars  produced 
in  the  United  States  testing  above  80  and  under 
90  by  the  polariscope,  and  of  2 cents  on  all  test- 


046 


CHANGES  IN  THE  TARIFF. 


ing  over  90,  is  a necessary  provision.  Sugars 
below  No.  16  Dutch  standard  in  color  are  admit- 
ted free ; above  that  grade  they  pay  £ cent  a 
pound  duty,  and  in  addition  1-10  cent  a pound 
shall  be  collected  on  sugars  above  No.  16  coming 
from  any  country  that  pays  a greater  export 
bounty  on  refined  sugars  than  on  the  raw 
nroduct. 

All  machinery  imported  into  the  United 
States  between  Jan.  1,  1890,  and  Jan.  1,  1892, 
to  be  used  in  making  beet  sugar  shall  not  pay 
duty. 

Under  the  old  law  sugars  between  Nos.  16 
and  20  Dutch  standard  paid  8 cents  a pound 
duty ; above  No.  20,  8 51-100  cents  a pound  ; 
beet  sugar  machinery,  65  per  cent.  The  pay- 
ment of  the  bounty  shall  begin  April  1,  1891 ; 
provided  that  in  March,  1891,  sugars  not  above 
No.  16  may  be  refined  and  stored  in  bond  with- 
out payment  of  duty. 

Confectionery  not  specifically  provided  for, 
50  per  cent. ; (5  to  10  cents  a pound). 

TOBACCO  AND  CIGARS. 

Cigar  wrappers,  $2  a pound ; if  stemmed, 
$2. 75  ; (75  cents  and  $1). 

All  other  leaf,  stemmed,  50  cents  ; (40  cents). 

Cigars,  cheroots  and  cigarettes  of  all  kinds, 
$4.50  a pound  and  25  per  cent.;  ($2.50  and  25 
per  cent). 

AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS  AND 
PROVISIONS. 

Horses  and  mules,  $30  if  valued  at  over  $150 ; 
(30  per  cent). 

Cattle  more  than  7 years  old,  $10;  less  than 
1 year,  $24;  hogs,  $1.50;  sheep,  75  cents  and 
$1.50;  all  other  live  stock,  20  per  cent.  The 
old  law  made  all  animals  dutiable  at  20  per 
cent. 

The  agricultural  schedule  contains  many 
items  of  small  importance  ; the  general  tend  of 
the  change  being  ail  increase  on  organges, 
lemons  and  limes  ; however,  there  is  a decrease 
of  about  25  per  cent. 

SPECIAL  WINES,  ETC. 

Spirits  distilled  from  grain  or  cordials  not 
specially  provided  for,  $2  50  a gallon ; ($2). 
Imitation  liquors  shall  be  subject  to  the  high- 
est rate  of  duty  provided  for  the  genuine 
articles,  and  in  no  case  less  than  $2.50  a gallon  ; 

|(*1  to  $2.) 

Bay  rum,  $1.50;  $1;  provided  that  it  shall 
be  lawful  for  the  secretary  of  the  treasury,  in 
his  discretion,  to  authorize  the  ascertainment 


of  the  proof  of  wines,  cordials  and  other 
liquors,  by  distillation  or  otherwise,  in  cases 
where  it  is  impracticable  to  ascertain  such 
proof  by  the  means  prescribed  by  existing  laws 
or  regulations  (new  provision). 

Sparkling  wines,  $2  a dozen  per  half  pint ; 
in  excess  of  three  gallons,  $2. 50  a gallon.  Old 
rates  were,  $7,  $3.50,  $1.75  a dozen  bottles. 

Ale,  porter  or  beer,  bottled  or  jugged,  40 
cents  a gallon ; (35  cents). 

Ginger  ale,  etc.,  imported  in  plain  glass  bot- 
tles holding  less  than  D pints,  13  and  26  cents 
a dozen;  if  otherwise  than  in  such  bottles,  50 
cents  a gallon  and  same  duty  on  coverings  as  if 
imported  empty  ; (20  per  cent). 

Mineral  waters  and  imitations  of  natural 
waters,  in  plain  bottles,  containing  not  more 
than  one  pint,  16  cents  a dozen ; quarts,  25  cents ; 
if  imported  otherwise,  20  cents  a gallon  and 
same  provisions  as  to  coverings  ; (30  per  cent). 

COTTON  MANUFACTURES. 

Yarn,  10  to  48  cents  a pounds,  valued  under 
$1 ; over  $1  a pound,  50  per  cent ; (18  to  25  cent). 

The  duty  on  cloth  is  laid  on  a basis  of  2 cents 
a square  yard,  not  exceeding  fifty  threads  to 
the  sqare  inch,  and  ranges  from  that  up  to  10 
cents  a yard  and  35  per  cent.,  (a  reduction  of  i 
cent  on  the  lower  grades  and  an  increase  of  £ 
cent  on  the  higher). 

Cloth  containing  mixture  of  silk  pays  10  cents 
and  30  per  cent.  Ready  made  clothing,  50  per 
cent.  ; with  rubber  a component  part,  50  cents 
a pound,  and  50  per  cent.  (Old  rates  35  and  40 
per  cent). 

Pile  fabrics,  10  cents  a yard  and  20  per  cent.  ; 
(old  rates,  35  and  40  per  cent). 

Hose,  20  cents  and  20  per  cent,  to  $2,  and  40 
per  cent,  a dozen  according  to  value ; (40  per 
cent). 

Cotton  cords,  40  per  cent.  ; (35  per  cent). 

Manufactures  not  specially  provided  for,  40 
per  cent.  ; (35  per  cent). 

FLAX,  HEMP  AND  JUTE. 

Hackled  flax,  3 cents  a pound  ; ($40  a ton). 

Hackled  hemp,  $50  a ton  ; ($25). 

Binding  twine  manufactured  in  whole  or  in 

part  of  istle,  manilla,  sisal  or  lunn,  4-10  cent 
a pound  ; (2£  cents). 

Cables,  cordage  and  twine,  1£  to  3 cents ; (2£  to 
3£  cents). 

Burlaps  not  over  60  inches  wide,  1|  cents;  (30 
per  cent). 

Grain  bags  of  burlap,  2 cents  ; (40  per  cent). 

Cotton  bagging  and  gunny  cloth,  1 6-10  and 


CHANGES  OF  THE  TARIFF. 


947 


1 8-10  cents  a yard ; (1£  and  2 cents  a pound  and 

and  4 cents  a yard). 

Flax  gill  netting,  etc.,  15  cents  a pound  and  35 
per  cent. , and  20  cents  a pound  and  40  per  cent.  ; 
(25  percent). 

Oilcloth  valued  at  25  cents  a square  yard  or 
more,  15  cents  and  30  per  cent.  ; (40  per  cent). 

Yarns,  6 cents  a pound  valued  at  less  than  13 
cents ; over  13  cents,  45  per  cent. ; (35  and  40  per 
cent). 

All  manufactures  of  flax  or  hemp  not  speci- 
fied or  provided  for,  50  per  cent. ; provided  that 
until  July  1,  1894,  all  such  flax  of  more  than 
one  hundred  threads  to  the  square  inch  shall 
pay  35  per  cent.  Old  law,  (35  and  40  per  cent). 

Lace  embroideries,  etc. , 60  per  cent. ; (30  and 
40  per  cent). 

Manufactures  of  jute,  ramie,  sisal,  etc., 
valued  at  5 cents  a pound,  2 cents;  over  5 
cents,  40  per  cent. ; (35  per  cent). 

WOOLS  AND  MANUFACTURES. 

Bales  of  wool  shall  be  dutiable  at  the  highest 
rate  on  any  class  contained  therein.  The  old 
law  made  any  attempted  evasion  of  duty 
punishable  by  double  duty. 

Wools  of  first  and  second  classes  shall  pay  11 
and  12  cents  a pound  respectively.  The  old 
law  made  divisions  of  each  class  dutiable  at  10 
and  12  cents  respectively. 

Third  class  wool  and  camel’s  hair,  exceeding 
13  cents  value,  50  per  cent.;  (5  cents  a pound). 

Shoddy  and  waste,  20  cents  a pound ; (10 
cents). 

Woolen  rags,  etc.,  10  cents  (new  provision). 

On  the  various  manufactures  of  wool  in 
clothing,  etc.,  compensatory  duty  has  been 
added  to  keep  pace  with  the  increased  duty  on 
raw  wool,  amounting  in  some  cases  to  more 
than  100  per  cent. 

On  carpets  the  duty  has  been  increased  from 
25  to  50  per  cent. 

SILK  AND  SILK  GOODS. 

Silk  partially  manufactured  from  cocoons  or 
from  wash  silk,  and  not  further  advanced  or 
manufactured  than  carded  or  combed  silk,  50 
cents  a pound  ; (35  per  cent). 

All  mauufactures  containing  wool  or  camel 
or  goat  hair  shall  be  classified  as  manufactures 
of  wool  (new  provision). 

PULP,  BOOKS  AND  PAPER. 

Wood  pulp,  $2.50  to  $3  a ton  ; (10  per  cent). 

Tissue  paper,  made  up  or  loose,  8 cents  a 
pound  and  15  per  cent. ; (20  per  cent). 

Sensitized  paper,  35  per  cent. ; (25  per  cent). 


Surface  coated  papers  and  manufactures 
thereof  and  albums,  35  per  cent.;  (25  per  cent). 

Envelopes,  26  cents  per  1,000  ; (25  per  cent). 

Blank  books,  25  per  cent.;  (20  per  cent). 

Playing  cards,  50  cents  a pack ; (100  per 
cent). 

Manufactures  of  paper,  25  per  cent.;  (15  to 
35  per  cent). 

SUNDRIES. 

Bristles,  10  cents  a pound  ; (15  cents). 

Brushes  and  brooms,  etc. , 40  per  cent.  ; (25  and 
30  per  cent). 

Pearl  and  shell  buttons,  2i  cents  a line,  but 
ton  measure,  and  25  per  cent.  ; (25  per  cent). 

Ivory,  bone  or  horn  buttons,  50  per  cent.  ; (25 
per  cent). 

Shoe  buttons,  valued  at  not  exceeding  3 cents 
a gross,  1 cent  a gross  ; (25  per  cent). 

Cork  bark,  10  cents  a pound. 

Corks,  15  cents  a pound  ; (25  per  cent). 

Fire  crackers  of  all  kinds  (no  allowance  for 
tare),  8 cents  a pound  ; (100  per  cent). 

Powder  valued  at  less  than  20  cents  a pound, 
5 cents ; (6  cents). 

Friction  matches,  10  cents  a gross  box  and  1 
cent  per  1,000  according  to  size  of  box  ; (35  per 
cent), 

Undressed  feathers,  10  per  cent.;  (25  per 
cent). 

Glass  beads,  loose,  10  per  cent. ; (50  per  cent). 

Human  hair,  unmanufactured,  20  per  cent. ; 
(30  per  cent). 

Crinoline  cloth,  8 cents  a square  yard  ; (30 
per  cent). 

Hair  for  mattresses,  15  per  cent.;  (25  per 
cent). 

Beaver  hats  and  fine  hat  bodies,  55  per  cent. ; 
(20  and  30  per  cent). 

Jewelry,  50  per  cent.;  (25  per  cent). 

Precious  stones,  set,  25  per  cent.;  (25  per 
cent). 

Belting  and  sole  leather,  10  per  cent. ; (15  per 
cent). 

Leather  suitable  for  conversion  into  manu- 
factured articles  shall  pay  duty  according  to 
articles  intended  ; (30  per  cent). 

Kid  gloves,  $1.75  to  $3.25  a dozen,  according 
to  size;  suedes,  50  per  cent.;  leather  gloves,  50 
per  cent.,  with  from  50  cents  to  $1  a dozen 
additional,  according  to  style ; provided  that 
all  gloves  respresented  to  be  below  their  grade 
shall  pay  $5  a dozen  additional,  and  that  no 
gloves  shall  pay  less  than  50  per  cent.  The  old 
duty  on  these  gloves  was  (50  per  cent. 

Miscellaneous  manufactures  show  a general 


948 


CHANGES  IN  THE  TARIFF. 


reduction  of  about  25  per  cent,  in  the  various 
rates  of  duties. 

Common  tobacco  pipes  of  clay,  15  cents  a 
gross  ; (85  per  cent). 

Hatters’  plush,  10  per  cent. ; (25  per  cent). 

Silk  and  alpaca  umbrellas,  55  per  cent. ; (50 
per  cent). 

Umbrellas,  etc.,  covered  with  other  material, 
45  per  cent. ; (40  per  cent). 

Sticks  for  umbrellas,  etc.,  plain,  85  per  cent.; 
covered,  50  per  cent. ; (30  per  cent). 

CHANGES  IN  THE  FREE  LIST. 

In  the  free  list  the  following  changes  are 
made  : 

Animals  imported  for  breeding  purposes 
must  be  of  pure  blood  of  a recognized  breed 
and  duly  registered  in  the  book  of  record 
established  for  that  breed.  The  old  law  ad- 
mitted such  animals  on  proof  satisfactory  to 
the  secretary  of  the  treasury ; also  the  teams 
of  persons  coming  into  the  United  States  from 
foreign  countries. 

Wild  animals  intended  for  exhibition  in  zoo- 
logical collections  for  scientific  and  educational 
purposes,  and  not  for  sale  or  profit,  are  also 
admitted  free. 

The  provision  providing  for  the  return  free 
of  duty  of  articles  of  American  manufacture 
once  sent  out  of  the  country  is  extended  to 
make  its  terms  more  explicit  and  to  prevent 
fraud. 

Bolting  cloths  to  come  in  free  must  not  be 
suitable  for  manufacture  into  wearing  apparel. 

Straw  braids,  etc.,  for  making  or  ornament- 
ing hats  and  bonnets  duitable  at  20  per  cent, 
are  added. 

Cotton  waste,  or  flocks,  is  made  free. 

Precious  stones  other  than  diamonds,  rough 
or  uncut,  glaziers’  and  engravers’  diamonds  not 
set,  and  watch  jewels  are  included. 

Free  eggs  are  limited  to  those  of  birds,  fish 
and  insects. 

Fashion  plates  engraved  on  cotton  are  made 
free. 

The  provision  about  fish  which  stands  in  the 
old  law,  “Fresh  for  immediate  consumption,” 
reads,  “Fish,  the  product  of  American  fish- 
eries, and  fresh  or  frozen  fish  (excepting  salmon) 
caught  in  fresh  waters  by  American  vessels  or 
with  nets  or  other  devices  owned  by  citizens  of 
the  United  States.” 


The  following  are  added  to  the  free  list  : 
Currants,  dates,  jute,  jute  butts,  sisal  grass, 
sunn,  other  textile  grasses,  unmanufactured 
grease,  sohr  orange  juice,  paper  stock  and 
other  waste,  phosphate  for  other  than  fertiliz- 
ing purposes,  potash ; seeds  and  bulbous  roots, 
not  edible  ; sugars  under  No.  16  Dutch  stand- 
ard, and  all  forms  of  sugar  and  molasses  below 
that  grade;  tar  and  pitch,  tobacco  stems, 
turpentine ; nickel  and  nickel  matte,  with  this 
proviso  : that  ores  of  nickel  and  nickel  matte 
containing  more  than  10  per  cent  of  copper, 
shall  pay  a duty  of  -£■  cent  a pound  on  the 
copper  contained  therein. 

The  following  provisos  are  inserted  respecting 
the  subjects  named  : The  term  “periodicals” 
shall  be  understood  to  embrace  only  unbound 
or  paper  covered  publications,  containing 
current  literature  of  the  day  and  issued 
regularly  at  stated  periods, as  weekly,  monthly 
or  quarterly. 

The  term  “regalia ” shall  be  held  to  embrace 
only  such  insignia  of  rank,  or  office,  or  emblems 
as  may  be  worn  upon  the  person  or  borne  in 
the  hand  during  public  exercises  of  the  society 
or  institution,  and  shall  not  include  articles  of 
furniture  or  fixtures,  or  of  regular  wearing 
apparel  not  personal  property  of  individuals. 
There  are  numerous  restrictions  made  in  the 
list  confining  the  articles  named  to  their  un- 
manufactured state  iu  order  to  enable  them  to 
come  within  the  law.  All  raw  or  unmanufac- 
tured articles  not  named  in  the  act  shall  pay  a 
duty  of  10  per  cent.  All  manufactured  articles, 
(20  per  cent). 

In  nearly  all  the  cases  of  change  from  ad 
valorem  to  specific  duties  the  change  is  an 
increase  as  the  article  has  declined  in  price 
since  the  first  duty  was  placed  on  it.  Many 
ingenious  calculations  have  been  made  as  to 
the  proportion  of  total  imports  which  come  in 
free  under  the  McKinley  bill,  some  placing  the 
amount  as  high  as  one-half  and  others  at  less 
than  a third  ; but  it  is  impossible  to  estimate 
it  with  any  exactness, as  nothing  but  experience 
will  show  how  much  the  import  of  any  article 
<will  increase  or  decrease  by  reason  of  lowering 
or  raising  the  duty.  The  new  bill  contains 
many  minute  provisions  as  to  the  method  of 
its  administration— too  numerous  to  cite  here 
and  not  interesting  to  the  general  reader. 


Reductions  made  by  the  Wilson  Bill,  as 
amended  by  the  Senate,  and  passed  by 
both  Houses  in  1894,  as  compared  with  the 
McKinley  Act.  • 


THE  FOLLOWING  IS  A STATEMENT  OF  THE  AVERAGE  AD  VALOREM  RATES  OF 

duty  of  the  mckinley  law  and  senate  rill,  with  the  per  cent- 

AGE  OF  REDUCTION  MADE  BY  THE  SENATE  RILL  ON  THE  UNDERMEN- 
TIONED ARTICLES  : 


Camphor,  refined 

Sumac,  extract  of 

Epsom  salts 

Castor  oil 

Cod  liver  oil 

Opium  prepared  for  smoking. . . 

Chromium  colors 

Ochre 

Sienna 

Umber  

Spirits  varnishes 

All  other  varnishes 

Whiting,  dry  

Ground  in  oil  (putty) 

White  lead 

Nitrate  of  potash 

Bicarbonate  of  soda 

Bichromate  of  soda 

Strychnia  or  strychnine 

Sulphur,  sublimed 

Sumac,  ground 

China,  painted,  etc 

China,  plain 

Bottles,  empty 

Bottles,  filled 

Demijohns,  empty 

Manufactures  of  glass  

Cylinder  glass,  polished,  un- 
silvered   

Plate  glass,  unsilvered,  .Qgst,  etc. 

Plate  glass,  fluted,  etc  

Plate  glass,  cast,  silvered,  above 

24x60 

Cylinder  and  crown  glass,  sil- 
vered   

Spectacle  lenses 

Stained  or  painted  window 

glass  

Roofing  slate  

Iron  ore  

Iron  in  pigs,  etc 

Scrap  iron 

Scrap  steel 

Bar  iron 

Bars  of  rolled  iron 

Boiler  or  other  plate  iron  or 

steel  

Rails  of  steel 

Sheets  of  iron  or  steel,  common 

or  black  

Tin-plates 

Tin,  manufactures  of 

Steel  ingots,  etc 

Wire  rods 

Cast-iron  vessels,  etc 

Malleable  iron  castings 

Hollowware 

Chains 

Firearms 

Nails 

Railway  fishplates ! 

Hand,  back,  and  other  saws 

Screws 

Wheels 

Plates,  rolled,  braziers,  cop- 
per   

Gold  leaf. 

Silver  leaf 

Lead  sheets 

Nickel ; 

Gold  pens 

Penholders  and  parts  of 

Pins 


McKinley. 


Per  Cent. 
Reduction. 


McKinley. 

Senate. 

Per  Cent. 
Reduction. 

12.20 

10.00 

18.03 

23  24 

10.00 

56.97 

38.34 

25.51 

33.46 

100.35 

43.87 

56.28 

28.65  . 

20.00 

30.19 

169.65 

84.82 

50.00 

30.84 

20.56 

33.33 

19.64 

16.37 

16.66 

21.14 

17.62 

16.66 

25.80 

21.50 

16.66 

69.56 

59.56 

14.38 

35.00 

25.00 

28.57 

142.18 

71.24 

50.00 

189.50 

94.75 

50.00 

59.21 

29.60 

50.00 

21.32 

10.66 

50.00 

60.47 

30.24 

50.00 

50.00 

25.00 

50.00 

93.79 

70.34 

25.00 

28.66 

20.00 

20.22 

19.81 

10.00 

49.52 

60.00 

35.00 

41.67 

55.00 

30.00 

45.45 

70.17 

52.63 

25.00 

71.48 

53.61 

25.00 

37.91 

28.43 

25.00 

60.00 

35.00 

41.67 

20  to  64 

13  to  48 

25  to  38 

98  to  174 

88  to  122 

10  to  30 

49  to  64 

37  to  43 

25  to  33 

49.30 

31.28 

36.61 

43.88 

27.79 

36.67 

60.00 

35.00 

41.67 

45.00 

35.00 

22.22 

25.00 

20.00 

20.00 

42.77 

22  77 

46.67 

26  to  41 

15  to  21 

40.47 

47.83 

28.47 

40.48 

43.00 

25  59 

40.49 

25  to  53 

16  to  32 

25  to  40 

61.77 

44.93 

27.25 

54.00 

25  00 

53.70 

58.24 

33.99 

24.47 

25  to  70 

20  to  55 

21  to  30 

78.44 

42.32 

46.05 

55.00 

35.00 

36.36 

29  to  50 

20  to  40 

20  to  35 

34.00 

22.67 

33.33 

26.97 

17.98 

33.33 

31.83 

16.37 

48  57 

35.33 

23  55 

33.34 

47.28 

30  00 

36  55 

41  to  80 

30.00 

27  to  62 

23  to  46 

25  to  30 

4 to  46 

72.18 

25.00 

65.36 

40.00 

25.00 

37.50 

47  to  111 

S3  to  67 

28  to  40 

S3. 72 

41.86 

50.00 

35.00 

20.00 

42.86 

44.87 

30.00 

33.14 

77.78 

30.00 

61.43 

36.65 

18.33 

50.00 

23  77 

14.26 

40.00 

30.00 

25.00 

16.67 

30.00 

25.00 

16.67 

30.00 

25.00 

16.67 

Zinc  in  sheets 

Manufactures  of  metal 

Shooks  and  boxes 

Casks  and  barrels 

Clocks  of  wood, 

Rice,  cleaned 

Rice,  uncleaned 

Honey 

Oranges,  lemons,  and  limes. . . 

Comfits,  sweetmeats,  etc 

Nuts,  not  shelled  (almonds) . . 

Nuts,  shelled  (almonds) 

Filberts,  not  shelled 

Peanuts,  unshelled 

Extract  of  meat 

Spirits,  distilled 

Cotton  cloth,  not  over  100 

threads,  not  bleached 

Ditto,  bleached 

Ditto,  dyed,  colored,  etc 

Exceeding  100  threads,  not 

bleached 

Bleached 

Dyed,  etc 

Cables,  cordage,  and  twine... . 

Bagging  for  cotton 

Woolen  yarns 

Shawls, woolen,  not  above  40c. 

per  pound 

Knit  fabrics,  not  above  40c. 

per  pound 

Blankets  

Hats  of  wool 

Flannels,  not  over  50c.  per 

pound  

Silk,  partially  manufactured.. 
Silk  webbings,  gorings,  etc. . . 

Silk  buttons 

Silk  dress  goods 

Silk  ribbons 

All  other  silk 

Writing,  drawing,  and  other 

paper  

Dolls  and  other  toys 

Emery 

Fire-crackers 

Coal,  bituminous 

Slack  or  culm  of  coal 

Coke 

Matches 

Haircloth,  known  as  crinoline 

cloth 

Haircloth,  known  as  hair 

seating  — 

Leather,  band  or  belting,  and 

sole 

Leather,  calfskins,  japanned  . 
Leather,  all  not  specially  pro- 
vided for 

Boots  and  shoes 

Manufactures  of  India-rubber 
Umbrellas  covered  with  silk 

or  alpaca 

Burrstone,  manufactured 

Composition  metal,  copper 

Plates  of  copper,  not  rolled, 

etc 

Cider 

Binding  twine 

Paintings  in  oil  or  water 

colors 

Statuary  

Hatters’  plush 


29.19 

14.59 

50.00 

45.00 

35.00 

22.22 

30.00 

20.00 

33.33 

30.00 

20.00 

33.33 

35.00 

25  00 

28.57 

111.85 

83.89 

25.00 

64.19 

41.08 

20.00 

44.83 

22.42 

49.99 

12  to  31 

12  to  32 

35.00 

30.00 

14!  29 

51.34 

30.80 

40.01 

42.42 

28.28 

33.33 

52.90 

35.32 

33.35 

72.86 

20.00 

72.85 

17.95 

15.00 

10.87 

91  to  367 

65  to  264 

28.00 

35.17 

25.05 

37.39 

38.60 

26.53 

31.27 

40.80 

30.54 

25.15 

42.39 

32.39 

23.59 

43.27 

35.00 

18  88 

43.84 

38.84 

11.40 

16  to  31 

10  to  20 

40  to  67 

32.52 

Free 

100.00 

278.66 

30.00 

89.23 

150.30 

35.00 

76.71 

136.00 

35.00 

74.27 

80  to  104 

35  00 

66  to  71 

86  to  106 

35.00 

72.00 

85  to  104 

25  to  35 

66  to  71 

60.50 

20.00 

66.94 

50.00 

45.00 

10.00 

50.00 

45.00 

10.00 

50.00 

45  00 

10.00 

50.00 

45.00 

10.00 

50.00 

45.00 

10.00 

25.00 

20.00 

20.00 

35.00 

25.00 

28.57 

25.19 

20.15 

20.00 

147.32 

50.00 

66.06 

22.72 

12.12 

46.65 

28.68 

14.34 

50.00 

20.00 

15.00 

25.00 

33.93 

20.00 

41.06 

27.99 

20.99 

25.00 

23.22 

15.48 

33.33 

10.00 

10.00 

30.00 

20.00 

33.33 

10  00 

10.00 

25  00 

20.00 

20 'oo 

30.00 

25.00 

14.29 

55.00 

45.00 

18.18 

15.00 

Free 

100.00 

6.49 

Free 

100.00 

11.80 

Free 

100.00 

18.52 

Free 

100.00 

6.47 

Free 

100.00 

15.00 

Free 

100.00 

15  00 

Free 

100.00 

10.00 

Free 

100  00 

